Notes to Chapter 4 / “The Palladium of Our Liberties”: Freedom of the Press in the Old Northwest, 1837–1848

1. National Anti-Slavery Standard, December 1, 1842.

2. National Anti-Slavery Standard, December 30, 1841.

3. Benedict R. O’G. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983); Pasley, “The Tyranny of Printers,” 11.

4. Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 4, 13; McCarthy and Stauffer, “Introduction,” in Prophets of Protest, xxi. Among the papers consulted for this book were the Salem (Ohio) Anti-Slavery Bugle, the Cambridge and New Concord (Ohio) Clarion of Freedom, the New Garden (Indiana) Free Labor Advocate and Protectionist, the Galesburg (Illinois) Free Democrat, the Boston Liberator, the New York National Anti-Slavery Standard, the Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, the Richmond (Indiana) Palladium, and the Chicago Western Citizen.

5. Carol Sue Humphrey, The Press of the Young Republic, 1783–1833, The History of American Journalism (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996), 27.

6. William Lloyd Garrison, “My Second Baltimore Trial,” The Liberator, January 1, 1831; John C. Nerone, Violence against the Press: Policing the Public Sphere in U.S. History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 224–25.

7. Schudson, Discovering the News, 43.

8. Ibid., 16; Kooker, “The Anti-Slavery Movement in Michigan,” 200; Sallie Holley and John White Chadwick, A Life for Liberty: Anti-Slavery and Other Letters of Sallie Holley (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1899), 94; Benjamin Stanton, “Editor’s Excursion,” Free Labor Advocate and Anti-Slavery Chronicle, February 23, 1842; Erasmus Hudson, “From Sherman, St. Joseph’s County, Michigan,” National Anti-Slavery Standard, November 25, 1841; E. D. Hudson, “From Delaware, Ohio,” National Anti-Slavery Standard, February 17, 1842.

9. Western Citizen, September 16, 1842.

10. Nye, Fettered Freedom, 94.

11. Nicholas Marshall, “The Rural Newspaper and the Circulation of Information and Culture in New York and the Antebellum North,” New York History (Spring 2007): 133.

12. Jane Rhodes, Mary Ann Shadd Cary: The Black Press and Protest in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 131, 220–21.

13. Pasley, “The Tyranny of Printers,” 3–4; William E. Gienapp, “‘Politics Seem to Enter into Everything’: Political Culture in the North, 1840–1860,” in Essays on American Antebellum Politics, 1840–1860, ed. Stephen E. Maizlish and John J. Kushma (Arlington: University of Texas at Arlington Press, 1982), 41–42.

14. Western Citizen, July 27, 1843.

15. Rodgers, “Rights Consciousness in American History,” 3–4.

16. James T. Kloppenberg, The Virtues of Liberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 15.

17. Lyrissa Barnett Lidsky and R. George Wright, Freedom of the Press: A Reference Guide to the United States Constitution (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 5.

18. Arthur Tappan et al., Address to the Public, Issued by the Executive Committee of the American Antislavery Society, September 3, 1835 (New York).

19. Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 452; Miller, Arguing About Slavery.

20. Michael Kent Curtis, Free Speech, “The People’s Darling Privilege:” Struggles for Freedom of Expression in American History (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000), 4, 250–51; Portnoy, Their Right to Speak, 186; Zaeske, Signatures of Citizenship, 3. The attacks on James G. Birney’s Cincinnati Philanthropist in 1836 have been explored in detail elsewhere, and both Cincinnati’s large size and its established African American community place it outside of the scope of this study. In 1840, Alton had 2,340 residents, while Cincinnati had 46,338. Peoria had 1,467 in 1840 and 5,562 ten years later, while Cambridge had 1,845 in 1840 and 2,488 in 1850. Niles’ National Register, October 23, 1841, vol. 61, 113; Thomas Baldwin and J. Thomas, New And Complete Gazetteer of the United States (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo, and Co., 1854), 181; An Accompaniment to Mitchell’s Reference and Distance Map of the United States (Philadelphia: S. Augustus Mitchell, 1845), 102; Taylor, Frontiers of Freedom, 110–12; Nye, Fettered Freedom, 106–7.

