Notes

Introduction

1. John L. Hoffman and Katie E. Lowitzki, “Predicting College Success with High School Grades and Test Scores: Limitations for Minority Students,” Review of Higher Education 28, no. 4 (2005): 455–74; Stephen B. Robbins et al., “Do Psychosocial and Study Skill Factors Predict College Outcomes? A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, 130, no. 2 (2004): 261; Michelle Richardson, Charles Abraham, and Rod Bond, “Psychological Correlates of University Students’ Academic Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, 138, no. 2 (2012): 353.

2. Sara Goldrick-Rab, Paying the Price: College Costs, Financial Aid, and the Betrayal of the American Dream (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).

3. John F. Dovidio and Samuel L. Gaertner, “Aversive Racism,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 36 (2004): 1–52.

4. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, “Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation,” American Sociological Review 62, no. 3 (1997): 465–80.

5. Robert D. Reason and Nancy J. Evans, “The Complicated Realities of Whiteness: From Color Blind to Racially Cognizant,” New Directions for Student Services, 120 (2007): 70.

6. Linda M. Alcoff, Visible Identities: Race, Gender, and the Self (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

7. William A. Smith, Walter R. Allen, and Lynette L. Danley, “ ‘Assume the Position … You Fit the Description’: Psychosocial Experiences and Racial Battle Fatigue among African American Male College Students,” American Behavioral Scientist 51, no. 4 (2007): 551–78.

8. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism (New York: Routledge, 2004), 55.

9. Digest of Educational Statistics, “Table 306.40, Fall Enrollment of Males and Females and Specific Racial/Ethnic Groups in Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions, by Control and Level of Institution and Percentage of U.S. Resident Enrollment in the Same Racial/Ethnic Group, 2014” (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.), https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d15/tables/dt15_306.40.asp.

1. Outlining the Problem

1. Tanya Golash-Boza, “A Critical and Comprehensive Sociological Theory of Race and Racism,” Sociology of Race and Ethnicitynicity 2, no. 2 (2016): 11.

2. Anthony P. Carnevale and Jeff Strohl, “How Increasing College Access Is Increasing Inequality, and What to Do about It,” in Rewarding Strivers: Helping Low-Income Students Succeed in College, ed. R. D. Kahlenberg (New York: Century Foundation, 2010), 71–190.

3. US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Employment Projections: Unemployment Rates and Earnings by Educational Attainment, 2017” (Washington, DC: BLS, March 27, 2018), https://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm.

4. Digest of Educational Statistics, “Table 104.10: Rates of High School Completion and Bachelor’s Degree Attainment among Persons Age 25 and Over, by Race/Ethnicity and Sex: Selected Years, 1910 through 2015” (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.), https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d15/tables/dt15_104.10.asp.

5. Jens Manuel Krogstad and Richard Fry, “More Hispanics, Blacks Enrolling in College but Lag in Bachelor’s Degrees (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2014).

6. Digest of Educational Statistics, “Table 326.10: Graduation Rate from First Institution Attended for First-Time, Full-Time Bachelor’s Degree-Seeking Students at 4-Year Postsecondary Institutions, by Race/Ethnicity, Time to Completion, Sex, Control of Institution, and Acceptance Rate: Selected Cohort Entry Years, 1996 through 2008” (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.).

7. John Wirt et al., “Financing for Postsecondary Education: Debt Burden of College Graduates,” in The Condition of Education 2004 (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, 2004), section 6, 98.

8. Tracey King and Ellynne Bannon, The Burden of Borrowing: A Report on the Rising Rates of Student Loan Debt (Boston: Public Interest Research Group, 2002); College Board, Trends in Student Aid 2017 (Washington, DC: College Board, 2017).

9. Eric Bettinger, “How Financial Aid Affects Persistence,” in College Choices: The Economics of Where to Go, When to Go, and How to Pay for It, ed. C. Hoxby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 207–238; Rachel Dwyer, Laura McCloud, and Randy Hodson, “Debt and Graduation from American Universities,” Social Forces 90, no. 4 (2012): 1133–55; Glenn Waddell and Larry Singell Jr., “Do No-Loan Policies Change the Matriculation Patterns of Low-Income Students?,” Economics of Education Review 30, no. 2 (2011): 203–14.

10. John E. Grable and So-Hyun Joo, “Student Racial Differences in Credit Card Debt and Financial Behaviors and Stress,” College Student Journal 40, no. 2 (2006): 400–408.

11. Lawrence Gladieux and Laura Perna, Borrowers Who Drop Out: A Neglected Aspect of the College Student Loan Trend (San Jose, CA: National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, 2005); Sara Goldrick-Rab, Robert Kelchen, and Jason Houle, The Color of Student Debt: Implications of Federal Loan Program Reforms for Black Students and Historically Black Colleges and Universities (Madison: Hope Lab, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 2014); Jacob P. K. Gross et al., “What Matters in Student Loan Default: A Review of the Research Literature,” Journal of Student Financial Aid 39, no. 1 (2009): 19–29; Caroline Ratcliffe and Signe Mary McKernan, Forever in Your Debt: Who Has Student Loan Debt, and Who’s Worried? (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2013).

12. James E. Rosenbaum, Shazia Rafiullah Miller, and Melinda Scott Krei, “Gatekeeping in an Era of More Open Gates: High School Counselors’ Views of Their Influence on Students’ College Plans,” American Journal of Education 104, no. 4 (1996): 257–79.

13. Margaret Cahalan and Laura Perna, Indicators of Higher Education Equity in the United States: 45-Year Trend Report (Washington, DC: Pell Institute for the Study of Opportunity in Education, 2015).

14. Deborah Hirsch, “Access to a College Degree or Just College Debt? Moving beyond Admission to Graduation,” New England Journal of Higher Education 23, no. 2 (2008): 17–18; James E. Rosenbaum, “The Complexities of College for All: Beyond Fairy-Tale Dreams,” Sociology of Education 84, no. 2 (2011): 113–17.

15. Mark Huelsman, The Debt Divide: The Racial and Class Bias behind the “New Normal” of Student Borrowing (New York: Demos, 2015).

16. Karen K. Inkelas et al., “Living-Learning Programs and First-Generation College Students’ Academic and Social Transition to College,” Research in Higher Education 48, no. 4 (2007): 403–34; Laura I. Rendon, “Validating Culturally Diverse Students: Toward a New Model of Learning and Student Development,” Innovative Higher Education 19, no. 1 (1994): 33–51.

17. William G. Bowen and Derek Bok, The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016); Douglas Massey et al., The Source of the River: The Social Origins of Freshmen at America’s Selective Colleges and Universities (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011).

18. Maria Ong, Janet M. Smith, and Lily T. Ko, “Counterspaces for Women of Color in STEM Higher Education: Marginal and Central Spaces for Persistence and Success,” Journal of Research in Science Teaching 55, no. 2 (2018): 206–45.

19. Valerie Purdie-Vaughns et al., “Social Identity Contingencies: How Diversity Cues Signal Threat or Safety for African Americans in Mainstream Institutions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94, no. 4 (2008): 615; Nicole Watkins, Theressa L. LaBarrie, and Lauren M. Appio, “Black Undergraduates’ Experience with Perceived Racial Microaggressions in Predominantly White Colleges and Universities,” in Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestation, Dynamics, and Impact, ed. D. W. Sue (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2010), 25–58.

20. Anne-Marie Núñez, “Counterspaces and Connections in College Transitions: First-Generation Latino Students’ Perspectives on Chicano Studies,” Journal of College Student Development 52, no. 6 (2011): 639–55; Tara Yosso and Corina B. Lopez, “Counterspaces in a Hostile Place,” in Culture Centers in Higher Education: Perspectives on Identity, Theory, and Practice, ed. L. D. Patton (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2010), 83–104; Annemarie Vaccaro and Melissa J. Camba-Kelsay, Centering Women of Color in Academic Counterspaces: A Critical Race Analysis of Teaching, Learning, and Classroom Dynamics (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016).

21. Deborah F. Carter, Angela Mosi Locks, and Rachelle Winkle-Wagner, “From When and Where I Enter: Theoretical and Empirical Considerations of Minority Students’ Transition to College,” in Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, ed. M. B. Paulsen (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2013), 93–149; Sean F. Reardon, Joseph P. Robinson, and Ericka S. Weathers, “Patterns and Trends in Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Academic Achievement Gaps,” in Handbook of Research in Education Finance and Policy, 2nd ed., ed. H. A. Ladd and E. B. Fiske (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2012), 497–516.

