Notes

Introduction

1.See Celia Applegate and Pamela Potter, eds., Music and German National Identity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006).

2.Black musical contributions to German music date back to at least the twelfth century under the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Black musicians such as the seventeenth-century trumpeters Christian Real and Christian Gottlieb or the nineteenth-century violinist and composer George Bridgetower concertized in different German and Austrian courts. See Arne Spohr, “ ‘Mohr und Trompeter’: Blackness and Social Status in Early Modern Germany,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 72, no. 3 (2019): 613–63

3.For more information on this topic, see Alex Ross’s book Wagnerism, which offers the most authoritative account of Luranah Aldridge’s time with the Wagner family. Alex Ross, Wagnerism: Art and Politics in the Shadow of Music (New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux, 2020).

4.Nearing more than one million in Germany and Austria, Afro-Germans represent about one percent of the total population of these two countries combined. Marion Kraft’s Coming In from the Cold provides a brief introductory overview of the history of Black Germans. See Marion Kraft, Coming In from the Cold: The Black German Experience, Past and Present (New York: Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, 2014). For more information on Afro-German history, see the groundbreaking book by May Opitz, Katharina Oguntoye, and Dagmar Schultz, eds., Showing Our Colors: Afro-German Women Speak Out (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992); Sara Lennox, ed., Remapping Black Germany: New Perspectives on Afro-German History, Politics, and Culture (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2016); Patricia Mazón and Reinhild Steingröver, eds., Not So Plain as Black and White: Afro-German Culture and History, 1890–2000 (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2005); Tiffany Florvil, Mobilizing Black Germany: Afro-German Women and the Making of a Transnational Movement (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2020); and Tiffany N. Florvil and Vanessa Plumly, eds., Rethinking Black German Studies: Approaches, Interventions, and Histories (New York: Peter Lang, 2018). We do not know the exact number of Afro-Germans because Germany and Austria refuse to identify citizens by race.

5.As Ann Laura Stoler, George Frederickson, and others have argued, an increasingly rigid Black-white binary came into existence in the modern era across the Black Atlantic, and this binary functioned like two sides of the same coin. European whiteness, historical scholarship has demonstrated, was dependent on the racialization of non-European peoples. In creating this racial bifurcation, white Europeans ensured that people of African descent would be outsiders to Europe. See Frederickson, Racism: A Short History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002); Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995). For more information on how white Europeans have consistently denied Black Europeans’ claims to citizenship and on the history of European anti-Black racism more generally, see Rita Chin, Atina Grossmann, Heide Fehrenbach, and Geoff Eley, After the Nazi Racial State: Difference and Democracy in Germany and Europe (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2009); Darlene Clark Hine, Trica Danielle Keaton, and Stephen Small, eds., Black Europe and the African Diaspora (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009); and Neil MacMaster, Racism in Europe, 1870–2000 (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2001).

6.See Robbie Aitken and Eve Rosenhaft, Black Germany: The Making and Unmaking of a Diaspora Community, 1884–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

7.Minneapolis Journal, January 14, 1897.

8.Clarence Cameron White, “The Negro in Musical Europe,” New York Age, December 24, 1908, 13.

9.See, for example, Wallace Cheatham, Dialogues on Opera and the African-American Experience (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1997); Elizabeth Nash, Autobiographical Reminiscences of African American Classical Singers, 1853—Present: Introducing Their Spiritual Heritage into the Concert Repertoire (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2007); Rosalyn Story, And So I Sing: African-American Divas of Opera and Concert (New York: Warner Books, 1990); Naomi André, Black Opera: History, Power, Engagement (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018); and Darryl Glenn Nettles, African American Concert Singers Before 1950 (Jefferson: McFarland, 2003).

10.“Final Audition to Be in Town Hall August 7,” New York Amsterdam News, July 29, 1925, 1.

11.See Robin D. G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002); and Kendahl Radcliffe, Jennifer Scott, and Anja Werner, eds., Anywhere but Here: Black Intellectuals in the Atlantic World and Beyond (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2015).

12.Richard Taruskin, Oxford History of Western Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 346.

13.Marc Matera, Black London: The Imperial Metropolis and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015); Kennetta Hammond Perry, London Is the Place for Me: Black Britons, Citizenship and the Politics of Race (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); and Susan Pennybacker, From Scottsboro to Munich: Race and Political Culture in 1930s Britain (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).

14.Sue Peabody and Tyler Stovall, eds., The Color of Liberty: Histories of Race in France (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003); and Tyler Stovall, Paris Noir: African Americans in the City of Light (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996).

15.Meredith Roman, Opposing Jim Crow: African Americans and the Soviet Indictment of Racism, 1928–1937 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2012); Kate Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters Between Black and Red, 1922–1963 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002).

16.Christopher Small, Musicking: The Meanings of Performing and Listening (Hanover, NH: University of New England Press, 1998), 10.

17.By “musical Germanness,” I mean the discourse that developed in the late eighteenth century by which Germans were described as the “people of music” and a particularly German essence was attributed to musical composition and/or expression. As scholars such as Applegate and Potter have argued, no one could define what musical Germanness actually was. But by the mid-nineteenth century many believed that Germans “understood the deeper sources of music more fully and intuitively than others.” Applegate, “Saving Music: Enduring Experiences of Culture,” History and Memory 17, nos. 1–2 (2005): 217–37. In the 1930s, Potter writes, “many studies simply accept[ed] musical Germanness as a given without defining it.” See Potter, Most German of the Arts: Musicology and Society from the Weimar Republic to the End of Hitler’s Reich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 211.

18.Hoi-eun Kim, “Made in Meiji Japan: German Expatriates, German-Educated Japanese Elites, and the Construction of Germanness,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 41, no. 2 (April–June 2015): 291–92.

19.Ibid.

20.Inga Clendinnen, Dancing with Strangers: Europeans and Australians at First Contact (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 11.

21.James H. Johnson, Listening in Paris: A Cultural History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

22.See Christian Thorau and Hansjakob Ziemer, The Oxford Handbook of Music Listening in the 19th and 20th Centuries (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), accessed online November 11, 2019, https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190466961.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190466961-e-1; Daniel Morat, ed., Sounds of Modern History: Auditory Cultures in 19th and 20th Century Europe, (New York: Berghahn, 2014); Jan-Friedrich Missfelder, “Period Ear: Perspektiven einer Klanggeschichte der Neuzeit,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 38, no. 1, (January–March 2012): 21–47.

23.See Nina Sun Eidsheim, The Race of Sound: Listening, Timbre, and Vocality in African American Music (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2019); Grace Wang, Soundtracks of Asian America: Navigating Race Through Musical Performance (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015).

24.Jennifer Lynn Stoever, The Sonic Color Line: Race and the Cultural Politics of Listening (New York: New York University Press, 2016).

25.Mark Burford, “Sam Cooke as Pop Album Artist—A Reinvention in Three Songs,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 65, no. 1 (Spring 2012): 169.

26.For information on how bodies racialized as non-white have challenged the notion of classical music’s universality, see Minna Yang, “East Meets West in the Concert Hall: Asians and Classical Music in the Century of Imperialism, Post-Colonialism, and Multiculturalism,” Asian Music 38, no. 1 (Winter–Spring 2007): 1–30; Mari Yoshihara, Musicians from a Different Shore: Asians and Asian Americans in Classical Music (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007); and Wang, Soundtracks. Since the 1990s, the field of critical whiteness studies has produced a dynamic body of scholarship examining how whiteness functions in global contexts. Richard Dyer argued that “as long as race is something only applied to non-white peoples, as long as white people are not racially seen and named, they/we function as a human norm. Other people are raced, we are just people.” See Dyer, White: Essays on Race and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1997), 1. Whiteness’s invisibility is in fact one of its central characteristics, Dyer argues. For a Black German critique of whiteness, see Maureen Maisha Eggers, Grada Kilomba, Peggy Piesche, and Susan Arndt, eds., Mythen, Masken, und Subjekte: Kritische Weißseinforschung in Deutschland (Münster: Unrast, 2005). See also Wulf Hund, Wie die Deutschen weiß wurden: Kleine (Heimat)Geschichte des Rassismus (Stuttgart: Metzler, 2017). Fatima El-Tayeb provides us with a contemporary German context for un/marking in her book, Undeutsch: Die Konstruktion des Anderen in der postmigrantischen Gesellschaft (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2016), 134. “The unmarked Germans have the run of the place, of course. Unmarked again necessarily means white and (socialized) Christian. If the ‘Germans’ weren’t that, they would be mixed German-something or from Arab or Turkish families. The unmarked status of Christian (-socialized) whites is only possible then if all others remain marked and don’t become normal ‘Germans’—since otherwise there wouldn’t be anything to tell a person what the deal is with Germans and perhaps one with non-German roots would be foisted upon them.” See El-Tayeb, Undeutsch, 134.

27.Leo Frobenius, Und Afrika Sprach …: Bericht über den Verlauf der dritten Reise-Periode der D.I.A.F.E. in den Jahren 1910 bis 1912 (Berlin: Vita, 1912), G.

28.Heide Fehrenbach, “Of German Mothers and ‘Negermischlingskinder’: Race, Sex, and the Postwar Nation,” in The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949–1968, ed. Hanna Schissler (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 171.

29.Fatima El-Tayeb, “Dangerous Liaisons: Race, Nation, and German Identity,” in Not So Plain, ed. Mazón and Steingröver 29.

30.The historian Lara Putnam cautions scholars against our growing reliance on digitized materials, arguing that digitization efforts have the power to obscure as much as illuminate. “[The] digitized revolution is not inherently egalitarian, open, or cost-free,” she argues; rather, the corpus of digitized documents has thus far privileged Western materials and researchers over others. See Putnam, “The Transnational and the Text-Searchable: Digitized Sources and the Shadows They Cast,” American Historical Review 121, no. 2 (April 2016): 377–402.

31.“Music: Rhythm in Berlin,” Time, September 10, 1945.

32.Neil Gregor, “Bruckner, Munich, and the Longue Durée of Musical Listening between the Imperial and Postwar Eras,” in Dreams of Germany: Musical Imaginaries from the Concert Hall to the Dance Floor, ed. Neil Gregor and Thomas Irvine (New York: Berghahn, 2018), 114.

33.Kennell Jackson, “Traveling While Black,” in Black Cultural Traffic: Crossroads in Global Performance and Popular Culture, ed. Harry J. Elam and Kennell Jackson (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005), 4.

34.Chin, Grossman, Fehrenbach, and Eley, After the Nazi Racial State, 6.

35.Katrin Sieg, Ethnic Drag: Performing Race, Nation, and Sexuality in West Germany (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002), 84.

36.Jet Magazine, September 10, 1959.

37.Celia Applegate, “Mendelssohn on the Road,” in The Necessity of Music: Variations on a German Theme (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017), 119–34. Pieter Judson, for example, calls for historians to “broaden their understanding of the term German beyond a nation state-centered concept that for too long has privileged the German state founded in 1871 as the social, cultural, and political embodiment of a German nation.” Judson, “When Is a Diaspora Not a Diaspora? Rethinking Nation-Centered Narratives about Germans in Eastern Europe,” in The Heimat Abroad: The Boundaries of Germanness, eds. Krista O’Donnell, Renate Bridenthal, and Nancy Reagin (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005), 219.

38.Scholars of Austrian history have also pushed back against an earlier generation of Cold War historical scholarship that sought to carve out an Austrian identity distinct from the two Germanies after WWII. Instead, historians such as Erin Hochman, Michael Steinberg, and David Luft have pointed out that it is possible to speak of a shared Austro-German culture between 1900 and 1938. Even Austrian conservatives who were against the German annexation of Austria nonetheless expressed their position as one of “German—Austro-German—cultural superiority,” Steinberg argues. Despite constant political change in Central Europe in the 1930s, many listeners in Germany and Austria continued to assume that German music was their rightful heritage. See Steinberg, The Meaning of the Salzburg Festival: Austria as Theater and Ideology, 1890–1938 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), 117. See also Luft, “Austria as a Region of German Culture: 1900–1938,” Austrian History Yearbook 23 (1992): 135–48.

39.Erin Hochman, Imagining a Greater Germany: Republican Nationalism and the Idea of Anschluss (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016), 9.

40.See Walter Sauer, Von Soliman zu Omofuma: Afrikanische Diaspora in Österreich 17. bis 20. Jahrhundert (Innsbruck: Studienverlag, 2006); Nancy Nenno, “Here to Stay: Black Austrian Studies,” in Rethinking, ed. Florvil and Plumly; Claudia Unterweger, Talking Back: Strategien Schwarzer österreichischer Geschichtsschreibung (Vienna: Zaglossus, 2016); Niko Wahl, Tal Adler, and Philipp Rohrbach, Schwarz Österreich: Die Kinder afroamerikanischer Besatzungssoldaten (Vienna: Löcker Verlag, 2016).

41.Priscilla Layne, White Rebels in Black: German Appropriation of Black Popular Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2018), 2.

42.Scholars are of course trying to change this. See André, Black Opera.

43.Ingrid Monson, “Introduction,” in The African Diaspora: A Musical Perspective, ed. Ingrid Monson (New York: Garland, 2003), 13–14.

44.See Fatima El-Tayeb, European Others: Queering Ethnicity in Postnational Europe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011).

45.Story, And So I Sing, 181.

46.Ibid.

1. How Beethoven Came to Black America

1.For an overview on Hausmusik in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, see Celia Applegate, “Hausmusik in the Third Reich,” in The Necessity of Music: Variations on a German Theme (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2017).

2.Tuskegee University Course Catalog, 1890–91. Tuskegee University Archives Repository.

3.Lynn Abbot and Doug Seroff, eds., Out of Sight: The Rise of African American Popular Music, 1889–95 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2002).

4.Khalil Gibran Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010).

5.“From Bell Stand to Throne Room: A Remarkable Autobiographical Interview with the Eminently Successful American Negro Composer R. Nathaniel Dett,” Black Perspective in Music 1, no. 1 (1973): 74. First appeared in Etude (1934): 79–80.

6.Jessica Gienow-Hecht, Sound Diplomacy: Music and Emotions in Transatlantic Relations, 1850–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 12.

7.Berndt Ostendorf, “The Diluted Second Generation: German-Americans in Music 1870–1920,” in German Worker’s Culture in the US: 1850–1920, ed. Hartmut Keil (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1988), 266. For information on German-Americans and music, see Barbara Lorenzkowski, Sounds of Ethnicity: Listening to German North America, 1850–1914 (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2010); and Philip Bohlman and Otto Holzapfel, eds., Land without Nightingales: Music in the Making of German-America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002).

