1. Rodgers, As a City on a Hill; Van Engen, City on a Hill; Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States; Tuveson, Redeemer Nation.

2. Stephanson, Manifest Destiny, xii.

3. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State; Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith, 3. Cold War case studies include Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy; Jacobs, America’s Miracle Man in Vietnam; Rotter, Comrades at Odds, chap. 6.

4. I borrow here from my Emory and Henry College colleague Talmage Stanley, The Poco Field, 2–3. See also Lefebvre, The Production of Space; Lefebvre, Writings on Cities; Elden, Lebas, and Kofman, Henri Lefebvre: Key Writings; Johnston, A Question of Place.

5. Hutchison, Errand to the World.

6. Madanipour, “City Profile: Tehran,” 57; Madanipour, Tehran; Speer and Carter, Report on India and Persia, 341. See also Frankopan, The Silk Roads and The New Silk Roads.

7. Article 4 of the Supplementary Fundamental Laws, October 7, 1907, in Nabavi, Modern Iran, 70.

8. Citino, Envisioning the Arab Future, chap. 1.

9. John Elder, “Triple Urgency,” [1953], PHS-JE-360. On the airport in the 1950s, see Warne, Mission for Peace, 52.

10. Prestel, Emotional Cities.

11. Nielssen, Okkenhaug, and Hestad-Skeie, Protestant Missions and Local Encounters.

12. Turek, To Bring the Good News to All Nations, 8. See also Shibley, “Contemporary Evangelicals”; McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders.

13. Creel, How We Advertised America.

14. Davis, “Evangelizing the Orient,” 82–85, 104, 260–61.

15. “Family Tree of Presbyterian Denominations,” Presbyterian Historical Society (PHS).

16. Narrative based on Smylie, A Brief History of the Presbyterians; and Webster, “American Presbyterian Global Mission Policy.” On Egypt, see Baron, The Orphan Scandal, chap. 2; Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt. See also Butler, White Evangelical Racism; Dawsey and Dawsey, The Confederados, especially chap. 5.

17. Kruse, One Nation under God; Ruble, The Gospel of Freedom of Power.

18. Fesko, The Theology of the Westminster Standards; Selderhuis, The Calvin Handbook; Yoo, The Presbyterian Experience in the United States.

19. Harris, Nothing but Christ; Hutchison, Errand to the World. See also Dawley, Changing the World.

20. Becker, Revival and Awakening, chap. 7. See also Rostam-Kolayi, “From Evangelizing to Modernizing Iranians”; Lorentz, “Educational Development in Iran”; Ricks, “Alborz College of Tehran”; Wytenbroek, “Generational Differences.” On the Arab Middle East, see Anderson, The American University of Beirut.

21. Bradley Gundlach, “The Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy” in The Oxford Handbook of Presbyterianism, ed. Smith and Kemeny, 97–116, especially 110.

22. Jane Doolittle report, 1951, PHS, Jane Elizabeth Doolittle, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-JED-360).

23. Becker, Revival and Awakening, 4–5, 16–19.

24. Hunt, “Jane Addams: The Presbyterian Connection”; Elshtain, The Jane Addams Reader.

25. Arthur Judson Brown, “The Foreign Missionary: An Incarnation of a World Movement,” 1907, and Charles Stelzle, “The Call of the New Day to the Old Church,” 1915, both in The Presbyterian Experience in the United States, ed. Yoo, 109–17.

26. “In Unity—For Mission: A Message to All Congregations from the Uniting General Assembly of the United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America,” 1958, in The Presbyterian Experience in the United States, ed. Yoo, 123–30.

27. Kennedy first used the term on July 15, 1960, in his acceptance speech at the Democratic National Convention.

28. Matthew 28:19–20, and 1 Corinthians 9:16, in Harper Collins Study Bible.

29. Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt, 8.

30. Rivas, Missionary Capitalist; Rosenberg, Financial Missionaries to the World.

31. Latham, Modernization as Ideology, 60, 143; Latham, The Right Kind of Revolution; Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 68–69. On the Peace Corps in Iran, see Rostam-Kolayi, “The New Frontier Meets the White Revolution”; Wangsness, Land between Two Waters.

32. Grubbs, Secular Missionaries, on historiography, see notes 14–17 on pp. 197–98.

33. Stephanson, Manifest Destiny, xii.

34. Benbow, Leading Them to the Promised Land. See also Knock, To End All Wars; Brint and Schroedel, Evangelicals and Democracy in America.

35. Wilson, The Hope of the World.

36. Kuehl and Dunn, Keeping the Covenant; Ambrosius, Wilsonianism; Ninkovich, The Wilsonian Century.

37. Fousek, To Lead the Free World, 5–7, 43, also “visual essay” on 91–102. On destinarianism, see Stephanson, Manifest Destiny.

38. McDaniel, The Shuster Mission and the Persian Constitutional Revolution; Gaughan, The Shuster Mission to Iran; Kelly Shannon, “The Shuster Mission of 1911 and American Perceptions of Iran’s First Revolution,” in American-Iranian Dialogues, ed. Matthew Shannon.

39. Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, chap. 1.

40. Mead, Special Providence; Zipp, The Idealist, chap. 7.

41. Collier, Democracy and the Nature of American Influence in Iran, 37.

42. Wright, “Review of Mission for Peace, by William Warne,” 222–23. References to Shuster, The Strangling of Persia; Millspaugh, The American Task in Persia, and Americans in Persia.

43. Warne, Mission for Peace, 23, 170.

44. Burnidge, A Peaceful Conquest.

45. Lundestad, The United States and Western Europe since 1945; Samii, Involvement by Invitation; Gaddis, “On Moral Equivalency and Cold War History.”

46. Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures; Sharma and Tygstrup, Structures of Feeling, whose first chapter is an excerpt from Raymond Williams’s original essay on the subject.

