Index
ability, 1, 23–26, 89–90, 94, 153
academic advisors, 131–32, 137–38, 140–51, 162. See also guidance counselors
academic identity: Black identity and, 27–29, 54, 66–68; Black women and, 90; commuting students, 123; family obligations and, 125–38; first-generation students, 7; institutional identity and, 52, 54, 66–68; intellectual invalidation and, 6; Latinx men and, 140; othering and, 88–91; racial-ethnic identity and, 20, 38; safe spaces and, 18; social identities and, 11; vulnerability and, 88–91
academic preparation, 1, 4–5, 12, 28, 88–91, 129, 152–53, 167
activism, 6, 32, 125; adaptive responses to identity threats, 76–81; campus belonging and, 72–74; scholar-activist identity, 69–72; social unrest and, 74–76. See also Black Lives Matter movement; social justice movements
adaptive coping resources, 17–19, 74, 151; counterspaces and, 76–81, 94–95, 100, 107, 160–65; critical consciousness, 91–93; individual, 94, 164
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, 21
administrators: family-academic conflicts and, 128; positive relations with, 84; student identity development and, 109–10. See also institutional supports; offices, minority-focused
Alcoff, Linda, 13
alienation, 11, 90, 95, 106, 131–32, 162
Anderson, Elijah, 55
anxiety, 1, 45–46, 89, 95, 151, 157
Aries, Elizabeth, 126
aspirations. See career aspirations; educational aspirations
attrition, 28–29, 123. See also dropping out
avoidance. See strategic disengagement; withdrawal
Baker, Sarah Cate, 29
belonging. See campus belonging
biases: cultural, 93, 99, 110; of faculty, 29; implicit, 25, 60, 87, 155; internalized, 32; moving beyond, 159–60. See also microaggressions; prejudice; stereotypes
Biernat, Monica, 89
Black, use of term, 7
Black college students: academic identity and, 27–29, 54, 66–68; Black exceptionalism and, 24, 36; campus inequalities and, 12–13; college persistence, 1, 9–10, 164–65, 167; debt and, 10; enrollment levels, 9; graduation rates, 139; institutional identity and, 34; institutional resources for, 30–31; political activism (see activism); racialization and, 14–15. See also Black men; Black women; minority/historically marginalized students
Black culture, denigration of, 57–58
Black Lives Matter movement, 14–15, 69, 80. See also activism; social justice movements
Black men: academic preparation, 141; campus resources and, 164; extracurricular activities, 100; isolation, 85–86; microaggressions against, 102–3; racialization, 15
Black women: academic identity, 90; activism, 70–80; discrimination against, 86; disengagement from campus life, 52–55, 62–68; extracurricular activities, 97, 101, 105–6; financial distress, 42–43; identity and inclusion, 27–39; microaggressions against, 52, 58; racialization, 14, 26–27; stereotyping and othering of, 6, 57–62, 66
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo, 26
Bowman, Nicholas, 159
Bowser, Benjamin, 164
Brand, Jennie, 44
brave spaces, 18. See also counterspaces
Brooms, Derick, 164
Brown, Michael, 74
Bukoski, Beth, 144
caballerismo, 144
Cammarota, Julio, 140
campus belonging: activism and, 72–74; commuter centers and, 122–24; counterspaces and, 11, 164 (see also counterspaces); disengagement and (see strategic disengagement); extracurricular activities and, 97–98; faculty and, 90 (see also faculty support/mentorship); financial distress and, 42; housing policy and, 30–31; internalized racism and, 35–39; microaggressions and, 126; minority demographics and, 27; pop culture images of, 55; racial-ethnic discrimination and, 31–35, 53–54, 141; segregated peer groups and, 87; sociopolitical engagement and, 72–74
campus climate surveys, 155–56
campus counterspaces. See counterspaces
campus engagement: Black women and, 62; commuting students and, 115–18; family obligations and, 130–31, 134; first-generation students and, 157; persistence and, 52, 141; residential students and, 147. See also strategic disengagement
