Notes to Chapter 3
The Trickle Becomes a Flood

1. David Leigh Colvin, Prohibition in the United States: A History of the Prohibition Party and of the Prohibition Movement (New York: George H. Doran Company, 1926).

2. Packard and Giles had taught, in the 1860s, at Oread Institute, in Worcester, MA. Oread was a school for girls founded by abolitionist Eli Thayer.

3. Florence Read, The Story of Spelman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961), 176; Harold Lynn McManus, “The American Baptist Home Mission Society and Freedmen Education in the South, with Special Reference to Georgia, 1862–1897” (PhD diss., Yale University, 1953), 142, 368. Giles as quoted in Beverly Guy-Sheftall, Daughters of Sorrow: Attitudes toward Black Women, 1880–1920 (Brooklyn: Carlson Publishing, Inc., 1990), 136.

4. See W. E. B. DuBois, “The Talented Tenth,” in The Negro Problem: A Series of Articles by Representative American Negroes of To-day, ed. Booker T. Washington et al. (1903; repr., New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1969), 31–76; Benjamin Brawley, History of Morehouse College (Atlanta: Morehouse College, 1917), 9.

5. Atlanta University and Spelman Seminary have the best-preserved records from the 1880s, so they receive the most attention in this book. The limited records available for this period for Clark University, Atlanta Baptist Seminary, Morris Brown (founded in 1881 by the AME Church but did not open its doors until 1885), and Gammon Theological Seminary (a department within Clark University until it became independent in 1883) strongly suggest that their cultures and practices were no different.

6. Blocker, American Temperance Movements, 80–85; Bordin, 76–78.

7. Rev. D. Jones’s description of the New York Weekly Witness. Jones was a black minister in Clarksville, TN. New York Weekly Witness, April 25, 1878.

8. “The Colored Preachers’ Fund,” New York Weekly Witness, May 3, 1877; Jan Noel, Canada Dry: Temperance Crusades before Confederation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), 75–88; Lorraine Vander Hoef, “John Dougall (1808–1886): Portrait of an Early Social Reformer and Evangelical Witness in Canada,” Journal of the Canadian Church Historical Society 43 (2001): 115–45; J. I. Cooper, “The Early Editorial Policy of the Montreal Witness,” Report of the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Historical Society (1947): 53–62.

For the intensity of Dougall’s faith and its effects on his family, see Joanna Dean, Religious Experience and the New Woman: The Life of Lily Dougall (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 18–33.

9. “A Unique Weekly,” Christian Recorder, December 16, 1880.

10. New York Weekly Witness, May 29, July 31, 1879. Dougall’s strident tone riled some Southern readers, and they wrote in to complain. See September 14, 1876.

11. Some examples of articles on temperance and prohibition are April 19, September 20, October 4, 1877; October 10, 1878; March 20, 1879; July 27, August 17, 1882; April 11, 1888.

12. “Southern Missionaries and Teachers,” New York Weekly Witness, March 9, 1872; “How are the Freedmen to Be Educated?” New York Weekly Witness, March 8, 1877.

13. “To the Two Thousand Colored Pastors who Receive the Witness,” New York Weekly Witness, April 4, 1878; “Colored Preachers,” New York Weekly Witness, April 17, 1879; “Colored Pastors,” New York Weekly Witness, April 13, 1882; Catalog of Spelman Seminary, 1885–1886, 32; New York Weekly Witness, July 18, 1878; Minutes of the 16th Quadrennial Session of the General Conference of the AME Church (1880), 77, BAP.

Although all Witness recipients were clergy, not all were pastors. The 17 Atlanta clergy who received the Witness in 1877–1878 were: Baptists—Jerry M. Jones, W. H. Tilman, Charles O. Jones, and M. Mitchell; AME—F. J. Peck, J. L. Smith, Allen Frazier, A. Gonickey, William Finch, George Washington, J. A. Woods, D. T. Howard; Religious affiliation unidentifiable—T. J. Peck, William Maddox, H. Bunt, Thomas Belsaws, B. Scott. Also listed among the black clergy was Clark University’s white president, R. E. Bisbee. The 1878–1879 recipients were W. H. Tillman, Charles O. Jones, R. A. Hall, W. S. Covington, and B. Scott. Witness subscriptions also did not go exclusively to Southern blacks. Some black clergy in Pennsylvania and New York also received free subscriptions.

During the 1885–1886 school year Spelman received 12 free subscriptions to religious publications. Undoubtedly other black schools in Atlanta also received free subscriptions, but the records are not available.