47. Gandhi, Affective Communities; Moradian, This Flame Within.

48. Rosenwein, “Worrying about Emotions in History,” 821–45, especially 842. See also Green and Troup, The Houses of History, chap. 15; Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling; Van Engen, Sympathetic Puritans; Eustace, et al., “AHR Conversation: The Historical Study of Emotions.”

49. Del Be Del, February 1944, 1. Del Be Del issues from February 1944 (vol. 1, no. 1) to February 1973 (vol. 31, no. 1) are in PHS Archives 09-0511. Hereafter, cited as Del Be Del, followed by date and page. This book uses the transliteration and translation that the missionaries used in the newsletter.

50. Del Be Del, February 1944, 1.

51. See the folders at PHS on Sarah Evans Wright McDowell (401-83–17) and Philip Coe McDowell (401-83–16). See also McDowell and Ricks, Persia Is My Homeland.

52. Del Be Del, February 1977, 1. All cited Del Be Del issues from June 1973 (vol. 31, no. 2) to October 1980 (vol. 39, no. 3) are in the William McElwee Miller Papers, RG 417 at PHS, box 13, folders 34–36.

53. Del Be Del, February 1944, 1.

54. Iran Mission Meeting, photograph, 1957, PHS-Pearl. Another version of the photograph is in the McMillan Family Papers at PHS. For context, see Kaplan, The Arabists.

55. The PCUSA’s Board of Foreign Missions sent just fewer than four hundred missionaries to Iran between the 1870s and the 1960s. Approximately 150 of them served after 1945, and roughly half of this group were in Iran as of 1963. Karimi, “Implications of American Missionary Presence,” 97–105, appendix, “American Missionaries to Iran after 1870”; “Who’s Who in the Iran Mission,” January 1963, PHS-91-18–22.

56. Dabashi, Persophilia.

57. Richard Irvine, “Community and Iranzamin Schools, Tehran, Iran,” 2009. Thank you to David Irvine for sending me this document in May 2022. See also Richard Irvine, “Alborz to Iranzamin,” August 9, 1998, PHS, John Richard Irvine, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-JRI-360).

58. Del Be Del, March 1956, 7.

59. Del Be Del, December 1968, 2.

60. Carolyn Goffman, “From Religious to American Proselytism: Mary Mills Patrick and the ‘Sanctification of the Intellect,’ ” in American Missionaries and the Middle East, ed. Dogan and Sharkey, chap. 4, especially pp. 91, 96, 98. For context, see Jay, The Religion of the Heart; Coffey, Heart Religion; Wills, Head and Heart.

61. Riesebrodt, Pious Passion; Bill and Williams, Roman Catholics and Shi‘i Muslims.

62. Frank Reynolds, “The Presbyterians,” PHS 1974, YouTube video 2017, minutes 1:45–2:00.

63. McLisky and Vallgårda, “Faith through Feeling: An Introduction,” in Emotions and Christian Missions, ed. McLisky, Midena, and Vallgårda, 1–2.

64. Kieser, Nearest East, p. 6 and chap. 2. See also Kidd, American Christians and Islam; Walther, Sacred Interests.

65. On the Ottoman Empire, see Dogan and Sharkey, American Missionaries and the Middle East; Makdisi, Artillery of Heaven; Reeves-Ellington, Domestic Frontiers; Sahin, Faithful Encounters. On nineteenth-century Iran, see Becker, Revival and Awakening; Estelami, The Americans of Urumia; O Flynn, The Western Christian Presence in the Russias and Qajar Persia; Murre-van den Berg, From a Spoken to a Written Language.

66. Huseyin Yilmaz, “The Eastern Question and the Ottoman Empire: The Genesis of the Near and Middle East in the Nineteenth Century,” in Is There a Middle East?, ed. Bonine, Amanat, and Gasper, chap. 1, especially p. 21.

67. Dabashi, Persophilia, chap. 1, especially pp. 38–40.

68. Commodore and Franke Fisher, “Ancient Ecbatana, Persia: Home of Queen Esther, the Other Wise Man, and Avicenna,” [1962], PHS, Commodore Bascom Fisher, RG 424 (hereafter, PHS-CBF-424).

69. Ruth Elder, January 26, 1943, PHS, Ruth Roche Elder, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-RRE-360).

70. Rafael, White Love, chap. 1, especially pp. 21–24. See also Matsuda, Empire of Love.

71. Ruth and John Elder, December 1960, PHS-JE-360.

72. Dunch, “Beyond Cultural Imperialism.”

73. Klein, Cold War Orientalism, 13–15.

74. Becker, Revival and Awakening, 140.

75. Atabaki and Zürcher, Men of Order.

76. Grigor, “Tehran: A Revolution in Making,” chap. 10, quotes on pp. 353–54, 360; John Elder, February 8, 1942, PHS-JE-360. See also Grigor, Building Iran.

77. In addition to Grigor’s exemplary scholarship, referenced above, see Naraghi, A Social History of Modern Tehran; Ziaee, “Transnational Modernization and the Gendered Built Environment in Iran.”

78. Clement Scott, September 9, 1948, in Remembering Clem, ed. McClennen.

79. Shirazi, Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Iran, v.

80. Commodore and Franke Fisher, October 25, 1940, PHS-CBF-424.

81. Meier, Teheran: A New ‘World City’ Emerging; Emami, “Urbanism of Grandiosity”; Mashayekhi, “The 1968 Tehran Master Plan and the Politics of Planning Development in Iran”; Rizvi, The Transnational Mosque, chap. 3.

82. Sandoval-Strausz and Kwak, “Introduction: Why Transnationalize Urban History?” in Making Cities Global, ed. Sandoval-Strausz and Kwak, 8.

83. Robert Bucher report, South Tehran Social Service Center, 1952, PHS, Robert Young Bucher, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-RYB-360).

84. For context, see Simoni and Hojat, “Architecture of Churches of Armenians in Tehran.”

85. Samson Maghsoodpour lecture, “The Assyrian Church of the East in Iran,” Tehran, June 9, 1969, PHS-91-18–22; Baum and Winkler, The Church of the East.