8.James Monroe Trotter, Music and Some Highly Musical People (Boston: Lee and Shepherd, 1878), 9.

9.Ibid., 59. Emphasis added.

10.“Greatest Musical Nation,” Chicago Defender, September 26, 1914.

11.Negro Music Journal 1, no. 6 (February 1903): 113.

12.Vanessa Agnew, Enlightenment Orpheus: The Power of Music in Other Worlds (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Mary Sue Morrow, German Music Criticism in the Late Eighteenth Century: Aesthetic Issues in Instrumental Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

13.David Gramit, Cultivating Music: The Aspirations, Interests, and Limits of German Musical Culture, 1770–1848 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 7.

14.Ibid., 21.

15.Wang, Soundtracks, 11.

16.Lawrence Schenbeck, Racial Uplift and American Music, 1878–1943 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2012), 7.

17.Douglas Shadle, Orchestrating the Nation: The Nineteenth-Century American Symphonic Enterprise (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 136. See also William Weber, The Great Transformation of Musical Taste: Concert Programming from Haydn to Brahms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

18.Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 2. See also Douglas Egerton, The Wars of Reconstruction: The Brief, Violent History of America’s Most Progressive Era (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2015).

19.Caroline Gebhard and Barbara McCaskill, “Introduction,” in Post-Bellum, Pre-Harlem: African American Literature and Culture, 1877–1919, ed. McCaskill and Gebhard (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 8.

20.Clarence Cameron White, “The American Negro in Music,” Negro Music Journal 1, no. 5 (1903): 78. See also Doris E. McGinty, “The Washington Conservatory of Music and School of Expression,” Black Perspective in Music 7, no. 1 (Spring 1979): 59–74.

21.Crisis 4, no. 2 (June 1912): 68.

22.Theodore Albrecht, “Julius Weiss: Scott Joplin’s First Piano Teacher,” College Music Symposium 19, no. 2 (Fall 1979): 89–105.

23.Ibid.

24.St. Louis Dispatch, February 28, 1901. Cited in Albrecht, “Julius Weiss.”

25.“Musical Matters,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, April 22, 1900.

26.Cleveland Plain Dealer, March 17, 1900, Cleveland Public Library, Johann Heinrich Beck Collection, box 11.

27.Columbia University, Lawrence Freeman Collection, box 36, folder 6, series IX.

28.David Gutkin, “The Modernities of H. Lawrence Freeman,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 72, no. 3 (Fall 2019): 719–79.

29.The Bohemian impresario Max Strakosch wrote a letter endorsing Marie Selika Williams, a New York opera singer, in 1877. “Signor Farini’s Concert,” Folio 20, no. 12 (December 1881): 454. Ignaz Moscheles also endorsed the pianist Thomas “Blind Tom” Wiggins in 1866. See The Marvelous Musical Prodigy, Blind Tom (New York: French and Wheat, 1868), 11.

30.Andrea Olmstead, Juilliard: A History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 17.

31.Loren Kajikawa, “The Possessive Investment in Classical Music: Confronting Legacies of White Supremacy in U.S. Schools and Departments of Music,” in Seeing Race Again: Countering Colorblindness Across the Disciplines, ed. Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2019), 158.

32.Bruce McPherson, Measure by Measure: A History of New England Conservatory from 1867 (Boston: The Trustees of the New England Conservatory of Music, 1995), 137.

33.Ibid., 119.

34.David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York: Holt Books, 1994), 105–6.

35.McPherson, Measure by Measure, 119.

36.When interviewed about which music institutions were most likely to accept Black students, Still replied immediately, “Oberlin.” See McPherson, Measure by Measure, 119. Cook said the same thing in his unpublished memoir: “The place for a Negro to study was Oberlin.” See Marva Carter, “The Life and Career of Will Marion Cook” (PhD diss., University of Illinois, 1988), 401.

37.Ronald M. Baumann, Constructing Black Education at Oberlin College: A Documentary History (Athens: University of Ohio Press, 2010), 6.

38.Ibid., 7.

39.Oberlin Conservatory of Music Course Catalogs, 1908, 1913, 1916, and 1929, Oberlin College Archives, Conservatory of Music Records, 1841–present, RG/10.

40.Oberlin Conservatory of Music Course Catalog, 1901, Oberlin College Archives, Conservatory of Music Records, 1841–present, RG/10.

41.Oberlin Conservatory of Music Course Catalogs, 1908, 1913, 1916, and 1929, Oberlin College Archives, Conservatory of Music Records, 1841–present, RG/10.

42.Baumann, Constructing Black Education, 6.

43.Oberlin Conservatory of Music Course Catalog, 1908. Oberlin College Archives, Conservatory of Music Records, 1841—present, RG/10.

44.Oberlin Conservatory of Music Course Catalog, 1916; William Terry, “The Consummate Collaborator: Conversation with William Duncan Allen,” Black Perspective in Music 15, no. 2 (Autumn 1987): 182–218; Oberlin Conservatory of Music Course Catalog, 1928.

45.Oberlin College Archives, Alumni Development Records, Edith Baker file.

46.Baumann, Constructing Black Education, 73.

47.Spelman Course Catalog 1890–91, Spelman College Archives.

48.Oberlin College Archives, Alumni Development Records, Edith Baker file. Emphasis added. An expert in music theory, Baker also became a delegate of the interracial Youth Movement Conference on the Problems of Colonialism that took place at the castle of Freusburg, Germany. “A week of plain living and high thinking in a miniature of this world of many peoples and tongues!” she writes. “We wished that the world from which we had come could have been like that one at Freusburg.”

49.Fisk University Course Catalog 1915–16, 47, Fisk University Special Collections and Archive.

50.Joe M. Richardson, A History of Fisk University, 1865–1946 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1980), 152.

51.Fisk University Course Catalog 1925–26, 79, Fisk University Special Collections and Archive.

52.Fisk Herald 1, no. 1 (1883): 1; Fisk Herald, January 1884: 6.

53.Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 74.

54.W. E. B. Du Bois, “Editorial,” Fisk Herald, April 1888. Located in Herbert Aptheker, Annotated Bibliography of the Published Writings of W. E. B. Du Bois (Milwood: Kraus-Thompson Organization, 1973), 8. Quoted in Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 74. Lewis mistakenly writes that the article is on page 8 of Aptheker rather than page 7.

55.Fisk University Course Catalogs, 1896–1945, Fisk University Special Collections and Archive.

56.Connecticut Historical Society, Raymond Augustus Lawson Papers, box 2, folder 16.

57.Scroll (March 1902): 63.

58.Raymond Augustus Lawson, “Real Joys from the Land of Art,” Fisk Herald, May 1915.

59.“The Value of Fisk’s Music Recitals,” Fisk Herald, May 1915, 34.

60.“The Artistic Genius of the Afro-Americans,” Scroll (November 1899): 10.

61.Grove Music Online, s.v. “Ragtime,” by Edward A. Berlin, accessed on February 12, 2018. https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-1002252241

62.Negro Music Journal 1, no. 7 (March 1903): 138.

63.“From Bell Stand,” 74.

64.Ibid., 75.

65.Jean E. Cazort, Born to Play: The Life and Career of Hazel Harrison (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983), 5.

66.Ibid., 7.

67.Ibid., 8.

68.Undated letter of Raymond Augustus Lawson, Connecticut Historical Society, Raymond Augustus Lawson Collection, box 2, folder 16.

2. African American Intellectual and Musical Migration to the Kaiserreich

1.Carter, “Life and Career,” 413.

2.Marva Carter, Swing Along: The Musical Life of Will Marion Cook (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 16–17.

3.Carter, “Life and Career,” 413.

4.Nadia Ellis, Territories of the Soul: Queered Belonging in the Black Diaspora (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015), 6.

5.Radcliffe, Scott, and Werner, eds., Anywhere But Here, 8.

6.Kelley, Freedom Dreams, 17.

7.Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 4.

8.Corey D. B. Walker, “ ‘Of the Coming of John [and Jane]’: African American Intellectuals in Europe, 1888–1938,” Amerikastudien / American Studies 47, no.1 (2002): 9.

9.Ethel Newcomb, Leschetizky as I Knew Him (New York: Appleton Company, 1921), 243.

10.Gienow-Hecht, Sound Diplomacy, 55.

11.Ibid. See also Anja Werner, The Transatlantic World of Higher Education: Americans at German Universities, 1776–1914 (New York: Berghahn, 2013).

12.Crisis 4, no. 2 (June 1912): 68.

13.“James C. Thomas to Tour Europe,” Colored American Magazine 9, no. 2 (August 1905): 457–58.

14.Schülerverzeichnis, Leota Henson (3923), December 10, 1866. University of Music and Theater “Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy” (HMT) Leipzig Archives, A.I. 2. Nora Holt, “Musicians Here and There,” New York Amsterdam News, July 5, 1947, 4.

15.Colored American Magazine 6, no. 7 (July 1903): 523.

16.Freeman, May 2, 1896. Quoted in Abbot and Seroff, eds., Out of Sight, 100.

17.Ronald High, “Three African-American Tenors of the Nineteenth Century: Thomas J. Bowers, Wallace King, Sidney Woodward,” Journal of Singing—The Official Journal of the National Association of Teachers of Singing 54, no. 5, (May 1998): 20. See also Lindsay Patterson, The Negro in Music and Art (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), 184.

18.“From Bell Stand,” 78.

19.Roy L. Hill, Booker T.’s Child: The Life and Times of Portia Marshall Washington Pittman (Washington, DC: Three Continents Press, 1993), 44; Ruth Ann Stewart, Portia: The Life of Portia Washington Pittman, the Daughter of Booker T. Washington (Garden City: Doubleday, 1977), 66. For more on the story of German colonialism and Booker T. Washington, see Andrew Zimmerman, Alabama in Africa: Booker T. Washington, the German Empire, and the Globalization of the New South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010).

20.Washington Post, February 27, 1978.

21.Connecticut Historical Society, Raymond Augustus Lawson Papers, box 1, folder 10.

22.Years later, when Gabrilowitsch visited the United States and toured in 1917, he invited Lawson to attend one of his concerts in New York City and provided him with two spare tickets. See: Connecticut Historical Society, Raymond Augustus Lawson Papers, box 1, folder 10, The Stratford Hotel, May 3, 1917.

23.Music department of the Berlin State Library (SBB-PK) Historical Research Library Unter den Linden: MUS LS Tbu 7027. The original letter is in English.

24.Carter, Swing Along, 17.

25.Ibid., 18.

26.Stewart, Portia, 62. Hill, Booker T.’s Child, 45.

27.New York Times, October 12, 1905. Washington later recalled meeting the German Crown Prince while out on the town. After discovering that she was an American piano student studying music in Berlin, he asked her to play some music for him and applauded her performance of African American spirituals in equal measure to her performances of classical music. Stewart, Portia, 65.

28.Carter, “Life and Career,” 419.

29.Chicago Defender, “Carl R. Diton Coming May 28,” May 15, 1915, 6.

30.Gerald L. Smith, Karen Cotton McDaniel, and John A. Hardin, eds., The Kentucky African American Encyclopedia (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2015), 320.

31.Mary Church Terrell, A Colored Woman in a White World (New York: Humanity Books, 2005), 104, 106.

32.Ibid., 109.

33.W. E. B. Du Bois, The Autobiography of W. E. B. Du Bois: A Soliloquy on Viewing My Life from the Last Decade of Its First Century (New York: International Publishers, 1968), 159.

34.Terrell, Colored Woman, 107.

35.“Jahresbericht der Hochschule für Musik, 1888–89,” 9–10, Berlin University of the Arts (UdK) Archives.

36.University of Music and Theater “Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy” (HMT) Leipzig Archives. Document provided by Joshua Navon.

37.Jeffrey Stewart, The New Negro: The Life of Alain Locke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 256.

38.Hill, Booker T.’s Child, 47.

39.Stewart, Portia, 71.

40.Terrell, Colored Woman, 110.

41.Carter, “Life and Career,” 420–21, 414.

42.Du Bois, Autobiography, 157.

43.Kwame Anthony Appiah, Lines of Descent: W. E. B. DuBois and the Emergence of Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2014), 43.

44.See Michael Largey, Voudou Nation: Haitian Art Music and Cultural Nationalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006).

45.See Robert Fikes, Jr., and Douglas A. Cargille, “The Bittersweet Career of José Manuel Jiménez, the ‘Ebony Liszt,’ ” Afro-Hispanic Review 7, nos. 1–3 (1988), 23–26. In 1902, Lico had a daughter, Andrea Jiménez-Berroa, who later had a son she named José Manuel. She was first married to Alexander Douala Manga Bell, from the German colony of Cameroon. In August 1929 she met and fell in love with Joseph Roth and fled with him to France in 1933 when the Nazis came to power. See Aitken and Rosenhaft, Black Germany, 114–15. See also David Bronsen, Joseph Roth: Eine Biographie (Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 1974).

46.Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 148.

47.Cazort, Born to Play, 35. Harreld and his wife were expecting Josephine. They intended to stay in Germany and raise their daughter bilingually, but the war scratched those plans. Undated journal entry, Josephine Harreld Love Collection, Spelman College Archives, group 1, box 13.

48.Carter, “Life and Career,” 408.

49.Douglas Hales, A Southern Family in Black and White: The Cuneys of Texas (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2002), 12.

50.Terrell, Colored Woman, 112.

51.Ella Sheppard, Diary of Ella Sheppard, transcr. Andrew Ward, Fisk University Franklin Library Special Collections, November 23, 1877, 17–18.

52.Appiah, Lines of Descent, 41.

53.Clarence Cameron White, “The Negro in Musical Europe,” in New York Age, December 24, 1908, 13.

54.Ibid.

55.Jacqueline Brown, “Black Liverpool, Black America, and the Gendering of Diasporic Space,” Cultural Anthropology 13 (1998): 291–325; Edwards, Practice of Diaspora.

56.Tina Campt, Other Germans: Black Germans and the Politics of Race, Gender, and Memory in the Third Reich (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), 178.

57.Maria Diedrich, “Black ‘Others’?: African Americans and Black Germans in the Third Reich,” in Remapping Black Germany: New Perspectives on Afro-German History, Politics, and Culture, ed. Sara Lennox (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2017), 142.

3. The Sonic Color Line Belts the World

1.Schüler Verzeichnis, University of Music and Theater “Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy” (HMT) Leipzig Archives, A.I.2.

2.Ibid. He landed in Bremerhaven on Friday, July 21, 1854.