campus organizations: commuting students and, 123; critical understanding and, 93–95; first-generation students and, 136. See also extracurricular activities; Greek organizations; minority-focused organizations; racial-ethnic identity-based organizations; women’s organizations
career aspirations, 22, 44, 47, 68, 71, 106, 133, 170, 173
Chang, Mitchell, 160
Chickering, Arthur, 97
class identity, 13, 51, 157; middle- and upper-class, 5, 12–13, 19, 144; working class, 27. See also financial distress; lower-income students
Cobham, Afeni, 155
cocurricular diversity, 38
code-switching, 39, 104, 123, 126
college brochures, diversity in, 55, 60, 82, 85
“college for all,” 1, 10, 41, 44
college persistence: belonging and, 52 (see also campus belonging); campus engagement and, 52, 68, 141 (see also strategic disengagement); commuting students and, 117–18, 123; debt and, 10, 153 (see also debt); minority students and, 1, 9–10, 164–65, 167. See also attrition; dropping out; graduation rates
college preparation. See academic preparation
colleges and universities, historically White: as cosmopolitan spaces, 55, 61, 68; cultural norms of, 5, 12–13, 19, 144; demographics, 8, 23, 26–27, 82–84; hostile climates at, 54, 99; use of term, 7
color-blind integration, 156–57
common student identity, 98–99, 110. See also humanist identity
commuting students, 111–24, 153; campus belonging and, 6; college persistence, 117–18, 123; jobs and, 111–18, 121, 142; Latinx men as, 145; peer networks and, 120–23; stress and, 116, 131
Cook-Sather, Alison, 18
coping skills. See adaptive coping resources; strategic disengagement
costs. See financial aid; psychosocial costs
counterspaces: academic, 158; activism and (see activism); arguments against, 2, 15–19, 161; as bridging spaces, 104–5; coping skills and (see adaptive coping resources); countering isolation, 84; critical mass and, 94–95; critical understanding and, 93–95; defined, 11, 18–19; disengagement from campus life and, 62–68; diversity and, 152 (see also diversity); as divisive, 164; for financially distressed students, 40–41, 50–51; ideational, 72, 136–37; identities and, 5 (see also social identities); integration and, 11, 100; as maturational spaces, 102–4; racial-ethnic identity and, 34; racially-ethnically agnostic spaces as, 105–8; radical growth and, 2, 165
Crenshaw, Kimberlé, 61
critical awareness, 80
critical consciousness, 80, 91–95
critical race theories, 18–20, 26, 161
cultural capital, 44, 123, 141
cultural “deviants,” 5
cultural norms, 5, 12–13, 19, 144
curricular diversity, 38, 158–59
Cuseo, Joe, 46
Davis, Ja’Dell, 6
Deaux, Kay, 100
debt: college persistence and, 10, 153; commuting students and, 117–18; psychological effects of, 45–46; racial-ethnic differences in, 10. See also loans
decolonized curriculum, 158–59
degree attainment. See graduation rates
Destin, Mesmin, 45
development of emerging adults, 97–98. See also identity development; self-development
difference: integration and, 7 (see also integration); as valued diversity, 6, 82–95. See also diversity
difference-education interventions, 157
dignity, 144
discrimination: coping with, 11, 74 (see also adaptive coping resources); critical race theories and, 20; gendered, 57–62; impact of, 103; interpersonal, 4, 31, 80; isolation and, 86, 94; marginalization and, 152; as personal issue, 161; racial-ethnic, 25–26, 31–33, 52–62. See also biases; exclusion; marginalization; microaggressions; prejudice; racism
disenfranchisement, 152
disengagement. See strategic disengagement
diversity, 5, 38; campus belonging and, 55 (see also campus belonging); cocurricular, 38; in college brochures, 55, 60, 82, 85; curricular, 38, 158–59; “diversity requirements,” 89; faculty, 27, 158; in K–12 education, 86, 106, 159; as valued characteristic, 6, 82–95. See also interactional diversity; structural diversity
dorm life, 12, 53–54, 57–60, 65; commuting students and, 111–14, 118–23; racially-ethnically themed, 29–30; segregation in, 30–31
Dowd, Alicia, 50
Dreamers movement, 69
dropping out, 2–4, 42, 46, 52, 111, 118, 123, 164. See also attrition; college persistence; graduation rates