86. Becker, Revival and Awakening, 137–40, 170–74; Waterfield, Christians in Persia, 109–11, 133–34, 141–42.

87. John Hananian lecture, “The Armenian Apostolic Church in Iran,” Tehran, May 15, 1969, PHS-91-18–22. See also Barry, Armenian Christians in Iran; Stocker, “An Opportunity to Strike a Blow?”

88. Hopkins, American Missionaries in Iran, 34. There were 30,000 Assyrians and 250,000 Armenians in Iran in the mid-1970s. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 36–37, table 2.

89. Boyce, “Alborz College of Teheran and Dr. Samuel Martin Jordan,” 164, 176–77; Sarah McDowell, “Introduction to Tehran Station, Iran Mission,” PHS-91-18–22.

90. Sherman Fung, “Central Compound of the American Presbyterian Mission, Teheran, Iran,” April 1978, PHS, Record Transfer number 437, PCUSA General Assembly Council Property Services, box 2, Iran Property Files, folder: 35A Tehran, Iran, Central Compound. Also consult the maps in this folder. Hereafter, this collection is cited as PHS-437, followed by box number and folder information.

91. Residents of a One-Way Street, directed by Mehdi Bagheri (2014), streaming film.

92. Chehabi, Onomastic Reforms, 65, 76.

93. PHS-437–2, folder: 330-35B-2061, Community School, Tehran. Floorplans are in box 22 of the same collection. The picture of the keystone is on p. 5 of the 1963 Community School Yearbook. Thank you to Andrew Waterhouse for sending me a collection of Community School Yearbooks, which Riley Waterhouse digitized and archived, in July 2020. See also Elder, History of the Iran Mission, 32; Mansoori, “American Missionaries in Iran,” 84–86; Mahdavi, “Shahs, Doctors, Diplomats, and Missionaries in 19th Century Iran,” 178.

94. Joan Rankin, February 5, 1955, PHS-486-1-2, Joan Rankin Papers.

95. References to these in issues of Del Be Del.

96. Charles and Jeanette Hulac, May 1948, PHS, Jeanette Retschlag Hulac (JRH), RG 360.

97. Mehan, “Manifestation of Modernity in Iranian Public Squares.”

98. Elder, History of the Iran Mission, 19–21, 31–32, 70–71.

99. Floor, “Hospitals in Safavid and Qajar Iran”; Floor, “Qal‘eh-ye Mehrab Khan”; Floor, History of Hospitals in Iran.

100. Cady Allen, “Closed and Open Doors in Iran,” in The Crisis Decade, ed. Wheeler, 158–59, available at PHS; Elder, History of the Iran Mission, 70–73; Heidari, “Iran-US Public Health Cooperative Organization,” 85–86; Karimi, “Implications of American Missionary Presence,” 77–80; Mansoori, “American Missionaries in Iran,” 84–99; Wytenbroek, “American Mission Nursing in Iran, 1907–1947.”

101. Samuel Martin Jordan to Reza Shah Pahlavi, March 1940, PHS-91-16–16.

102. Boyce, “Alborz College of Teheran and Dr. Samuel Martin Jordan,” 180–81; A Century of Mission Work in Iran, 7, available at PHS.

103. Jordan, “Constructive Revolutions in Iran”; Armajani, “Sam Jordan and the Evangelical Ethic in Iran.”

104. Ricks, “Alborz College of Tehran,” 630.

105. Commodore Fisher report, 1937, PHS-91-7-4.

106. Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, chap. 3, especially pp. 92–97. See also Rostam-Kolayi, “From Evangelizing to Modernizing Iranians,” 236–37; Zirinsky, “Render Therefore unto Caesar,” 341–42, 346–52.

107. Cornelius Van Engert (Tehran) to Department of State (State), August 13, 1939, Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter, FRUS) 1939 IV, document 586. Prior to the nationalization of foreign schools, Reza Shah closed the schools of other religious minorities, including those of the Bahais and Armenians. Shahvar, The Forgotten Schools, chap. 5; Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 38. For context, see Ringer, Education, Religion, and the Discourse of Cultural Reform in Qajar Iran.

108. Document 39–478, Request for Postponement, August 18, 1939, PHS-91-22–19.

109. Engert to State, August 14, 1939, FRUS 1939 IV, document 587.

110. Wallace Murray to Sumner Welles, August 21, 1939, FRUS 1939 IV, document 596.

111. Engert to State, August 20, 1939, FRUS 1939 IV, document 594.

112. Report, “The Iranian Educational Situation,” September 18, 1939, PHS-91-22–19; Document 39–545 in “Actions Re Iran Educational Situation,” March 1942, PHS-91-22–19.

113. “Report of the Board’s Commission to Negotiate with the Iran Government Regarding Educational Work and Educational Properties,” prepared by J. L. Dodds, November 18, 1940, PHS-91-16–1.

114. Samuel Martin Jordan to Reza Shah Pahlavi, March 1940, PHS-91-16–16.

115. “Translation of Agreement between the American Mission and the Government of Iran Regarding the Transfer of School Properties,” August 15, 1940, PHS-91-16–1.

116. Ruth Elder, August 23, 1940, PHS-RRE-360. As a result of the school and hospital closures, the Presbyterian Mission in Tehran shrank from thirty-five to twelve missionaries. William Miller, August 7, 1944, PHS, William McElwee Miller, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-WMM-360).

117. Kozhanov, “The Pretexts and Reasons for the Allied Invasion of Iran in 1941”; Bakhash, The Fall of Reza Shah.

118. Memorandum of Conversation, Gordon Merriam (State), October 10, 1941, FRUS 1941 III, document 348.

119. Arthur Boyce to Dodds, September 30, 1941, PHS-91-22–19.

120. Herrick Young to Dodds, October 10, 1941, PHS-91-22–19.

121. Zirinsky, “Render Therefore unto Caesar,” 337, 342–46. See also Zirinsky, “A Panacea for the Ills of the Country.” On “oriental despotism,” see Lynette Mitchell, “Herodotus’ Cyrus and Political Freedom,” in Perceptions of Iran, ed. Ansari, 101–18.