3.See Daphne Brooks, Bodies in Dissent: Spectacular Performances of Race and Freedom, 1850–1910 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006); Harry J. Elam, Jr., and Kennell Jackson, eds., Black Cultural Traffic: Crossroads in Global Performance and Popular Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005); Bernth Lindfors, Early African Entertainments Abroad: From the Hottentot Venus to Africa’s First Olympians (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2014); and Rainer Lotz, Black People: Entertainers of African Descent in Europe and Germany (Bonn: Birgit Lotz, 1997).

4.Catherine Hall, Civilizing Subjects: The Metropole and the Colony (Oxford: Polity, 2002), 440.

5.See Michael Perraudin and Jürgen Zimmerer, eds., German Colonialism and National Identity (New York: Routledge, 2011).

6.Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Suzanne Zantop, eds., The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1998), 23. See also Lora Wildenthal, German Women for Empire, 1884–1945 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001).

7.“Richard Wagners sechzigster Geburtstag,” Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, June 20, 1873, 273. The Jiménez Trio performed at Wagner’s birthday party. Likewise, Nicasio performed at Villa Wahnfried. Later, Luranah Aldridge was a guest at the Wagner family home while she prepared to sing as a Valkyrie in Bayreuth.

8.See Ulrich van der Heyden, Unbekannte Biographien: Afrikaner im deutschsprachigen Raum vom 18. Jahrhundert bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges (Berlin: Homilius, 2008).

9.Stoever, Sonic Color Line, 80.

10.Sheppard, Diary, 9.

11.MacMaster, Racism in Europe, 85.

12.Mischa Honeck, Martin Klimke, and Anne Kuhlmann, “Introduction,” in Germany and the Black Diaspora: Points of Contact, 1250–1914 (New York: Berghahn, 2013), 3.

13.Jeff Bowersox, Raising Germans in the Age of Empire: Youth and Colonial Culture, 1871–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 34.

14.David Ciarlo, Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011), 225.

15.Kira Thurman, “Singing the Civilizing Mission,” Journal of World History 27, no. 3 (2016): 443–71.

16.Sieglinde Lemke, Primitivist Modernism: Black Culture and the Origins of Transatlantic Modernism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 4.

17.Kira Thurman, “ ‘Africa in European Evening Attire’: Defining African American Spirituals and Western Art Music in Central Europe, 1870s–1930s,” in Rethinking Black German Studies: Approaches, Interventions, and Histories, eds. Tiffany N. Florvil and Vanessa Plumly (New York: Peter Lang, 2018), 199–234.

18.Andrew Zimmerman, Anthropology and Anti-Humanism in Imperial Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 3.

19.Jonathan Wipplinger, “The Racial Ruse: On Blackness and Blackface Comedy in fin-de-siècle Germany,” German Quarterly 84, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 471.

20.See James Deaville, “African American Entertainers in Jahrhundertwende Vienna: Austrian Identity, Viennese Modernism, and Black Success,” Nineteenth-Century Music Review 3, no. 1 (June 2006): 89–112; Lotz, Black People; and Astrid Kusser, Körper in Schieflage: Tanzen im Strudel des Black Atlantic um 1900 (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2013).

21.Eric Ames, Carl Hagenbeck’s Empire of Entertainments (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008).

22.“Der beste Neger-Komik der Welt” poster, Columbia College Chicago, Center for Black Music Research, box 29.

23.Ella Sheppard, “Historical Sketch of the Jubilee Singers,” Fisk University News, October 1911. Quoted in Andrew Ward, Dark Midnight When I Rise: The Story of the Jubilee Singers Who Introduced the World to the Music of Black America (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2000), 349.

24.T. J. Tallie, “Sartorial Settlement: The Mission Field and Transformation in Colonial Natal, 1850–1897,” Journal of World History 27, no. 3 (2016): 389–410.

25.“Die Jubiläumssänger,” Neue Berliner Musikzeitung, November 15, 1877, 362.

26.Die Post, November 11, 1877, 3.

27.Christian Recorder, January 3, 1878.

28.Unidentified German newspaper, trans. Frazelia Campbell, rep. in Christian Recorder, January 17, 1878. Campbell was a student at Philadelphia’s Institute for Colored Youth.

29.Christian Recorder, January 3, 1878.

30.Unidentified Berlin newspaper, trans. and rep. in Christian Recorder, January 17, 1878. Sentiments such as these reflect Ronald Radano’s argument that white listeners “cast Black music as a primordial cure for the ills of a civilized and increasingly mechanized modern society.” Radano, “Hot Fantasies: American Modernism and the Idea of Black Rhythm,” in Music and the Racial Imagination, ed. Radano and Philip V. Bohlman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 460.

31.Neue Berliner Musikzeitung, November 15, 1877, 362.

32.Jonathan Bellman, The Style Hongrois in the Music of Western Europe (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993).

33.Musikalisches Wochenblatt, September 24, 1885, 489.

34.Quoted in Nettles, African American Concert Singers, 153.

35.Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, no. 20, May 20, 1891, 283.

36.Abbot and Seroff, eds., Out of Sight, 146.

37.Maureen D. Lee, Sissieretta Jones: The “Greatest Singer of Her Race,” 1868–1933 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2012), 87.

38.Josephine Wright, “Black Women and Classical Music,” Women’s Studies Quarterly 12, no. 3 (Fall 1984): 18–21; Eileen Southern, “In Retrospect: Black Prima Donnas of the Nineteenth Century,” The Black Perspective of Music 7, no. 1 (Spring 1979): 95–106; Sonya Gable-Wilson, “Let Freedom Sing! Four African American Concert Singers in Nineteenth-Century America” (PhD diss., University of Florida, 2005).

39.An 1894 Chicago Daily Tribune article claimed Marie Selika went to Europe in 1888, but we know she was definitely in Germany in 1891. In the early 1880s, she traveled to Europe to perform, and she visited Germany, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Belgium, England, Russia, and Scotland between 1882 and 1886.

40.Chicago Daily Tribune, January 21, 1894.

41.Quoted in Minnie Brown, “Among Noted Negro Musicians: Madame Selika,” New York Amsterdam News, August 23, 1927. See also Maud Cuney Hare, Negro Musicians and Their Music (Washington, DC: The Associated Publishers, 1936), 223.

42.Schweinfurter Anzeiger, February 26, 1884. Quoted in Pauline Hopkins, “Famous Women of the Negro Race,” Colored American Magazine II, no. 2 (December 1900): 52.

43.Dresdner Nachrichten, date unknown. Quoted in Hopkins, “Famous Women,” 52.

44.Quoted in Nora Holt, “Scotching the Myth that Negro Singers Are Unqualified for Opera or Top Concerts,” New York Amsterdam News, May 31, 1952.

45.Ibid.

46.Willia Daughtry, “Sissieretta Jones: A Study of the Negro’s Contribution to Nineteenth-Century American Concert and Theatrical Life” (PhD diss., Syracuse University, 1968), 198.

47.Detroit Plaindealer, December 30, 1892. Quoted in Abbot and Seroff, eds., Out of Sight, 290.

48.Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger, February 16, 1895, 3; Nationalzeitung, February 17, 1895, 9.

49.Beilage des Berliner Börsen-Couriers, no. 79, February 16, 1895, 1.

50.Ibid.

51.Berliner Intelligenzblatt-Berliner Anzeiger, February 21, 1895, 2.

52.Berliner Börsen-Courier, February 17, 1895.

53.Ibid.

54.Nina Sun Eidsheim, “Marian Anderson and ‘Sonic Blackness’ in American Opera,” in American Quarterly 63, no. 3 (2011): 644.

55.Berliner Morgen-Zeitung und Tägliches Familienblatt, February 20, 1895, 3.

56.Southern, “In Retrospect,” 100.

57.See Jon Cruz, Culture on the Margins: The Black Spiritual and the Rise of American Cultural Interpretation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999); Schenbeck, Racial Uplift.

58.Das Kleine Journal (date and page not listed). Quoted in Southern, “In Retrospect,” 102.

59.Die Post (date and page not listed). Quoted in Southern, “In Retrospect,” 101.

60.Ibid.

61.Berliner Börsen-Courier (date and page not listed). Quoted in Southern, “In Retrospect,” 101.

62.Nana Badenberg, “Mohrenwäschen, Völkerschauen: Der Konsum des Schwarzen um 1900,” in Colors 1800/1900/2000: Signs of Ethnic Difference, ed. Birgit Tautz, (New York: Brill, 2004), 164.

63.Die Post (date and page not listed). Quoted in Southern, “In Retrospect,” 101.

64.Berliner Börsen-Courier (date and page not listed). Quoted in Southern, “In Retrospect,” 101.

65.For a recent scholarly work discussing European evaluations of skull size as a method of racial science and anthropology, see Fenneke Sysling, Racial Science and Human Diversity in Colonial Indonesia (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2016).

66.Kristin Moriah, “On the Record: Sissieretta Jones and Black Performance Praxes,” Performance Matters 6, no. 2 (2020): 32

67.Berliner Fremdenblatt, February 20, 1895, 5; Berliner Morgen-Zeitung und Tägliches Familienblatt, February 20, 1895, 3.

68.Nationalzeitung, February 17, 1895, 9.

69.Beilage des Berliner Börsen-Couriers, no. 79, February 16, 1895, 1.

70.Silke Hackenesch, Chocolate and Blackness: A Cultural History (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2018), 48.

71.Trans. and rep. in Indianapolis Freeman, May 4, 1895. Quoted in Southern, “In Retrospect,” 100.

72.Das Kleine Journal (date and page not listed). Quoted in Southern, “In Retrospect,” 102.

73.Minneapolis Journal, January 14, 1897.

74.Max Paddison, “Music as Ideal: The Aesthetics of Autonomy,” Cambridge Companion to Nineteenth-Century Music, ed. Jim Samson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 318–42.

75.Of course, Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield had been in Europe—but not in Central Europe—to perform in 1852. See Julia Chybowski, “Becoming the ‘Black Swan’ in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America: Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield’s Early Life and Debut Concert Tour,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 67, no. 1 (Spring 2014): 125–65.

76.Fikes, Jr., and Cargille, “Bittersweet Career.” Faculty also reviewed their exams. Schüler Verzeichnis, University of Music and Theater “Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy” (HMT) Leipzig Archives, A.I.2.

77.Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, May 27, 1870, 211.

78.Later reviews of Nicasio’s student recitals brought similar praise: his “sonorous tone, sensitive handling of the Cantilene [sic], and brilliant technique brought the highest honors to his teacher Hegar [sic].” Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, May 12, 1871, 191.

79.See Fikes, Jr., and Cargille, “Bittersweet Career”; Daniel Jütte, “Schwarze, Juden und die Anfänge des Diskurses über Rasse und Musik im 19. Jahrhundert. Überlegungen anhand von Claudio José Domingo Brindis de Salas’ Reise durch Württemberg und Baden im Jahre 1882,” Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 88 (2006), 117–40.

80.Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, November 5, 1875, 447.

81.Musikalisches Wochenblatt, March 28, 1873.

82.This rationality that one can be educated out of one’s ignorant and primitive state into a more cultivated one follows the lines of sociological racism, a concept which Zimmerman discusses at length in Alabama in Africa, 66–100.

83.Musikalisches Wochenblatt, January 20, 1871.

84.Jean Schutt, Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, October 13, 1871. Quoted in Josephine Wright, “ ‘Das Negertrio’ Jiménez in Europe,” Black Perspective in Music 9, no. 2 (Autumn 1981): 165.

85.Musikalisches Wochenblatt, March 13, 1874, 138.

86.Ibid.

87.Fatima El-Tayeb, “ ‘We Are Germans, We Are Whites, and We Want to Stay White!’ African Germans and Citizenship in the Early 20th Century,” in Colors 1800/1900/2000, 192.

88.Musikalisches Wochenblatt, June 3, 1870, 362.

89.Jütte, “Schwarze.”

90.Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, September 14, 1882, 405.

91.Ibid.

92.Ovide Musin, My Memories (New York: Musin Publishing Company, 1920), 65.

93.See Mark Rowe, Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst: Virtuoso Violinist (Burlington: Ashgate, 2008).

94.“Music in Darmstadt,” Musical Times, April 1885, 220.

95.On virtuosity in nineteenth-century German musical culture, see Alexander Stefaniak, Schumann’s Virtuosity: Criticism, Composition, and Performance in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016).

96.Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung, December 6, 1882, 780.

97.Ibid.

98.Musikalisches Wochenblatt, February 8, 1883, 83.

99.Musikalisches Wochenblatt, September 13, 1883, 466.

100.Jütte, “Schwarze,” 123. My translation.

101.Musikalisches Wochenblatt, February 8, 1883, 83.

102.Stuttgarter Neues Tagblatt, October 20, 1882, 4. Quoted in Jütte, “Schwarze,” 119.

103.Freiburger Zeitung, November 12, 1882; Stuttgarter Neues Tagblatt, October 20, 1882, 4, quoted in Jütte, “Schwarze,” 119.

104.Ulmer Tagblatt, October 31, 1882, 1438. Quoted in Jütte, “Schwarze,” 127.

105.Stuttgarter Neues Tagblatt, October 20, 1882, 4. Quoted in Jütte, “Schwarze,” 119.

106.“Allerlei,” Deutsche Militärmusiker-Zeitung, March 13, 1908, 129. The original letter slandering Gustav Chabac el Cher appeared in the Deutsche Zeitung on October 18, 1907.

107.Musin, My Memories, 65.

108.Stuttgarter Neues Tagblatt, October 20, 1882, 4. Quoted in Jütte, “Schwarze,” 119.

109.LaPorte Daily Herald, May 24, 1904.

110.Katherine Ellis, “Female Pianists and Their Male Critics in Nineteenth-Century Paris,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 50, no. 2/3 (Summer-Autumn 1997): 361.

111.Alexander Stefaniak, “Clara Schumann and the Imagined Revelation of Musical Works,” Music and Letters 99, no. 2 (2018), 205.

112.Berliner Tageblatt, October 26, 1904, 2.

113.Anonymous Berlin review (trans. anonymous), October 23, 1904, Howard University, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, box 139–2.

114.Berliner Tageblatt, October 26, 1904, 2.

115.Walther Pauli, “Hazel Harrison,” Allgemeine Deutsche Musik-Zeitung, October 28, 1904, 718.

116.Anonymous Berlin review (trans. anonymous), October 23, 1904, Howard University, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, box 139–2.

117.Ibid.

118.Ibid.

119.Michelle Wright, Becoming Black: Creating Identity in the African Diaspora (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 8.

120.Ibid.

121.Krista Molly O’Donnell, “The First Besatzungskinder: Afro-German Children, Colonial Childrearing Practices, and Racial Policy in German South West Africa, 1890–1914” in Not So Plain as Black and White: Afro-German Culture and History, 1890–2000, ed. Patricia Mazón and Reinhild Steingröver (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2005), 62.

