Index
Page numbers in italics refer to figures.
activism, 111, 242, 250, 261–270
Adler, Max, 53
advertisements, 50, 75, 113–114. See also promotional materials
African American art music, 38–39, 63, 76–77, 113–117, 212–213. See also African American spirituals; folk music
African American identity, 1–4, 42–59, 66, 133, 244–249, 269. See also Black diasporic identities; Blackness
African American soldiers, 186, 197–198, 219, 221, 271–272
African American spirituals, 17, 181, 201, 206; Anderson and, 157–158, 176, 178–179; authenticity and, 157–158, 265–266, 274–275; Fisk Jubilee Singers and, 34, 65–71, 137; Western art music and, 70–71. See also African American art music
African colonial migrants: citizenship and, 112; in human zoos (Völkerschauen), 58, 66; musicians in Central Europe, 101, 123; Nazism and, 173; race and, 59, 63, 83, 124, 170. See also French African colonial troops
Afro-Europeans, 4, 63, 221, 275–276, 281n4
Agee, Joel, 249
Aldridge, Amanda, 57
Aldridge, Ira, 85
Aldridge, Luranah, 3, 14, 220, 291n7
Allen, William, 171
Allied occupation of West Germany, 11, 97, 185–214, 216. See also African American soldiers; Cold War politics; denazification
American National Theater and Academy (ANTA), 205–206
American racism, 23–24, 29, 38, 40–41, 56–59, 111, 167–168; in classical music institutions, 5–6; East Germany and, 244–246; protest against, 121–122; segregation, 56, 109, 197–198, 244, 255, 299n45; Soviet criticism of, 207–209, 213; white Americans in Europe, 51–52, 121–122, 168–170. See also anti-Black racism; racial difference; white supremacy
Anderson, Marian: Blackness and, 8–9, 77, 146, 154–156, 213; celebrity status, 13, 112–113, 129, 160, 297n6; concert programs, 115 , 148 ; German lieder and, 135, 145–150, 158, 175–176, 178; legacy of, 182, 266, 277; at Lincoln Memorial, 160; at Metropolitan Opera House, 5, 257; Nazi era performances, 3, 159–160, 162–163, 173–180, 185, 195–196, 220; patronage networks, 117–118, 120–121, 123; photographs of, 120 , 130 –131 , 147 , 160 , 178 ; politics and, 111, 122, 129, 246; racial listening and, 200, 274; racism and, 198; records by, 134; respectability of, 128–133; spirituals and, 157–158, 176, 178–179; whiteness and, 11, 150–151
Andreas-Friedrich, Ruth, 190–193, 309n41
anti-Black racism, 2, 4, 15–16, 57–59, 93, 189, 273, 314n37; classical music’s complicity in, 30–31; dismissal of, 167–170; in East Germany, 257–269; interwar era, 97–108, 124–133; nationalism and, 102–104, 161–167, 270. See also American racism; primitivism; racial difference; racial listening; racism; stereotypes; violence
anticapitalism, 243–244, 246, 252–253, 270
anticommunism, 207–208. See also Cold War politics
anti-imperialism, 244, 252–253, 270
antiracism, 111, 239–253, 257, 261–270
Arroyo, Martina, 233
Associated Negro Press, 192
audiences, white German and Austrian, 2, 12–13, 28; expectations of, 16–17; racial boundaries and, 4–5. See also racial listening
auditions, 6, 8–9, 44, 49–50, 228
Austria, 15, 285n38; anti-Black racism in, 16, 221; Black musicians in, 101, 215–241; colonialism and, 108; national anthems, 278; in Nazi era, 163; Nazi past and, 217, 220–222. See also German musical universalism; Salzburg; Vienna
authenticity. See Black authenticity
Ayim, May, 4
Baartman, Sara (“Hottentot Venus”), 2, 106, 230
Bach, Johann Sebastian, 32–35, 87, 116, 141, 150, 177, 248–250; “Komm süßer Tod,” 145, 174
Baker, Josephine: Nazi era and, 180; popular music and, 137; protests against, 164; respectability politics and, 129–133, 170; sexualization of, 2, 102–103, 106–108, 123–124, 127
Barnes, Irving, 209
Baum, Laura, 227
Bayreuth Festival, 1–3, 163, 168, 215–216, 223–224, 228–230, 231 , 238–239, 255
Bayton, Ruth, 103
Beer-Walbrunn, Anton, 46
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 6, 17, 34, 54, 83, 90, 140–141; Bridgetower and, 272; East German state and, 249–250; Fifth Symphony, 36; Piano Sonata in F Minor, 24