122. Hopkins, American Missionaries in Iran, 71–72.

123. O Flynn, The Western Christian Presence in the Russias and Qajar Persia, 529, 625, 646, 694–95, 711–18.

124. Elder, History of the Iran Mission, 28; Amanat, Pivot of the Universe.

125. Pahlavi, Mission for My Country, 60, 130, 160, 264.

126. Milani, Eminent Persians, 1:41. See also, Ramazani, Iran’s Foreign Policy, 1941–1973.

127. Pahlavi, Mission for My Country.

128. Zonis, Majestic Failure, 57–58.

129. Ansari, The Politics of Nationalism in Modern Iran, 21.

130. Kerr, “Islamic Da’wa and Christian Mission.”

131. Mirsepassi, Iran’s Quiet Revolution, chap. 6, p. 152.

132. Pahlavi, Mission for My Country, 55–56.

133. Zonis, Majestic Failure, 21, 152.

134. May, Imperial Democracy, 270.

135. Biographies of the shah include Afkhami, The Life and Times of the Shah; Hoveyda, The Fall of the Shah; Kapuscinski, Shah of Shahs; Shawcross, The Shah’s Last Ride.

136. Milani, The Shah, 52.

137. Tucker, Stalin in Power.

138. Zonis, Majestic Failure, 151–52.

139. Shakibi, Pahlavi Iran and the Politics of Occidentalism, chap. 5; Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, chap. 9.

140. Ansari, “Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the Myth of Imperial Authority,” 296.

141. Milani, The Shah, 377.

142. “The 1906 Constitution (Fundamental Laws) and Its Supplement,” December 30, 1906 and October 7, 1907, in Nabavi, Modern Iran, 60–73.

143. Menashri, “The Jews of Iran,” 353–71, quote on 356.

144. Yazdani, “Towards a History of the Baha’i Community of Iran during the Reign of Mohammad Reza Shah.”

145. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 55–57.

146. Zonis, Majestic Failure, 21.

147. Pahlavi, The White Revolution.

148. Ansari, “The Myth of the White Revolution,” 3, 12; Ramin Nassehi, “Domesticating Cold War Economic Ideas: The Rise of Iranian Developmentalism in the 1950s and 1960s,” in The Age of Aryamehr, ed. Alvandi, 35–69.

149. Collier, “To Prevent a Revolution”; Summitt, “For a White Revolution.”

150. Willcocks, “Agent or Client.”

151. Dorman and Farhang, The US Press and Iran, chap. 4.

152. Ansari, “The Myth of the White Revolution,” 3.

153. Goode, “Reforming Iran during the Kennedy Years.”

154. Alvandi, The Age of Aryamehr; Westad, The Global Cold War.

155. Marzeki, The Silkworm and the Butterfly, available at PHS; Dehqani-Tafti, The Hard Awakening; Dehqani-Tafti, Design of My World.

156. Birjandi, The Education Corps Project in Iran; Farmanfarmaian with Munker, Daughter of Persia. See also Najafi with Jones, Reveille for a Persian Village.

157. Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran.

158. Peggy Streit and Pierre Streit, “The Teacher the Americans Sent,” New York Times, September 3, 1961; Reminiscences of Nayereh Ebtehaj-Samii in an interview with Shirin Samii, April 6, 1984, in the Oral History of Iran Collection of the Foundation for Iranian Studies.

159. See the folder titled “Iranian Legation 1921–44” in PHS-91-23–12.

160. Richard Irvine to Howard Vail, August 2, 1960, PHS-161-3-13.

161. Milani, Eminent Persians.

1. Payne, Discovering Church Planting; Payne, Apostolic Church Planting.

2. Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, 4. On the ABCFM in Iran, see Estelami, The Americans of Urumia.

3. Rufus Anderson quoted in Becker, Revival and Awakening, 81. For context, see Godwin, Persian Christians at the Chinese Court.

4. Becker, Revival and Awakening, 170–74; Waterfield, Christians in Persia, 109–11, 133–34, 141–42.

5. Cooper, The Warrior and the Priest; Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream; Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats; Yoo, American Missionaries, Korean Protestants, and the Changing Shape of World Christianity.

6. Ayatollah Khomeini, “The Granting of Capitulatory Rights to the US,” October 27, 1964, in Islam and Revolution, ed. and trans. Algar, 181–88.

7. Afshin Marashi, “Paradigms of Iranian Nationalism: History, Theory, and Historiography,” in Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity, ed. Aghaie and Marashi, 18. See also Cottam, Nationalism in Iran; Goode, Negotiating for the Past, chaps. 6–8; Ansari, The Politics of Nationalism in Modern Iran; Zia-Ebrahimi, The Emergence of Iranian Nationalism.

8. Frank Woodward, February 27, 1958, PHS-FTW-360.

9. Ruth and John Elder, April 26, 1947, PHS-JE-360.

10. Laing, The Divided Self; Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity.

11. Mitzen, “Ontological Security in World Politics,” 342, 344–45. See also Chacko, “A New ‘Special Relationship?’ ”; Croft, “Constructing Ontological Insecurity”; Steele, Ontological Security in International Relations.

12. Helen Elizabeth MacDonald report, Evangelical Churches of Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

13. The Americans, Armenians, and Assyrians differentiated the “Persians” based on language and perceived ethnic difference. The term “Persian” is problematic for many reasons, not the least because it was applied to all converts, including nonethnic Persians, and it usually implied “Muslim,” but was also used to describe Jews and converts from other religions. After the 1979 revolution, such designations were used for different purposes.

14. Lacar, “Balik-Islam,” 39.

15. Rambo and Farhadian, The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion; Sharkey, Cultural Conversions.

16. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 123–29. On conversion in a different context, see Katsikas and Dimitriadis, “Muslim Converts to Orthodox Christianity during the Greek War of Independence.”