122.El-Tayeb, “ ‘We Are Germans,’ ” 192.

123.Eduard von Liebert, “Speech,” in Verhandlungen des Deutschen Reichtags, Protokolle 1907/1909, 2225, Sitzung March 16, 1909: 7509–14. Quoted in Martin Rempe, “Cultural Brokers in Uniform: The Global Rise of Military Musicians and Their Music,” Itinerario 41, no. 2 (2017): 327–52.

124.Ibid. Rempe’s translation.

125.Ibid. Rempe’s translation.

126.Ibid. My translation.

127.“Allerlei,” Deutsche Militärmusiker-Zeitung, March 13, 1908, 129.

128.Even contemporary writings on Sabac el Cher do not recognize him as German, as headlines such as DIE ZEIT’s “The Moor from Berlin” [“Der Mohr von Berlin”] (2007), Die Welt’s “How an African Came to Wear a Prussian Uniform” [“Wie ein Afrikaner zu einem Preußischem Uniform kam”] (2007), or the Tagesspiegel’s “Gustav Sabac el Cher, an African in Berlin” [“Gustav Sabac el Cher, ein Afrikaner in Berlin”] (2015) indicate.

129.Nicholas Cook, “Seeing Sounds, Hearing Images: Listening Outside the Modernist Box,” Musical Listening in the Age of Technological Reproduction, ed. Gianmario Borio (New York: Routledge, 2015), 186.

4. Blackness and Classical Music in the Age of the Black Horror on the Rhine Campaign

1.For information on the “Black Horror on the Rhine” propaganda campaign, see Iris Wigger, The “Black Horror on the Rhine”: Intersections of Race, Nation, Gender, and Class in 1920s Germany (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).

2.Christopher A. Brooks and Robert Sims, Roland Hayes: The Legacy of an American Tenor (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015), 120–21.

3.Moritz Föllmer, “Which Crisis? Which Modernity? New Perspectives on Weimar Germany,” in Beyond Glitter and Doom: The Contingency of the Weimar Republic, eds. Jochen Hung, Godela Weiss-Sussex, and Geoff Wilkes (Munich: Ludicum, 2012), 27.

4.Peter Fritzsche, “Did Weimar Fail?” Journal of Modern History 68, no. 3 (1996): 633. The picture of Weimar Germany as existing on a fine line between renewal and collapse has been an especially dominant theme in scholarship since Friedrich Meinecke first called the Weimar Republic an emergency construction (Notbau) in 1947. As the title of Stephen Brockmann and Thomas Kniesche’s book, Dancing on the Volcano, suggests, historians often describe Weimar Germany as a society teetering on the edge of joy and despair, of economic ruin or social triumph. See Stephen Brockmann and Thomas W. Kniesche, Dancing on the Volcano: Essays on the Culture of the Weimar Republic (Columbia, SC: Camden House, 1994).

5.Kathleen Canning, Kerstin Barndt, and Kristin McGuire, eds., Weimar Publics/Weimar Subjects: Rethinking The Political Culture of Germany in the 1920s (New York: Berghahn, 2010).

6.Karl Christian Führer, “German Cultural Life and the Crisis of National Identity During the Depression, 1929–33,” German Studies Review 24, no. 3 (2001): 468. For example, the Neues Wiener Journal reported on November 21, 1935, that Anderson’s upcoming performance that same evening was already sold out, leaving only one opportunity to see her perform. “Heute Marian Anderson Ausverkauft,” Neues Wiener Journal, November 21, 1935, 11.

7.Much of historians’ formulation of Weimar Germany as a site of avant-garde modernism came from Peter Gay, Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider (New York: Harper and Row, 1968); and Detlev Peukert, The Weimar Republic: The Crisis of Classical Modernity, trans. Richard Deveson (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992). Since then, historians have challenged this perception of Weimar Germany. Similarly, scholarship on Austria in the interwar era has also reevaluated the relationship between culture and politics. See Judith Beniston and Robert Vilain, eds., Culture and Politics in Red Vienna (Leeds: Maney, 2006).

8.Karl Christian Führer, “High-Brow and Low-Brow Culture,” in Weimar Germany, ed. Anthony McElligott (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 260. See also Brendan Fay, Classical Music in Weimar Germany: Culture and Politics before the Third Reich (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2019).

9.Alex Ross, The Rest Is Noise: Listening to the Twentieth Century (New York: Picador, 2007), 346.

10.Jochen Hung, “ ‘Bad’ Politics and ‘Good’ Culture: New Approaches to the History of the Weimar Republic,” Central European History 49, no. 3–4 (2016): 451.

11.Fritz Trümpi, The Political Orchestra: The Vienna and Berlin Philharmonics During the Third Reich, trans. Kenneth Kronenberg (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).

12.Elizabeth Harvey, “Culture and Society in Weimar Germany: The Impact of Modernism and Mass Culture,” in German History since 1800, ed. Mary Fulbrook, (London: Arnold, 1997), 279–97.

13.Ivan Goll, “The Negroes Are Conquering Europe,” in The Weimar Republic Sourcebook, eds. Anthony Kaes, Martin Jay, and Edward Dimendberg (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 559–60.

14.Moritz Ege and Andrew Wright Hurley, “Periodizing and Historicizing German Afro-Americanophilia: From Antebellum to Postwar (1850–1967),” Portal: Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies 12, no. 2 (2015): 12.

15.Christine Naumann, “African American Performers and Culture in Weimar Germany,” Crosscurrents: African Americans, Africa, and Germany in the Modern World, eds. David McBride, Leroy Hopkins, and Carol Aisha Blackshire-Belay (Columbia, SC: Camden House, 1998), 96. I have been unable to locate a figure for Austria.

16.Jonathan Wipplinger, The Jazz Republic: Music, Race, and American Culture in Weimar Germany (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2017), 34.

17.Julia Roos, “Women’s Rights, National Anxiety, and the ‘Moral’ Agenda in the Early Weimar Republic,” Central European History 42, no. 3 (September 2009): 473–508; Raffael Scheck, Hitler’s African Victims: The German Army Massacres of Black French Soldiers in 1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

18.Christian Koller, “Enemy Images: Race and Gender Stereotypes in the Discussion on Colonial Troops: A Franco-German Comparison, 1914–23,” in Home/Front: The Military, War, and Gender in Twentieth-Century Germany, eds. Karen Hagemann and Stefanie Schüler-Springorum (Oxford: Berg, 2002), 139–57; Campt, Other Germans, 31–62.

19.Fatima El-Tayeb, “ ‘Blood Is a Very Special Juice’: Racialized Bodies and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century Germany,” International Review of Social History 44, no. S7 (1999): 149–69.

20.Tina Campt, “Converging Spectres of an Other Within: Race and Gender in Prewar Afro-German History,” Callaloo 26, no. 2 (2003): 338.

21.Ibid., 323.

22.Grenzland Korrespondent, April 24, 1922. Translated and cited in Tina Campt, Pascal Grosse, and Yara-Colette Lemke-Muniz de Faria, “Blacks, Germans, and the Politics of Imperial Imagination, 1920–1960,” in The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy, eds. Sara Lennox, Sara Friedrichsmeyer, and Susanne Zantop (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998), 211.

23.Wigger, “Black Horror,” 9.

24.Paul Bang, Die farbige Gefahr (Göttingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, 1938).

25.Julia Roos, “Nationalism, Racism and Propaganda in Early Weimar Germany: Contradictions in the Campaign against the ‘Black Horror on the Rhine,’ ” German History 30, no. 1, (March 2012): 45–74.

26.Goll, “Negroes.”

27.Jonathan Wipplinger, “Performing Race in Ernst Krenek’s Jonny spielt auf,” in Blackness in Opera, ed. Naomi André, Karen Bryan, and Eric Saylor (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 237.

28.Alan Lareau, “Jonny’s Jazz: From Kabarett to Krenek,” in Jazz and the Germans: Essays on the Influence of “Hot” Americans Idioms on 20th-Century German Music, ed. Michael Budds (Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2002), 28.

29.See Sander Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 37–128.

30.Edward Timms and Karl Kraus, Apocalyptic Satirist: Culture and Catastrophe in Habsburg Vienna (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986).

31.The now iconic image of a Black jazz saxophonist with the Jewish Star of David on his lapel first appeared on the title page of the exhibition guide for the “Degenerate Music” exhibit sponsored by the Reich Music Examination Office and the Reich Propaganda Ministry. The exhibit opened in Düsseldorf on May 24, 1938.

32.Nancy Nenno, “Femininity, the Primitive, and Modern Urban Space: Josephine Baker in Berlin,” in Women in the Metropolis: Gender and Modernity in Weimar Culture, ed. Katharina von Ankum (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 146.

33.Wipplinger, Jazz Republic, 125.

34.Nenno, “Femininity,” 155.

35.Samir Dayal, “Blackness as Symptom: Josephine Baker and European Identity,” in Blackening Europe: The African American Presence, ed. Heike Raphael-Hernandez (New York: Routledge, 2004), 41; Nenno, “Femininity,” 148.

36.Ottomar Starke, “Revue,” Der Querschnitt, February 1926. Translated and quoted in Paul Edwards, “Louis Douglas and Jonny spielt auf: Performing Blackness in Interwar Germany,” (PhD diss., Boston University, 2018), 204.

37.Neues Wiener Tagblatt, February 2, 1928, 7.

38.Bruce F. Pauley, From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 71, 82, 84–85, 182–83.

39.“ ‘La Baker’ in Vienna,” Atlanta Constitution, March 17, 1928, 6.

40.See, for example, the news coverage in Illustrierte Kronen-Zeitung. The Catholic Church held a special mass to atone for the sins she had committed in the city.

41.“Für und gegen die Baker,” Illustrierte Kronen-Zeitung, February 8, 1928, 10.

42.Lynn Haney, Naked at the Feast: A Biography of Josephine Baker (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1981), 149.

43.“Die schwarze Tänzerin,” Illustriertes Wiener Extrablatt, March 1, 1928, 1.

44.“Patti Highly Praised,” Chicago Defender, April 2, 1921, 5.

45.It is quite telling that Wilberforce’s comments appear a few years after Ossian Sweet, an African American doctor who had studied in Vienna in the early 1920s, had tried to move into a white neighborhood in Detroit, causing a riot.

46.Dr. A. Wilberforce Williams, “Why Go to Europe?” Chicago Defender, April 14, 1928, 4.

47.Letter from Palace Hotel, Prague, April 10, 1924, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series I, box I, folder 22.

48.Letter from Prague, May 5, 1924, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series I, subsection B, box 10, file 58.

49.Lara Putnam, Radical Moves (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 195.

50.Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line.

51.George Lipsitz, Dangerous Crossroads: Popular Music, Postmodernism, and the Poetics of Place (New York: Verso, 1994), 31.

52.Marc Matera, Black London (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015), 203.

53.Robbie Aitken, “Surviving in the Metropole: The Struggle for Work and Belonging Amongst African Colonial Migrants in Weimar Germany,” Immigrants & Minorities 28, no. 2–3 (2010): 203–23.

54.Ibid., 213.

55.Allan Keiler, Marian Anderson: A Singer’s Journey (New York: Scribner, 2000), 94.

56.Letter from Dr. Eduard Coumont to Hayes, September 24, 1925, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series 1, box 1, file 39.

57.Letter from Internationale Konzertdirektion “Symphonia” Wien, October 22, year unknown, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series I, subsection B, box 10, folder 57.

58.Brooks and Sims, Roland Hayes, 130.

59.Roland Hayes, with F. W. Woolsey, “Roland Hayes,” The Black Perspective in Music 2, no. 2 (Autumn 1974): 184.

60.Marian Anderson, My Lord What a Morning: An Autobiography (New York: Viking Press, 1956), 146.

61.“Paul Robeson, der Negerbaß,” Neues Wiener Journal, April 11, 1929, 14.

62.Letter to Mr. Zid from London, England, March 29, 1924, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series I, subsection B, box 10, file 58.

63.“Young Harpist to Study in Austria,” Pittsburgh Courier, June 30, 1928, A2.

64.Tibbs had previously been married to Lillian Evanti, who performed in Germany and Austria in the 1920s and 1930s. “Prof. Tibbs Will Study in Vienna,” Pittsburgh Courier (1911–50), City Edition, October 13, 1934, A6.

65.“In Retrospect: W. Rudolph Dunbar; Pioneering Orchestra,” Black Perspective in Music 9, no. 2 (Autumn 1981): 193–225.

66.MacKinley Helm, Angel Mo’ and Her Son, Roland Hayes (Boston: Little Brown and Co., 1942), 145.

67.Musical Courier 25, no. 1238 (December 16, 1903): 11.

68.William Armstrong, “Dr. Theodor Lierhammer on the German Lied,” Etude 22, no. 6 (June 1904).

69.Musical Courier 25, no. 1238 (December 16, 1903): 11.

70.Roland Hayes, My Favorite Spirituals: 30 Songs for Piano and Voice (Mineola: Dover Publications, 2001), 12.

71.Letter to Hayes from Lierhammer, July 14, 1925, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series I, box 1, file 37.

72.Howard Rye, “Southern Syncopated Orchestra: The Roster,” Black Music Research Journal 29, no. 2 (Fall 2009): 28. See also Helm, Angel Mo’. See also “Aubrey Pankey, American Baritone, Tours Europe,” Chicago Defender, January 2, 1937, 21; and Raoul Abdul, “Up, Up and Away: Three Weeks of Study at Vienna’s Wiener Musikseminar,” New York Amsterdam News, July 31, 1982, 26.

73.“Ithma-Abende,” Neue Freie Presse, November 15, 1931, 14.

74.Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection.

75.Private letters written to her parents during her stay, Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection.

76.Wipplinger, Jazz Republic, 167–68.

77.Letter from Anni Schnitzler to Hayes in Vienna, February 25, 1926, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series 1, box 2, file 2.

78.Letter from Edyth Walker, October 16, 1926, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series II, box 1, file 7.

79.Letter from Anni Schnitzler to Hayes in Vienna, February 25, 1926, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series 1, box 2, file 2.

80.Letter from A. Vilma Jurenkova, Karlsgasse 9, September 28, 1925, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series 1, box 1, file 39.

81.Brooks and Sims, Roland Hayes, 105.

82.Hans Massaquoi, Destined to Witness: Growing up Black in Nazi Germany (New York: William Morrow, 2001), 9.

83.Letter dated May 1924, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series I, box 1, file 23.