14. New York Weekly Witness, May 3, July 26, October 4, 1877; April 25, June 6, July 18, 1878; June 19, 1879.

15. “Colored Preachers,” New York Weekly Witness, April 17, 1879.

16. Theodore L. Cuyler to John D. Rockefeller, April, 10, 1886, reel 9, part 3, Office Correspondence, Papers of John D. Rockefeller, Sr., microfilm edition, Rockefeller Family ArchivesRockefeller Archive Center (hereafter RAC).

17. This statement appeared in the annually published National Temperance Almanac and Teetotaler’s Yearbook, beginning in 1886 and continuing through the 1890s.

18. “Temperance Reform among the Negroes,” American Missionary (June 1875); “Editorial Correspondence,” National Temperance Advocate 18 (May 1883): 73–74.

19. William E. Dodge, The Church and Temperance (New York: National Temperance Society and Publication House, 1880), 9–13; D. Stuart Dodge, compiler,. Memorials of William E. Dodge (New York: Anson D. F. Randolph and Company, 1887), 149–66, 208–20; Carlos Martyn, William E. Dodge: The Christian Merchant (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1890), 88–95; November 19, 1872, March 25, 1881, Minute Book of the Board of Managers of the National Temperance Society, November 14, 1865—December 26, 1882, item 6, box 2, RG 54, NTS-PHS; Mrs. T. N. Chase, “Hon. William E. Dodge and Atlanta University,” American Missionary (May 1882): 141; “National Prohibition Alliance,” Atlanta Constitution, February 26, 1882; “Intemperance in the South,” New York Times, April 10, 1882; Seventh Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1872), 43; “From Macon: The Temperance Question Agitating the Central City,” Atlanta Constitution, January 24, 1885.

20. Peter Carter, Peter Carter, 1825–1900 (New York: De Vinne Press, 1901), 68–78, 100–101; Grace Goulder, John D. Rockefeller: The Cleveland Years (Cleveland: Western Reserve Historical Society, 1972), 63–64; Joshua L. Baily to Wistar Morris, July 4, 1880, Miscellaneous letters from 1880–1905 folder, box 1, Joshua L. Baily Collection, 1818–1917, Haverford College Library Special Collections; Josiah Forster to Joshua L. Baily, June 17, 1847, and Josiah Forster to Joshua L. Baily, September 18, 1848, Letters to F–G folder, box 2, Joshua L. Baily Collection, 1818–1917, Haverford College Library Special Collections.

Many former abolitionists made temperance their new priority, as indicated by the1873 merger of the National Standard (formerly the Anti-Slavery Standard) with the National Temperance Advocate. See “The National Standard,” National Temperance Advocate 7 (December 1872): 185.

21. Michael E. Strieby, Work of Half a Generation (New York: American Missionary Association, 1878), 13.

22. American Missionary Association, The Nation Still in Danger; or Ten Years After the War (New York: American Missionary Association, 1875), 8–9; Minutes of the Third Annual Session of the North Georgia Conference of the AME Church (1875), 12, BAP; People’s Advisor as quoted in “Whiskey and the Colored People,” National Temperance Advocate 17 (March 1882): 42; Minutes of the Missionary Baptist Convention of Georgia (1875), 26; Minutes of the Ebenezer Baptist Association (1877), 17, Special Collections, Mercer University, Jack Tarver Library, Macon, Georgia; “Among the Freedmen,” National Temperance Advocate 16 (January 1881): 5. The minutes of all black Baptist associations and conventions cited are held by the same library (hereafter SCMU).

23. “Temperance for the Freedmen,” New York Times, April 14, 1881; “Home News,” New York Tribune, April 14, 1881; “Whiskey and the Colored People,” National Temperance Advocate 17 (March 1882): 42; “Intemperance in the South,” New York Times, April 10, 1882; “Temperance Among the Freedmen,” National Temperance Advocate 20 (April 1885): 51; Eighteenth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1883), 20.

24. Sixteenth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1881), 20–21, 31; “Appeal for the Freedmen,” National Temperance Advocate 16 (July 1881): 126; minutes for September 30, 1881, February 13, April 25, 1882, Minutes of the Missionary Committee of the National Temperance Society, September 30, 1881–December 16, 1897, file 6, box 3, RG 54, NTS-PH; minutes for April 8, 1884, Minute Book: Board of Managers of the National Temperance Society and Publication House, item 7, box 2, series 2, RG 54, NTS-PH; Seventeenth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1882), 16–18; “National Prohibition Alliance,” Atlanta Constitution, February 26, 1882; “The National Temperance Society and Publication House,” National Temperance Advocate 19 (December 1884): 198–99.