bel canto, 77
belonging, 11, 54, 91–93, 161, 252, 270, 274, 277–279
Berg, Alban, 276; Wozzeck, 205
Bergen, Flora, 72
Berliner Festwochen, 208
Berlin Philharmonic, 14, 40, 58, 87, 92, 176, 272; Dunbar as conductor, 188–189, 192–203, 194 , 272
Berlin Sing-Akademie, 8, 66, 69
Bernstein, Leonard, 269
Bienenfeld, Elsa, 153
biracial musicians, 77, 88, 93, 146
Bitter, John, 193
Bizet, Georges, Carmen, 234, 237–238, 255
Black authenticity, 17, 66, 71, 107; assimilation and, 26; East German ideology on, 242–243, 248–249, 252, 260, 263–270; German lieder and, 141; opera and, 216, 233–234; spirituals and, 157–158, 265–266, 274–275; stereotypes and, 274–276; white performers and, 211–212; “white” roles and, 228, 232, 234–239
Black bodies: beauty and, 52, 77, 227; physical appearance of, 14, 67–68, 71, 82, 85–86, 93, 146; primitivism and, 141, 144; singing and, 62–63, 153–157, 165–166; stereotypes of, 86; styles of dress, 67, 110, 129, 209; whiteness and, 150–153. See also racial listening; skin color
Black classical musicians, 1–17, 271–280; in 1930s Nazi era, 159–182; in East Germany, 242–270; in imperial Germany, 42–59; in interwar Central Europe, 97–158; in nineteenth century America, 21–41; in nineteenth century Central Europe, 60–93; in occupied West Germany, 185–214; in postwar West Germany and Austria, 215–241. See also individual musicians
Black cultural politics, 64, 111, 122. See also racial uplift
Black diasporic identities, 4, 7–9, 58–59, 63–64. See also African American identity; African colonial migrants; Afro-Cubans; Afro-Europeans
Black Germans. See Afro-Europeans
Black Horror propaganda campaign, 97, 99, 102–104, 123–124, 129, 191
Black internationalism, 59, 111, 192–193
Black jazz musicians, 8, 105, 111, 114, 123–124, 133, 151–152, 161, 170, 189. See also jazz
Black men: masculinity of, 84–85, 259; opera singers, 219–220; opportunities for, 9; racist images of, 97; sexualization of, 103, 105, 126–127
Blackmon, Henry, 208
Black musical ability, 63, 71, 253; instrumentalists and, 79–91; as “natural” or “inherent,” 78–80, 107, 153–157, 200, 203, 234. See also vocal singing
Blackness, 4–5, 13–15, 281n5; as distinct from Germanness (see Germanness); erasure of, 150–153, 158, 233, 272, 315n69. See also anti-Black racism
Black networking, 52–54; interwar period, 108–124; letters of introduction, 48–49; success and, 99 (see also success). See also patronage networks
Black popular music, 8, 15, 38, 98, 117, 137, 153–154, 197
Black Venus, 2, 229–230, 231 , 234, 236–238, 253–255
Black women: as models of Black womanhood, 127–132; opera singers (see opera); prima donna singers, 71–79; sexualization of, 2, 9, 106–108, 123–124, 127–128, 216, 227–232, 254
bodies. See Black bodies
Borchard, Leo, 190, 192, 195, 197, 309n22
Borkon management agency, 112
Boulez, Pierre, 217
Brahms, Johannes, 17, 32, 34, 140–142, 149, 176, 252, 276
Braslau, Sophie, 155
Breen, Robert, 205
Bricht, Balduin, 156
Bridgetower, George, 90, 272, 281n2
Brindis de Salas, Claudio, 12, 80, 83–87, 93
Britten, Benjamin, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 257–260
Brown, Jacqueline, 58
Brown, Lawrence, 113, 117, 145
Bumbry, Grace, 1–3, 14, 182, 223–224, 228–230, 231 , 234, 236, 238–239, 253–255, 315n69
Busoni, Ferruccio, 39–40, 49, 87
Buxtehude, Dieterich, 32
Byrd, George, 12, 14, 202–203, 243, 251–253, 255–256, 269–270
Byrnes, James, 207
Cahier, Sara, 118–121, 120 , 146, 155, 174, 176
Caribbean region, 54–59, 82, 101. See also Afro-Cubans
Caruso, Enrico, 144
celebrity status, 108–124, 133, 137
Central Tennessee College, 119
chocolate imagery, 78, 106–107
City Center Opera Company, 226
civilization, 65, 82, 90, 104, 189, 292n30
civilizing mission, 67, 93. See also colonialism, German
Clark College, 36
Clarke, Eric, 196