84.Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series I, box 1, file 23, May 9, 1924.

85.Anderson, My Lord, 158, 144, 157. Anderson’s autobiography was translated into German and published in 1960.

86.Josephine Harreld letter, September 1, 1935, Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection. See also Keiler, Marian Anderson, 156. It is possible that Moulton was the cousin of the US undersecretary of state, Sumner Welles. “Unable to Return to US: Americans Marooned on Riviera by Ship’s Withdrawal,” New York Times, June 19, 1941.

87.Helm, Angel Mo’, 202.

88.Ibid., 149.

89.Ibid., 143.

90.Meredith Roman, Opposing Jim Crow: African Americans and the Soviet Indictment of US Racism, 1928–37 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012), 1.

91.James A. Miller, Susan D. Pennybacker, and Eve Rosenhaft, “Mother Ada Wright and the International Campaign to Free the Scottsboro Boys, 1931–34,” American Historical Review 106, no. 2 (April 2001): 389.

92.From Paris to the States, August 12, 1924, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series I, box 1, file 25.

93.Letter from Anni Schnitzler to Hayes in Vienna, February 25, 1926, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series 1, box 2, file 2.

94.Letter from Anni Schnitzler to Hayes in Vienna, March 22, 1926, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series II, box 1, file 3.

95.Letter from Dr. Pieta, sent via Dr. Eduard Coumont, Rechtsanwalt, Wien 1, Walfischgasse 4, January 31, 1927, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series II, box 1, file 14.

96.Alain Locke, “Roland Hayes: An Appreciation,” Opportunity (December 1923): 356.

97.Naumann, “African American Performers,” 98.

98.Susann Lewerenz, Geteilte Welten: Exotisierte Unterhaltung und Artist*innen of Color in Deutschland 1920–1960 (Cologne: Böhlau, 2017), 70.

99.Helm, Angel Mo’, 208.

100.Lewerenz, Geteilte Welten, 85.

101.Helm, Angel Mo’, 210–11.

102.Time Magazine, September 15, 1924, 13.

103.Lareau, “Jonny’s Jazz,” 23.

104.“Der Negertenor, der böse ist, weil der Saal nicht ausverkauft ist,” Die Stunde, October 7, 1925, 7.

105.“Der Negertenor,” Wiener Morgenzeitung, October 6, 1925, 7.

106.Helm, Angel Mo’, 214; “Der Negertenor, der böse ist, weil der Saal nicht ausverkauft ist,” Die Stunde, October 7, 1925, 7.

107.“Protests Against Our Negroes Appearing on the Berlin Stage,” New York Times, March 9, 1926, 1.

108.From the Jewish newspaper, Forward, translated from Yiddish into English and reported by the Philadelphia Tribune, December 5, 1926, 1.

109.Ibid.

110.Helm, Angel Mo’, 235.

111.He was indeed having an affair with a Czech countess. They had a daughter. See Brooks and Sims, Roland Hayes, 127–45.

112.“Afrika Singt … Paul Robeson im Mittleren Konzerthaussaal,” Die Stunde, April 11, 1929, 7.

113.Campt, Other Germans, 139.

114.Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection, August 27, 1935.

115.Anna Nussbaum, “Die afro-amerikanische Frau,” Der Tag, February 12, 1928. For the English translation, see Anna Nussbaum, The Afro-American Woman [fragment], ca. 1928, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, Special Collections and University Archives, W.E.B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312).

116.Letter, August 29, 1935, Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection.

117.Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection.

118.Wiener Zeitung, March 4, 1928, 2.

119.Keiler, Marian Anderson, 67.

120.Hayes, with Woolsey, “Roland Hayes,” 184.

121.Peter Martin and Christine Alonzo, Zwischen Charleston und Stechschritt: Schwarze im Nationalsozialismus (Hamburg: Dölling & Galitz, 2004). Quoted in Wigger, “Black Horror,” 142.

122.Ernest Rice McKinney, “Views and Reviews,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 19, 1932, A1.

5. Singing Lieder, Hearing Race

1.Grove Music Online, s.v. “Lied,” by Norbert Böker-Heil et al., accessed November 28, 2012, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/16611.

2.Richard Taruskin, “Chapter 3 Volkstümlichkeit,” in Oxford History of Western Music Online. Music in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, accessed August 12, 2013, http://www.oxfordwesternmusic.com/view/Volume3/actrade-9780195384833-chapter-003.xml.

3.Ibid.

4.Roland Hayes Collection, Detroit Public Library, series IV, box 1, file 67, undated.

5.See Führer, “A Medium of Modernity?.”

6.Laura Tunbridge, Singing in the Age of Anxiety: Lieder Performances in New York and London between the World Wars (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018), 35.

7.“Musical Notes from Abroad,” Musical Times, January 3, 1932, 77.

8.Stewart, New Negro, 369.

9.Roland Hayes, “Lieder Is of the People,” Musical Courier, December 1954, 11, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series IV, box 1, file 73.

10.Helm, Angel Mo’, 171.

11.Ibid., 172.

12.Ibid., 168–69.

13.Ibid., 168.

14.William Armstrong, “Dr. Theodor Lierhammer on the German Lied,” The Etude (1904): 227.

15.Ibid.

16.Helm, Angel Mo’, 169.

17.Wiener Mittags-Zeitung, April 1923 (original German text not provided). Quoted in Helm, Angel Mo’, 170.

18.Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung (original German text not provided). Quoted in Helm, Angel Mo’, 171.

19.Dyer, White, 3.

20.Helm, Angel Mo’, 198.

21.Brooks and Sims, Roland Hayes, 127.

22.“Konzerte,” Deutsche Tageszeitung, May 15, 1924. Many music critics in daily newspapers, entertainment magazines, or gossip tabloids published anonymously, thus making it occasionally difficult to attribute a political leaning or ideology to the writer. For references on German and Austrian newspapers including political affiliations, dissemination records, and editorial staff, see Gabriele Melischek and Josef Seethaler, eds., Die Wiener Tageszeitungen: Eine Dokumentation. Vol. 3, 1918–38 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1992); and Rudolf Stöber, Deutsche Pressegeschichte: Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart, 2nd ed. (Constance: UVK, 2005).

23.“Der Schwarze Tenor,” Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, May 16, 1924.

24.“Konzerte,” Deutsche Tageszeitung, May 15, 1924.

25.“Konzerte,” Der Tag, May 17, 1924, 2

26.Berliner Tageblatt und Handels-Zeitung, May 17, 1924, 4.

27.“Der Schwarze Tenor,” Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, May 16, 1924.

28.“Konzertchronik,” Berliner Börsen-Zeitung, May 14, 1924, 4. The newspaper supported the German National People’s Party (DNVP). See Bernhard Fulda, Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

29.“Konzertchronik,” 4.

30.Arne Spohr, “Mohr und Trompeter: Blackness and Social Status in Early Modern Germany,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 72, no. 3 (2019): 615.

31.“Konzerte,” Der Tag, May 17, 1924, 2.

32.Berliner Tageblatt und Handels-Zeitung, May 17, 1924, 4.

33.O.T., Berliner Börsen-Courier, May 13, 1924, 3.

34.Helm, Angel Mo’, 212.

35.Letter dated October 10, 1925, from Dr. Alfred Lederer to Roland Hayes, Detroit Public Library, Roland Hayes Collection, series 1, box, 1, file 40.

36.“Konzerte,” Neue Freie Presse, October 11, 1925, 17.

37.Kosti Vehanen, Marian Anderson: A Portrait (New York: Whittlesey House, 1941), 153.

38.Keiler, Marian Anderson, 156.

39.Anderson, My Lord, 127.

40.Ibid., 119.

41.Ibid., 125.

42.Ibid., 26.

43.Vehanen, Marian Anderson, 150.

44.Concert program, University of Pennsylvania, Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Collection, MS Coll 200, box 178, 08532. Anderson provided the text for every lied appearing in her concert programs.

45.Anderson, My Lord, 138.

46.German reviewers described Sissieretta Jones and Hazel Harrison in such a manner in the 1890s and early 1900s.

47.“Konzert Marian Anderson,” Salzburger Volksblatt, August 29, 1935, 6.

48.Berliner Morgenpost, October 12, 1930, 9–10.

49.“Die Negersängerin Anderson in Wien,” Neue Freie Presse, November 21, 1935, 6.

50.“Die Neger-Altistin Anderson,” Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, October 17, 1930, 8.

51.“Konzert Marian Anderson,” Salzburger Volksblatt, August 29, 1935, 6, University of Pennsylvania, Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Collection, MS Coll 200, box 225, 09574.

52.M.F., “Die Negersängerin,” Das Echo, November 22, 1935, 5.

53.“Marian Anderson als Konzertsolistin,” Neues Wiener Journal, June 17, 1936, 11.

54.“Die Negersängerin Anderson in Wien,” Neue Freie Presse, November 21, 1935, 6.

55.Patrick Johnson, Appropriating Blackness: Performance and the Politics of Authenticity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 7.

56.New York Times, July 19, 1936. Quoted in Keiler, Marian Anderson, 172–73.

57.“Der Schwarze Tenor auf der Probe,” Neues Wiener Journal, October 8, 1925, 9.

58.“Die Negersängerin mit der weißen Seele,” unnamed newspaper, University of Pennsylvania, Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Collection, University of Pennsylvania, MS Coll 200, box 225, 09577.

59.Quoted in Helm, Angel Mo’, 215.

60.Kleine Volks-Zeitung, April 27, 1923, 7.

61.H.E.H., “Konzert,” Wiener Zeitung, November 23, 1935, 8.

62.Locke, “Roland Hayes,” 356. Original German text not provided.

63.“Konzert Marian Anderson,” Neues Wiener Tagblatt, November 23, 1937, 10.

64.“Die Negersängerin mit der weißen Seele.”

65.“Konzerte,” Neue Freie Presse, October 11, 1925, 17.

66.“Der Neger-Tenor Roland Hayes,” Berliner Allgemeine Zeitung, May 13, 1924, 2.

67.Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung, November 26, 1931. Quoted in Nettles, African American Concert Singers, 126.

68.Helm, Angel Mo’, 171.

69.Locke, “Roland Hayes,” 357. Original German text not provided.

70.Neues Wiener Journal, April 26, 1923.

71.Eidsheim, “Sonic Blackness,” 643.

72.Ibid., 644.

73.Ibid.

74.Phonogram, January 1891, 23. Quoted in Tim Brooks, Lost Sounds: Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1890–1919 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 30.

75.Vossische Zeitung, anonymously translated into English, University of Pennsylvania, Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Collection, MS Coll 200, box 178, 08532.

76.Berliner Morgenpost, October 12, 1930, 9–10.

77.Dr. Joseph Marr, “Konzert der Negersängerin Marian Anderson,” Neues Wiener Journal, November 22, 1935, 7.

78.“Konzert Marian Anderson,” Salzburger Volksblatt, August 29, 1935, 6.

79.“Konzerte,” Neue Freie Presse, November 26, 1935, 5; “Maryan Anderson” [sic], Das Echo, November 22, 1935, 5.

80.“Konzert Marian Anderson,” Salzburger Volksblatt, August 29, 1935, 6.

81.Signale für die musikalische Welt 91, no. 10 (1933): 163–64.

82.“Theater und Kunst: Konzert Cahier,” [Linzer] Tagblatt, May 7, 1920, 6.

83.“Sophie Braslau,” Signale für die musikalische Welt 23 (June 10, 1925): 62.

84.“Brahms Abend Bruno Walters,” Wiener Zeitung, June 19, 1936, 8.

85.Dr. Joseph Marr, “Konzert der Negersängerin Marian Anderson,” Neues Wiener Journal, November 22, 1935, 7.

86.Balduin Bricht, “Der Negersänger Roland Hayes,” Kleine Volks-Zeitung, April 27, 1923, 7.

87.“Negergesang unter Polizeibegleitung,” Salzburger Volksblatt, May 10, 1932, 10.

88.I.S., “Ein Negerbariton,” Berliner Tageblatt, May 17, 1924, 4.

89.Vehanen, Marian Anderson, 19.

90.“Konzert,” Die Stunde, November 19, 1931, 7.

91.Berliner Tageblatt und Handels-Zeitung, May 17, 1924, 4.

92.“Konzert Marian Anderson,” Neues Wiener Tageblatt, November 23, 1937, 10.

93.See Paul Allen Anderson, Deep River: Music and Memory in Harlem Renaissance Thought (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001); Cruz, Culture on the Margins; Sandra Graham, Spirituals and the Birth of a Black Entertainment Industry (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018); Schenbeck, Racial Uplift; Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997); Jon Michael Spencer, The New Negroes and Their Music: The Success of the Harlem Renaissance (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997).

94.Berliner Börsen-Courier, September 15, 1925. Stewart, New Negro, 372–73.

95.Das Echo, November 22, 1937, 5–6.

96.“Marian Anderson,” Die Stunde, November 23, 1937, 4.

6. “A Negro Who Sings German Lieder Jeopardizes German Culture”

1.Vehanen, Marian Anderson, 129.

2.Prussian Parliament, 244th Session, May 14, 1923, col. 17407, Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preußicher Kulturbesitz. Quoted and translated by Dörte Schmidt, “The Most American City in Europe: America and Images of America in Berlin Between the Wars,” in Crosscurrents: American and European Music in Interaction, 1900–2000, eds. Felix Meyer, Carol J. Oja, Wolfgang Rathert, and Anne C. Shreffler (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2014), 74.

3.Föllmer, “Which Crisis?,” 23.

4.Ibid., 28. Tina Campt and Omer Bartov make similar arguments. See Campt, “Converging Spectres,” 322–41; Bartov, “Defining Enemies, Making Victims: Germans, Jews, and the Holocaust,” American Historical Review 103, no. 3 (1998): 771–816.

5.Föllmer, “Which Crisis?,” 28.

6.Hung, “ ‘Bad’ Politics,” 453.

7.Recent scholarship argues against thinking of 1933 as a “vanishing point” in German history. See Tim B. Müller, Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg: Lebensversuche moderner Demokratien (Hamburg: HIS, 2014); Helmut Walser Smith, The Continuities of German History: Nation, Religion, and Race Across the Long Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). Moreover, cultural historians such as Sabine Hake and Irene Gunther suggest that more cultural overlap existed between the 1920s and 1930s than historians have assumed. See Sabine Hake, Popular Cinema in the Third Reich (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001) and Irene Guenther, Nazi Chic? Fashioning Women in the Third Reich (Oxford: Berg, 2004).

8.Pamela Potter, The Art of Suppression: Confronting the Nazi Past in Histories of the Visual and Performing Arts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2016), 4.