25. Minutes for June 12, December 18, 1882, February 19, April 23, December 27, 1883, April 8, June 10, 1884, January 17, 1885, Minutes of the Missionary Committee of the National Temperance Society, September 30, 1881–December 16, 1897, file 6, box 3, RG 54, NTS-PHS; “A Returned Missionary,” The Voice, April 23, 1885; Eighteenth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society (1883), 18–19; Nineteenth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society (1884), 15–17; National Temperance Advocate 19 (March 1884): 41; National Temperance Advocate 19 (July 1884): 126; “The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church,” National Temperance Advocate 20 (December 1885): 198–99; Home Mission Echo 2 (April 1886): 3; “Temperance Talk,” Atlanta Constitution, March 11, 1889.

26. Minutes for September 22, 1886, Minutes of the Missionary Committee of the National Temperance Society, September 30, 1881–December 16, 1897, file 6, box 3, RG 54, NTS-PHS; Seventeenth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1882), 18.

27. Minutes for November 16, 1885, September 22, 1886, January 29, April 23, November 19, 1887, January 24, September 25, November 26, 1888, September 23, November 19, 1889, January 28, April 8, September 22, 1890, January 12, 1891, September 19, November 22, 1892, November 28, 1893, Minutes of the Missionary Committee of the National Temperance Society, September 30, 1881–December 16, 1897, file 6, box 3, RG 54, NTS-PHS.

28. “Temperance among the Freedmen,” National Temperance Advocate 22 (February 1887): 19; Conflict, as quoted in “Professor Price in Atlanta,” National Temperance Advocate 22 (February 1887): 27; “Georgia,” National Temperance Advocate 22 (February 1887): 29–30; William Jacob Walls, Joseph Charles Price, Educator and Race Leader (Boston: Christopher Publishing House, 1943), 52, 306, 327–29, 385–86.

29. Minutes for June 13, September 21, 1882, June 25, December 1883, January 14, February 8, 1884, April 9, 1888, Minutes of the Missionary Committee of the National Temperance Society, September 30, 1881–December 16, 1897, file 6, box 3, RG 54, NTS-PHS; “Temperance Work in the South,” The Voice, November 13, 1884.

30. Minutes for December 27, 1883, May 18, 1885, September 22, 1886, April 23, 1887, September 19, 1892, Minutes of the Missionary Committee of the National Temperance Society, September 30, 1881–December 16, 1897, file 6, box 3, RG 54, NTS-PHS; “Our Eleventh Anniversary,” National Temperance Advocate 11 (June 1876): 90; Eighteenth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1883), 23; Nineteenth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1884), 17–18; donations for April 21, 1879, vol. 28, Donation Ledger 1876–1880, series 3, NTS-PHS; Twentieth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1885), 14; “Georgia,” American Missionary 33 (June 1879): 172; National Temperance Advocate 16 (June 1881): 99.

31. Twentieth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1885), 15; Twenty-Fourth Annual Report of the National Temperance Society and Publication House (1889), 19; June 19, 1879, vol. 28, Donation Ledger 1876–1880, series 3, NTS-PHS; “Atlanta University—An Encouraging Precedent,” American Missionary 34 (October 1880): 305; “Religious Work,” Bulletin of Atlanta University, November 1885, 4; minutes for September 22, 1884, September 16, 1885, September 19, 1892, Minutes of the Missionary Committee of the National Temperance Society, September 30, 1881–December 16, 1897, file 6, box 3, RG 54, NTS-PHS.

32. Home Mission Echo 2 (April 1886): 3; Spelman Messenger 2 (December 1885): 5; Spelman Messenger 4 (December 1889): 4; Sixth Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1884), 14; Catalog of Spelman Seminary, 1885–1886, 32; “Spelman Seminary,” National Temperance Advocate 20 (October 1885): 170.

33. Temperance Tracts Issued by the National Temperance Society and Publication House (New York: J. N. Stearns, Publishing agent, n.d.); “The Blacks at the South,” National Temperance Advocate 18 (February 1883): 20; “Our Work in the South,” National Temperance Advocate 18 (March 1883): 42; “A Call for Help,” National Temperance Advocate 18 (May 1883): 68; “Temperance among the Colored People,” National Temperance Advocate 18 (November 1883): 182; “Temperance Work among the Freedmen,” National Temperance Advocate 20 (February 1885): 20.

34. W. E. B. DuBois, Souls of Black Folk (1903; repr., New York: Bantam Classics, 1989), 70.

35. James McPherson, “The New Puritanism: Values and Goals of Freedmen’s Education in America,” in The University in Society, vol. 2, ed. Lawrence Stone (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 626–31; Baptist Home Missions in North America, Jubilee Report 1832–1882 (New York: Baptist Home Mission Rooms, 1883), 415; Fifty-Fourth Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1886), 22; “Make Haste Slowly,” American Missionary 34 (July 1880): 205; McManus, 145, 167–69, 333.