classical music: as racially unmarked, 10–12, 92, 141, 151, 155; as white medium, 5–6, 10–12, 15–16, 61–64, 83, 92, 99, 151, 153–157. See also Black classical musicians; German art music; German musical universalism; German music teachers; musical education; Western art music; white classical musicians
Cold War politics, 190, 204–213, 217, 245–246
Coleridge-Taylor, Samuel, 49–50, 57, 193
Colloredo-Mansfeld, Bertha, 119, 141
colonialism, German, 11, 58–59, 61, 245; exploitation and, 78; primitivism discourse and, 64–67 (see also primitivism); racial mixing and, 91, 103–104
color blindness, 5–6, 30, 223–224, 232
colorism, 93, 170. See also skin color
communism, 207–208, 261–262. See also Cold War politics
concert halls: importance of, 66–67; national unity and, 101; as transnational social spaces, 8, 51–54. See also opera; social worlds
conductors, 9, 201–203. See also Byrd, George; Dunbar, Rudolph
Cook, Will Marion, 31, 42–43, 46, 49–50, 52–53, 55–58, 77, 171, 287n36
cosmopolitanism, 54, 111, 128, 179, 243
Covington, Joseph Edwin, 117
Crawford, Ruth, 199
Cullen, Countee, 122
cultural citizenship, 16–17, 104, 137, 273–275, 314n27. See also belonging
cultural diplomacy, 194, 204, 251
cultural exchange, 44, 53, 271–272; intergenerational, 188. See also transnationalism
cultural hybridity, 102
cultural identities, 4, 15, 138, 270, 274
“cultured peoples” (Kulturvölker), 65
Cuney, Philip, 56
Dancla, Charles, 84
Davis, Angela, 245
Davy, Gloria, 233
degeneracy, 99, 105–106, 164–165, 180, 298n31
denazification, 2, 189–195; racial symbolism and, 195–213
DePriest, James Anderson, 202
Dett, Nathaniel, 24, 32, 39–40, 48, 77, 164
Deutsche Oper Berlin, 213, 218, 227, 230, 233, 237, 255
Dixon, Dean, 202
Dobbs, Mattiwilda, 277
Dollfus, Engelbert, 137
Dolphy, Eric, Jr., 275
Doolittle, Frederick, 42
Douglas, Louis, 106
Douglass, Frederick, 42
Dresden Conservatory, 46
Dresden Philharmonic, 269
dress, styles of, 67, 110, 129, 209
Du Bois, W.E.B., 32, 34, 51–55, 57, 144, 168–169, 245, 306n34
Dunbar, Rudolph, 14, 114, 181, 188–203, 194 , 272, 309n22, 309n43
Duncan, Todd, 266
Dunston, Floyd, 46
East Berlin, 243
East Germany / German Democratic Republic (GDR), 242–270; antiracism, 111, 242–253, 257, 261–270; Pankey’s antiracist activism, 261–269; Porgy and Bess in, 209–210; as promised land to Black musicians, 251–257; racism in, 257–269; universalism and, 249–251
Eberhardt, Siegfried, 46
Ebert, Carl, 216
Edusei, Kevin John, 276
Eisenberger, Severin, 119
Eisenhower, Dwight, 212
Eisler, Hanns, 248, 262, 264–265
Enwezor, Okwui, 279
erasure: of Blackness, 150–153, 158, 233, 272, 315n69; of first performances of Black musicians, 14, 87, 203–204; of race, 220, 244, 281n4. See also forgetting
Ernst, Alfred, 28
Ernst, Heinrich Wilhelm, 84–85
Estes, Simon, 219
Ethiopians, 6, 83, 92, 225, 227, 229, 233
Europe, James Reese, 27
Evanti, Lillian, 170, 225, 300n64
exoticism, 78, 106, 142, 150, 179, 190, 280; East Germany and, 249, 258; operas and, 216, 225, 227–232, 236, 238–240
far-right groups, 161, 167, 191
fascism, 138, 160, 168–169, 223, 244, 249, 251, 255. See also Nazism
Felsenstein, Walter, 209, 216, 228, 256–259
Ferdinand David, 84
Ferrari-Fontana, Edoardo, 6
fetishization, 9, 222–225, 227–228
Fiegert, Elfie, 227
Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich, 277
Fisk Jubilee Singers, 17, 57, 102, 110; at Berlin Sing-Akademie, 69 ; Black authenticity and, 17; racial listening and, 64–71, 79–80, 91, 248, 253, 258; spirituals and, 34, 65–71, 137
Fisk University, 7, 23, 32–36, 37 , 48, 114, 119
Fisk University Choir, 33
folk music, 71, 205–206. See also African American art music
Foote, William, 72
foreignness, 124, 143–144, 150–151, 223; in East Germany, 244–245; Nazism and, 162; opera and, 237; universalism and, 179
forgetting, 12, 14–15, 92–93, 202–203, 217–225. See also erasure
Foster, Stephen C., 89
Frazier, James, 202
Freeman, Harry Lawrence, 27–29