22. Vijay Pendakur, Closing the Opportunity Gap: Identity-Conscious Strategies for Retention and Student Success (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2016), 6.

23. Mary J. Fischer, “Settling into Campus Life: Differences by Race/Ethnicity in College Involvement and Outcomes,” Journal of Higher Education 78, no. 2. (2007): 125–61.

24. Basil Bernstein, Class Codes and Control: Theoretical Studies towards a Sociology of Language, 2nd ed. (New York: Schocken Books, 1974); Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture (London: Sage, 1990).

25. Nicole M. Stephens et al., “Unseen Disadvantage: How American Universities’ Focus on Independence Undermines the Academic Performance of First-Generation College Students,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102, no. 6 (2012): 1178–97.

26. Ibid.

27. Arthur M. Schlesinger, The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998).

28. Alcoff, Visible Identities.

29. Ludger Pries, “Ambiguities of Global and Transnational Collective Identities,” Global Networks 13, no. 1 (2013): 22–40.

30. Alcoff, Visible Identities, 36.

31. Derald W. Sue et al., “Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice,” American Psychologist 62, no. 4 (2007): 271–86; Micere Keels, Myles Durkee, and Elan Hope, “The Psychological and Academic Costs of School-Based Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions,” American Educational Research Journal 54, no. 6 (2017): 1316–44.

32. Mary J. Fischer, “Does Campus Diversity Promote Friendship Diversity? A Look at Interracial Friendships in College,” Social Science Quarterly 89, no. 3 (2008): 631–55.

33. Ray Black and Albert Y. Bimper Jr., “Successful Undergraduate African American Men’s Navigation and Negotiation of Academic and Social Counter-Spaces as Adaptation to Racism at Historically White Institutions,” Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 0, no. 0 (2017): 1–25.

34. Alison Cook-Sather, “Creating Brave Spaces within and through Student-Faculty Pedagogical Partnerships,” Teaching and Learning Together in Higher Education 1, no. 18 (2016): 1–5.

35. Andrew D. Case and Carla D. Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis for Understanding the Role of Settings in Marginalized Individuals’ Adaptive Responses to Oppression,” American Journal of Community Psychology 50, nos. 1–2 (2012): 267.

36. Andrew D. Case and Carla D. Hunter, “Counterspaces and the Narrative Identity Work of Offender-Labeled African American Youth,” Journal of Community Psychology 42, no. 8 (2014): 907–23.

37. Na’ilah Nasir, Racialized Identities: Race and Achievement among African American Youth (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011).

38. Beverly D. Tatum, Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? And Other Conversations about Race (New York: Basic Books, 2017).

39. Daniel Solórzano, Miguel Ceja, and Tara Yosso, “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students,” Journal of Negro Education 69, nos. 1–2 (2000): 60–73.

40. Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic, Critical Race Theory: An Introduction, 2nd ed. (New York: NYU Press, 2012); Daniel Solórzano and Tara Yosso, “Critical Race Methodology: Counter-Storytelling as an Analytical Framework for Education Research,” Qualitative Inquiry 8, no. 1 (2002): 23–44.

41. Kristen Renn, “Creating and Re-creating Race: The Emergence of Racial Identity as a Critical Element in Psychological, Sociological, and Ecological Perspectives on Human Development,” in New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development: Integrating Emerging Frameworks, ed. C. L. Wijeyesinghe and B. W. Jackson (New York: NYU Press, 2012), 11–32.

42. Delgado and Stefancic, Critical Race Theory; Berta E. Hernandez-Truyol, “Borders (En)gendered: Normativities, Latinas and a LatCrit Paradigm,” New York University Law Review 72 (1997): 882–927.

43. Octavio Villalpando, “Practical Considerations of Critical Race Theory and Latino Critical Theory for Latino College Students,” New Directions for Student Services 105 (2004): 41–50; Francisco Valdes, “Latina/o Ethnicities, Critical Race Theory, and Post-Identity Politics in Postmodern Legal Culture: From Practices to Possibilities,” La Raza Law Journal 9, no. 1 (1996): 1–31.

44. Lisa Bowleg, “When Black + Lesbian + Woman ≠ Black Lesbian Woman: The Methodological Challenges of Qualitative and Quantitative Intersectionality Research,” Sex Roles 59, no. 5–6 (2008): 312–25; Kimberle Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 6 (1991): 1241–99.

45. Chimamanda N. Adichie, “The Danger of a Single Story,” TED talk, October 2009.

46. Representative of the Illinois student population, the sample includes significantly more Latinx than Black students (59 percent Latinx vs. 41 percent Black). The sample is also indicative of the dire national gender gap in minority student enrollment and includes significantly more female than male students (64 percent women vs. 36 percent men). Approximately 69 percent of students lived in campus housing, and 26 percent lived with their parents. Students’ housing status heavily depended on the institution attended; more than 90 percent of those attending the rural colleges lived in campus housing, compared to about 50 percent of those attending the urban colleges. Only 9 percent of the sample is foreign born (10 percent of Latino and 7 percent of Black students). Of this 9 percent, only 20 percent came to the United States after age ten, and only four students came after the age of eighteen.

2. The Impossibility of a Color-Blind Identity

1. Erik H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994).

2. Sheldon Stryker and Peter J. Burke, “The Past, Present, and Future of an Identity Theory,” Social Psychology Quarterly 63, no. 4 (2000): 284–97.

3. Henri Tajfel and John Turner, “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict,” Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations 33, no. 47 (1979): 56–65.

4. Karolyn Tyson, ed., Integration Interrupted: Tracking, Black Students, and Acting White after Brown (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

5. Randall Kennedy, “Lifting as We Climb: A Progressive Defense of Respectability Politics,” Harper’s Magazine, October 2015; Ta-Nehisi Coates, “Charles Barkley and the Plague of ‘Unintelligent’ Blacks,” Atlantic, October 2014.

6. Keels, Durkee, and Hope, “Psychological and Academic Costs,” 1316–44.

7. Myles Durkee and Joanna L. Williams, “Accusations of Acting White: Links to Black Students’ Racial Identity and Mental Health,” Journal of Black Psychology 41, no. 1 (2015): 26–48.

8. Toon Kuppens and Russell Spears, “You Don’t Have to Be Well-Educated to Be an Aversive Racist, but It Helps,” Social Science Research 45 (2014): 211–23.

9. Ibid., 221.

10. Derald W. Sue, Overcoming Our Racism: The Journey to Liberation (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003); I. M. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Prince- ton University Press, 1990).

11. James J. Scheurich and Michelle D. Young, “White Racism among White Faculty: From Critical Understanding to Antiracist Activism,” in The Racial Crisis in American Higher Education: Continuing Challenges for the Twenty-First Century, ed. W. A. Smith, P. G. Altbach, and K. Lomotey (New York: SUNY Press, 2002), 221–42.

12. Vincent L. Hutchings, “Change or More of the Same? Evaluating Racial Attitudes in the Obama Era,” Public Opinion Quarterly 73, no 5 (2009): 917–42; Eric D. Knowles, Brian S. Lowery, and Rebecca L. Schaumberg, “Racial Prejudice Predicts Opposition to Obama and His Health Care Reform Plan,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46, no. 2 (2010): 420–23.

13. Margaret B. Spencer and Carol Markstrom-Adams, “Identity Processes among Racial and Ethnic Minority Children in America,” Child Development 61, no. 2 (1990): 290–310.

14. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, “More Than Prejudice: Restatement, Reflections, and New Directions in Critical Race Theory,” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 1, no. 1 (2015): 73–87; Karim Murji and John Solomos, Racialization: Studies in Theory and Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

15. Based on an analysis of IPEDS data for 1980 and 2014, for degree-granting four-year public and private institutions; examining enrollment of full-time freshmen.

16. Dorinda J. Carter, “Why the Black Kids Sit Together at the Stairs: The Role of Identity- Affirming Counter-Spaces in a Predominantly White High School,” Journal of Negro Education 76, no. 4 (2007): 542–54; Purdie-Vaughns et al., “Social Identity Contingencies,” 615.

17. Carter, Locks, and Winkle-Wagner, “From When and Where I Enter.”

18. Tatum, Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together?, 62

19. Massey et al., Source of the River.

20. Sharon Fries-Britt and Kimberly Griffin, “The Black Box: How High-Achieving Blacks Resist Stereotypes about Black Americans,” Journal of College Student Development 48, no. 5 (2007): 509–24.