36. Sandy Dwayne Martin, “The American Baptist Home Mission Society and Black Higher Education in the South, 1865–1920,” Foundations 24 (1981): 318; Fifty-Second Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1884), 23; Fifty-Fourth Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1886), 22; Fourth Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1882), 5; Eighth Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1886), 23; “The Freed People,” Home Mission Echo 7 (February 1891): 2; Lynn D. Gordon, “Race, Class and the Bonds of Womanhood at Spelman Seminary, 1881–1923,” History of Higher Education Annual 9 (1989): 13.

37. “Intemperance in the South,” American Missionary 35 (July 1881): 195; “Concert Exercise,” American Missionary (May 1883): 140; “Temperance Text-books in Our Schools,” American Missionary 36 (August 1882): 230; “Temperance Work in Churches,” American Missionary 37 (May 1883): 141; Fifty-First Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1883), 45; Fifty-Fifth Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1887), 33; “The Race Problem,” Atlanta Constitution, June 21, 1887; Sister Hancock to Missouri Stokes, July 9, 1887, in Missouri H. Stokes Papers, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.

38. In the years following the Civil War if Southern rural black children received any education at all, it was only for about three months in the summer, after the crops had been “laid by.” County officials regularly hired black students on vacation from high school or college-level studies as teachers. Storrs School sent out students in 1868, even before Atlanta University began holding classes. Even then, the students tried to organize temperance societies. See Caroline Gordon, “The Beginnings of Negro Education in Atlanta,” Bulletin of Atlanta University, February 1909, 4.

39. Catalog of the Normal and Preparatory Departments of Atlanta University, 1870–1871, 24; minutes for June 12, 1886, Minutes of the Missionary Committee of the National Temperance Society, September 30, 1881–December 16, 1897, file 6, box 3, RG 54, NTS-PHS. Some of the sources that speak of the summer student work and the literature disseminated are “Georgia: Atlanta University,” American Missionary 35 (January 1881): 20; “Our Southern Work,” National Temperance Advocate 18 (July 1883): 118; Spelman Messenger 2 (December 1885): 5; “Spelman Seminary,” Home Mission Monthly 9 (March 1887): 66; Twelfth Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1890), 21.

40. Bulletin of Atlanta University, June 1883, 4; Home Mission Echo 2 (August 1886): 3; Home Mission Echo 5 (August 1889): 3–4.

41. Catalog of Spelman Seminary, 1883–1884, 24; Sixth Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1884), 14; Seventh Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1885), 15; “Temperance Work at Spelman,” Spelman Messenger 5 (June 1889): 6; Spelman Messenger 4 (April 1888): 5; Brawley, 120–21.

42. “Woman’s Temperance Work in the South,” American Missionary 42 (July 1888): 198–200; Mrs. J. J. Ansley, History of the Georgia W. C. T. U., 1883–1907 (Columbus, GA: Gilbert Printing Co., 1914), 77–78. The white chapters of the city and state WCTU never recognized the black ones as coequals.

43. Vermont was the first state (1882) persuaded to implement mandatory Scientific Temperance Instruction, and Georgia was the last (1901).

44. Elson, 1; Alexander M. Gow, Good Morals and Gentle Manners for Schools and Families (New York: Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., 1873), iii–iv, 73–77; “Let’s Take a Look at Our History,” folder 2, box 1, First Congregational Church, U.C.C. Atlanta, Georgia Collection, AUC; Catalog of Atlanta University, 1873–1895; Catalog of Spelman Seminary, 1890–1891; “In Memoriam—Mrs. Mary Tuttle Chase,” The Scroll, November 1900, 12.

For this and other textbooks discussed below, my dates of implementation are approximate because I have used college catalogs to determine them, and the catalogs were very irregular in indicating which texts were used each year. In addition, hardly any school has a complete run of catalogs. The dates I give are simply the ones that appear in the existing catalogs.

45. “In Memoriam—Mrs. Mary Tuttle Chase,” The Scroll, November 1900, 14; Benjamin Ward Richardson, Temperance Lesson Book (New York: National Temperance Society and Publication House, 1880), 5–6.

46. “Women as Public Speakers,” National Temperance Advocate 7 (March 1872): 36; Julia Colman, Alcohol and Hygiene: An Elementary Lesson Book for Schools (New York: National Temperance Society and Publication House, 1880); Spelman Messenger 6 (December 1890): 6.