Freeman, Paul, 202
French African colonial troops, 97, 99, 103–104, 191
Fuller, Meta Warrick, 128
Furtwängler, Wilhelm, 193
Gabrilowitsch, Ossip, 36, 48, 118, 289n22
gender, 9, 133, 258–259; opera singers and, 219–220; pianists and, 87–88; skin color and, 146
German art music, 23; belief in supremacy of, 25–26, 62–63, 88–91, 114, 163, 189, 197; canon, 32, 34, 82, 101, 278, 280; contributions of Black music to, 70–71; East German identity and, 249–251; protection of, 161; seriousness of, 6, 25, 36–38, 63, 80, 128, 141–143; transformative powers of, 160–161. See also German lieder; German musical universalism; Western art music; individual composers
German Colonial Society, 48
German Democratic Republic (GDR). See East Germany
German language, 252, 275–277, 279–280
German lieder, 114, 166, 175–176, 178, 249, 265–266; musical hegemony of, 136; racial listening and, 135–158
German musical universalism, 5–9, 173–174; Black musicians and, 161, 163, 280; East German ideology of, 243, 249–251; German national identity and, 6–7, 25; race and, 11, 142, 177–179, 271–273; rejection of, 166; social hierarchies and, 25–26. See also universalism
German music teachers: in Central Europe, 114–117, 145–146; endorsements from, 50; in the United States, 7, 24–29, 39–41
German national anthem, 277–279
Germanness, 9, 17, 277–280, 284n37; as distinct from Blackness, 3–5, 98, 153–158, 237, 281n5; protection of, 103–105, 161–167, 177, 179–181 (See also violence); whiteness and, 2–5, 10–12, 16, 61–64, 91–93, 103–104, 137, 141, 273. See also cultural citizenship
German People’s Party (DVP), 142, 161
German Romanticism, 22–24, 62, 199–200, 205–206
German State Opera, 262–265, 268
German workforce of musicians, 126, 164, 237–238
Gershwin, George: An American in Paris, 207, 269; Porgy and Bess, 117, 188–189, 203–213, 260, 276; Rhapsody in Blue, 207, 269, 276
Gerstel, Alice, 70
Giacosa, Giuseppe, 254
Godowsky, Leopold, 46
Goerner, Friedrich August, 32
Goldmark, Karl, 225
Goll, Ivan, 70; “The Negroes Are Conquering Europe,” 101–102, 105–106
Goltermann, Georg, 80
Goodman, Benny, 162
Gottes zweite Garnitur (1968), 271–272, 276, 280
Gottschalk, William, 74
Grass, Günter, 223
Greene, Theresa, 311n90, 314n37
Grieg, Edvard, 87
Grützmacher, Leopold, 32
Guarnieri, Camargo, 269
Guastavino, Carlos, 265
Habe, Hans, 236
Hackley, Annis, 46, 47 , 57, 72
Hairston, Jester, 208
Hall Johnson Choir, 208
Hamburg State Opera, 218
Hampton Institute, 164
Hampton Institute Choir, 17, 39, 102
Handel, George Frideric, 13, 34, 145, 150, 175, 178, 250, 252, 265–266
Handy, Dorothy, 208
Harreld, Josephine, 9, 55, 112, 117, 120, 127–129, 163, 169–170, 185
Harreld, William Kemper, 27, 46, 52, 55, 112, 117, 185–189, 215, 290n47
Harrison, Frank, 117
Harrison, Hazel, 8, 12, 14, 27, 39–40, 46, 49, 52–53, 55, 57–58, 80, 87–91, 89 , 92–93, 110, 133
Haydn, Joseph, 34, 252, 272, 278
Hayes, Roland, 77, 132, 156–157, 177, 182, 226, 266; anti-Black racism against, 97–98, 100, 125–127, 127 , 163–164, 200, 236; German lieder and, 98, 134–136, 138–145, 153; networking, 100, 110–112, 116–124; photographs of, 116 , 139 ; whiteness and, 11, 150–153
Hayman, Evelyn Anderson, 180–181
HBCUs (historically Black colleges and universities), 7, 22–23, 32–38, 277
Heinck, Felix, 72
Henson, Leota F., 46
Herero and Nama genocide, 58
Hermlin, Stephan, 247
high culture, 54; American, 213; desecration of, 105–108; in public sphere, 216, 249–251; race and, 65, 98
Hirsch, Charles, 120
Hitler, Adolf, 2, 170, 173, 176, 188, 244. See also Nazism
Hoffmann von Fallersleben, August Heinrich, 21, 22 , 278
Holland, Justin, 27
Höllwerth, Ganst, 107
Holocaust, 203, 216–217, 220, 222, 255, 314n27; concentration camps, 173, 180–181; silence about, 191–192. See also Nazism
Holt, Nora, 280
Holy, Alfred, 114
Hörner, Hans, 201
Howard University, 23, 32, 36, 114, 277
Hügel-Marshall, Ika, 227