educational aspirations, 50, 114–15, 123, 129–32, 143, 145, 163
elementary schools. See K–12 education
emotional support, 130, 132–36, 147–50, 184n5
employment. See career aspirations; working students
engagement. See campus engagement
Ethier, Kathleen, 100
European identities, 13. See also White college students
exclusion, 53, 57–62; disengagement and, 141; extracurricular organizations and, 99; social identities and, 5; from unmarked White spaces, 99, 162. See also alienation; isolation; marginalization
expectations about students, 29, 89–91, 128. See also ability; academic preparation
extracurricular activities, 96–110; commuting students and, 116, 120; minority-focused, 76–77; sociopolitical engagement and, 72–74
faculty support/mentorship, 84, 90, 131, 137–38, 146–51, 158, 162. See also expectations about students
faith-based organizations, 105–6
families: academic identity and, 125–38; college motivations and, 4, 43 (see also motivational orientations); cultural connections, 112–14; emotional support from, 130, 132–36; financial support from, 130, 134; first-generation students and, 126; gendered racial-ethnic expectations and, 114, 140, 144–45; Latinx men and, 144; Latinx women and, 114, 127–38. See also immigrant parents; siblings
Fazio, Russell, 60
financial aid, 2–3, 10, 41; commuting students and, 116–18; first-generation college students and, 48, 128, 137; housing policy and, 30–31; Latinx men and, 145. See also debt; grants; loans; scholarships
financial distress, 1, 6, 116–17, 150, 164; identity challenges of, 40–51. See also lower-income students; working students
financial resources, 1; commuting students and, 116, 123; family support, 130, 134
first-generation college students: academic advising and, 142–51; academic identity of, 7; academic preparation of, 88; and alienation from home and school, 131–32; campus supports and, 12–13; dropping out, 3–4; emotional support and, 184n5; engagement, 157; extracurricular activities, 101–2; family obligations, 126–38; financial costs and, 40, 48, 50; informational support and, 94, 127, 145–46; Latinx women as, 7, 125–38; motivations of, 43, 56, 133; race-ethnicity and, 4, 153; social isolation and, 84–86
Fischer, Mary, 90
fraternities/sororities. See Greek organizations
friendship networks, 63–64, 67; segregated, 87–88; social backgrounds and, 86. See also peer networks
Fries-Britt, Sharon, 89
gendered discrimination, 57–62
gendered racial-ethnic identities, 6, 57–58; family expectations and, 114, 140, 144–45
Gopal, Priyamvada, 158
graduation rates, 1, 9–10, 139–40, 153. See also college persistence
Gray, Freddie, 74
Greek organizations: Black sororities, 37, 79; as counterspaces, 107–8; exclusion from, 53; networking and, 97; as unmarked (White) spaces, 99
Grier-Reed, Tabitha, 161
Gugwor, Resney, 6
guidance, 163–64; financial aid, 50 (see also financial aid); lack of, 44, 71, 163
guidance counselors, 146; families and, 132–33. See also academic advisors
Guiffrida, Douglas, 130
Gurin, Patricia, 157
Guterl, Matthew Pratt, 16
high schools. See K–12 education
historically marginalized students. See minority/historically marginalized students
historically White colleges and universities. See colleges and universities, historically White
Hoffman, Garrett, 77
Hope, Elan, 6
hostile campus climates, 54, 99
housing. See dorm life
humanist identity, 5, 13, 157. See also common student identity
Hurst, Allison, 51
Hurston, Zora Neale, 27
ideational counterspaces, 72, 136–37
identification, use of term, 23–24
identities: multiple, 125; sources of, 39. See also academic identity; common student identity; humanist identity; institutional identity; racial-ethnic identity; social identities
identity-conscious supports, 11, 152. See also counterspaces
identity development, 97–98, 104, 108–10
identity-neutral programming, 12–13
immigrant parents, 7, 69, 71, 113–15, 127–28, 142–45, 150, 153. See also undocumented immigrant youth
inadequacy, feelings of, 89, 93, 162