17. Carapet Hagopian, “A Brief History of the First Evangelical Church in Teheran,” March 1932, PHS-91-19–15. See also Barry, “Re-Ghettoization,” 553–73, especially 559–60.

18. Speer and Carter, Report on India and Persia, 388–425.

19. Rzepka, Prayer and Protest, 81. The two examples are Arabic or derived from Arabic.

20. Miller, Ten Muslims Meet Christ, 55.

21. Ruth and John Elder, April 26, 1947, PHS-JE-360; Ruth Elder, August 23, 1940, PHS-RRE-360.

22. Thomas, A Restless Search, 235, 240, 243–44, 254–55; T. M. Taylor, “Report on Theological Education in Iran” for COEMAR, August 25, 1961, PHS-161-2-15.

23. Boyce, “Alborz College of Teheran and Dr. Samuel Martin Jordan,” 186, 231.

24. George Lynn Browning, “The Indigenous Church,” [1934], PHS-91-22–12.

25. William Wysham report, Evangelical Church of Tehran, 1926, PHS-91-19–15.

26. Robert Steiner report, Tehran Church and City Evangelistic Work, 1924, PHS-91-19–15.

27. Carapet Hagopian, “A Brief History of the First Evangelical Church in Teheran,” March 1932, PHS-91-19–15.

28. George Lynn Browning, “The Indigenous Church,” [1934], PHS-91-22–12.

29. William Wysham report, Evangelical Church of Tehran, 1926, PHS-91-19–15.

30. William McElwee Miller interview with Cameron Afzal, March 2–3, 1985, p. 34, PHS-417-1-6, William Miller Papers.

31. Becker, Revival and Awakening, 172.

32. George Lynn Browning, “The Indigenous Church,” [1934], PHS-91-22–12.

33. Murre-van den Berg, “The Missionaries’ Assistants”; Travis, The Assyrian Genocide; Zirinsky, “American Presbyterian Missionaries at Urmia during the Great War.”

34. Carapet Hagopian, “A Brief History of the First Evangelical Church in Teheran,” March 1932, PHS-91-19–15. Also, Boyce, “Alborz College of Teheran and Dr. Samuel Martin Jordan,” 186.

35. George Lynn Browning, “The Indigenous Church,” [1934], PHS-91-22–12. Biographical information in Miller, Ten Muslims Meet Christ, 68.

36. Henry Barraclough to Robert Speer, June 6, 1935, PHS-91-22–22.

37. A. J. Zakaryan to Rodney Sundberg, September 6, 1962, PHS-161-3-3.

38. Samuel Joseph and Yoshia Rabi Pera Amrikhas to J. L. Dodds, “A Survey Report on the Situation of the Assyrian Evangelical Churches in Iran,” February 1946, PHS-91-22–22.

39. Hopper, “A Program of Work for the Evangelical Church in Iran,” 18, 22–26, 41.

40. Rzepka, Prayer and Protest, 49, table 1.

41. Horner, “Is Christianity at Home in Iran?”

42. Hopkins, American Missionaries in Iran, 70–71.

43. Blower, “Nation of Outposts,” 439.

44. Gillem, America Town, chap. 4, quotes on pp. 73–74, 81. See also Sandars, America’s Overseas Garrisons.

45. GI Jimmie Meets the Iran Mission, 1945, PHS-Pearl.

46. Jackson, Persian Gulf Command, 205–207; Rigge, War in the Outposts; Stettinius, Lend-Lease, chap. 19.

47. Louis Dreyfus (Tehran) to State, May 4, 1942, FRUS 1942 IV, document 336.

48. Originally known as the Persian Gulf Service Command, in December 1943 the word “service” was dropped, making it the Persian Gulf Command. O’Sullivan, Espionage and Counterintelligence in Occupied Persia, 227 n. 30. For context, see A Pocket Guide to Iran, jointly published by the US War and Navy Departments in 1943.

49. Jackson, Persian Gulf Command, 211–17, 222–24, 296–99; Millspaugh, Americans in Persia, 42–44. For context on the Trans-Iranian Railway, see Koyagi, Iran in Motion.

50. Edgar Snow, “Our Southern Gateway to Russia,” Saturday Evening Post, December 5, 1942, 12–13, 109–10.

51. The Elders, Growing Up in Iran, 35, in PHS, Elder Family Papers, accession number 17–0714. Interview conducted by Jack Tiffany, on August 2–3, 2010, with the daughters and sons of Ruth Roche and John Elder: Miriam (Elder) Hilton, Alice (Elder) Leake, Joseph Elder, David Elder, and Louise (Elder) Lund.

52. GI Jimmie Meets the Iran Mission, 1945, PHS-Pearl.

53. The Elders, Growing Up in Iran, 39–41, PHS, Elder Family Papers, 17–0714.

54. William Miller, October 12, 1943, PHS-WMM-360.

55. John Elder, February 24, 1943, PHS-JE-360.

56. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith, pp. 365–76 and chap. 20.

57. Annie Boyce report, 1943, PHS, Arthur Clifton Boyce, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-ACB-360).

58. Tehran Hospital Closing Committee of Arthur Boyce, Jane Doolittle, and J. D. Payne, “Proposal for Permitting Teheran Hospital Plant to Be Used by the United States Army Medical Corps,” August 31, 1942, PHS-91-20–11.

59. J. L. Dodds to F. Van den Arend (State Department), September 22, 1942, PHS-91-20–11. Also, J. L. Dodds, Board Minute, September 21, 1942, “Alternative Actions on Closing of Teheran Hospital and Lease to the Army,” PHS-91-20–11.

60. Contract, September 30, 1942, executed by M. A. Jordan (Persian Gulf Service Command) and J. D. Payne (Iran Mission), PHS-91-20–11.

61. Annie and Arthur Boyce reports, 1943, PHS-ACB-360; Del Be Del, November 1944, 8.

62. Annie Boyce, January 19, 1944, PHS, Annie Stocking Boyce, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-ASB-360).