Hughes, Langston, 119, 206, 245
human zoos (Völkerschauen), 58, 66
Hungary, 262
Hurok, Sol, 213
Hyers Sisters, 27
identity. See African American identity; Black diasporic identities; Blackness; Germanness; whiteness
Illica, Luigi, 254
imperialism, 7, 244, 249. See also colonialism, German
instrumentalists, 46, 49–50, 79–91, 114–117
instrumental music: gender and, 87–88; as superior to singing, 62, 79–80
Jackson, Isaiah, 202
Jaegerhuber, Werner, 55
Janácˇek, Leoš, 276
Jansen, Fasia, 127
jazz, 15, 17, 98, 133; anti-Black racism and, 273; authenticity and, 253, 275–276; Jewish degeneracy and, 164–165, 298n31; popular culture and, 197; as racial threat, 105–106, 123–124. See also Black jazz musicians
Jerzabek, Anton, 107
Jews: composers, 162, 206; degeneracy and, 105, 164–165; in East Germany, 244; musicians, 118, 162, 176, 252, 307n77; Nazism and, 174, 221–222
Jim Crow practices, 121, 167, 171, 186, 245, 253, 263–264. See also American racism; anti-Black racism
Jiménez-Berroa, Andrea, 290n45
Jiménez Trio, 55, 60, 80–83, 92, 200, 291n7
Johnen, Kurt, 147
Johnson, Georgia Douglas, 128
Jones, Bill T., 277
Jones, Edgar, 66
Jones, Sissieretta, 3, 5, 72–79, 73 , 80, 86, 91, 93, 137, 220
Jonny figure, 102–103, 105–106, 124–126, 129, 164, 221
Jurenkova, Vilma, 119
Kellerman, Harvey, 212
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 245
Klahre, Edwin, 30
Kleiber, Erich, 120
Koessler, Maurice, 32
Kogan, Leonid, 255
Komische Oper, East Berlin, 209, 253–260
Konta, Robert, 152
Konzerthaus Berlin, 97–98, 143, 146
Koplowitz, Jan, 262
Korngold, Julius, 153
Kreneck, Ernst, Jonny spielt auf, 102–103, 105–106, 221. See also Jonny figure
Kreutzer, Rudolph, 272
La revue negre, 102
Laster, Georgia, 311n90
Lawson, Raymond Augustus, 34–36, 40–41, 46, 48, 50, 114, 118, 289n22
Lawson, Warner, 114
Lee, Ella, 228–229, 243, 253–260
Lee, Sylvia Olden, 9, 17, 32, 212, 218, 230, 240–241
Lehmann, Friedrich Johann, 31, 35
Lehmann, Lotte, 120, 175, 181, 315n69
Leipzig Conservatory of Music, 21, 45, 52, 60, 80, 81 , 82
Leipzig Gewandhausorchester, 252, 270
Léonard, Hubert, 84
Leschetizky, Theodor, 39, 45–46, 48, 50, 118
Lewis, Henry, 201
Liederabende, 136, 158, 267. See also German lieder
Lierhammer, Theodor, 114–117, 138–140, 164
listening, social boundary drawing and, 10. See also racial listening
Little, Vera, 213, 234, 237–238, 255
Locke, Alain, 52, 55, 110, 119, 124, 169; The New Negro, 122–123
London Philharmonic Orchestra, 192–193
Lorde, Audre, 4
Ludwig, Emil, 30
Magdeburg, 252
Mahler, Gustav, 40, 120, 150, 176, 276–277; “Die Urlich,” 149; “Lied von der Erde,” 119
management firms, 112–113, 118
Maran, René, 7
Mareczek, Fritz, 201
marketing. See promotional materials
Marshall, Harriett, Gibbs, 57
Massaquoi, Hans, 322n11
Massaquoi, Momulu, 119
Matzenauer, Margarete, 155
McClure, Robert, 196
McKinney, Ernest Rice, 133
McLean, Joy, 209
Meinecke, Friedrich, 273, 297n4
Meitner-Graf, Lotte, 129, 130 –131
melancholic, African American music as, 68, 166, 248–249, 270
memory, 12, 14, 203. See also erasure; forgetting
Mendelssohn, Felix, 32–33, 45, 81 , 82–83, 162, 194, 249; Elijah Oratorio, 34, 36, 40 ; “Jauchzet dem Herrn, alle Welt,” 54; St. Paulus Oratorio, 34
Messiaen, Olivier, 276
Metropolitan Opera House, 5–6, 35, 226
Meyer, Ernst Hermann, 250
Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 225
Michael, Theodor Wonja, 322n11
Mills, Florence, 128
minstrelsy, 26, 38, 58, 65–66, 88, 142
miscegenation: fears of, 91; sonic form of, 166–167. See also racial mixture
Moore, Eddie, 46
Moscow, 7
Moser, Andreas, 49
Moszkowski, Moritz, 87
Moulton, Gertrude, 120–121, 159, 175, 300n86
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 6, 34, 216; Don Giovanni, 218, 220, 224, 228; The Magic Flute, 234–236
Mozarteum University Salzburg, 185
Munich Symphony Orchestra, 276