21. David C. Haak et al., “Increased Structure and Active Learning Reduce the Achievement Gap in Introductory Biology,” Science, 332, no. 6034 (2011): 1213–16; Lars Ulriksen, Lene M. Madsen, and Henriette T. Holmegaard, “What Do We Know about Explanations for Drop Out / Opt Out among Young People from STM Higher Education Programmes?,” Studies in Science Education 46, no. 2 (2010): 209–44.

22. Josephine A. Gasiewski et al., “From Gatekeeping to Engagement: A Multicontextual, Mixed Method Study of Student Academic Engagement in Introductory STEM Courses,” Research in Higher Education 53, no. 2 (2012): 229–61.

23. Karen K. Inkelas et al., “Differences in Student Outcomes by Types of Living-Learning Programs: The Development of an Empirical Typology,” Research in Higher Education 49, no. 6 (2008): 495–512.

24. Nasir, Racialized Identities.

25. Beber Ravji, Resolution draft on university residence housing. Sponsored by Culture and Minority Student Affairs Illinois Student Senate Resolution (11–03–2008–01), November 2008.

26. Tatum, Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together?, 62.

27. Ibid.

28. Carter, “Why the Black Kids Sit Together.”

29. Václav Linkov, “Tokenism in Psychology: Standing on the Shoulders of Small Boys,” Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science 48, no. 2 (2014): 143–4.

30. Kelly Danaher and Nyla R. Branscombe, “Maintaining the System with Tokenism: Bolstering Individual Mobility Beliefs and Identification with a Discriminatory Organization,” British Journal of Social Psychology 49, no. 2 (2010): 343–62.

31. Purdie-Vaughns et al., “Social Identity Contingencies.”

32. Kevin O. Cokley, “Testing Cross’s Revised Racial Identity Model: An Examination of the Relationship between Racial Identity and Internalized Racialism,” Journal of Counseling Psychology 49, no. 4 (2002): 476–83.

33. Patricia Gurin et al., “Diversity and Higher Education: Theory and Impact on Educational Outcomes,” Harvard Educational Review 72, no. 3 (2002): 330–67.

34. Jane Fried, “Multicultural Identities and Shifting Selves among College Students,” in Multiculturalism on Campus: Theory, Models, and Practices for Understanding Diversity and Creating Inclusion, ed. M. Cuyjet et al. (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2011), 65–83.

35. Sylvia Hurtado et al., “Enhancing Campus Climates for Racial/Ethnic Diversity: Educational Policy and Practice,” Review of Higher Education 21, no. 3 (1998): 279–302; Vincent Tinto, “Building Community,” Liberal Education 79, no. 4 (1993): 16–21.

36. Peter Auer, ed., Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and Identity (New York: Routledge, 2013); Anna De Fina, “Code-Switching and the Construction of Ethnic Identity in a Community of Practice,” Language in Society 36, no. 3 (2007): 371–92.

37. Fried, “Multicultural Identities and Shifting Selves,” 65–83.

3. An Ambivalent Embrace

1. Elizabeth Lee, Class and Campus Life: Managing and Experiencing Inequality at an Elite College (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016).

2. Regina Deil-Amen, “The ‘Traditional’ College Student: A Smaller and Smaller Minority and Its Implications for Diversity and Access Institutions,” paper prepared for the conference Mapping Broad-Access Higher Education, Stanford University, November 2011, 15.

3. Kimberly A. Goyette, “College for Some to College for All: Social Background, Occupational Expectations, and Educational Expectations over Time,” Social Science Research 37, no. 2 (2008): 461–84.

4. Donald E. Heller and Kimberly R. Rogers, “Shifting the Burden: Public and Private Financing of Higher Education in the United States and Implications for Europe,” Tertiary Education & Management 12, no. 2 (2006): 91–117.

5. Sandy Baum et al., “Trends in College Pricing, 2014.” Trends in Higher Education Series (New York: College Board, 2014); Tracey King and Ellyne Bannon, At What Cost? The Price That Working Students Pay for a College Education (Washington, DC: United States Public Interest Research Group, 2002); Wirt et al., “Financing for Postsecondary Education.”

6. Carnevale and Strohl, “How Increasing College Access Is Increasing Inequality.”

7. Micere Keels et al., Financial Distress at the Start of College, Minority College Cohort Study policy report (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2015).

8. Louise Archer and Merryn Hutchings, “ ‘Bettering Yourself’? Discourses of Risk, Cost and Benefit in Ethnically Diverse, Young Working-Class Non-participants’ Constructions of Higher Education,” British Journal of Sociology of Education 21, no. 4 (2000): 555–74; Amaury Nora, Libby Barlow, and Gloria Crisp, “Examining the Tangible and Psychosocial Benefits of Financial Aid with Student Access, Engagement, and Degree Attainment,” American Behavioral Scientist 49, no. 12 (2006): 1636–51; Edward P. St. John, Shouping Hu, and Tina Tuttle, “Persistence by Undergraduates in an Urban Public University: Understanding the Effects of Financial Aid,” Journal of Student Financial Aid 30, no. 2 (2000): 23–37.

9. Alberto F. Cabrera, Amaury Nora, and Maria B. Castaneda, “The Role of Finances in the Persistence Process: A Structural Model,” Research in Higher Education 33, no. 5 (1992): 571–93; Jenny M. Stuber, Inside the College Gates: How Class and Culture Matter in Higher Education (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011).

10. Mark Kantrowitz, “Why the Student Loan Crisis Is Even Worse Than People Think,” Time, January 11, 2016; Selena Simmons-Duffin, “For Millions of Millennials, Some College, No Degree, Lots of Debt,” National Public Radio, November 19, 2014; Susan Tompor, “College Students’ Nightmare: Loan Debt and No Degree,” USA Today, June 7, 2015.

11. Manfred Wallenborn and Stephen P. Heyneman, “Should Vocational Education Be Part of Secondary Education?,” Journal of Educational Change 10, no. 4 (2009): 405–13.

12. Steve Lohr, “A New Kind of Tech Job Emphasizes Skills, Not a College Degree,” New York Times, June 28, 2017.

13. Jennie E. Brand and Yu Xie, “Who Benefits Most from College? Evidence for Negative Selection in Heterogeneous Economic Returns to Higher Education,” American Sociological Review 75, no. 2 (2010): 273–302.

14. Haley Glatter, “College Is Still the Promised Land for High School Students,” Atlantic, September 13, 2016; Goldrick-Rab, Paying the Price.

15. Jeffrey J. Arnett, “Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens through the Twenties,” American Psychologist 55, no. 5 (2000): 469–80.

16. Mesmin Destin and Daphna Oyserman, “From Assets to School Outcomes: How Finances Shape Children's Perceived Possibilities and Intentions,” Psychological Science 20, no. 4 (2009): 417.

17. Dwyer, McCloud, and Hodson, “Debt and Graduation from American Universities.”

18. Bettinger, “How Financial Aid Affects Persistence.”

19. Joe Cuseo, “Fiscal Benefits of Student Retention and First-Year Retention Initiatives” (Athens: Ohio University, 2010).

20. Gail MarksJarvis, Working during College Doesn’t Always Pay, Study Says,” Chicago Tribune, October 29, 2015.

21. Alicia C. Dowd, “Dynamic Interactions and Intersubjectivity: Challenges to Causal Modeling in Studies of College Student Debt,” Review of Educational Research 78, no. 2 (2008): 250–51.

22. Deborah M. Warnock and A. L. Hurst, “ ‘The Poor Kids’ Table’: Organizing around an Invisible and Stigmatized Identity in Flux,” Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 9, no. 3 (2016): 261–76.

23. Ibid., 271.

4. Strategic Disengagement

1. George D. Kuh et al., “Unmasking the Effects of Student Engagement on First-Year College Grades and Persistence,” Journal of Higher Education 79, no. 5 (2008): 540–63; Vincent Tinto, Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).

2. Leslie Hausmann, Janet Ward Schofield, and Rochelle L. Woods, “Sense of Belonging as a Predictor of Intentions to Persist among African American and White First-Year College Students,” Research in Higher Education 48, no. 7 (2007): 803–39.

3. Keels, Durkee, and Hope, “Psychological and Academic Costs”; Jioni A. Lewis et al., “Coping with Gendered Racial Microaggressions among Black Women College Students,” Journal of African American Studies 17, no. 1 (2013): 51–73; Janice McCabe, “Racial and Gender Microaggressions on a Predominantly-White Campus: Experiences of Black, Latina/o and White Undergraduates,” Race, Gender & Class 16, nos. 1–2 (2009): 133–51.