21. Curtis, Free Speech, 217, 228, 232, 251.

22. Ibid., 5–6, 117, 164–65, 171, 176. Freedom of the press was of course also a highly volatile subject in the Old South.

23. Nye, Fettered Freedom, 155; Waldrep, The Many Faces of Judge Lynch, 45.

24. Elijah Parish Lovejoy to Elizabeth Lovejoy, 14 February 1834, Elijah Parish Lovejoy Papers, Southwest Collection, Texas Tech University (hereafter cited as Lovejoy Papers).

25. Nye, Fettered Freedom, 115–16.

26. Ibid., 115–16; Henry Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, an Account of the Life, Trials, and Perils of Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy, Who Was Killed by a Pro-Slavery Mob at Alton, Illinois, the Night of November 7, 1837. By an Eye-Witness [Henry Tanner] (1881; reprint, New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1971), 40, 51–52.

27. Alton Observer, September 27, 1837.

28. Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 108, 110, 117–18.

29. Ibid., 71–72, 128–29; William L. Stewart to Elijah Parish Lovejoy, 20 July 1836, Lovejoy Papers; Romulus Barnes to Elijah Parish Lovejoy, 11 September 1837, Lovejoy Papers; Isaac Gallard to Elijah Parish Lovejoy, 5 October 1837, Lovejoy Papers; Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, January 27, 1838.

30. Mark Allen Cyr, “‘I Would Not Be a Master’: Democracy and the Political Culture of Mastery in Illinois, 1837–1858” (PhD diss., Washington University, 2003), 21; Waldrep, The Many Faces of Judge Lynch, 47, 50.

31. Michael Feldberg, The Turbulent Era: Riot and Disorder in Jacksonian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 110–11.

32. Cyrall Cady to Julius A. Willard, 15 November 1837, Samuel Willard Papers, Manuscript Collection, Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library, Springfield, Illinois (hereafter cited as Willard Papers); Elijah Lovejoy quoted in Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 130–32.

33. See also William A. White, Liberator, October 13, 1843; Western Citizen, August 17, 1843; August 8, 1844.

34. Human Rights, December 1837, vol. 3, no. 6.

35. Illinois Anti-Slavery Convention, Proceedings of the Illinois Anti-Slavery Convention: Held at Upper Alton on the Twenty-Sixth, Twenty-Seventh, and Twenty-Eighth October 1837 (Alton: Parks and Breath, 1838), 6, 3, 10, 20, 14, 22. [Italics in original]

36. Ibid., 10, 9; Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 135.

37. Illinois Anti-Slavery Convention, Proceedings, 22, 28–29, 31, 34.

38. Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity (New York: Norton, 1976), 300 n. 7; Proceedings of the Illinois State Convention of Colored Men, Assembled at Galesburg, October 16th, 17th, and 18th. Containing the State and National Addresses Promulgated by It, with a List of the Delegates Composing It, October 1866. Published by Order of the Convention, in Proceedings of the Black National and State Conventions, vol. 1, 275.

39. Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 136–37.

40. Ibid., 138–39.

41. Human Rights, December 1837, vol. 3, no. 6.

42. Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 146–47, 138–39.

43. Cyr, “‘I Would Not Be a Master,’” 67.

44. John M. Krum, letter to Alton Spectator, November 8, 1837, reprinted Human Rights, December 1837, vol. 3, no. 6; Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, December 16, 1837; Samuel Willard, “The Riot in Alton, Ill. Nov. 7. 1837,” December 25, 1879, Manuscript Collection, Chicago History Museum, Chicago, Illinois.

45. Krum, letter to Alton Spectator.

46. Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 155–56.