musical education, 7, 21–24; ability and, 79; conservatism in, 36; in Germany, 60; at historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), 7, 22–23, 32–38, 277; music history and theory, 35–36; at white institutions in US, 29–32. See also German music teachers
“musical Germanness,” 9, 282n17, 321n6
musical intelligence, 79–91. See also Black musical ability
Naidu, Sarojini, 119
Nambiar, A.C.N., 119
Nambiar, Suhasini, 119
national borders, 15. See also Black internationalism; transnationalism
nationalism: anti-Black racism and, 102–104, 161–167, 270; diversity and, 161–162; racial listening and, 10–12, 61–62. See also German musical universalism; Germanness
“nations of culture” (Kulturnationen), 101
“natural peoples” (Naturvölker), 65
Nazi past: East Germany and, 251, 255; German identity and, 314n27; racism and, 238–241; silence around, 222; West Germany and, 217–225
Nazism, 2, 55; Black classical musicians and, 137, 159–182; Black departures from Europe and, 171–173, 179–182; Germans as victims of, 191–192, 199, 220–222, 309n41; national anthem and, 278; opera and, 2, 215–216. See also Holocaust
Newcomb, Ethel, 45
New England Conservatory of Music, 5, 30, 33, 38, 114
Nordica, “Madame” Lillian, 46
Norman, Jessye, 9, 230–231, 274–277
Nussbaum, Anna, 128
Oberlin College / Conservatory of Music, 5, 7, 23, 31–33, 35, 38, 42, 56, 114, 164, 287n36
Ogboh, Emeka, The Song of the Germans, 277–280
Onegin, Sigrid, 155
opera, 101, 137, 218; anti-racism in, 239–241; Black opera singers, 36, 215–241; exotic, 216, 225, 227–232, 236, 238–240; gender and, 219–220; Italian, 79; racial typecasting and, 220, 225–232, 240–241; as transnational social space, 51–54
Othello Fantasy (Ernst), 84–85
Owens, Jesse, 168
Paderewski, Ignacy Jan, 39
Padmore, George, 192
Pankey, Aubrey, 110–111, 113, 117, 122, 152, 156–157, 163–167, 174, 243, 245, 249–250, 261–269, 263 , 268
patronage networks, 8–9, 99–101, 110–112, 117–124. See also Black networking; social worlds
Patti, Adelina, 72
Payne, John, 117
Peabody, Annie, 48
Peabody Institute, 30
pedagogy networks, 8–9. See also German music teachers; musical education
periodization, 14
Peterson, Elwood, 208
piano instruction, 21–22, 36, 39
Pischner, Hans, 262
Pisling, Siegmund, 143
Pitzinger, Gertrude, 155
political organizing, 122. See also activism; Black cultural politics; racial uplift
popular music. See Black popular music
Poulenc, Francis, 36
Price, Leontyne, 219; in Aida, 233, 235; in Don Giovanni, 220, 224, 224 , 228; legacy of, 277; in Madam Butterfly, 234; in The Magic Flute, 234–238; in Porgy and Bess, 189, 208, 210 , 213, 235
primitivism, 63, 78, 88, 98, 104, 165; appearance and, 141; exoticism and, 106, 128; racial listening and, 65–71; sexuality and, 230 (see also sexuality and sexualization); stereotypes, 211–212
progress, 35, 65, 88, 166, 189, 224, 255, 266
promotional materials, 50, 113–114, 115, 129
Prussian State Opera, 119–120, 195
Puccini: Madame Butterfly, 226, 231–234; Tosca, 253–257
Purcell, Henry, 175
race, 2; culture and, 44, 71; equality and, 178–179, 243; erasure of, 220, 244, 281n4; hierarchies of, 11, 91–92, 228; scientific theories of, 78. See also Blackness; racism; skin color; whiteness
racial difference, 11, 13, 60–61, 76, 136; Nazism and, 181; opera and, 216–217, 225–232, 235–236, 259; physical, 230 (see also Black bodies); sexuality and (see sexuality and sexualization); sonic, 87, 91, 153–157; US and, 189
racial listening, 5, 10–12, 61–64; Black authenticity and, 189, 279; Black instrumentalists and, 79–91; Black sounds and singing, 71–79, 153–158, 165–166, 248, 258, 274, 279; East German ideologies and, 257–260; erasure of Blackness, 150–153, 158; German lieder and, 135–138; opera in postwar Europe and, 232–239; in postwar era, 198–203, 213–214; primitivism and, 65–71
racial mixture, 68, 77–78, 86, 102–106; Black success and, 88–91
racial un/marking, 10–12, 92, 141, 151, 155, 283n26