9.Ibid., 18.

10.Lewerenz, Geteilte Welten.

11.Anderson, My Lord, 140.

12.“Sails to Vienna June 5,” Atlanta Daily World, May 26, 1936; Marvel Cooke, New York Amsterdam News, March 30, 1940, 13.

13.Steinberg, Meaning, 117.

14.Pittsburgh Courier, May 3, 1924.

15.“Austrian Nazis Riot at Recital of US Negro,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 11, 1932, 10.

16.Nettles, African American Concert Singers, 125.

17.Neues Wiener Journal, November 17, 1931, 11.

18.“Demonstration gegen ein Negerbariton,” Neues Wiener Journal, May 11, 1932, 9.

19.“Negergesang unter Polizeibegleitung,” Salzburger Volksblatt, May 10, 1932, 6.

20.Ibid., 5.

21.Ibid.

22.Ibid.

23.Ibid.

24.Ibid.

25.“Die Demonstration,” Salzburger Volksblatt, May 11, 1932, 5.

26.Ibid.

27.Ibid.

28.“Austrian Nazis,” 10.

29.“Beaten in Georgia, Says Roland Hayes,” New York Times, July 17, 1942, 9.

30.Robbie Aitken, “Embracing Germany: Interwar German Society and Black Germans through the Eyes of African American Reporters,” Journal of American Studies 52, no. 2 (2018): 449.

31.Dr. Frank G. Smith, “Doctor Ends Trip Abroad in Austria: Swim in Famous Blue Danube River,” Chicago Defender, October 22, 1927, A1.

32.J. A. Rogers, “Vienna Today,” New York Amsterdam News, January 9, 1929, 16.

33.“Forum of Fact and Opinion,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 17, 1936, 124.

34.Ibid., 125. My use of religious or spiritual imagery here is deliberate, for Du Bois described Wagner and Bayreuth in such terms.

35.Ibid., 126.

36.Diedrich, “Black ‘Others’?,” 139.

37.Letter from Josephine Harreld to William Kemper Harreld, August 21, 1935, Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection, group 1, box 32, folder 2.

38.Ibid.

39.Ibid.

40.J. A. Rogers, “Germany as 1927 Closes: Berlin—Most Modern of European Cities,” New York Amsterdam News, December 14, 1927, 14.

41.Ibid. Emphasis added.

42.Carter G. Woodson, “Has Jazz Been a Help or a Hindrance to Racial Progress?” Afro-American, October 14, 1933, 18.

43.Martin Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Knopf, 1989), 185.

44.New York Amsterdam News, April 2, 1938.

45.Ibid. “A couple of years ago,” a reporter for the New York Amsterdam News wrote, “Mr. Tatten said there were a few native African, West Indian, and American Negroes in Vienna’s medical schools.”

46.“Fisk Pianist Who Escaped Nazis Performs at Tuskegee,” Atlanta Daily World, August 30, 1943, 2.

47.“Jarboro Back in the States,” New York Amsterdam News, October 21, 1939.

48.New York Amsterdam News, April 9, 1938.

49.Roi Ottley, No Green Pastures (New York: Scribner, 1951), 147.

50.Ibid., 154–55.

51.Lewerenz, Geteilte Welten.

52.Clarence Lusane, Hitler’s Black Victims: The Historical Experiences of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans, and African Americans in the Nazi Era (New York: Routledge, 2002); Scheck, Hitler’s African Victims; Campt, Other Germans; Aitken and Rosenhaft, Black Germany.

53.Anderson, My Lord, 156.

54.Ibid.

55.New York Times, July 9, 1935.

56.Helmer Enwall to Wilhelm Stein, May 21, 1935. Quoted in Keiler, Marian Anderson, 155.

57.“Die ‘exotische Nachtigall’ in Salzburg,” unnamed newspaper (most likely Salzburger Volksblatt), August 28, 1935, University of Pennsylvania, Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Library, MS Coll 200, box 225, 09574.

58.Vehanen, Marian Anderson, 128.

59.Vincent Sheean, Between the Thunder and the Sun (New York: Random House, 1943), 25.

60.Marian Anderson, recital program notes, August 18, 1935, University of Pennsylvania, Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Library, MS Coll 200, box 195, 08801.

61.Sheean, Between the Thunder, 25.

62.Vehanen, Marian Anderson, 130.

63.Concert program, Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, June 1936, University of Pennsylvania, Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Library, MS Coll 200, box 174, 08547.

64.Bruno Walter, Theme and Variations: An Autobiography, trans. James. A. Galson (New York: Knopf, 1946), 294.

65.Erik Ryding and Rebecca Pechefsky, Bruno Walter: A World Elsewhere (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 171–72.

66.Brooks and Sims, Roland Hayes, 134.

67.Letter from Josephine Harreld to William Kemper Harreld, May 15, 1935, Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Collection, group 1, box 32, folder 2.

68.Walter, Theme and Variations, 301–2.

69.Ibid., 320.

70.“Walter und Marian Anderson,” Die Stunde, June 19, 1936, 3.

71.“Brahms-Abend Bruno Walter,” Neues Wiener Journal, June 19, 1936, 11.

72.“Jubel um eine schwarze Sängerin,” Neues Wiener Journal, November 23, 1937, 10.

73.Ibid.

74.Ibid.

75.“Maryan [sic] Anderson,” Das Echo, November 22, 1937, 5–6. Emphasis added.

76.“Marian Anderson,” Die Stunde, November 23, 1937, 4. Emphasis added.

77.George Kugel, “Letter to the Editor,” New York Times, February 22, 1942, 6. The Jewish German conductor Ignatz Waghalter, who fled Nazi Germany and later founded one of the first all-Black symphony orchestras, apparently promoted Black talent to the outrage of white Germans. James Nathan Jones, Franklin F. Johnson, and Robert B. Cochrane, “Alfred Jack Thomas: Performer, Composer, Educator,” Black Perspective in Music 11, no. 1 (1983): 67.

78.“Stage Star Is Held in Camp By Germans,” Chicago Defender, December 25, 1945, 12.

79.Alfred Duckett, “Life in Nazi Prison Camp,” Afro-American, April 23, 1943, 1. See also William Shack, Harlem in Montmartre: A Paris Jazz Story Between the Great Wars (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).

80.Rudolph Dunbar, “Four Years in Nazi Prison Camp: Arthur Briggs, Famous Trumpet Player, Recounts Experiences,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 23, 1944, 15.

7. “And I Thought They Were a Decadent Race”

1.William Kemper Harreld journal entry, Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection, box 27, folder 31, June 18–August 1953.

2.Ibid.

3.Maria Höhn and Martin Klimke, A Breath of Freedom: The Civil Rights Struggle, African American GIs, and Germany (New York: Berghahn, 2010), 43.

4.Ibid.

5.Frank P. Model, “Elmer Spyglass, Salesman for Democracy: A Courier Profile,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 26, 1955, A8.

6.Chin, Grossmann, Fehrenbach, and Eley, After the Nazi Racial State, 5.

7.Applegate, “Saving Music,” 221–22.

8.Ruth Andreas-Friedrich, Schauplatz Berlin: Tagebuchaufzeichnungen 1945 bis 1948 (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1985), 374. Many thanks to Abby Anderton for providing this document. The Ahasuerus reference could be Wagnerian or might also allude to Achim von Arnim’s play, “Halle und Jerusalem.”

9.Höhn and Klimke, Breath of Freedom, 46.

10.Ibid., 47.

11.“Rudolph Dunbar,” Musical Times 129, no. 1749 (November 1988): 619.

12.“In Retrospect: W. Rudolph Dunbar: Pioneering Orchestra Conductor,” Black Perspective in Music 9, no. 2 (Autumn 1981): 193–225.

13.Rudolph Dunbar, “Trumpet Player Briggs Freed after Four Years in Nazi Camp near Paris,” Chicago Defender, September 23, 1944, 3.

14.W. Randy Dixon, Pittsburgh Courier, March 6, 1943, 21. George Padmore, Chicago Defender, January 9, 1943, 9.

15.“Music: Debut in the Bowl,” Time, September 2, 1946.

16.Amy C. Beal, New Music, New Allies: American Experimental Music in West Germany from the Zero Hour to Reunification (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 15–16.

17.John Bitter, interview by Brewster Chamberlain and Jürgen Wetzel, November 6, 1981, Landesarchiv Berlin, B Rep. 037, nr. 79–82. Cited in Abby Anderton, “ ‘It Was Never a Nazi Orchestra’: The American Reeducation of the Berlin Philharmonic,” Music and Politics 7, no. 1 (2013): 12.

18.TNA/PRO/FO 1049/71, Van Cutsem, Research Branch, Political Division, German Military and Nazi Music, March 3, 1945. Quoted in Toby Thacker, Music after Hitler, 1945–55 (Burlington: Ashgate, 2007), 21.

19.David Monod, Settling Scores: German Music, Denazification, and the Americans (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 3.

20.Potter, Art of Suppression, 111.

21.Abby Anderton, Rubble Music: Occupying the Ruins of Postwar Berlin, 1945–1950 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2019).

22.Matthias Sträßner’s biography, Der Dirigent Leo Borchard: eine unvollendete Karriere (Berlin: Transit, 1999), is the most authoritative account of the conductor’s life and work and he, too, was unable to discern the development of Borchard’s relationship to Dunbar.

23.Anderton, “ ‘It Was Never a Nazi Orchestra,’ ” 9.

24.Abby Anderton, “Hearing Democracy in the Ruins of Hitler’s Reich: American Musicians in Postwar Germany,” Comparative Critical Studies 13, no. 2 (June 2016): 216.

25.Michael Kater, Different Drummers: Jazz in the Culture of Nazi Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 30.

26.No primary source for this quotation is given. Quoted in Timothy Schroer, Recasting Race after World War II: Germans and African Americans in American-Occupied Germany (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2007), 157.

27.Thacker, Music after Hitler, 96.

28.“Berlin Ovation Given to Marian Anderson,” New York Times, June 5, 1950.

29.Ibid.

30.IfZ/OMGUS 5/348–3/4, Report of Meeting on February 15, 1947. Quoted in Thacker, Music after Hitler, 96.

31.Schroer, Recasting Race, 157.

32.“Negro Wins Plaudits Conducting Berlin Phil,” New York Times, September 3, 1945, 25.

33.“Music: Rhythm in Berlin,” Time, September 10, 1945.

34.“Germans Meet a Non-Aryan: Berlin Gets Hep to Classics via Negro Conductor,” Chicago Defender, September 8, 1945, 1.

35.Höhn and Klimke, Breath of Freedom, 41.

36.“Drew Line on Marian Anderson,” Daily Boston Globe, June 18, 1950, C14.

37.Monod, Settling Scores, 4.

38.Thacker, Music after Hitler, 226.

39.Joy Calico, Arnold Schoenberg’s “A Survivor from Warsaw” in Postwar Europe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 40.

40.Potter, Art of Suppression, 90.

41.Deborah Barton argues something similar: Women journalists like Andreas-Friedrich and Ursula von Kardorff “distorted the degree of assistance ordinary Germans provided to those who had been persecuted, downplayed the population’s support of Nazism, and highlighted Germany’s own suffering during the Third Reich. In so doing, they contributed to, legitimized, and reflected West Germany’s own self-perception as a victim of Nazism and the postwar occupation.” Barton, “Rewriting the Reich: German Women Journalists as Transnational Mediators for Germany’s Rehabilitation,” Central European History 51, no. 4 (December 2018): 584.

42.Thacker, Music after Hitler, 18.

43.“Music: Rhythm in Berlin,” Time, September 10, 1945. Newspapers reported on Dunbar’s magnanimity and generosity in ways that immediately echo African American soldiers passing out goods to German civilians. The orchestra also appreciated Dunbar’s investment in the ensemble. Dunbar brought a contrabassoon with him from Paris after hearing that the orchestra had lost all of theirs in the bombings some months prior.

44.Carol Oja, “ ‘New Music’ and the ‘New Negro’: The Background of William Grant Still’s Afro-American Symphony,” Black Music Research Journal 22 (2002): 107–30.

45.“Negro Given Big Ovation as Conductor,” Washington Post, September 3, 1945, 10.

46.“Dirigent und Musik aus Amerika,” Der Morgen, September 6, 1945.

47.“Rudolph Dunbar dirigiert,” Allgemeine Zeitung, August 31, 1945.

48.“Berliner Philharmoniker von einem Neger dirigiert,” Tägliche Rundschau, September 6, 1945.

49.Berliner Zeitung, September 4, 1945. In September 1945, only a handful of national newspapers were running.

50.“Dirigent und Musik aus Amerika,” Der Morgen, September 6, 1945.

51.“Ein Amerikanischer Gastdirigent,” Die Neue Zeit, September 5, 1945.

52.“Berliner Philharmoniker von einem Neger dirigiert,” Tägliche Rundschau, September 5, 1945.

53.Moritz Ege, Schwarz werden: ‘Afroamerikanophilie’ in den 1960er und 1970er Jahren (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2007), 163. Translated and quoted in Layne, White Rebels, 4. Ege’s italics.

54.“Rudolph Dunbar dirigiert,” Allgemeine Zeitung, September 5, 1945.

55.Ibid.

56.John Canarina, “Uncle Sam’s Orchestra”: Memories of the Seventh Army Symphony (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1998).

57.Ibid.

58.Josef Häusler, Badisches Tageblatt. Translated in Paul Moor, “Military Orchestra: Seventh Army Symphony Wins Europe’s Respect,” New York Times, February 6, 1956, 119.

59.“Symphony ‘Sells’ US Culture Abroad,” Washington Post and Times Herald, December 21, 1958.

60.Carol Oja, “Everett Lee and the Racial Politics of Orchestral Conducting,” American Music Review 43, no. 1 (Fall 2013): 1–8.

61.See “For Black Conductors, a Future? Or Frustration?,” New York Times, March 15, 1970.

62.New York Amsterdam News, August 11, 1951, 32. At one of his concerts in Paris, Dixon was greeted backstage by the African American classical musicians Byrd, Muriel Smith, Leonora Lafayette, and Mattiwilda Dobbs.

63.Chicago Defender, April 11, 1970, 36.

64.“From the Mail Pouch,” New York Times, November 15, 1959, X8.

65.New York Amsterdam News, September 5, 1959, 19.

66.“Schwarzer Dirigent für die Berliner Philharmoniker,” Neues Österreich, August 22, 1959, 6.

67.Der Kurier, August 21, 1959.

68.Press report. Private collection of Sonja Ibrahim.

69.Fehrenbach, “Of German Mothers,” 164.

70.Danielle Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015), 12.