inclusion: in broader campus community, 27–29, 37–38; counterspaces and, 11; enrollment as, 161; in racial-ethnic counterspaces, 27–29, 34–37, 77; social identities and, 5
independence, 13, 71, 107, 147; Latinx women and, 129–30
inequalities, 9, 38, 93, 123, 156; structural, 12–13, 124
informational supports, 12, 33, 151; on financial aid, 46–47, 50–51; first-generation students and, 94, 127, 145–46; immigrant families and, 114–15; siblings and, 127, 134–35, 145–46. See also guidance
injustice, 73–77, 80–81, 156, 173. See also racism
insider knowledge, 12–13, 42, 94
institutional identity: academic identity and, 52, 54, 66–68; commuting students and, 122; humanist/common student identity and, 5, 13, 98–99, 110, 156–57; racial-ethnic identity and, 34, 109; social identities and, 71 (see also social identities)
institutional supports, 169; for commuting students, 119–24; family obligations and, 132–33, 136–38; financial distress and, 42–43, 47–50; for interactional diversity, 95, 152–60. See also academic advisors; administrators; campus organizations; faculty support/mentorship; offices, minority-focused
instrumental supports, 12, 19, 84, 115, 123, 130, 133, 151
integration: color-blind, 156–57; counterspaces and, 11, 100; difference and, 7
intellectual challenges, 18–19. See also academic identity
interactional diversity, 38, 73, 83; institutional support for, 95, 152–60. See also diversity
interest-based bonds, 122
internalized racism, 32, 35–39
isolation: counterspaces as resistance to, 108; disengagement and, 66–68; interactional diversity and, 159; minority students and, 27, 29, 82–86, 94–95, 163. See also alienation; exclusion
jobs. See working students
Joo, So-Hyun, 118
K–12 education: negative stereotypes in, 141; racial-ethnic diversity in, 86, 106, 159; resource gap in, 12, 88, 152–53; segregation in, 82
Kobrynowicz, Diane, 89
Kuppens, Toon, 25
Latinx, use of term, 7
Latinx college students: activism and, 69–81; campus inequalities and, 12–13; college persistence, 1, 10, 164–65, 167; commuting and, 111–24; degree attainment, 10; demographics, 82; enrollment levels, 9; graduation rates, 139–40; racialization and, 14–15. See also minority/historically marginalized students
Latinx critical theories, 20
Latinx men: academic advisors and, 140–51; academic identities, 140; academic preparation, 141; extracurricular activities, 101–2; financial distress, 42; friendship networks, 87–88; intragroup racialized stressors and, 25; motivational orientations, 7, 139–51
Latinx women: activism and, 70–80; extracurricular activities, 100, 104–5; families and, 114, 127–38; as first-generation college students, 7, 125–38; graduation rates, 139–40; immigrant families and, 7, 125–38; independence, 129–30; isolation, 82–86, 92; marianismo and, 127–28, 130, 140; microaggressions against, 58; resilience, 2–3; social identity threats and, 126
Lawrence, Charles R., 161
loans, 10, 45–46; anxiety over, 45–46; college persistence and, 42, 46–47; commuting students and, 117; families and, 130; first-generation students and, 40. See also debt; financial aid
lower-income students, 40–51, 153; commuting and, 113; social identities and, 126–27. See also financial distress
Lyons, Emily, 7
macroaggressions, 58
Making Diversity Work on Campus (Milem, Chang, and Antonio), 154–55, 162
Mandviwala, Tasneem, 7
marginalization: causes of, 152; counterspaces as resistance to, 100–102, 108; of minority-focused organizations, 110; strategic disengagement and, 52–68. See also exclusion; isolation; minority/historically marginalized students
marked spaces, 99
masculinity, 127, 144. See also Black men; Latinx men
McBride, Renisha, 74
mental health, 67. See also psychosocial costs
methodology, 7–8, 21–22, 167–76, 180n46
microaggressions, 2, 16–17, 27, 83, 102; against Black women, 52, 58; coping with, 74, 98, 103; isolation and, 86, 94, 163; as social identity threats, 126. See also biases; discrimination; prejudice; racial-ethnic conflict; racism
micro-communities, 61, 63, 68, 73, 100, 105–10, 164
Minority College Cohort Study (MCCS), 12, 21–22, 168–76