47. Ibid., 149–50, 155, 156.

48. Krum, letter to Alton Spectator.

49. William Sever Lincoln, Alton Trials of Winthrop S. Gilman, Who Was Indicted with Enoch Long, Amos B. Roff, George H. Walworth, George H. Whitney, William Harned, John S. Noble, James Morss, Jr., Henry Tanner, Royal Weller, Reuben Gerry, and Theodore B. Hurlbut; for the Crime of Riot, Committed on the Night of the 7th of November, 1837, While Engaged in Defending a Printing Press, from an Attack Made on It at That Time, by an Armed Mob. Written out from Notes of the Trial, Taken at the Time, by a Member of the Bar of the Alton Municipal Court. Also, the Trial of John Solomon, Levi Palmer, Horace Beall, Josiah Nutter, Jacob Smith, David Butler, William Carr, and James M. Rock, Indicted with James Jennings, Solomon Morgan, and Frederick Bruchy; for a Riot Committed in Alton, on the Night of the 7th of November, 1837, in Unlawfully and Forcibly Entering the Warehouse of Godfrey, Gilman, and Co., and Breaking up and Destroying a Printing Press. Written out from Notes Taken at the Time of Trial, by William S. Lincoln, a Member of the Bar of the Alton Municipal Court (New York: J. F. Trow, 1838); Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 231.

50. Lawrence J. Friedman, “Antebellum American Abolitionism and the Problem of Violent Means,” Psychohistory Review 9 (1980): 29, 31, 32.

51. Richards, “Gentlemen of Property and Standing,” Blue, No Taint of Compromise, 93; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion Volume Two, Secessionists Triumphant: 1854–1861 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 288–89; Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, 467.

52. In an 1838 memoir written by his brothers, they refer to Elijah Lovejoy as “The first American Martyr to THE FREEDOM OF THE PRESS, AND THE FREEDOM OF THE SLAVE.” Joseph C. Lovejoy and Owen Lovejoy, Memoir of the Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy; Who Was Murdered in Defence of the Liberty of the Press, at Alton, Illinois, November 7, 1837 (1838; reprint, Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1970), 12. For later examples of this argument, see Paul Simon, Freedom’s Champion: Elijah Lovejoy (Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994); John Gill, Tide without Turning: Elijah P. Lovejoy and Freedom of the Press (Boston: Starr King Press, 1958). Contemporaries wrote of him in these terms in antislavery newspapers, and ordinary people in the region also extensively chronicled the events at Alton in their private correspondence. Cady to Willard, 15 November 1837, Willard Papers; E. Russell to Mr. John Bachelder, 19 January 1838, Manuscript Collection, Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library, Springfield, Illinois.

53. Johnson, The Liberty Party, 201–2, 190, 92.

54. Spencer Diaries, 25 February 1847; Blanchard, Memoir of Rev. Levi Spencer, 116–17; Nye, Fettered Freedom, 175; Feldberg, The Turbulent Era, 52.

55. Taylor et al., “Freedom of Speech Suppressed,” 4–5.

56. Sellers, The Market Revolution, 388.

57. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, May 13, 1837.

58. Arnold Buffum, The Protectionist, August 7, 1841. Benjamin Stanton took over the Free Labor Advocate after one year. Hamm, God’s Government Begun, 53; Oliver N. Huff, “Old Newport: A Paper Read by Dr. O. N. Huff. Before the Wayne County Historical Society,” Manuscript Collection, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis, Indiana.

59. The Protectionist, January 1, 1841.

60. Muelder, Fighters for Freedom, 176.

61. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, May 13, 1837; July 14, 1840; April 21, 1838; August 14, 1840.

62. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, July 17, 1840; April 22, 1842; July 29, 1842; June 17, 1842.

63. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, July 29, 1842.

64. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, July 14, 1838; September 11, 1838; October 6, 1838; January 19, 1839; February 29, 1839; July 20, 1839; June 12, 1840; January 22, 1841; January 29, 1841; February 5, 1841; October 14, 1841; May 14, 1841; June 9, 1841; July 17, 1841; February 12, 1842; June 17, 1842.

65. See Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, December 14, 1839; February 1, 1840; February 18, 1843; March 4, 1842; “Abolition Movements,” May 13, 1842; “Abolition Movements,” May 20, 1842; July 15, 1842; August 5, 1842. Davis also published advertisements for liquor, despite being a strong advocate of temperance: Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, April 21, 1838; July 14, 21, 28, 1838; August 4, 11, 1838; September 8, 15, 1838; August 24, 31, 1839; September 7, 14, 21, 28, 1839; November 2, 1839; July 30, 1841.

66. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, September 27, 1837; December 2, 1837; December 9, 1837; December 16, 1837; January 27, 1838; August 31, 1839; October 14, 1837; September 8, 1838; Muelder, Fighters for Freedom, 175–76.

67. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, June 4, 1841. See also Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, February 1, 1840.

68. Among other issues, during the furor over the Amistad case from 1839 to 1841, Samuel H. Davis also reprinted material supporting the former slaves and their right to free themselves. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, December 16, 1837; November 27, 1840; April 2, 1841. Unsurprisingly, Mary Brown Davis also wrote articles supporting the crew. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, March 19, 1839; September 21, 1839; November 2, 1839; November 25, 1840.

69. “Abolition Movements,” Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, May 13, 1842; “Abolition Movements—Again,” Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, June 10, 1846.

70. Davis, Free Discussion Suppressed in Peoria, 2; Grimsted, American Mobbing, 1828–1861: Toward Civil War, 38.

71. Paula Glasman, “Zebina Eastman, Chicago Abolitionist” (master’s thesis, University of Chicago, 1968), 10, 12, 19.

72. Ibid., 20, 65.

73. Ibid., 36–37; Bennett, Forced into Glory, 320–23.

74. H. O. Wagoner to Hon. S. H. Kerfoot, 27 September 1884, Manuscript Collection, Chicago History Museum, Chicago, Illinois; Zebina Eastman to Ichabod Codding, 22 April 1857, Ichabod Codding Family Papers, Manuscript Collection, Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library, Springfield, Illinois; Glasman, “Zebina Eastman,” 51–52; William J. Simmons, Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising (Cleveland: Geo. M. Rewell and Co., 1887), 680, 681–82.

75. Genius of Universal Emancipation, July 26, 1839; Hersh, The Slavery of Sex, 62; Salerno, Sister Societies, 21.

76. Elizabeth R. Varon, We Mean to Be Counted: White Women and Politics in Antebellum Virginia, Gender and American Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 6.

77. Western Citizen, September 2, 1842; Davis, Scenes of Oppression in the Refined Circles of the South, 1, 5–6, 8.

78. Garman, “‘Altered Tone of Expression,’” 104; Schudson, Discovering the News, 14–15.

79. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, December 9, 1837; May 13, 1837; May 5, 1838; June 7, 1838; July 7, 1838; August 4, 1838; October 20, 1838; April 20, 1839; May 25, 1839; May 1, 1840; June 16, 1841; October 16, 1841; November 19, 1841; January 14, 1842; April 15, 1842; March 15, March 25, 1842; September 2, 1842; October 7, 1842; February 10, 1843; February 25, 1843.

80. Genius of Universal Emancipation, July 26, 1839.

81. Western Citizen, August 12, 1842; April 6, 1843.

82. Genius of Universal Emancipation, June 28, 1839.

83. Western Citizen, September 16, 1842.

84. Nell Irvin Painter, Sojourner Truth: A Life, a Symbol (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), 139.

85. Western Citizen, August 12, 1842; September 2, 1842; Genius of Universal Emancipation, June 28, 1839; Ruth Bogin and Jean Fagan Yellin, “Introduction,” in The Abolitionist Sisterhood, 9.

86. Western Citizen, September 2, 1842; Davis, Scenes of Oppression in the Refined Circles of the South, 1, 5–6, 8.

87. Western Citizen, January 4, 1844; February 8, 1844.

88. Western Citizen, January 25, 1844.

89. Western Citizen, August 17, 1843; September 16, 1842; January 6, 1843; April 6, 1843; June 6, 1844; June 20, 1844; August 8, 1844.

90. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, July 1, 1837; April 14, 1838.

91. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, August 19, 1842.

92. Taylor et al., “Freedom of Speech Suppressed,” 4.

93. Curtis, Free Speech, 250–51.

94. National Anti-Slavery Standard, April 13, 1843; Julius A. Willard to William T. Allan, 10 March 1843, Willard Papers; Muelder, Fighters for Freedom, 180.