racial uplift, 23, 36, 122, 124; Black universities and, 32; class and, 26; East Germany and, 253; patronage networks and, 110; respectability politics and, 129–132; white intervention in, 90
racism: biological, 86–87, 90, 153–157; everyday (Alltagsrassismus), 275, 322n11; sociological, 295n82. See also American racism; anti-Black racism; racial difference; white supremacy
Radio Free Europe, 208
Rasmussen, Rulle, 156
Raucheisen, Michael, 146
Raval, Franz, 144
Reichardt, Johann Friedrich, 21, 22
Rennert, Günther, 235
respectability politics, 113, 123–124, 128–133, 169–170, 209, 246
Rheinberger, Josef, 32
Richardson, Princess Mae, 114
Robeson, Paul, 113, 119, 122, 134, 158, 170–171, 242–243, 245–247, 248 , 257, 263
Romanticism. See German Romanticism
Rossini, Gioachino, 84
Royal Academy of Music, London, 114
Royal Academy of Musical Performing Arts, Berlin, 42, 52, 92
Rundfunk-Sinfonieorchester Berlin, 255, 269
Ruppell, K. H., 202
Sabac el Cher, Gustav, 57, 86, 91–92
Sächsische Neueste Nachrichten, 251, 256
Salzburg, 9, 15, 112, 120, 149
Salzburg Festival, 145, 159–160, 166, 174–176, 224, 228
Sarasate, Pablo de, 86
savagery, 104. See also primitivism
Sawallisch, Wolfgang, 228
scandal, 105–108, 127, 127 , 142
Scarlatti, Doménico, 175
Schneider, Frank, 250
Schnitzler, Anni, 118–119, 122
Schnitzler, Arthur, 118
Schnoor, Hans, 198
Schoenberg, Arnold, 36, 162, 180, 276–277; Moses und Aron, 255; A Survivor from Warsaw, 222
scholarships, 48
Schubert, Franz, 82, 138–143, 149–150, 152, 175, 178, 187 , 250, 266; “Ave Maria,” 145, 176, 196; “Der Dopplegänger,” 265; “Der Tod und das Mädchen,” 135, 175, 196; “Du bist die Ruh,” 98, 134–135, 142; “Im Abendrot,” 145; “Nacht und Träume,” 143, 156, 179; “Nähe des Geliebten,” 145
Schumann, Robert, 6, 32, 61, 82, 87, 140–143, 149
Schuschnigg, Kurt, 278
Schuster, Hermann, 161
Schütz, Heinrich, 116
Schwarzkopf, Elisabeth, 277
segregation. See American racism
Sembrich, Marcella, 140
Senghor, Léopold, 7
Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra, 201
sexuality and sexualization: Black men, 103, 105, 126–127; Black women, 2, 9, 106–108, 123–124, 127–128, 216, 227–232, 254
sexual violence, 24, 97, 102–104. See also Black Horror propaganda campaign
Shirley, George, 219, 232–233, 240–241
Shostakovich, Dmitri, 255
Sibelius, Jean, 176
sight and sound, 71, 93, 150–157, 279. See also Black bodies; racial listening
singing. See German lieder; opera; vocal singing
skin color, 67–68, 77–78, 85–86, 146, 230–231, 234, 247. See also colorism
Smith, Frank, 168
Smith, William Gardner, 186, 191
Smyth, Ethel, 52
Snow, Valaida, 181
Socialist Unity Party (SED), 243–245, 250, 262, 264–265
social worlds, 8–9, 44, 109; interwar era, 108–124. See also Black networking; concert halls; patronage networks
sonic color line, 62. See also racial listening
spirituals. See African American spirituals
Spohr, Louis, 82
Springer, Hermann, 142
Spyglass, J. Elmer, 12, 46, 55, 188
Starke, Ottomar, 106
Stein, Wilhelm, 175
Steiner, Franz, 144
Steinhagen, Otto, 155
stereotypes: about Blackness, 2, 68, 86, 206, 264–266; about jazz musicians, 151–152; authenticity and, 274–276; primitivist, 211–212
Sternberg, Adalbert, 107
Still, William Grant, 31–32, 287n36; Afro-American Symphony, 192–193, 197, 199–201
Strakosch, Max, 287n29
Strauss, Johann, Jr., 87
Strauss, Richard, 114, 152, 266, 276
success, 17, 27, 53, 55–56; of Blacks in America, 128; in interwar Europe, 99, 109–110, 132–133; naturalness and, 76, 78; white help and, 89–90, 143
Talbert, Florence Cole, 6, 225, 232–233
Tapley, Daisy, 27
Tatten, William R., 171
Taylor, Maxwell D., 196
Tchaikovsky, 193
teachers. See German music teachers; musical education
Terrell, Mary Church, 51–54, 56
Thomas, Ella, 46
Tibbs, Roy, 32, 114, 117, 163, 300n64
Toledo Conservatory of Music, 188
Toscanini, Arturo, 118, 120, 145, 174–176