minority-focused organizations, 76–77, 84, 98–105, 108–10, 155. See also racial-ethnic identity-based organizations; women’s organizations
minority/historically marginalized students, 1–8; campus institutional structures and, 23–39; critical mass of, 94–95; experiential knowledge of, 19–21; identity-conscious supports for, 11, 16– 19 (see also counterspaces); overlapping statuses, 112–15; vulnerabilities, 88–91, 94, 162. See also Black college students; first-generation college students; Latinx college students; marginalization
Mitchell, Tania, 77
motivational orientations, 4, 7, 55–56, 63, 141–51; financial and career advancement and, 28, 41, 70–71, 84; of first-generation college students, 43, 56, 133; self-development and, 143–45
multicultural affairs departments, 73. See also offices, minority-focused
occupational benefits of college, 9, 44. See also career aspirations
off-campus lives, 131–32, 137–38. See also commuting students; families; working students
offices, minority-focused, 73, 155; commuting students and, 123; critical understanding and, 93–95; resource centers, 109–10; support and, 84. See also institutional supports
Offidani-Bertrand, Carly, 6
opportunity structures, 78
oppression, 2, 15, 57; critical awareness of, 80, 91–95; as personal issue, 161; resistance to, 15 (see also activism). See also discrimination; microaggressions; racism
organizations. See campus organizations
orientation activities, 96; interactional diversity and, 156–58
othering, 6, 57–62, 66, 83–85; classroom consequences of, 88–91
outsider status, 11, 71, 92, 111, 119
Ovink, Sarah, 129
Oyserman, Daphna, 45
parents: college-educated, 3; support from, 56, 130, 149. See also families; immigrant parents
Parker, Tara, 155
peer networks: commuting students and, 92, 120–23; segregated, 87; support from, 28. See also friendship networks
Pendakur, Vijay, 12
Pérez, David, 141
persistence. See college persistence
Pike, Gary, 87
Pippert, Tim, 82
police brutality, 6, 61, 80, 106
political climate, 74–76, 92; activism and (see activism). See also violence
Ponjuan, Luis, 139
poverty, 51. See also lower-income students
prejudice, 53–54; humanist identity and, 5; isolation and, 86; resistance to, 31–32. See also biases; discrimination; exclusion; marginalization; microaggressions; stereotypes
preparation. See academic preparation
protests, 32. See also activism
psychosocial costs: anxiety, 1, 45–46, 89, 95, 151, 157; depression, 1, 151; disengagement and, 62; feelings of inadequacy, 89, 93, 162; financial distress and, 41–42; loan debt and, 45– 46 (see also debt; loans); mental health and, 67; racially-ethnically motivated violence and, 74–75. See also isolation; stress; withdrawal
public transportation, 117. See also commuting students
race as social concept, 20, 26. See also critical race theories; racialization
racial-ethnic conflict, 14, 25, 102, 105, 155
racial-ethnic identity: challenges to, 4, 27, 109, 164; multidimensional, 79; use of terms, 7, 23–24. See also Black college students; Latinx college students; White college students
racial-ethnic identity-based organizations, 6, 33–37, 63–64, 79. See also minority-focused organizations
racial-ethnic studies courses, 158
racialization: of Black women, 14, 26–27; of Latinx ethnic groups, 7; social identities and, 13–15, 26–27; strategic disengagement and, 58–62; stress and, 24–26
racially-ethnically agnostic spaces, 105–8
racism: activism against, 78 (see also activism); internalized, 32, 35–39; structural, 4, 35. See also biases; discrimination; exclusion; injustice; marginalization; microaggressions; oppression; prejudice; stereotypes
recruitment, 46
Reisser, Linda, 97
religious identity, 105–6, 125
residential student status. See dorm life
resource centers. See offices, minority-focused
responsibilities: balancing commuting and work, 147, 149–50; balancing family/academic obligations, 93, 113, 117–18, 121, 125–34, 140; of college life, 53, 65, 107
Rodriguez, Richard, 143
Roksa, Josipa, 160
roommates, interracial pairings, 60–61