4. Elijah Anderson, The Cosmopolitan Canopy: Race and Civility in Everyday Life (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 33.

5. Research confirms that this emotional support that first-generation students receive is pivotal to their college success. See Douglas Guiffrida, “To Break Away or Strengthen Ties to Home: A Complex Issue for African American College Students Attending a Predominantly White Institution,” Equity & Excellence in Education 38, no. 1 (2005): 56.

6. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge, 2002).

7. Joanna L. Williams and Tanya M. Nichols, “Black Women’s Experiences with Racial Microaggressions in College: Making Meaning at the Crossroads of Race and Gender,” in Black Female Undergraduates on Campus: Successes and Challenges, ed. C. Chambers and R. Sharpe (Bingley, UK: Emerald Group, 2012), 75–95.

8. Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color,” Stanford Law Review 43, no. 6 (1991): 1241–99.

9. Collins, Black Feminist Thought.

10. Ibid.

11. Keels, Durkee, and Hope, “Psychological and Academic Costs”; Derald W. Sue, ed., Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestation, Dynamics, and Impact (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010).

12. Rachelle Winkle-Wagner, The Unchosen Me: Race, Gender, and Identity among Black Women in College (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010).

13. Anne W. Rawls, “ ‘Race’ as an Interaction Order Phenomenon: W. E. B. Du Bois’s ‘Double Consciousness’ Thesis Revisited,” Sociological Theory 18, no. 2 (2000): 241–74.

14. Tamara Towles-Schwen and Russell H. Fazio, “Automatically Activated Racial Attitudes as Predictors of the Success of Interracial Roommate Relationships,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42, no. 5 (2006): 698–705.

15. Kimberlé Crenshaw, “The Urgency of Intersectionality,” TED talk, October 2016.

16. Lewis et al., “Coping with Gendered Racial Microaggressions.”

17. Dawn M. Szymanski and Jioni A. Lewis, “Gendered Racism, Coping, Identity Centrality, and African American College Women’s Psychological Distress,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 40, no. 2 (2016): 229–43.

18. Lori D. Patton, ed., Culture Centers in Higher Education: Perspectives on Identity, Theory, and Practice (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2010).

19. Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis.”

20. Susan R. Jones and Marylu K. McEwen, “A Conceptual Model of Multiple Dimensions of Identity,” Journal of College Student Development 41, no. 4 (2000): 405–14; Christa J. Porter and Laura A. Dean, “Making Meaning: Identity Development of Black Undergraduate Women,” NASPA Journal about Women in Higher Education 8, no. 2 (2015): 125–39.

5. Power in the Midst of Powerlessness

1. Robert A. Rhoads, Freedom’s Web: Student Activism in an Age of Cultural Diversity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).

2. Heather Malin, Parissa J. Ballard, and William Damon, “Civic Purpose: An Integrated Construct for Understanding Civic Development in Adolescence,” Human Development 58, no. 2 (2015): 103–30.

3. Roderick Watts and Omar Guessous, “Sociopolitical Development: The Missing Link in Research and Policy on Adolescents,” in Beyond Resistance! Youth Activism and Community Change: New Democratic Possibilities for Practice and Policy for America’s Youth, ed. S. Ginwright, P. Noguera, and J. Cammarota (New York: Routledge, 2006), 59–80.

4. Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis.”

5. Christopher Morphew and Matthew Hartley, “Mission Statements: A Thematic Analysis of Rhetoric across Institution Type,” Journal of Higher Education 77 (2006): 456–71.

6. Nithya Muthuswamy, Timothy R. Levine, and Jeanne Gazel, “Interaction-Based Diversity Initiative Outcomes: An Evaluation of an Initiative Aimed at Bridging the Racial Divide on a College Campus,” Communication Education 55, no. 1 (2006): 105–21; Nida Denson, “Do Curricular and Cocurricular Diversity Activities Influence Racial Bias? A Meta-analysis,” Review of Educational Research 79, no. 2 (2009): 805–38.

7. Elan Hope and Margaret B. Spencer, “Civic Engagement as an Adaptive Coping Response to Conditions of Inequality: An Application of Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST),” in Handbook of Positive Development of Minority Children, ed. N. Cabrera and B. Leyendecker (New York: Springer, 2017), 421–35.

8. Sebastián Valenzuela, “Unpacking the Use of Social Media for Protest Behavior: The Roles of Information, Opinion Expression, and Activism,” American Behavioral Scientist, 57, no. 7 (2013): 920–42.

9. Erikson, Identity.

10. Jennifer L. Petriglieri, “Under Threat: Responses to and the Consequences of Threats to Individuals’ Identities,” Academy of Management Review 36, no. 4 (2011): 641–62.

11. Nick Crossley and Joseph Ibrahim, “Critical Mass, Social Networks and Collective Action: Exploring Student Political Worlds,” Sociology 46, no. 4 (2012): 46.

12. Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis”; Douglas A. Guiffrida, “African American Student Organizations as Agents of Social Integration,” Journal of College Student Development 44, no. 3 (2003): 304–19; Shaun R. Harper and Stephen J. Quaye, “Student Organizations as Venues for Black Identity Expression and Development among African American Male Student Leaders,” Journal of College Student Development 48, no. 2 (2007): 127–44.

13. Joy A. Williamson, “In Defense of Themselves: The Black Student Struggle for Success and Recognition at Predominantly White Colleges and Universities,” Journal of Negro Education 68, no. 1 (1999): 92–105; Yosso and Lopez, “Counterspaces in a Hostile Place.”

14. Garrett D. Hoffman and Tania D. Mitchell, “Making Diversity ‘Everyone’s Business’: A Discourse Analysis of Institutional Responses to Student Activism for Equity and Inclusion,” Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 9, no. 3 (2016): 278.

15. Watts and Guessous, “Sociopolitical Development.”

16. Robert Sellers et al., “The Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: A Reconceptualization of African American Racial Identity,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 2, no. 1 (1998): 18–39.

17. Tabbye M. Chavous, “The Relationships among Racial Identity, Perceived Ethnic Fit, and Organization Involvement for African American Students at a Predominately White University,” Journal of Black Psychology 26, no. 1 (2000): 79–100.

18. Elan C. Hope, Kristen N. Pender, and Kristen N. Riddick, “Measuring Youth Proclivity for Social Action in the Black Community: Development and Validation of the Black Community Activism Orientation Scale (BCAOS),” under review.

19. Ibid.

20. Elan C. Hope, Micere Keels, and Myles I. Durkee, “Participation in Black Lives Matters and Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals: Modern Activism among Black and Latino College Students,” Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 9, no. 3 (2016): 203–15.

21. Morphew and Hartley, “Mission Statements.”

6. Importance of a Critical Mass

1. Timothy D. Pippert, Laura J. Essenburg, and Edward J. Matchett, “We’ve Got Minorities, Yes We Do: Visual Representations of Racial and Ethnic Diversity in College Recruitment Materials,” Journal of Marketing for Higher Education 23, no. 2 (2013): 258–82.

2. Shaun R. Harper and Sylvia Hurtado, “Nine Themes in Campus Racial Climates and Implications for Institutional Transformation,” in Responding to the Realities of Race on Campus: New Directions for Student Services, vol. 120, ed. S. R. Harper and L. D. Patton (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007), 7–24; Gary R. Pike and George D. Kuh, “Relationships among Structural Diversity, Informal Peer Interactions and Perceptions of the Campus Environment,” Review of Higher Education 29, no. 4 (2006): 445.

3. Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis”; Yosso and Lopez, “Counterspaces in a Hostile Place.”

4. Meera Komarraju, Sergey Musulkin, and Gargi Bhattacharya, “Role of Student-Faculty Interactions in Developing College Students’ Academic Self-Concept, Motivation, and Achievement,” Journal of College Student Development 51, no. 3 (2010): 332–42.

5. Mary F. Howard-Hamilton, Rosemary E. Phelps, and Vasti Torres, “Meeting the Needs of All Students and Staff Members: The Challenge of Diversity,” New Directions for Student Services, no. 82 (1998): 49–64.

6. Barbara Read, Louise Archer, and Carole Leathwood, “Challenging Cultures? Student Conceptions of Belonging and Isolation at a Post-1992 University,” Studies in Higher Education 28, no. 3 (2003): 261–77.