transnationalism, 10, 29, 64–65; Black women and, 219; musical communities and, 15–16, 39–41, 45–54. See also Black internationalism
Trotter, James Monroe, Music and Some Highly Musical People, 24–25
Tümmler, Karl, 262
Twardowski, Juliusz Jan von, 110, 112, 118
Tyers, William H., 46
United States: cultural advancement in, 56; privileges of American nationality, 58–59, 133; as racially inclusive, 189, 195–196; returning home to, 54–59, 79, 171–173; social uplift, 25. See also American racism; Cold War politics
universalism, 57–58; Blackness and, 151; classical musical education and, 30–31; East German ideology of, 249–251; limits of, 64; racial equality and, 177–179, 197. See also German musical universalism
University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, 30, 42
University of Toledo Conservatory of Music, 46
unmarking. See racial un/marking
Untermeyer, Louis, 121
US Information Control Division, 196, 273
US Information Service (USIS), 201, 208
USSR, 207
Varèse, Edgard, 199
Vehanen, Kosti, 120, 120 , 146, 156, 159, 160 , 175–176, 178
Verdi, Giuseppe: Aida, 6, 225–228, 232–233, 276; Don Carlos, 276; Il Trovatore, 82; La Traviata, 74, 76; Rigoletto, 74; Un Ballo in Maschera, 226
vernacular music, 8. See also Black popular music
Verrett, Shirley, 17, 182, 219, 239–240
Vienna, 7, 9, 15, 45, 138, 163
Vienna State Opera, 119, 177, 218, 221, 225–226, 234
Vienna Symphony, 202
Villa-Lobos, Heitor, 269
violence: against Blacks in Central Europe, 99–100, 102, 161, 163–167, 177, 180–181, 224, 245; against Blacks in US, 24, 121, 299n45. See also sexual violence
vocal singing: bel canto style, 77; Black bodies and, 62–63, 153–157, 165–166; race and, 14, 62, 68, 76; technique and expression, 134–138, 153–157, 213. See also Black musical ability; German lieder; opera
Voeckel, Rudolph, 72
Volksbühne Berlin, 248
Waghalter, Ignatz, 307n77
Wagner, Cosima, 3
Wagner, Jim, 219
Wagner, Richard, 1–3, 28–29, 34, 54–55, 61, 92, 205, 277, 291n7; East German state and, 250; Nazism and, 2, 215–216, 239; Tannhäuser, 1, 28, 35, 223–224, 228–230, 236, 276–277. See also Bayreuth Festival
Wagner, Sieglinde, 237, 316n97
Wagner, Wieland, 1, 215–217, 223–224, 227–230, 233, 238
Wagner, Wolfgang, 215
Wakhévitch, Georges, 235
Walker, Edyth, 118
Walter, Bruno, 118–121, 123, 175–177, 252
Wandel, Gerhard, 213
Warfield, William, 189, 208–209, 210 , 213
Washington, Booker T., 8, 48, 90
Washington, Portia, 8, 46, 48–50, 52–53, 57, 289n27
Watts, André, 14
Weber, Carl Maria von, 32, 34, 54, 193
Weimar Germany, 99–100, 296n4, 297n7
Weingartner, Felix, 114, 120, 192, 200
Weiss, Julius, 27
Welch, John, 169
Went, Erich, 262
Werr, Brigitte, 238
Western art music, 8; America and, 54; as culturally superior, 25; racial minorities at music conservatories, 29–32; stylistic conventions, 154. See also German art music
West Germany: Black opera singers in, 215–241; as decadent, 251; Nazi past, 217–225. See also Allied occupation of West Germany
White, Clarence Cameron, 5, 7, 48, 57–58
White, Joseph, 86
White, Walter, 122
white classical musicians, 111–112, 123, 218, 237–238
whiteness, 281n5, 283n26; beauty and, 52; Black success and, 88–91, 93 (see also success); erasure of Blackness and, 150–153; passing and, 55–56; protection of, 103–105; proximity to, 93 (see also racial mixture); as racially unmarked, 11 (see also racial un/marking)
“white” roles, Black performers in, 228, 232, 234–239
white supremacy: German, 88–91, 98, 230; in US, 24, 35, 40
Wieniawski, Henryk, 83
Wiggins, Thomas “Blind Tom,” 287n29
Wilkerson, Frederick, 311n90
Williams, Camilla, 182, 218, 225–226, 231–234
Williams, Marie Selika, 72–74, 128, 287n29, 293n39
Williams, Wilberforce, 109, 168
Winters, Lawrence, 218
Wolf, Hugo, 140–142, 150, 178, 276
Wood, Marguerite, 163
Woodson, Carter G., 170
Woodward, Sidney, 46
World War I, 109
Wright, Richard, 245
Wymetal, Erich von, 226