Rosenbaum, James E., 10
safe spaces, 2, 15–19, 161. See also counterspaces
Schapiro, Morton, 17
scholar-activist identity. See activism
scholarships, 4, 28, 145; commuting students and, 116–17; financial distress and, 42, 45; housing policy and, 30–31
segregation: on college campuses, 30–31, 38, 154, 159, 161–62; in high schools, 73; self-segregation, 34, 79, 161–62; social, 83, 87–88, 105; in urban areas, 36
Seider, Maynard, 126
self-development, 74, 143–45, 147
self-doubt, 93
self-segregation, 34, 79, 161–62
Sellers, Robert, 79
sexualization, 59
Shulevitz, Judith, 15
siblings, 127, 134–35, 145–46. See also families
Sidanius, Jim, 99
situational bonds, 122
social class. See class identity; lower-income students; working class
social identities, 5–6, 157; college persistence and, 167; identity threats and, 126; institutional identities and, 71 (see also institutional identity); racialization and, 13–15. See also Black college students; financial distress; first-generation college students; identities; Latinx college students; minority/historically marginalized students; racial-ethnic identity; White college students
social isolation. See isolation
social justice movements, 69–81. See also activism
social justice programming, 77
social supports, 67, 94, 96, 103, 151, 170
sociohistorical events, 14–15. See also political climate
Solorzano, Daniel, 19
sororities/fraternities. See Greek organizations
Spears, Russell, 25
STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) departments, 11, 28–29, 35, 66
stereotypes, 11, 24, 27, 34, 82, 84, 90, 106; of Black women, 57–58, 66–68; complexity and, 21; counteracting, 98; housing and, 30–31; identity development and, 108–9; marginalization and, 23–26, 152; social interactions and, 83–84; “weed-out” courses and, 29. See also biases; internalized racism; prejudice
strategic disengagement, 52–58; racialized rejection and, 58–62; strategies for making space, 62–63; without compensatory supports, 64–68
Strayhorn, Terrell, 141
stress, 1; of commuting, 116, 131; coping abilities and, 118, 161; cultural, 151; family obligations and, 130–31, 134; racialized, 24–26
structural diversity, 38, 83, 87, 95; interactional diversity and, 153–56, 159. See also diversity
structural inequalities. See inequalities
structural racism. See racism
student organizations. See campus organizations; extracurricular activities; Greek organizations
supports. See counterspaces; emotional support; faculty support/mentorship; identity-conscious supports; informational supports; institutional supports; instrumental supports; social supports
survey participant demographics, 22, 168–69, 180n46
Szymanski, Dawn, 67
Velez, Gabriel, 6
victimization, 100
violence, 113, 119; racially-ethnically motivated, 6, 61, 69, 74–76, 106
vocational training, 44
Watts, Roderick, 78
White, use of term, 7
White college students: degree attainment, 10; enrollment levels, 9; expectations of ability and, 89–90; in Greek organizations, 99; guidance for, 163–64; identity threats, 155, 162; interactional diversity and, 159; racial-ethnic intergroup interactions and, 25, 58–59, 94; resources for, 30–33; self-segregation, 34; social identity and, 13, 15, 39 (see also common student identity; humanist identity); social spaces, 53
White cultural dominance, 5. See also colleges and universities, historically White; cultural norms
Will, George F., 2
Williams, Joanna, 57
Williamson, Joy Ann, 77
Winkle-Wagner, Rachelle, 59
withdrawal, 76, 103, 151, 163. See also strategic disengagement
women. See Black women; gendered discrimination; gendered racial-ethnic identities; Latinx women; queer women
women’s organizations, 97, 105–6. See also minority-focused organizations
working class, 27. See also class identity; lower-income students
working students, 1, 4, 42; commuting and, 111–18, 121, 142; family obligations and, 131 (see also families); financial distress and, 45–48, 116– 17 (see also financial distress); first-generation students as, 128; Latinx men as, 142–51
Wornock, Deborah, 51
Yu Xie, 44