7. Nasir, Racialized Identities.

8. Denson, “Do Curricular and Cocurricular Diversity Activities Influence Racial Bias?,” 824; Nida Denson and Mitchell Chang, “Racial Diversity Matters: The Impact of Diversity-Related Student Engagement and Institutional Context,” American Educational Research Journal 46, no. 2 (2009): 322–353.

9. Pike and Kuh, “Relationships among Structural Diversity.”

10. Carter, Locks, and Winkle-Wagner, “From When and Where I Enter”; Laura Perna, “The Key to College Access: Rigorous Academic Preparation,” in Preparing for College: Nine Elements of Effective Outreach, ed. W. G. Tierney, Z. B. Corwin, and J. E. Colyar (New York: SUNY Press, 2005), 113–34.

11. Sharon L. Fries-Britt and Bridget Turner, “Facing Stereotypes: A Case Study of Black Students on a White Campus,” Journal of College Student Development 42, no. 5 (2001): 420–29.

12. Monica Biernat and Diane Kobrynowicz, “Gender-and Race-Based Standards of Competence: Lower Minimum Standards but Higher Ability Standards for Devalued Groups,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72, no. 3 (1997): 544.

13. Ibid., 555.

14. Mary J. Fischer, “A Longitudinal Examination of the Role of Stereotype Threat and Racial Climate on College Outcomes for Minorities at Elite Institutions,” Social Psychology of Education 13, no. 1 (2010): 19–40.

15. Komarraju, Musulkin, and Bhattacharya, “Role of Student-Faculty Interactions”; Patrick O’Keeffe, “A Sense of Belonging: Improving Student Retention,” College Student Journal 47, no. 4 (2013): 605–13; Nicholas A. Bowman, “The Development of Psychological Well-Being among First-Year College Students,” Journal of College Student Development 51, no. 2 (2010): 180–200.

16. Gregory C. Wolniak and Mark E. Engberg, “Academic Achievement in the First Year of College: Evidence of the Pervasive Effects of the High School Context,” Research in Higher Education 51, no. 5 (2010): 451–67.

17. Germine H. Awad, “The Role of Racial Identity, Academic Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem in the Prediction of Academic Outcomes for African American Students,” Journal of Black Psychology 33, no. 2 (2007): 188–207.

18. Roderick J. Watts, Matthew A. Diemer, and Adam M. Voight, “Critical Consciousness: Current Status and Future Directions,” New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, no. 134 (2011): 43–57.

19. Catherine Campbell and Catherine MacPhail, “Peer Education, Gender and the Development of Critical Consciousness: Participatory HIV Prevention by South African Youth,” Social Science & Medicine 55 (2002): 331–45.

20. Marlene Berg, Emil Coman, and Jean J. Schensul, “Youth Action Research for Prevention: A Multi-level Intervention Designed to Increase Efficacy and Empowerment among Urban Youth,” American Journal of Community Psychology 43, nos. 3–4 (2009): 345–59; Campbell and MacPhail, “Peer Education.”

21. Hope, Keels, and Durkee, “Participation in Black Lives Matter,” 203; Watts, Diemer, and Voight, “Critical Consciousness.”

22. Campbell and MacPhail, “Peer Education.”

23. Keisha L. Bentley-Edwards and Collette Chapman-Hilliard, “Doing Race in Different Places: Black Racial Cohesion on Black and White College Campuses,” Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 8, no. 1 (2015): 43; Adele Lozano, “Latina/o Culture Centers Providing a Sense of Belonging and Promoting Student Success,” in Cultural Centers in Higher Education: Perspectives on Identity, Theory, and Practice, ed. L. D. Patton (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2010), 3–25.

24. Tatum, Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together?

25. Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis.”

26. Alexander W. Astin, “Diversity and Multiculturalism on the Campus: How Are Students Affected?,” Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 25, no. 2 (1993): 44–49; Mitchell J. Chang, “Does Racial Diversity Matter? The Educational Impact of a Racially Diverse Undergraduate Population,” Journal of College Student Development 40, no. 4 (1999): 377.

27. Muthuswamy, Levine, and Gazel, “Interaction-Based Diversity Initiative Outcomes”; Denson, “Do Curricular and Cocurricular Diversity Activities Influence Racial Bias?”

7. Finding One’s People and One’s Self on Campus

1. Varsity Tutors, “7 Extracurricular Activities That Can Enhance Your College Experience,” USA Today, September 5, 2014.

2. Susan D. Blum, “I Love Learning; I Hate School”: An Anthropology of College (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016).

3. Arnett, “Emerging Adulthood.”

4. Sylvia Hurtado and Deborah F. Carter, “Latino Students’ Sense of Belonging in the College Community: Rethinking the Concept of Integration on Campus,” in College Students: The Evolving Nature of Research, ed. F. K. Stage et al. (Needham Heights, MA: Simon & Schuster Custom, 1996): 123–36.

5. Arthur W. Chickering and Linda Reisser, Education and Identity (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993).

6. Alexander W. Astin, What Matters in College? Four Critical Years Revisited (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993); Amy M. Bohnert, Julie Wargo Aikins, and Jennifer Edidin, “The Role of Organized Activities in Facilitating Social Adaptation across the Transition to College,” Journal of Adolescent Research 22, no. 2 (2007): 189–208; Nancy J. Evans et al., Student Development in College: Theory, Research, and Practice (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009); Jim Sidanius et al., “Ethnic Enclaves and the Dynamics of Social Identity on the College Campus: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87, no. 1 (2004): 96.

7. Jones and McEwen, “Conceptual Model,” 405; Henri Tajfel, ed., Social Identity and Intergroup Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

8. Ricardo Montelongo, “Student Participation in College Student Organizations: A Review of Literature,” Journal of the Indiana University Student Personnel Association 2 (2002): 50–63.

9. Sarah Willie, Acting Black: College, Identity, and the Performance of Race (New York: Routledge, 2003).

10. See Octavio Villalpando, “Self-Segregation or Self-Preservation? A Critical Race Theory and Latina/o Critical Theory Analysis of a Study of Chicana/o College Students,” Qualitative Studies in Education 16, no. 5 (2003): 619–46.

11. James Sidanius et al., The Diversity Challenge: Social Identity and Intergroup Relations on the College Campus (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008), 228.

12. Chalsa M. Loo and Gary Rolison, “Alienation of Ethnic Minority Students at a Predominantly White University,” Journal of Higher Education 57, no. 1 (1986): 58–77; McCabe, “Racial and Gender Microaggressions,” 146.

13. Silvia J. Santos et al., “The Relationship between Campus Diversity, Students’ Ethnic Identity and College Adjustment: A Qualitative Study,” Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 13, no. 2 (2007): 104–10.

14. Ibid., 110.

15. Wayne Brekhus, “A Sociology of the Unmarked: Redirecting Our Focus,” Sociological Theory 16, no. 1 (1998): 34–51.

16. Susan Svrluga, “OU: Frat Members Learned Racist Chant at National SAE Leadership Event,” Washington Post, March 27, 2015; Alexandra Samuels, “Leaked Emails from U. of Chicago Fraternity Go after Blacks, Muslims,” USA Today, February 3, 2016.

17. McCabe, “Racial and Gender Microaggressions”; Daniel Solórzano, Miguel Ceja, and Tara Yosso, “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students,” Journal of Negro Education 69, nos. 1–2 (2000): 60–73; Derald W. Sue, Christina M. Capodilupo, and Aisha Holder, “Racial Microaggressions in the Life Experience of Black Americans,” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 39, no. 3 (2008): 329.

18. James Sidanius et al., “Ethnic Organizations and Ethnic Attitudes on Campus,” in The Diversity Challenge: Social Identity and Intergroup Relations on the College Campus (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008), 228–49.

19. Ibid., 249.

20. Bentley-Edwards and Chapman-Hilliard, “Doing Race in Different Places”; Sidanius et al., Diversity Challenge.

21. Guiffrida, “African American Student Organizations”; Harper and Quaye, “Student Organizations.”

22. Sidanius et al., “Ethnic Enclaves,” 96.

23. Kathleen A. Ethier and Kay Deaux, “Negotiating Social Identity When Contexts Change: Maintaining Identification and Responding to Threat,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, no. 2 (1994): 243–51.