95. National Anti-Slavery Standard, May 11, 1843.

96. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, September 23, 1842; Davis, Free Discussion Suppressed in Peoria, 2.

97. Davis, Free Discussion Suppressed in Peoria, 4; Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, February 17, 1843.

98. Peoria Democratic Press, February 15, 1843.

99. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, March 13, 1843; February 17, 1843; March 3, 1843.

100. Davis, Free Discussion Suppressed in Peoria, 6.

101. Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 231–32; History of Madison County, Illinois, 389.

102. National Anti-Slavery Standard, March 25, 1841; June 1, 1843; May 11, 1843.

103. Davis, Free Discussion Suppressed in Peoria, 6.

104. Ibid., 2–3; Western Citizen, February 23, 1843.

105. Davis, Free Discussion Suppressed in Peoria, 5.

106. Peoria Democratic Press, February 15, 1843.

107. The occupations of the leaders of this meeting are as follows: W. F. Bryan [attorney and investor in early banks]; Andrew Gray, Esq. [attorney and merchant]; William R. Hopkins [early industrialist, metal castings]; E. N. Powell [attorney]; N. H. Purple [attorney and judge]; John Rankin [owner, flour mills]. Simeon De Witt Drown, Drown’s Record and Historical View of Peoria from the Discovery by the French Jesuit Missionaries, in the Seventeenth Century, to the Present Time. Also, an Almanac for 1851, Calculated for the Latitude and Longitude of Peoria, Illinois (Peoria: E. O. Woodcock, 1851), 160–62; Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, April 7, 1837; Ballance, History of Peoria, Illinois, 119, 129–30.

108. Peoria Democratic Press, February 15, 1843.

109. “Putnam County,” Western Citizen, February 22, 1844; Samuel Willard to Almyra Willard, 12 March 1846, Willard Papers; Cyr, “‘I Would Not Be a Master,’” 7, 21, 37; Drown, Drown’s Record and Historical View of Peoria, 149; Muelder, Fighters for Freedom, 53, 91, 93–94, 96, 149, 178.

110. Peoria Democratic Press, February 15, 1843; Berwanger, The Frontier against Slavery, 36; Cruz and Berson, “The American Melting Pot.”

111. Census results as reported in Peoria Register, December 11, 1840.

112. Between August 4, 1859, and August 4, 1864, the Peoria Democratic Transcript published at least eleven articles related to local African American rights and discrimination. Adade Mitchell Wheeler, The Roads They Made: Women in Illinois History (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr Publishing Company, 1977), 24; Harris, The History of Negro Servitude in Illinois, 226–27.

113. National Convention of Colored Citizens, Minutes 1843; Jane H. Pease and William H. Pease, They Who Would Be Free: Blacks’ Search for Freedom, 1830–1861, Blacks in the New World (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 156.

114. Davis, Free Discussion Suppressed in Peoria, 2.

115. Ibid., 4.

116. Ibid., 7, 8.

117. Ibid., 7; Western Citizen, March 16, 1843; July 13, 1843; August 3, 1843; Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, March 3, 1843.

118. “To Honorable Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Illinois,” February, 1847, Samuel H. Davis File, Peoria Public Library, Peoria, Illinois.

119. Grimsted, American Mobbing, 1828–1861: Toward Civil War, xii; Davis, Frontier Illinois, 287.

120. Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy, 138–39.

121. Norman H. Purple was a prominent lawyer at the local and state levels. He served as a State Supreme Court Judge and Circuit Judge from 1844 to 1848. William L. May was an attorney who served one term in the Illinois legislature and two terms in the House of Representatives as a Democrat prior to coming to Peoria. Francis Voris was a pioneer merchant of Peoria who was elected to the Illinois House of Representatives in 1836 as a Democrat. Lincoln Brown Knowlton was a Whig who ran for local office in 1847, against Moses Pettingill [the Liberty candidate]. Biographical Encyclopaedia of Illinois of the Nineteenth Century (Philadelphia: Galaxy Publishing Company, 1875), 354–55; James M. Rice, Peoria City and County Illinois, a Record of Settlement, Organization, Progress, and Achievement, Illustrated (Chicago: The S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1912), 367–68, 372–75; David McCulloch, ed. History of Peoria County (Chicago and Peoria: Munsell Publishing Company,1901), 134; Ballance, History of Peoria, Illinois, 210–11.