63. Annie Boyce, May 21, 1945, PHS-ASB-360.

64. Del Be Del, May 1945, 12.

65. William Miller report, 1943, PHS-WMM-360.

66. John Elder, “The Church in Teheran,” [Women and Missions, Dec. 1945], 213–14, 217, PHS-JE-360.

67. John Elder report, 1943, PHS-JE-360; Jackson, Persian Gulf Command, 299, 313.

68. William Miller report, 1943, PHS-WMM-360.

69. William Miller, January 12, 1943, PHS-WMM-360.

70. Ruth Elder, “Teheran Station Service Men Activities 1943,” PHS-RRE-360.

71. Annie Boyce report, 1943, PHS-ACB-360.

72. Ruth Elder, “Teheran Station Service Men Activities 1943,” PHS-RRE-360.

73. William Miller, October 12, 1943, PHS-WMM-360.

74. Board of Christian Education to BFM/PCUSA, “Re Mr. C. B. Fisher,” August 1943, PHS-CBF-424.

75. Jimmie Drake to BFM/PCUSA, July 6, 1945, PHS-91-16–18.

76. Del Be Del, February 1944, 5.

77. Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions, 23.

78. William Miller, September 6, 1945; William Miller, May 15, 1946. Both in PHS-WMM-360.

79. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, 21, 297; Clement Scott, September 17, 1951, in Remembering Clem, ed. McClennen.

80. Despatch 51 from USIS-Tehran to USIA Washington, “Tehran Road Named ‘Eisenhower Avenue,’ ” January 5, 1960, RG 306, Records of the United States Information Agency, P252, box 3, folder: Misc. Action Messages Iran 1960 Secret, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), College Park, MD; Map, Iranian Oil Operating Companies, “Northern Tehran,” August 1970.

81. Elder, History of the Iran Mission, 82–83.

82. Kim, Project Eagle, chap. 7.

83. Boyce, “Alborz College of Teheran and Dr. Samuel Martin Jordan,” 221.

84. Majd, Iran under Allied Occupation in World War II; Gillem, America Town, chap. 4.

85. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith, chaps. 22–23, quotes on pp. 417, 427, 431, 434. See also Immerman, John Foster Dulles; Muehlenbeck, Religion and the Cold War.

86. John Elder report, 1943, PHS-JE-360.

87. John Elder profile, August 1966, PHS-JE-360.

88. Hopper, “A Program of Work for the Evangelical Church in Iran,” 34.

89. John Elder, “A Survey of the Production of Persian Christian Literature,” January 8, 1960, PHS-JE-360.

90. Elder, History of the Iran Mission.

91. William Miller profile, October 1958; William Miller, July 13, 1958. Both in PHS-WMM-360.

92. See the property records in the Garden of Evangelism folder, PHS-437–1.

93. William Miller, November 26, 1954, PHS-WMM-360.

94. McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders, chap. 6. See also Balbier, Altar Call in Europe; Finstuen, Original Sin and Everyday Protestants; Heale, McCarthy’s Americans.

95. John Elder, “Triple Urgency,” [1953], PHS-JE-360.

96. Ruth and John Elder, December 1960, PHS-JE-360.

97. Fawcett, Iran and the Cold War; Hasanli, At the Dawn of the Cold War.

98. John Elder, “A Survey of the Production of Persian Christian Literature,” January 8, 1960, PHS-JE-360.

99. John Elder, “The Moral and Spiritual Situation in Iran,” 103.

100. William Miller, November 26, 1946, PHS-WMM-360.

101. John Elder interview, 1965, minutes 40:15 to 46:20, PHS-Pearl.

102. Rossow, “The Battle of Azerbaijan,” 17, 32. The US government reprinted this 1956 article as a pamphlet in Persian, and it is in RG 306, P46, box 113, folder: Tehran, Battle of Azerbaijan 1946 Farsi, NARA.

103. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi interview in Karanjia, The Mind of a Monarch, 87, 89–90. See also, Milani, The Shah, 127.

104. Sarah McDowell, “Who Follow in Their Train: The Story of the Centennial Celebration in Rizayeh, Iran, 1956,” PHS.

105. De Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia; Sternfeld, “Iran Days in Egypt”; Brew, Petroleum and Progress in Iran.

106. Foran, “Discursive Subversions”; Heiss, “Real Men Don’t Wear Pajamas.”

107. William Miller, May 22, 1951, PHS-WMM-360.

108. William Miller, December 4, 1951, PHS-WMM-360.

109. William Miller, June 9, 1952, PHS-WMM-360.

110. Abrahamian, The Coup; Heiss, Empire and Nationhood; Painter and Brew, The Struggle for Iran.

111. William Miller, November 10, 1953, PHS-WMM-360.

112. John Elder interview, 1965, minutes 46:30 to 50:00, PHS-Pearl.

113. Pahlavi, Mission for My Country, chap. 6, especially pp. 124–27. For context, see Cottam, Nationalism in Iran.

114. Elgin Groseclose to J. L. Dodd, August 16, 1955, PHS-161-3-57; Frances Mecca Gray to Elgin Groseclose, August 26, 1955, PHS-161-3-57. “Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights between the United States and Iran,” 1955, in The United States and Iran, ed. Alexander and Nanes, 278–90.

115. Kennedy, Decolonization; Jansen and Osterhammel, Decolonization.

116. Hopper, “A Program of Work for the Evangelical Church in Iran,” 58.

117. Wu, “The Quest for an ‘Indigenous Church’ ”; Robert, Christian Mission.

118. Consider the Chinese revolution of 1949. Fairbank, The Missionary Enterprise in China and America; Hollinger, Protestants Abroad, chap. 7; Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, chap. 4.

119. Coetzee, Waiting for the Barbarians, 51, 133.

120. Webster, “American Presbyterian Global Mission Policy,” 77–82; Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt, 204–205.