24. Ibid., 250.

25. Solórzano, Ceja, and Yosso, “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate,” 60–73.

26. McCabe, “Racial and Gender Microaggressions.”

27. Tatum, Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together?

28. Amaury Nora, “The Role of Habitus and Cultural Capital in Choosing a College: Transitioning from High School to Higher Education, and Persisting in College among Minority and Nonminority Students,” Journal of Hispanic Higher Education 3, no. 2 (2004): 180–208.

29. McCabe, “Racial and Gender Microaggressions,” 146.

30. Victor B. Sáenz, Hoi Ning Ngai, and Sylvia Hurtado, “Factors Influencing Positive Interactions across Race for African American, Asian American, Latino, and White College Students,” Research in Higher Education 48, no. 1 (2007): 1–38.

31. Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis,” 261.

32. Harper and Quaye, “Student Organizations.”

33. Edward Murguia, “Ethnicity and the Concept of Social Integration in Tinto’s Model of Institutional Departure,” Journal of College Student Development 32, no. 5 (1991): 433–39; Samuel D. Museus, “The Role of Ethnic Student Organizations in Fostering African American and Asian American Students’ Cultural Adjustment and Membership at Predominantly White Institutions,” Journal of College Student Development 49, no. 6 (2008): 568–86.

34. Sylvia Hurtado and Deborah F. Carter, “Effects of College Transition and Perceptions of the Campus Racial Climate on Latino College Students’ Sense of Belonging,” Sociology of Education 70, no. 4 (1997): 324–45.

8. Split between School, Home, Work, and More

1. Terry R. Ishitani and Aileen M. Reid, “First-to-Second-Year Persistence Profile of Commuter Students,” New Directions for Student Services, no. 150 (2015): 13–26.

2. Corinne Kodama, “Supporting Commuter Students of Color,” in Understanding and Addressing Commuter Student Needs: New Directions for Student Services, no. 150, ed. P. J. Biddix (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2015), 45–56.

3. Ishitani and Reid, “First-to-Second-Year Persistence Profile.”

4. Kodama, “Supporting Commuter Students of Color”; Ruth N. López Turley and Geoffrey Wodtke, “College Residence and Academic Performance: Who Benefits from Living on Campus?,” Urban Education 45, no. 4 (2010): 506–32.

5. Dalia R. Gefen and Marian C. Fish, “Adjustment to College in Nonresidential First-Year Students: The Roles of Stress, Family, and Coping,” Journal of the First-Year Experience & Students in Transition 25, no. 2 (2013): 95–116; Kodama, “Supporting Commuter Students of Color.”

6. Barbara Jacoby and John Garland, “Strategies for Enhancing Commuter Student Success,” Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 6, no. 1 (2004): 61–79.

7. George D. Kuh, Robert M. Gonyea, and Megan Palmer, “The Disengaged Commuter Student: Fact or Fiction?,” Commuter Perspectives 27, no. 1 (2001): 2–5.

8. Crystal L. Park and Juliane R. Fenster, “Stress-Related Growth: Predictors of Occurrence and Correlates with Psychological Adjustment,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 23, no. 2 (2004): 195–215.

9. So-Hyun Joo, Dorothy Bagwell Durband, and John Grable, “The Academic Impact of Financial Stress on College Students,” Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 10, no. 3 (2008): 287–305.

10. Mary B. Burlison, “Nonacademic Commitments Affecting Commuter Student Involvement and Engagement,” New Directions for Student Services, no. 150 (2015): 27–34.

11. Norma Rodriguez et al., “Family or Friends: Who Plays a Greater Supportive Role for Latino College Students?,” Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 9, no. 3 (2003): 236–50; Jean S. Phinney and Kumiko Haas, “The Process of Coping among Ethnic Minority First-Generation College Freshmen: A Narrative Approach,” Journal of Social Psychology 143, no. 6 (2003): 707–26.

12. Ernest T. Pascarella, “The Influence of On-Campus Living versus Commuting to College on Intellectual and Interpersonal Self-Concept,” Journal of College Student Personnel 26, no. 4 (1985): 292–99.

13. Ishitani and Reid, “First-to-Second-Year Persistence Profile.”

9. Out of Thin Air

1. Kristen C. Elmore and Daphna Oyserman, “If ‘We’ Can Succeed, ‘I’ Can Too: Identity-Based Motivation and Gender in the Classroom,” Contemporary Educational Psychology 37, no. 3 (2012): 176–85; Meera Komarraju and C. Dial, “Academic Identity, Self-Efficacy, and Self-Esteem Predict Self-Determined Motivation and Goals,” Learning and Individual Differences 32 (2014): 1–8; John W. Lounsbury et al., “Sense of Identity and Collegiate Academic Achievement,” Journal of College Student Development 46, no. 5 (2005): 501–14; Stryker and Burke, “Past, Present, and Future.”

2. Daphna Oyserman and Mesmin Destin, “Identity-Based Motivation: Implications for Intervention,” Counseling Psychologist 38, no. 7 (2010): 1001–43; Ernest T. Pascarella and Patrick T. Terenzini, How College Affects Students, vol. 2 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005).

3. Stryker and Burke, “Past, Present, and Future.”

4. Petriglieri, “Under Threat”; Keels, Durkee, and Hope, “Psychological and Academic Costs of Microaggressions.”

5. Ethier and Deaux, “Negotiating Social Identity,” 243; Stryker and Burke, “Past, Present, and Future.”

6. Sue, Microaggressions and Marginality; Gloria Wong et al., “The What, the Why, and the How: A Review of Racial Microaggressions Research in Psychology,” Race and Social Problems 6, no. 2 (2014): 181–200.

7. Irvin J. Lehmann, Birendra K. Sinha, and Rodney T. Hartnett, “Changes in Attitudes and Values Associated with College Attendance,” Journal of Educational Psychology 57, no. 2 (1966): 89; Ilsa L. Lottes and Peter J. Kuriloff, “The Impact of College Experience on Political and Social Attitudes,” Sex Roles 31, no. 1 (1994): 31–54; Pascarella and Terenzini, How College Affects Students.

8. Yolanda Vasquez-Salgado, Patricia M. Greenfield, and Rocio Burgos-Cienfuegos, “Exploring Home-School Value Conflicts: Implications for Academic Achievement and Well-Being among Latino First-Generation College Students,” Journal of Adolescent Research 30, no. 3 (2015): 271–305.

9. Laura I. Rendon, “From the Barrio to the Academy: Revelations of a Mexican American ‘Scholarship Girl,’ ” New Directions for Community Colleges 80 (1992): 55–64.

10. Elizabeth Aries and Maynard Seider, “The Interactive Relationship between Class Identity and the College Experience: The Case of Lower Income Students,” Qualitative Sociology 28, no. 4 (2005): 419–43.

11. Mark P. Orbe and Christopher R. Groscurth, “A Co-cultural Theoretical Analysis of Communicating on Campus and at Home: Exploring the Negotiation Strategies of First Generation College (FGC) Students,” Qualitative Research Reports in Communication 5 (2004): 41–47.

12. Sarah M. Ovink, “ ‘They Always Call Me an Investment’: Gendered Familism and Latino/a College Pathways,” Gender & Society 28, no. 2 (2014): 265–88; Roberta Espinoza, “The Good Daughter Dilemma: Latinas Managing Family and School Demands,” Journal of Hispanic Higher Education 9, no. 4 (2010): 317–30.

13. Susan R. Sy, “Family and Work Influences on the Transition to College among Latina Adolescents,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Development 28, no. 3 (2006): 368–86; Ovink, “They Always Call Me an Investment,” 265–288; Espinoza, “Good Daughter Dilemma,” 317–330; Melissa Consoli, Jasmín Llamas, and Andrés J. Consoli, “ ‘What’s Values Got to Do with It?’ Thriving among Mexican/Mexican American College Students,” Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 44, no. 1 (2016): 49–64.

14. Espinoza, “Good Daughter Dilemma,” 319.

15. Kristen W. Springer, Brenda K. Parker, and Catherine Leviten-Reid, “Making Space for Graduate Student Parents: Practice and Politics,” Journal of Family Issues 30, no. 4 (2009): 435–57; Guiffrida, “To Break Away,” 56.

16. Espinoza, “Good Daughter Dilemma,” 319.

17. Robert Agnew and Diane H. Jones, “Adapting to Deprivation: An Examination of Inflated Educational Expectations,” Sociological Quarterly 29, no. 2 (1988): 315–37; Laura Horn, “Confronting the Odds: Students at Risk and the Pipeline to Higher Education,” NCES 98–094 (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, US Department of Education, Government Printing Office, 1997).