122. Samuel H. Davis had formerly worked with mob members William F. Bryan and E. N. Powell in the Peoria Colonization Society. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, August 31, 1839; July 10, 1840.

123. Davis, Free Discussion Suppressed in Peoria, 2.

124. History of Peoria County Illinois (Chicago: Johnson and Company, 1880), 527; Drown, Drown’s Record and Historical View of Peoria, 160–62. Other attorneys included George Metcalfe, Elihu N. Powell, and William F. Bryan. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, August 31, 1839; July 10, 1840.

125. Feldberg, The Turbulent Era, 34.

126. Dillon, The Abolitionists, 26–27; Davis, Frontier Illinois, xviii.

127. Another merchant was Francis Voris, mentioned above; Lewis Howell was a banker, and William F. Bryan also invested in banks; Isaac Underhill was a “capitalist” who invested in the pork industry, internal improvements, and hotels. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, April 7, 1837; History of Peoria County Illinois, 527; Biographical Encyclopaedia of Illinois of the Nineteenth Century, 189; Ballance, History of Peoria, Illinois, 119, 129–30.

128. Earnest E. East, “History of Peoria,” 1946, Manuscript Collection, Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library, Springfield, Illinois, 4; H. L. Ellsworth, Illinois in 1837, 28, 49, 31.

129. Ellsworth, Illinois in 1837, 31; East, “History of Peoria,” 4.

130. Peoria Register and Northwestern Gazetteer, December 11, 1840; East, “History of Peoria” (c. 1950), GG1–3, KK1, DDD2; Ellsworth, Illinois in 1837, 34; Drown, Drown’s Record and Historical View of Peoria, 107; William T. [Allan?] Allen, “From a ‘Son of a Slaveholder,’” Liberator, August 25, 1843; Nation, At Home in the Hoosier Hills, 80; Paul Salstrom, From Pioneering to Perservering: Family Farming in Indiana to 1880 (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2007), 45–46.

131. Western Citizen, June 20, 1844.

132. Missouri Republican, May 11, 1846, reprinted in East, “History of Peoria” (c. 1950), S1 5, NN1; East, “History of Peoria” (1946), 7.

133. Western Citizen, May 20, 1846; June 3, 1846.

134. Johnson, The Liberty Party, 1840–1848, 333.

135. Spencer Diaries, 6, 7, 20 May 1846.

136. Western Citizen, July 7, 1846.

137. Nerone, Violence against the Press, 94. Erastus Hussey’s press in Battle Creek may have also suffered a similar attack in 1849. See Finkenbine, “A Beacon of Liberty on the Great Lakes,” 89.

138. Cyrus Parkinson Beatty Sarchet, History of Guernsey County, Ohio, vol. 1 (Indianapolis: B.F. Bowen & Company, 1911), 28, 40, 257, 267–68.

139. M. R. Hull, “Cambridge Mob Meeting,” Clarion of Freedom, September 17, 1847. [Emphasis in original.]

140. Clarion of Freedom, September 3, 1847; Volpe, Forlorn Hope of Freedom, 74.

141. “Prejudice against Color, or Caste,” Clarion of Freedom, May 31, 1847; Clarion of Freedom, September 3, 1847.

142. Clarion of Freedom, June 14, 1847; M. R. Hull, Clarion of Freedom, October 1, 1847; Clarion of Freedom, September 10, 1847; M. R. Hull, “Cambridge Mob Meeting,” Clarion of Freedom, September 17, 1847.

143. M. R. Hull, Clarion of Freedom, October 1, 1847; Isaac Oldham and Isaac Walker, Clarion of Freedom, September 17, 1847; J. W[olff], “Eggs-actly,” Clarion of Freedom, July 30, 1847; J. W[olff], “Too Hard,” Clarion of Freedom, August 13, 1847.