121. Hopper, “A Program of Work for the Evangelical Church in Iran,” 70, 76.

122. Dana Robert, “ ‘The Crisis of Missions’: Premillennial Mission Theory and the Origins of Independent Evangelical Missions,” and Grant Wacker, “Second Thoughts on the Great Commission: Liberal Protestants and Foreign Missions, 1890–1940,” chaps. 2 and 12 in Earthen Vessels, ed. Carpenter and Shenk.

123. R. Park Johnson profile, April 1968; “Record of Service of Dr. and Mrs. R. Park Johnson,” [1972]. Both in PHS, Roswell Park Johnson, RG 401 (hereafter, PHS-RPJ-401). See also, Johnson, “A Critical and Explanatory Translation of Portions of the Anonymous Ta’rikh-i-Sistan”; Johnson’s Journeys, in Roswell Park Johnson Correspondence, PHS.

124. R. Park Johnson, January 24, 1952, PHS, Roswell Park Johnson, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-RPJ-360).

125. William Wysham, “Our Mission to the Muslim Heartland,” 1958, PHS, William Norris Wysham, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-WNW-360).

126. Frances Mecca Gray to Secretarial Council, June 24, 1953, with R. Park Johnson report on meeting with John Foster Dulles, PHS-RPJ-360; Memorandum of Conversation, Beirut, May 17, 1953, FRUS 1952–54 IX Part 1, document 29.

127. William Miller, [1959], PHS-WMM-360. For context, see Schayegh, “1958 Reconsidered.”

128. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East, 303–304. See also R. Park Johnson, September 18, 1957; R. Park Johnson, June 11, 1958, in memorandum from Rodney Sundberg, June 20, 1958; both in PHS-RPJ-401.

129. Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt, 210–14, quote on 212. For context, see Laron, The Six Day War.

130. Hopper, “A Program of Work for the Evangelical Church in Iran,” 57–63. See also Hopkins, American Missionaries in Iran, 94–97; Kim, Project Eagle, 16.

131. R. Park Johnson, June 21, 1960, PHS-RPJ-401. See also William Miller report, 1962, PHS-161-2-31.

132. Sarah McDowell, Richard Irvine, Frederick Wilson, and Frank Woodward, “A Statement regarding Church-Mission Relations Today,” [May 1959], PHS-161-3-57.

133. Bill Hopper, Letter from chair of Reorganization Committee, December 15, 1959, PHS-161-3-1. Quotes on pp. 4, 7, 11, 13–14.

134. Joan Rankin letter, May 6, 1962, PHS-486-1-6, Joan Rankin Papers.

135. Hopper, “A Program of Work for the Evangelical Church in Iran,” 155–56.

136. R. Park Johnson, “Meditation on Mission in Iran,” January 7, 1960, PHS-RPJ-401.

137. Hopper and the Reorganization Committee to Iran Mission, December 15, 1959, PHS-161-1-4.

138. R. Park Johnson to Rodney Sundberg, April 10, 1961, PHS-161-3-3; Hopper, “A Program of Work for the Evangelical Church in Iran.”

139. Report of COEMAR Representative to Iran Mission Annual Meeting, June 19, 1961, PHS-161-2-15; Report of COEMAR Representative to Iran Mission Annual Meeting, June 12, 1962, PHS-161-2-16.

140. Rodney Sundberg to Margaret Shannon, “Iran Church in World Presbyterian Alliance,” November 18, 1963, PHS-161-3-4.

141. Iran Mission Annual Narrative Report, 1965, PHS-161-2-19.

142. Rzepka, Prayer and Protest, 30, 32.

143. Sternfeld, Between Iran and Zion.

144. Elder, History of the Iran Mission, 68, 78, 80–82; Ruth and John Elder, January 22, 1949, PHS-JE-360; Del Be Del, May 1949, p. 10.

145. Barry, Armenian Christians in Iran, 111–12; Thomas, A Restless Search, 261–62.

146. Habibullah Yusefzadeh through R. Park Johnson to BFM/PCUSA, May 3, 1954; Iraj Amini, May 1954; both in PHS-91-23–11.

147. “Unanimous requests from [COEMAR]” by the Tehran Evangelical Church, [1959], PHS-161-3-1, signed by five Iranian Christians from the Persian congregation and Jane Doolittle and R. Park Johnson.

148. Ahmad Nakhosteen to John Elder, June 3, 1948, PHS-91-16–17; Nakhosteen and Yusefzadeh to Alborz Board of Trustees and BFM/PCUSA, May 10, 1948, PHS-91-16–17.

149. Del Be Del, November 1964, 12. Adl Nakhosteen resigned in 1964 and was succeeded by the Beirut-educated Vigen Galustian, Nakhosteen’s assistant in the early 1960s.

150. Del Be Del, October 1970, 10.

151. R. Park Johnson to Rodney Sundberg, April 10, 1961, PHS-161-3-3.

152. R. Park Johnson to Iran Mission, April 25, 1961, PHS-RPJ-401.

153. F. R. Wilson to members of Iran Mission, December 22, 1958, PHS-161-1-3. Emphasis in original.

154. A. J. Zakaryan to Rodney Sundberg, September 6, 1962, PHS-161-3-3.

155. A. J. Zakaryan to Frank Woodward, May 22, 1959, PHS-161-3-1.

156. A. J. Zakaryan to Rodney Sundberg, September 6, 1962, PHS-161-3-3.

157. Del Be Del, July 1965, 8.

158. Del Be Del, April 1971, 12.

159. Del Be Del, February 1976, 14.

160. Del Be Del, January 1964, 17.

161. Del Be Del, October 1974, 12.

162. Del Be Del, March 1968, 14; Del Be Del, November 1969, 7.

163. Del Be Del, May 1974, 8.

164. Marzeki, The Silkworm and the Butterfly, quotes on pp. 18, 33.

165. Del Be Del, November 1964, 12; Del Be Del, March 1968, 15.

166. Del Be Del, October 1963, 7; Del Be Del, March 1968, 14; Del Be Del, December 1968, 14; Miller, My Persian Pilgrimage, 227, 317, 327.