71.Emily Abrams Ansari, The Sound of a Superpower: Musical Americanism and the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 17.

72.Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy, 16.

73.Ibid., 17.

74.Beal, New Music, 6.

75.Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy, 18.

76.André, Black Opera, 91.

77.Howard Pollack, George Gershwin: His Life and Work (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 704. Christopher Reynolds, “Porgy and Bess: An American Wozzeck,” Journal of the Society for American Music 1, no. 1 (February 2007): 1, 28.

78.“Gershwin Gets His Music Cues for ‘Porgy’ on Carolina Beach,” New York Herald Tribune, July 8, 1934. Quoted in Owen Lee, A Season of Opera: From Orpheus to Ariadne (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), 188.

79.André, Black Opera, 91.

80.Richard Crawford, “It Ain’t Necessarily Soul: Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess as a Symbol,” Anuario Interamericano De Investigacion Musical 8 (1972): 27.

81.Richard Middleton, “Musical Belongings: Western Music and Its Low-Other,” in Western Music and Its Others: Difference, Representation, and Appropriation in Music, eds. Georgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 67, 69.

82.Richard L. Coe, “Critics Miss Whole Point,” Washington Post, August 26, 1952, 10.

83.Langston Hughes, “Porgy and Bess Goes to Europe to Show that ‘The Negroes Have a Chance,’ ” Chicago Defender, September 13, 1952, 10.

84.Ansari, Sound of a Superpower, 6.

85.Ellen Noonan, The Strange Career of “Porgy and Bess”: Race, Culture, and America’s Most Famous Opera (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012).

86.Minutes of meeting of US delegation to UN, November 10, 1950, FRUS, 1950, 2: 564–69; “United States Policy Toward Dependent Territories” FRUS, 1952–54, 3: 1097. Quoted in Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 76.

87.Roman, Opposing Jim Crow.

88.Borstelmann, Cold War, 75.

89.Cleveland Call and Post, November 30, 1957.

90.Chicago Defender, September 13, 1958, 19. Apparently Phillips slapped a USSR officer on a train in Vienna after he had made repeated unwelcomed advances toward her. “Soprano Stuns ‘Fresh’ Russian with Slap in Face,” Afro-American, April 26, 1952, 7. Other singers performed quickly after the war. Anne Brown sang in Vienna in September 1946, according to the Wiener Kurier, for example, as did Ellabelle Davis, Theresa Greene, Georgia Laster, and Frederick Wilkerson.

91.Penny von Eschen, Satchmo Blows up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004); Fosler-Lussier, Music, 14.

92.“‘Porgy and Bess’ Stars Announce They Will Wed,” Afro-American, July 12, 1952, 6.

93.Ellen Noonan, “Porgy and Bess and the American Racial Imaginary, 1925–85” (PhD diss., New York University, 2002), 224.

94.Ibid.

95.Ibid., 190.

96.Noonan, Strange Career, 188.

97.Ibid., 208.

98.Die Welt, September 16, 1952, 8.

99.Walter Felsenstein to Mr. Munsing, September 23, 1952, Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 4053.

100.John Harper Taylor, “Ambassadors of the Arts: An Analysis of the Eisenhower Administration’s Incorporation of Porgy and Bess into Its Cold War Foreign Policy” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 1994), 89.

101.Telegram from Robert Breen to Rose Tobias, December 22, 1954, Ohio State University, Jerome Lawrence and Robert Lee Theatre Research Institute, Robert Breen Archives, box F27, 3 of 3, folder P&B “Public Relations Near East Publicity.” Quoted in Noonan, “Porgy and Bess,” 211.

102.Wiener Kurier, September 4, 1952, 3.

103.Mari Yoshihara, “The Flight of the Japanese Butterfly: Orientalism, Nationalism, and Performances of Japanese Womanhood,” American Quarterly 56, no. 4 (2004): 981.

104.“Berlin Loves ‘Bess’ as Much as ‘Porgy,’ ” New York Times, September 18, 1952, 36.

105.Ibid.

106.Süddeutsche Zeitung, September 23, 1952, 2.

107.Die Presse, September 10, 1952, 6.

108.Noonan, Strange Career, 188.

109.“Berlin Loves ‘Bess,’ ” 36.

110.Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1998), 21.

111.Dale O. Smith, “Letter to Robert Breen,” April 30, 1955, Ohio State University, Jerome Lawrence and Robert Lee Theatre Research Institute, Robert Breen Archives, box 22. Quoted in Taylor, “Ambassadors of the Arts,” 98.

112.Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Supplemental Appropriation—Funds Appropriated to the President: Communication From the President of the United States,” microfiche, Miscellaneous Senate Documents, Senate Documents, vol. 9, 83rd Congress, 2nd session (Washington, DC: GPO, 1954), 2. Quoted in Taylor, “Ambassadors of the Arts,” 99.

113.“Porgy and Bess Helps Spread Supremacy Myth,” Norfolk Journal and Guide, December 18, 1954, Ohio State University, Jerome Lawrence and Robert Lee Theatre Research Institute, Robert Breen Archives, box F106 (1 of 4), scrapbook “P&B International 1954–55.” Quoted in Noonan, “Porgy and Bess,” 238.

114.Moritz Ege and Andrew Wright Hurley, “Introduction: Special Issue on Afro-Americanophilia in Germany,” Portal 12, no. 2 (2015): 1–14.

115.Thacker, Music after Hitler, 96.

116.Story, And So I Sing, 181.

117.General-Anzeiger Wuppertal, February 10, 1958.

118.Unnamed newspaper, February 17, 1958, Akademie der Künste Archives, Ebert 103.

119.Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy, 121.

120.Gregor, “Bruckner,” 114.

8. Breaking with the Past

1.Spelman College Archives, Josephine Harreld Love Collection, box 27, folder 31, June 18–August 1953.

2.Der Spiegel, September 29, 1967. Quoted in Emily Richmond Pollock, “ ‘To Do Justice to Opera’s “Monstrosity” ’: Bernd Alois Zimmermann’s Die Soldaten,” Opera Quarterly 30, no. 1 (2014): 89.

3.Wieland Wagner, The Ring at Bayreuth: Some Thoughts on Operatic Production (London: Gollancz, 1966), 110. Emphasis added. For a longer history of Wagner reception in Germany, see Sven Oliver Müller, Richard Wagner und die Deutschen: Eine Geschichte von Hass und Hingabe (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2013).

4.Emily Richmond Pollock, Opera after the Zero Hour: The Problem of Tradition and the Possibility of Renewal in Postwar West Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019).

5.David Levin, Unsettling Opera: Staging Mozart, Verdi, Wagner, and Zemlinsky (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 1

6.“Muriel Rahn Named German Music Head,” Afro-American, October 31, 1959, 15.

7.Wallace Cheatham and Sylvia Lee, “Lady Sylvia Speaks,” Black Music Research Journal 16, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 206.

8.Andreas Lang, ed., Chronik der Wiener Staatsoper, 1945 bis 2005: Aufführungen, Besetzungen und Künstlerverzeichnis (Vienna: Löcker, 2006). Additionally, Black singers such as Anne Brown, Theresa Greene, and Georgia Laster also had careers in Austria in the 1940s and 1950s. Brown sang in Vienna in 1946.

9.Nash, Autobiographical Reminiscences, 257.

10.Damani Partridge, “We Were Dancing in the Club, Not on the Berlin Wall: Black Bodies, Street Bureaucrats, and Exclusionary Incorporation into the New Europe,” Cultural Anthropology 23, no. 4 (November 2008): 660–87; Uta Poiger, Jazz, Rock, and Rebels: Cold War Politics and American Culture in a Divided Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).

11.See Maria Höhn, GIs and Fräuleins: The German-American Encounter in 1950s West Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Höhn and Klimke, Breath of Freedom; Schroer, Recasting Race; Petra Goedde, GIs and Germans: Culture, Gender, and Foreign Relations, 1945–49 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003).

12.Nash, Autobiographical Reminiscences, 287.

13.Wallace Cheatham and George Shirley, “A Renowned Divo Speaks,” The Black Perspective in Music 18, no. 1/2 (1990): 131.

14.Hella Pick, Guilty Victim: Austria from the Holocaust to Haider (London: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 2000); Günter Bischof and Anton Pelinka, eds., Austrian Historical Memory & National Identity (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1997); Peter Thaler, The Ambivalence of Identity: The Austrian Experience of Nation-Building in a Modern Society (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2001).

15.Heidemarie Uhl, “Of Heroes and Victims: World War II in Austrian Memory” in Austrian History Yearbook 42 (April 2011): 186.

16.Matti Bunzl, Symptoms of Modernity: Jews and Queers in Late-Twentieth-Century Vienna (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 36.

17.Pick, Guilty Victim, 96. Quoted in Hilary Hope Herzog, Vienna is Different: Jewish Writers in Austria from the Fin de Siècle to the Present (New York: Berghahn, 2011).

18.Ingrid Bauer, “ ‘Die Amis, die Ausländer und wir’: Zur Erfahrung und Produktion von Eigenem und Fremdem im Jahrzent nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg,” in Walz—Migration—Besatzung: Historische Szenarien des Eigenen und des Fremden, edited by Ingrid Bauer, Josef Ehmer, and Sylvia Hahn (Klagenfurt: Drama, 2004), 234.

19.Ibid., 235.

20.Bunzl, Symptoms of Modernity, 23.

21.Ingrid Bauer, “ ‘Leiblicher Vater: Amerikaner (Neger)’: Besatzungskinder österreichisch-afroamerikanischer Herkunft” in Früchte der Zeit: Afrika, Diaspora, Literatur und Migration, ed. Helmuth A. Niederle (Vienna: WUV Universitätsverlag, 2001), 59.

22.Bauer, “Die Amis,” 255.

23.Historisches Archiv der Stadt Salzburg, Aktenbestand Jugendamt/Fürsorge F4, Ordner 70, R.A. Mündelbericht 1953 and Aktennotiz 1955. Quoted in Bauer, “Leiblicher Vater,” 60.

24.Konrad Jarausch, After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, 1945–95 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 14.

25.Sieg, Ethnic Drag, 84–85.

26.Leslie Adelson, “Touching Tales of Turks, Germans, and Jews: Cultural Alterity, Historical Narrative, and Literary Riddles for the 1990s,” New German Critique 80, (Spring/Summer 2000): 100.

27.In a contemporary context, that means that those who can remember the Nazi past directly or have family who can are given the full weight of citizenship and status, as opposed to so-called immigrants and outsiders, who still function as referents to the Holocaust, objects that function as stand-ins, substitutions, or metonyms for a violent past that white Germans must atone for and never forget, but never as subjects in this process of nationalizing memory themselves. Writing about the paradox of German memory culture, Michael Rothberg and Yasemin Yildiz explain, “It has seemed necessary to preserve an ethnically homogenous notion of German identity in order to ensure Germans’ responsibility for the crimes of the recent past, even though that very notion of ethnicity was one of the sources of those crimes.” Rothberg and Yildiz, “Memory Citizenship: Migrant Archives of Holocaust Remembrance in Contemporary Germany,” Parallax 17, no. 4 (2011): 35.

28.Calico, Arnold Schoenberg’s “A Survivor from Warsaw,” 28.

29.Layne, White Rebels, 35.

30.Fenner, Race Under Reconstruction, 158.

31.Adelson, “Touching Tales,” 99.

32.Damani Partridge, “Holocaust Mahnmal (Memorial): Monumental Memory amidst Contemporary Race,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 52, no. 4 (2010): 835.

33.Sieg, Ethnic Drag, 10.

34.Frankfurter Rundschau, July 26, 1961, 14.

35.Chicago Daily Tribune, July 23, 1961, 22.

36.Robert Jacobson, “Collard Greens and Caviar,” Opera News, August 1985. Quoted in Nash, Autobiographical Reminiscences, 230.

37.Richard Osborne, Herbert von Karajan: A Life in Music (London: Chatto & Windus, 1998), 454. Also, this strategy is dangerous and puts Black people at risk. A few years earlier, the Black soprano Theresa Greene had been denied a hotel room in Salzburg because she was Black.

38.New York Amsterdam News, November 9, 1935. She supposedly performed with the Vienna State Opera but no record of her performances exists in Lang’s Chronik der Wiener Staatsoper.

39.George Shirley, “The Black Performer: It’s Been a Long, Hard Road from the Minstrels to the Met,” Opera News, January 30, 1971. Quoted in Nash, Autobiographical Reminiscences, 148.

40.Cheatham, Dialogues, xi.

41.“Madame Butterfly in Schwarz,” Wiener Journal, April 20, 1955, 5.

42.Ibid.

43.Nash, Autobiographical Reminiscences, 175.

44.“Grossartige Butterfly,” Neues Österreich, April 20, 1955.

45.André, Black Opera, 16

46.Heide Fehrenbach, Race after Hitler: Black Occupation Children in Postwar Germany and America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 176.

47.Laura Baum, Katharina Oguntoye, and May Opitz, “Three Afro-German Women in Conversation with Dagmar Schultz: The First Exchange for This Book,” in Showing Our Colors: Afro-German Women Speak Out (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 145.

48.Priscilla Layne, “ ‘Don’t Look So Sad Because You’re a Little Negro’: Marie Nejar, Afro-German Stardom, and Negotiations with Black Subjectivity,” Palimpsest: A Journal on Women, Gender, and the Black International 4, no. 2 (2015): 182.

49.Fehrenbach, Race after Hitler, 179–80.

50.Ika Hügel-Marshall, Invisible Woman: Growing up Black in Germany, trans. Elizabeth Gaffney (New York: Peter Lang, 2008), 8–9; 21; 42–45.

51.A. M. Nagler, Misdirection: Opera Production in the Twentieth Century (Hamden: Archon Books, 1981), 89.

52.André, Black Opera, 5.

53.DIE ZEIT, October 6, 1961, 14.

54.Nagler, Misdirection, 89.

55.Osborne, Herbert von Karajan, 456.

56.Story, And So I Sing, 149. In fact, having no German pieces in her repertoire, she auditioned with the Italian aria “O don fatale” from Verdi’s Don Carlo.

57.Chicago Daily Tribune, July 22, 1961, 22.

58.Friedelind Wagner to Walter Felsenstein, October 1960, Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 4322.

59.Geoffrey Skelton, Wagner at Bayreuth: Experiment and Tradition (London: White Lion, 1976), 173.

60.Oswald Georg Bauer, Richard Wagner: The Stage Designs and Productions from the Premieres to the Present (New York: Rizzoli, 1983), 97.

61.Skelton, Wagner at Bayreuth, 174. Emphasis added.