144. Clarion of Freedom, September 10, 1847; M. R. Hull, “Cambridge Mob Meeting,” Clarion of Freedom, September 17, 1847.

145. [Boston?] Chronotype quoted in Michigan Journal and Washingtonian Advocate, December 15, 1847.

146. These meetings were at Summerfield, Stafford, Adams, Knox, Monroe, Highland, and Liberty Townships, and New Concord, Ohio. Clarion of Freedom, September 10, 1847; September 17, 1847; C. Sullivan, Clarion of Freedom, September 17, 1847; Isaac Oldham and Isaac Walker, Clarion of Freedom, September 17, 1847; James Black and John Monroe, “Public Meeting,” Clarion of Freedom, September 24, 1847; A. N. Milligan and John C. Walker, “Public Meeting,” Clarion of Freedom, October 15, 1847; W. H. Berry and W. F. George, Clarion of Freedom, December 24, 1847; M. R. Hull, “Cambridge Mob Meeting,” Clarion of Freedom, September 17, 1847; M. R. Hull, Clarion of Freedom, October 1, 1847; “Liberty Meeting,” Clarion of Freedom, October 15, 1847.

147. Robert Hanna, Clarion of Freedom, September 17, 1847; Clarion of Freedom, October 22, 1847; Amicus, “Franklin College,” National Era, October 28, 1847; “Mobbing in Ohio,” Clarion of Freedom, October 8, 1847; “Liberty of the Press in Ohio,” National Era, October 14, 1847.

148. M. R. Hull, Clarion of Freedom, October 1, 1847.

149. M. R. Hull, “Cambridge Mob,” Clarion of Freedom, October 8, 1847; M. R. Hull, “Editorial Correspondence,” Clarion of Freedom, September 24, 1847; “The Anniversary,” Free Labor Advocate and Anti-Slavery Chronicle, November 1, 1843.

150. Hull, “Editorial Correspondence.”

151. “Liberty Meeting,” Clarion of Freedom, October 15, 1847; M. R. Hull, “Correspondence of the Editor,” Clarion of Freedom, October 22, 1847; M. R. Hull, “Correspondence of the Editor: Proceedings of the National Convention,” Clarion of Freedom, November 5, 1847.

152. “Newspaper Changes, Etc.,” National Era, December 2, 1847.

153. Clarion of Freedom, September 10, 1847.

154. “To the Patrons of the Clarion,” Clarion of Freedom, October 15, 1847.

155. W. H. Berry and W. F. George, Clarion of Freedom, December 24, 1847.

156. “It’s All Over,” Clarion of Freedom, August 11, 1848; M. R. Hull, “Mobocracy,” Clarion of Freedom, September 29, 1848.

157. “Agitation,” Clarion of Freedom, May 19, 1848.

158. Richards, “Gentlemen of Property and Standing,” 111; Feldberg, The Turbulent Era, 49.

159. Roland M. Baumann, The 1858 Oberlin-Wellington Rescue: A Reappraisal (Oberlin, Ohio: Oberlin College, 2003), 27–28.

160. Richards, “Gentlemen of Property and Standing,” 110–11.

161. Johnson, The Liberty Party, 1840–1848, 164, 211.

162. Dillon, Slavery Attacked, 270.

163. Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 215.

164. Eastman to Codding, 22 April 1857, Codding Family Papers.

165. Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, Fourteenth Annual Report, 57–58.

166. E. D. Hudson, “Letter from Richmond, Wayne County, Indiana,” National Anti-Slavery Standard, October 21, 1841; Abby Kelley Foster to Lucy Stone, 15 August [1845–46?] in Robert S. Fletcher Papers, Manuscript Collection, Oberlin College Library, Oberlin, Ohio (hereafter cited as Fletcher Papers); William Wells Brown to Amy Post, 3 September 1844, in Black Abolitionist Papers Microfilm 04:0910; The Protectionist, July 1, 1841; “‘Sifting In,’” Liberator, September 1, 1843; Edwin Fussell, National Anti-Slavery Standard, November 2, 1843.

167. Newman, The Transformation of American Abolitionism, 163.

168. Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, Fourteenth Annual Report, 57–58.