18. Victor B. Sáenz and Luis Ponjuan, “The Vanishing Latino Male in Higher Education,” Journal of Hispanic Higher Education 8, no. 1 (2009): 54–89.

19. Ovink, “They Always Call Me an Investment,” 275; Guiffrida, “To Break Away.”

20. Guiffrida, “To Break Away.”

21. Espinoza, “Good Daughter Dilemma,” 319.

22. Guiffrida, “To Break Away”; Douglas A. Guiffrida, “Friends from Home: Asset and Liability to African American Students Attending a Predominantly White Institution,” NASPA Journal 41, no. 4 (2004): 693–708.

23. Astin, What Matters in College; Wolfgang Lehmann, “University as Vocational Education: Working-Class Students’ Expectations for University,” British Journal of Sociology of Education 30, no. 2 (2009): 137–49; Robert Longwell-Grice, “Get a Job: Working Class Students Discuss the Purpose of College,” College Student Affairs Journal 23, no. 1 (2003): 40.

24. Tinto, Leaving College; Douglas A. Guiffrida, “Toward a Cultural Advancement of Tinto’s Theory,” Review of Higher Education 29, no. 4 (2006): 451–72.

25. Guiffrida, “To Break Away.”

26. Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis,” 258.

27. Petriglieri, “Under Threat.”

10. A Guiding Hand

1. Micere Keels, “Getting Them Enrolled Is Only Half the Battle: College Success as a Function of Race or Ethnicity, Gender, and Class,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 83, nos. 2–3 (2013): 310.

2. Shaun R. Harper, Black Male Student Success in Higher Education: A Report from the National Black Male College Achievement Study (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education, Center for the Study of Race and Equity in Education, 2012).

3. Elizabeth Redden, “Reaching Black Men,” Inside Higher Ed, July 14, 2009.

4. Victor B. Sáenz and Luis Ponjuan, “The Vanishing Latino Male in Higher Education,” Journal of Hispanic Higher Education 8, no. 1 (2009): 54–89.

5. Digest of Education Statistics, “Table 306.10: Total Fall Enrollment in Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions, by Level of Enrollment, Sex, Attendance Status, and Race/Ethnicity of Student: Selected Years 1976 through 2015” (Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics, 2016).

6. Ibid.

7. Sáenz and Ponjuan, “Vanishing Latino Male,” 54.

8. Julio Cammarota, “The Gendered and Racialized Pathways of Latina and Latino Youth: Different Struggles, Different Resistances in the Urban Context,” Anthropology & Education Quarterly 35, no. 1 (2004): 53–74; Heidi L. Barajas and Jennifer L. Pierce, “The Significance of Race and Gender in School Success among Latinas and Latinos in College,” Gender & Society 15, no. 6 (2001): 859–78.

9. Anne-Marie Núñez, “Employing Multilevel Intersectionality in Educational Research: Latino Identities, Contexts, and College Access,” Educational Researcher 43, no. 2 (2014): 85–92.

10. Stephens et al., “Unseen Disadvantage.”

11. V. Scott Solberg and Pete Villareal, “Examination of Self-Efficacy, Social Support, and Stress as Predictors of Psychological and Physical Distress among Hispanic College Students,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 19, no. 2 (1997): 182–201.

12. Vincent Tinto, “Taking Retention Seriously: Rethinking the First Year of College,” NACADA Journal 19, no. 2: 5–10.

13. Keels, “Getting Them Enrolled,” 310; Nicole M. Stephens et al., “Feeling at Home in College: Fortifying School-Relevant Selves to Reduce Social Class Disparities in Higher Education,” Social Issues and Policy Review 9, no. 1 (2015): 1–24.

14. David Pérez and Victor B. Sáenz, “Thriving Latino Males in Selective Predominantly White Institutions,” Journal of Hispanic Higher Education 16, no. 2 (2017): 164.

15. Pérez and Sáenz, “Thriving Latino Males.”

16. Terrell L. Strayhorn, “When Race and Gender Collide: Social and Cultural Capital’s Influence on the Academic Achievement of African American and Latino Males,” Review of Higher Education 33, no. 3 (2010): 312.

17. Stephens et al. “Unseen Disadvantage.”

18. Sáenz and Ponjuan, “Vanishing Latino Male”; Edward Fergus and Mellie Torres, “Social Mobility and the Complex Status of Latino Males,” in Invisible No More: Understanding the Disenfranchisement of Latino Men and Boys, ed. N. Pedro, A. Hurtado, and E. Fergus (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2013), 19–40.

19. Stephens et al., “Unseen Disadvantage.”

20. Richard Rodriguez, “Going Home Again: The New American Scholarship Boy,” American Scholar (1974): 15.

21. Shaun R. Harper and Frank Harris III, College Men and Masculinities: Theory, Research, and Implications for Practice (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2010).

22. Victor B. Sáenz and Beth E. Bukoski, “Masculinity: Through a Latino Male Lens,” in Men of Color in Higher Education: New Foundations for Developing Models for Success, ed. R. A. Williams (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2014), 99.

23. Lizette Ojeda, Rachel L. Navarro, and Alejandro Morales, “The Role of la Familia on Mexican American Men’s College Persistence Intentions,” Psychology of Men & Masculinity 12, no. 3 (2011): 216–229.

24. Stephens et al., “Unseen Disadvantage.”

25. Ovink, “They Always Call Me an Investment”; Espinoza, “Good Daughter Dilemma.”

26. Norma González, Luis C. Moll, and Cathy Amanti, eds. Funds of Knowledge: Theorizing Practices in Households, Communities, and Classrooms (New York: Routledge, 2006).

27. Harper and Harris, College Men and Masculinities.

28. Mary W. Pritchard and Gregory S. Wilson, “Using Emotional and Social Factors to Predict Student Success,” Journal of College Student Development 44, no. 1 (2003): 18–28.

29. Sylvia Hurtado, Deborah Faye Carter, and Albert Spuler, “Latino Student Transition to College: Assessing Difficulties and Factors in Successful College Adjustment,” Research in Higher Education 37, no. 2 (1996): 135–57.

30. Adele R. Arellano and Amado M. Padilla, “Academic Invulnerability among a Select Group of Latino University Students,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18, no. 4 (1996): 485–507.

31. Richard C. Richardson Jr. and Elizabeth F. Skinner, “Helping First-Generation Minority Students Achieve Degrees,” New Directions for Community Colleges, no. 80 (1992): 29–43.

32. Jennifer Hefner and Daniel Eisenberg, “Social Support and Mental Health among College Students,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 79, no. 4 (2009): 491–99; Ruth C. L. Chao, “Managing Stress and Maintaining Well-Being: Social Support, Problem-Focused Coping, and Avoidant Coping,” Journal of Counseling & Development 89, no. 3 (2011): 338–48.

33. Pendakur, Closing the Opportunity Gap, 6.

11. (Dis)integration

1. John Bound, Michael F. Lovenheim, and Sarah Turner, “Why Have College Completion Rates Declined? An Analysis of Changing Student Preparation and Collegiate Resources,” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2, no. 3 (2010): 129–57; Jeanne M. Reid and James L. Moore III, “College Readiness and Academic Preparation for Postsecondary Education: Oral Histories of First-Generation Urban College Students,” Urban Education 43, no. 2 (2008): 240–61.

2. Jason Fletcher and Marta Tienda, “Race and Ethnic Differences in College Achievement: Does High School Attended Matter?,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 627, no. 1 (2010): 144–66.

3. Douglas A. Guiffrida and Kathryn Z. Douthit, “The Black Student Experience at Predominantly White Colleges: Implications for School and College Counselors,” Journal of Counseling & Development 88, no. 3 (2010): 311–18.

4. Bowen and Bok, Shape of the River; Keels, “Getting Them Enrolled,” 310.

5. Massey et al., Source of the River.

6. Nicole M. Stephens, MarYam G. Hamedani, and Mesmin Destin, “Closing the Social-Class Achievement Gap: A Difference-Education Intervention Improves First-Generation Students’ Academic Performance and All Students’ College Transition,” Psychological Science 25, no. 4 (2014): 943–53.

7. Steven W. Bender, “Campus Racial Unrest and the Diversity Bargain,” Indiana Journal of Law and Social Equity 5, no. 1 (2016): 47–56.

8. Ebony O. McGee and David Stovall, “Reimagining Critical Race Theory in Education: Mental Health, Healing, and the Pathway to Liberatory Praxis,” Educational Theory 65, no. 5 (2015): 491–511.