62.Geoffrey Skelton, Wieland Wagner: The Positive Sceptic (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1971), 157.

63.Die Kölnische Rundschau, July 25, 1961.

64.Martin Bernheimer, “Die Schwarze Venus,” Opera News, October 28, 1961.

65.T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting, Black Venus: Sexualized Savages, Primal Fears, and Primitive Narratives in French (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), 3.

66.Gilman, Difference and Pathology, 83, 101.

67.New York Times, July 22, 1961, 12. Emphasis added.

68.Fehrenbach, Race after Hitler, 181.

69.Cheatham and Lee, “Lady Sylvia Speaks,” 207. Similarly, on June 4, 1961, Bumbry’s teacher Lotte Lehmann wrote to the Chicago Daily Tribune’s music critic Claudia Cassidy to notify her that Bumbry would be singing at Bayreuth but not in white makeup. “She wanted to know if I will be at the opening of Bayreuth [on] July 23 when Grace Bumbry—and you can be quite sure not in whitened makeup—sings Venus in Wieland Wagner’s new production of Tannhäuser.”

70.Margalit Fox, “Camilla Williams, Barrier-Breaking Opera Star, Dies at 92,” New York Times, February 2, 2012.

71.DIE ZEIT’s music critic aptly called Wieland Wagner’s agenda the “De-Wagnering of Wagner.” “Die Entwagnerung Wagners,” DIE ZEIT, August 4, 1961.

72.André, Black Opera, 14.

73.Cheatham, Dialogues, 104.

74.André, Black Opera, 15.

75.“Äthioperin aus Amerika in der Staatsoper,” Neues Österreich, September 15, 1961.

76.“Staatsoper: Aida im Dunkeln,” Heute, June 7, 1958.

77.Der Kurier, September 30, 1961, 9.

78.“Dunkle Butterfly: Negersängerin Camilla Williams begeistert in der Volksoper,” Österreichische Neue Tageszeitung, April 20, 1955, 5.

79.“Leontine Price als Butterfly,” Das Kleine Volksblatt, September 27, 1960.

80.Private interview between Wallace and Frierson in the chapter, “Andrew Frierson: A Singer Speaks Out on Racism and Other Issues,” in Cheatham, Dialogues, 13.

81.Bayreuther Stadtzeitung, February 14, 1961.

82.Berliner Morgenpost, January 26, 1958.

83.Der Tagesspiegel, February 8, 1958.

84.Der Kurier, September 30, 1961, 9.

85.Die Welt, February 18, 1958.

86.Der Kurier, February 7, 1958.

87.Lang, Chronik der Wiener Staatsoper, 672.

88.Wiener Journal, April 28, 1959.

89.Österreichische Neue Tageszeitung, September 16, 1959.

90.Wiener Journal, April 28, 1959.

91.Österreichische Neue Tageszeitung, September 16, 1959.

92.Das Kleine Volksblatt, April 28,1959.

93.Heinrich Kralik, Neues Wiener Tagblatt, April 30, 1923, 3.

94.Die Tat, Zurich, September 2, 1961.

95.Deutscher Anzeiger, February 15, 1961.

96.“Zwiespältige ‘Carmen’ mit turbulentem Echo,” Der Tagesspiegel, February 8, 1958.

97.“Carmen in der Städtische Oper,” Der Tagesspiegel, February 23, 1958. Sieglinde Wagner (no relation to Richard, Wieland, or Wolfgang Wagner) had performed in Carmen in 1953.

98.Ibid.

99.Der Kurier, February 13, 1958.

100.Peter Ebert, In This Theatre of Man’s Life: The Biography of Carl Ebert, 214.

101.Die Tat [Zurich], September 2, 1961.

102.“Carmen in der Städtische Oper,” Der Tagesspiegel, February 23, 1958.

103.Deutscher Anzeiger, February 15, 1961.

104.“Nochmals, Schwarze Venus von Bayreuth,” Deutscher Anzeiger, March 1, 1961.

105.Ibid.

106.Kölnische Rundschau, July 25, 1961.

107.Ibid.

108.Shirley Verrett and Christopher Brooks, I Never Walked Alone: The Autobiography of an American Singer (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2003), 62–63.

109.George Shirley, “Il Rodolfo Nero, or The Masque of Blackness” in Blackness in Opera, 261.

110.Cheatham and Lee, “Lady Sylvia Speaks,” 206.

111.Cheatham and Shirley, “A Renowned Divo Speaks,” 43.

112.Jason Oby, Equity in Operatic Casting as Perceived by African American Male Singers (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1998), 43.

113.Annabelle Bernard papers, 1956–2001, Tulane University, Amistad Research Center, accessed November 17, 2019, https://www.amistadresearchcenter.org/single-post/2018/06/11/A-Shining-Star-Soprano-Annabelle-Bernard.

9. Singing in the Promised Land

1.“DDR ehrt den Sänger der Völkerfreundschaft,” Neues Deutschland, October 6, 1960, 1.

2.Ned Richardson Little, The Human Rights Dictatorship: Socialism, Global Solidarity and Revolution in East Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019).

3.Quinn Slobodian, Comrades of Color: East Germany in the Cold War World (New York: Berghahn, 2015); Jan C. Behrends, Thomas Lindenberger, Patrice G. Poutrus, eds., Fremde und Fremd-Sein in der DDR: zu historischen Ursachen der Fremdenfeindlichkeit in Ostdeutschland (Berlin: Metropol, 2003); Peggy Piesche, “Black and German? East German Adolescents Before 1989: A Retrospective View of a ‘Non-Existent Issue’ in the GDR,” in The Cultural After-Life of East Germany: New Transnational Perspectives, ed. Leslie A. Adelson (Washington, DC: American Institute of Contemporary Studies, 2002), 37–59.

4.Mike Dennis and Norman LaPorte, State and Minorities in Communist East Germany (New York: Berghahn, 2011), 1–27.

5.Jeffrey Herf, Divided Memory: The Nazi Past in the Two Germanys (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 106–61; Thomas C. Fox, Stated Memory: East Germany and the Holocaust (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 1998), 69–96.

6.Dennis and LaPorte, State and Minorities, 112.

7.Sara Lennox, “Reading Transnationally: The GDR and Black American Writers” in Art Outside The Lines: New Perspectives on GDR Art Culture, eds. Elaine Kelly and Amy Wlodarski (New York: Rodopi, 2011), 112, 113–14.

8.Hamilton Beck, “Censoring Your Ally: W.E.B. Du Bois in the German Democratic Republic,” in Crosscurrents: African Americans, Africa, and Germany in the Modern World, eds. David McBride, Leroy Hopkins, and Carol Aisha Blackshire-Belay (Columbia, SC: Camden House, 1998), 197–232.

9.Duberman, Paul Robeson, 227–28.

10.Mead Dodd, ed., Paul Robeson: The Great Forerunner (New York: International Publishers, 1985), 76.

11.Duberman, Paul Robeson, 389–432.

12.Unidentified East German newspaper, July 12, 1949, Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichterfelde, SgY 30/1021/2 (3 of 5).

13.Ibid.

14.“Hohe Ehrungen für Robeson,” Der Morgen, October 6, 1960, 1.

15.“Paul Robeson, ihr grosser schwarzer Freund,” Berliner Zeitung am Abend, October 10, 1960, 4.

16.Layne, White Rebels, 18. In a poll conducted in West Germany in the 1960s, Layne writes, “87% of white German men polled expressed interest in having a Black friend.”

17.“Paul Robeson in Berlin,” Berliner Zeitung am Abend, October 5, 1960, 3.

18.Neue Zeit, October 8, 1960.

19.Joel Agee, Twelve Years: An American Boyhood in East Germany (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1981), 313–14.

20.See Elaine Kelly, Composing the Canon in the German Democratic Republic (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014); Joy Calico, “ ‘Für eine neue deutsche Nationaloper’: Opera in the Discourses of Unification and Legitimation in the German Democratic Republic,” in Music and German National Identity, eds. Celia Applegate and Pamela Potter (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); David Tompkins, “Sound and Socialist Identity: Negotiating the Musical Soundscape in the Stalinist GDR,” in Germany in the Loud Twentieth Century: An Introduction, eds. Florence Feiereisen and Alexandra Merley (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

21.Margarete Myers Feinstein, State Symbols: The Quest for Legitimacy in the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, 1949–59 (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2001); Heiner Stahl, “Mediascape and Soundscape: Two Landscapes of Modernity in Cold War Berlin,” in Berlin: Divided City, 1945–89, eds. Philip Broadbent and Sabine Hake (New York: Berghahn, 2010); Tompkins, “Sound and Socialist Identity,” 111.

22.Tompkins, 111.

23.See Margaret Notley, Lateness and Brahms: Music and Culture in the Twilight of Viennese Liberalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); Helmut Gruber, Red Vienna: Experiment in Working-Class Culture, 1919–34 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).

24.Elizabeth Janik, Recomposing German Music: Politics and Tradition in Cold War Berlin (Boston: Brill, 2005), 221–28.

25.Laura Silverberg, “(Re)defining the Musical Heritage: Confrontations with Tradition in East German New Music,” in Contested Legacies: Constructions of Cultural Heritage in the GDR, ed. Matthew Philpotts and Sabine Rolle (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2009), 125.

26.Frank Schneider, “Beethoven-Konferenz des deutschen Kulturbundes in Potsdam,” Musik und Gesellschaft, 20, no. 1 (1970): 7. Quoted in David Dennis, Beethoven in German Politics, 1870–1989 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), 181.

27.Dennis, Beethoven in German Politics, 179.

28.Matthew Philpotts and Sabine Rolle, “Introduction,” in Contested Legacies: Constructions of Cultural Heritage in the GDR, ed. Matthew Philpotts and Sabine Rolle (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2009), 1.

29.Toby Thacker, “ ‘Renovating’ Bach and Handel: New Musical Biographies in the German Democratic Republic,” in Musical Biography: Towards New Paradigms, ed. Jolanta T. Pekacz (Burlington: Ashgate, 2006).

30.Elaine Kelly, “Imagining Richard Wagner: The Janus Head of a Divided Nation,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 9, no. 4 (Fall 2008): 826.

31.Elaine Kelly, “Performing Diplomatic Relations: Music and East German Foreign Policy in the Middle East during the Late 1960s,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 72, no. 2 (2019): 496–97.

32.Sächsische Neueste Nachrichten, September 21, 1989.

33.Der Neue Weg [Magdeburg], December 22, 1959; unnamed newspaper [Halle], November 1959. Private collection of Sonja Ibrahim.

34.Die Union, September 29, 1961.

35.Leipziger Volkszeitung, March 15, 1959. Private collection of Sonja Ibrahim.

36.Ibid.

37.Ibid.

38.See Wipplinger, Jazz Republic.

39.Leipziger Volkszeitung, March 15, 1959.

40.Elaine Kelly, “Music for International Solidarity: Performances of Race and Otherness in the German Democratic Republic,” Twentieth Century Music 16, no. 1 (2019): 137.

41.Deborah Burton, Susan Vandiver Nicassio, and Agostino Ziino, eds., Tosca’s Prism: Three Moments of Western Cultural History (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2004); Alexandra Wilson, The Puccini Problem: Opera, Nationalism, and Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

42.Grove Music Online, s.v. “Tosca,” by Julian Budden, accessed November 18, 2019. https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-5000005948

43.Catherine Clement, Opera, or, The Undoing of Women, trans. Betsy Wing (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Susan McClary, Feminine Endings: Music, Gender, and Sexuality, 2nd ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002).

44.Grove Music Online, s.v. “Tosca.”

45.Berliner Zeitung, “Der Geist von Bonn,” July 23, 1961, 6.

46.Ibid.

47.Die Welt, February 7, 1958.

48.Berliner Zeitung (Ostsektor), February 8, 1958. “Ob solche Leute aus Westberlin auch ein Little Rock machen wollten?”

49.Berliner Morgenpost, February 9, 1958.

50.“Die dunkelhäutige Venus,” Neue Zeit, July 26, 1961, 4.

51.“Schostakowitsch-Kogan-Byrd: Konzert im Zeichen der Völkerfreundschaft,” Berliner Zeitung, April 10, 1961. “Fraternity of peoples” (Völkerfreundschaft) was a popular Stalinist-era term.

52.Sächsische Neueste Nachrichten, September 16, 1961.

53.“For Black Conductors, A Future? Or Frustration?” New York Times, March 15, 1970.

54.Berliner Zeitung, September 8, 1961.

55.Ronald E. Mitchell, Opera—Dead or Alive: Production, Performance, and Enjoyment of Musical Theater (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970), 34.

56.“Ein Sommernachtstraum: Zu Walter Felsensteins Inszenierung in der Komischen Oper,” Berliner Zeitung am Abend, July 10, 1961, 3.

57.Die Neue Zeit, July 8, 1961.

58.Mitchell, Opera—Dead or Alive, 285.

59.My italics. “Mittsommernachtszauber der Opernbühne: Benjamin Britten-Erstaufführung bei Felsenstein,” unnamed newspaper, Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 1015.

60.In order: Berliner Zeitung, July 8, 1961; unnamed newspaper, Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 1015; Der Morgen, July 8, 1961; “Im Zauberwald der Töne: Brittens ‘Sommernachtstraum’ in der Komischen Oper,” unnamed newspaper, Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 1015.

61.“Mittsommernachtszauber der Opernbühne: Benjamin Britten-Erstaufführung bei Felsenstein,” Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 1015.

62.“Wenn Phantasie im Spiel ist: ‘Ein Sommernachtstraum,’ Oper von Britten und Pears, inszeniert von Walter Felsenstein,” unnamed newspaper, Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 1015.

63.Internal document of Komische Oper Berlin, Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 999. Emphasis added.

64.Roger Freitas, Portrait of a Castrato: Politics, Patronage, and Music in the Life of Atto Melani (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

65.Walter Felsenstein to William Ray, July 4, 1961, Akademie der Künste Archives, Felsenstein 324.

66.Peter Paul Fuchs, ed. and trans., The Music Theater of Walter Felsenstein: Collected Articles, Speeches, and Interviews (New York: Norton, 1975).

67.The African American leads were Carolyn Smith-Meyer and Cullen Maiden, as reported in the Christian Science Monitor, February 20, 1970.

68.Letter from Václav David, Czechoslovak minister of foreign affairs, to Anna Baramova, head of the international department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, trans. Kathleen Geaney, National Archives of the Czech Republic, Prague, KSC–UV–100/3, sv. 178, aj. 603: 42–47. The letter was marked “Secret!” and “Urgent!” Many thanks to Geaney for procuring this document.

69.Ibid.

70.Ibid.