47. “Spelman Seminary,” National Temperance Advocate 20 (October 1885): 170; Julia Colman, The Primary Temperance Catechism (New York: published by the National Temperance Society and Publication House for the WCTU, 1885).

48. “Temperance Work at Spelman,” Spelman Messenger 5 (June 1889): 6; James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way (1933; repr., New York: Da Capo Press, 2000), 82–84; “The Colored People of Athens,” Atlanta Constitution, November 11, 1885; “Hon. J. D. Finch,” Spelman Messenger 3 (February 1887): 1; Spelman Messenger 7 (December 1890): 5; Darlene Rebecca Roth, Matronage: Patterns in Women’s Organizations, Atlanta, Georgia, 1890–1940 (Brooklyn: Carlson Publishing, Inc., 1994), 30; “Annual Report of the Secretary of the YWCA,” Spelman Messenger 6 (June 1890): 7.

49. “Spelman Seminary,” Home Mission Monthly 9 (March 1887): 66; Tenth Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1888), 18–19; “Echoes from the Field,” Home Mission Echo 3 (December 1887): 3; “Clark University,” Atlanta Journal, June 9, 1886; “Our Students’ Summer Work,” Bulletin of Atlanta University, October 1889, 3.

50. Rochon, 24.

51. To increase the Christian pressure on unconverted students, Spelman purposely paired Christian and non-Christian students in dorm rooms. See “Echoes from the Field,” Home Mission Echo 5 (April 1889): 3.

52. Social purity pledges referred to sexual purity. For a discussion of Spelman’s Social Purity Club see Dorsey, 105–6. This type of moral training found support among Northern black clergy. See Alexander Crummell, “The Need of New Ideas and New Aims for a New Era,” AME Church Review 2 (October 1885): 124–26.

53. George Sale, Atlanta Baptist Seminary: A Statement and a Plea (New York: American Baptist Home Mission Society, 1895), folder 5, box 4, American Baptist Home Mission Society Archives, American Baptist Historical Society; Norman Calvin Rothman, “Curriculum Formation in Black Colleges, 1881–1980” (PhD diss., Georgia State University, 1981), 12; Fifty-First Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1883), 21; Fifty-Second Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1884), 61; Fifty-Third Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1885), 62; Towns, 121; Seventh Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1885), 12; “The Freedmen,” American Missionary 32 (March 1878): 75–77; “Atlanta and Fisk Universities,” American Missionary 32 (June 1878): 166–67; “The American Missionary Association—Its Place and Work,” American Missionary 43 (December 1889): 346; Baptist Home Missions in North America, Jubilee Report, 416–17; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 256–57.

When Clark University requested its state charter in 1890, it also asked the state legislature to prohibit the sale of intoxicating beverages within one mile of campus. Although Clark was chartered, the legislature rejected the prohibition bill. See Journal of the House of Representatives of the State of Georgia 1890, 396, 557.

54. DuBois, Souls, 70.

55. “Letters from Graduates,” Bulletin of Atlanta University, November 1895; Fifty-Second Annual Report of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (1884), 61; Eighth Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1886), 18; Twelfth Annual Report of the Woman’s American Baptist Home Mission Society (1890), 20–21; Henry L. Morehouse, “The Worth of Spelman Seminary to the World,” Spelman Messenger 12 (June 1896): 1–3, 5–6.

56. W. E. B. DuBois, “The Cultural Missions of Atlanta University,” Phylon 3 (Second Quarter, 1942): 105–15; Henry L. Morehouse, “The Talented Tenth,” Home Mission Monthly 18 (August 1896): 277; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 28.

57. Jonathan Zimmerman, Distilling Democracy: Alcohol Education in America’s Public Schools, 1880–1925 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999), 15–114; Norton Mezvinsky, “Scientific Temperance Instruction in the Schools,” History of Education Quarterly 1 (March 1961): 48–54; Ivan H. Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), 131–32; Jack S. Blocker Jr., “Did Prohibition Really Work? Alcohol Prohibition as a Public Health Innovation,” American Journal of Public Health 96 (February 2006): 235.

58. Hunter, 147–49; Jewell, 57–58, 87–134. Joseph O. Jewell’s description—from a sociological perspective—of how AMA missionaries and their cultural perspective came to dominate freed people’s education is very helpful. He argues that the desire of the freed people for access to education was a movement for self-empowerment—upward social mobility—but because blacks did not have the resources needed to fulfill their goals, they turned to AMA missionaries, whose philosophy was to uplift the freed people from without, using Northern Protestant cultural values. I would argue that this process applies broadly toward all evangelical antebellum nexus groups operating schools for the freed people.