9. Jeffrey F. Milem, Mitchell J. Chang, and Anthony L. Antonio, Making Diversity Work on Campus: A Research-Based Perspective (Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2005).

10. Ibid.

11. Stanley Rothman, Seymour Martin Lipset, and Neil Nevitte, “Does Enrollment Diversity Improve University Education?,” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 15 (2002): 8–26.

12. Milem, Chang, and Antonio, Making Diversity Work on Campus, 16.

13. Derald W. Sue et al., “Racial Microaggressions and Difficult Dialogues on Race in the Classroom,” Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 15, no. 2 (2009): 183–90.

14. Santos et al., “Relationship between Campus Diversity.”

15. B. Afeni Cobham and Tara L. Parker, “Resituating Race into the Movement toward Multiculturalism and Social Justice,” New Directions for Student Services, no. 120 (2007): 85–93.

16. Harper and Hurtado, “Nine Themes.”

17. Patricia Gurin and Biren (Ratnesh) A. Nagda, “Getting to the What, How, and Why of Diversity on Campus,” Educational Researcher 35, no. 1 (2006): 20–24.

18. Jodi L. Linley, “We Are (Not) All Bulldogs: Minoritized Peer Socialization Agents’ Meaning-Making about Collegiate Contexts,” Journal of College Student Development 58, no. 5 (2017): 643–56.

19. Samuel L. Gaertner and John F. Dovidio, Reducing Intergroup Bias: The Common Ingroup Identity Model (Ann Arbor, MI: Sheridan Books, 2000).

20. Patricia Gurin, Biren Ratnesh A. Nagda, and Ximena Zuniga, Dialogue Across Difference: Practice, Theory, and Research on Intergroup Dialogue (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2013).

21. Oyserman and Destin, “Identity-Based Motivation”; Stephens et al., “Closing the Social-Class Achievement Gap”; Gregory M. Walton and Geoffrey L. Cohen “A Brief Social-Belonging Intervention Improves Academic and Health Outcomes of Minority Students,” Science 331 (2011): 1447–51.

22. Stephens, Hamedani, and Destin, “Closing the Social-Class Achievement Gap,” 949–50.

23. Ginger Hervey, “Yale Undergraduates Aim to ‘Decolonize’ the English Department’s Curriculum,” USA Today, June 10, 2016).

24. Nuñez, “Counterspaces and Connections.”

25. Gurin et al., “Diversity and Higher Education”; Harper and Hurtado, “Nine Themes.”

26. Milem, Chang, and Antonio, Making Diversity Work; Nicholas A. Bowman, “College Diversity Experiences and Cognitive Development: A Meta-Analysis,” Review of Educational Research 80, no. 1 (2010): 4–33.

27. Harper and Hurtado, “Nine Themes.”

28. Hurtado et al., “Enhancing Campus Climates for Racial/Ethnic Diversity.”

29. Angela M. Locks et al., “Extending Notions of Campus Climate and Diversity to Students’ Transition to College,” Review of Higher Education 31, no. 3 (2008): 257–85.

30. Denson and Chang, “Racial Diversity Matters”

31. Anthony L. Antonio, “When Does Race Matter in College Friendships? Exploring Men’s Diverse and Homogeneous Friendship Groups,” Review of Higher Education 27, no. 4 (2004): 553–75.

32. Bowman, “College Diversity Experiences.”

33. Kilgo Roksa et al., “Engaging with Diversity: How Positive and Negative Diversity Interactions Influence Students’ Cognitive Outcomes,” Journal of Higher Education 88, no. 3 (2017): 297–322.

34. Deborah S. Holoien, “Do Differences Make a Difference? The Effects of Diversity on Learning, Intergroup Outcomes, and Civic Engagement” (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University: Trustee Ad Hoc Committee on Diversity, 2013), 4.

35. Muthuswamy, Levine, and Gazel, “Interaction-Based Diversity Initiative Outcomes.”

36. Nicholas A. Bowman and Jay W. Brandenberger, “Experiencing the Unexpected: Toward a Model of College Diversity Experiences and Attitude Change,” Review of Higher Education 35, no. 2 (2012): 179–205.

37. Tabitha L. Grier-Reed, “The African American Student Network: Creating Sanctuaries and Counterspaces for Coping with Racial Microaggressions in Higher Education Settings,” Journal of Humanistic Counseling 49, no. 2 (2010): 181–88.

38. Charles Lawrence, “Foreword: Who Are We? Why Are We Here? Doing Critical Race Theory in Hard Times,” in Crossroads, Directions and a New Critical Race Theory, ed. F. Valdes, J. M. Culp, and A. Harris (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002), xvii.

39. Lori D. Patton, “A Call to Action: Historical and Contemporary Reflections on the Relevance of Campus Culture Centers in Higher Education,” in Cultural Centers in Higher Education: Perspectives on Identity, Theory, and Practice, ed. L. D. Patton (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2010).

40. Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis”; Museus, “Role of Ethnic Student Organizations”; Susana Muñoz, Michelle M. Espino, and Rene Antrop-Gonzalez, “Creating Counter-Spaces of Resistance and Sanctuaries of Learning and Teaching: An Analysis of Freedom University,” Teachers College Record 116 (2014): 1–32; Núñez, “Counterspaces and Connections”; Yosso and Lopez, “Counterspaces in a Hostile Place.”

41. Claire S. Blyth, Guillermo A. Alvarado, and Sandi K. Nenga, “ ‘I Kind of Found My People’: Latino/a College Students’ Search for Social Integration on Campus,” in College Students’ Experiences of Power and Marginality: Sharing Spaces and Negotiating Differences, ed. E. Lee and C. LaDousa (New York: Routledge, 2015), 29–45.

42. Villalpando, “Self-Segregation or Self-Preservation?,” 619.

43. Mitchell J. Chang, Alexander W. Astin, and Dongbin Kim, “Cross-Racial Interaction among Undergraduates: Some Consequences, Causes, and Patterns,” Research in Higher Education 45 (2004): 529–53; Julie J. Park and Young K. Kim, “Interracial Friendship, Structural Diversity, and Peer Groups: Patterns in Greek, Religious, and Ethnic Student Organizations,” Review of Higher Education 37, no. 1 (2013): 1–24.

44. Hurtado et al., “Enhancing Campus Climates”; Santos et al., “Relationship between Campus Diversity.”

45. Milem, Chang, and Antonio, Making Diversity Work, 16.

46. Ong, Smith, and Ko, “Counterspaces for Women of Color.”

47. Derald W. Sue, Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2010).

48. Derrick R. Brooms, “ ‘Building Us Up’: Supporting Black Male College Students in a Black Male Initiative Program,” Critical Sociology 44, no. 1 (2018): 141–55.

49. Michelle Samura, “Remaking Selves, Repositioning Selves, or Remaking Space: An Examination of Asian American College Students’ Processes of” Belonging,” Journal of College Student Development 57, no. 2 (2016): 135–50.

50. Benjamin Bowser, Gale S. Auletta, and Terry Jones, Confronting Diversity Issues on Campus. vol. 6 (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993).

51. Collins, Black Sexual Politics, 55.

Methodological Appendix

1. Stryker and Burke, “Past, Present, and Future of an Identity Theory”; Case and Hunter, “Counterspaces: A Unit of Analysis.”

2. Judith Shulevitz, “In College and Hiding from Scary Ideas,” New York Times, March 21, 2015; Matthew P. Guterl, “Students Deserve Safe Spaces on Campus,” Inside Higher Ed, August 29, 2016.

3. Thomas D. Snyder, Cristobal de Brey, and Sally A. Dillow, Digest of Education Statistics 2014, NCES 2016–006 (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, 2015).

4. Stephanie Fade, “Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis for Public Health Nutrition and Dietetic Research: A Practical Guide,” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 63, no. 4 (2004): 647–53; Jonathan A. Smith, Paul Flowers, and Michael Larkin, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research (Los Angeles: Sage, 2009).

5. Irving Seidman, Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences (New York: Teachers College Press, 2013).

6. Iddo Tavory and Stefan Timmermans, Abductive Analysis: Theorizing Qualitative Research (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014).

7. Tavory and Timmermans, Abductive Analysis.

8. Barney G. Glaser, “The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis,” Social Problems 12, no. 4 (1965): 436–45.

9. Laura Krefting, “Rigor in Qualitative Research: The Assessment of Trustworthiness,” American Journal of Occupational Therapy 45, no. 3 (1991): 214–22.