167. Hopkins, American Missionaries in Iran, 137.

168. Pakizegi, History of the Christians in Iran; Hopkins, American Missionaries in Iran, 24.

169. Jane Hunter, “Women’s Mission in Historical Perspective: American Identity and Christian Internationalism,” in Competing Kingdoms, ed. Reeves-Ellington, Sklar, and Shemo, 19–42.

170. Oh, To Save the Children of Korea, 8.

1. Garlitz, A Mission for Development.

2. On the one hand, see Gilbert, “Low Modernization and the New Deal”; Cullather, The Hungry World. On the other hand, see Latham, Modernization as Ideology; Lorenzini, Global Development.

3. Robert Bucher report, 1943, PHS-RYB-424.

4. Brouwer, “When Missions Became Development.”

5. Mathews, Roads to the City of God. See also Platt, The Home with the Open Door.

6. Wyss, English Letters and Indian Literacies, 8, 15.

7. Bender, Signs of Cherokee Culture; Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, chap. 5, especially p. 136; Antonius, The Arab Awakening, chap. 3.

8. Agnew, From Charity to Social Work; Hamington, Feminist Interpretations of Jane Addams; Curtis, Holy Humanitarians, 52–53, 228–32, 255–58.

9. Reeves-Ellington, Domestic Frontiers, 23.

10. Tyrrell, Reforming the World, quote in subtitle; Scott, Seeing Like a State.

11. Barnett, Empire of Humanity, 10, 97–106.

12. Taffet, Foreign Aid as Foreign Policy; David and Holm, “The Kennedy Administration and the Battle Over Foreign Aid.”

13. Shannon, Losing Hearts and Minds. See also Brazinsky, Nation Building in South Korea; Field, From Development to Dictatorship; Simpson, Economists with Guns.

14. Hollinger, Protestants Abroad, 252–53; Sagnier, The Fortunate Few.

15. Immerwahr, Thinking Small, x, 1–14.

16. Gharabaghi, “ ‘American Mice Grow Big!’ ” See 314–321, quote on 320.

17. Gienow-Hecht, Sound Diplomacy, 14.

18. Wytenbroek, “Negotiating Relationships of Power in a Maternal and Child Health Centre.”

19. Hollinger, Protestants Abroad, 253–57.

20. Brandt, Literacy in American Lives, 17–21.

21. Becker, Revival and Awakening, chap. 3; Malick, The American Mission Press.

22. Wyss, English Letters and Indian Literacies, 6–8.

23. Quote in Zirinsky, “A Panacea for the Ills of the Country,” 127.

24. Zarrinnal, “The Origins of Dabestan.”

25. Annie Boyce biographical sheet, 1942; William Wysham, “Annie Stocking Boyce,” February 1973. Both in PHS-ASB-360. Arthur Clifton Boyce “Memorial Minute,” 1959, PHS-ACB-360. See also Michael Zirinsky, “A Presbyterian Vocation to Reform Gender Relations in Iran: The Career of Annie Stocking Boyce,” in Women, Religion, and Culture in Iran, ed. Ansari and Martin, chap. 4.

26. Annie Boyce, March 31, 1941, PHS-ASB-360; Annie Boyce, March 24, 1942, PHS-ASB-360.

27. Arthur Boyce report, 1945, PHS-ASB-360.

28. Ruth and John Elder, April 26, 1947, PHS-JE-360.

29. Wyss, English Letters and Indian Literacies, 28, 30.

30. Ruth and John Elder, April 26, 1947, PHS-JE-360.

31. Del Be Del, May 1947, 10.

32. Ruth and John Elder, April 26, 1947, PHS-JE-360.

33. Brandt, Literacy in American Lives, 19.

34. Annie Boyce, October 25, 1947, PHS-ASB-360.

35. Arthur Boyce report, 1948, PHS-ACB-360.

36. Del Be Del, February 1948, 13.

37. Arthur Boyce report, 1948, PHS-ACB-360.

38. Ruth and John Elder to BFM/PCUSA, “September 1947–August 1948,” PHS-JE-360.

39. Rodogno, “Beyond Relief,” 45–64, quote on 49. See also Limberg, “Abundant Life.”

40. Barclay Acheson (NEF secretary) to Walter Groves, January 8, 1931, PHS-91-17–18.

41. Zirinsky, “Harbingers of Change,” 175, on women as two-thirds of Presbyterian missionaries in Iran.

42. Annie Boyce, May 1, 1927, PHS-ASB-360.

43. Leree Chase profile, May 1961, PHS, Leree Stella Chase, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-LSC-360).

44. Leree Chase, August 10, 1934, PHS-LSC-360.

45. Leree Chase, August 26, 1936 and attached report from 1936, PHS-LSC-360.

46. Abdella and Sullivan, A Lasting Impact, 108, see 108–23 on the entire Iran program.

47. Del Be Del, May 1946, 12.

48. Harold Allen to M. L. Wilson, November 9, 1950, RG 59, General Records of the Department of State, Records of the Office of Greek, Turkish, and Iranian Affairs 1932–1951, Subject File/Iran, box 36, folder 3.4434 Near East Foundation, NARA; Near East Foundation Tehran, “Activities Prior to 1959,” [n.d.], RG 286, Records of the Agency for International Development, P492, folder: ADM 7–4, NARA; Delmer Dooley, The Near East Foundation Program of Rural Development in the Varamin Plains of Iran.

49. “Educator Birjandi,” in Point 4 Profiles, 2–11, quote on 2.

50. Barclay Acheson (NEF secretary) to Walter Groves, January 8, 1931, PHS-91-17–18.

51. Arthur Boyce report, 1948, PHS-ACB-360.

52. Ruth and John Elder, January 29, 1954, PHS-RRE-360.

53. Paul Cordes, “Near East Expert Aids Peace Corps,” New York Times, August 12, 1962.

54. Milton Skelly introduction and Lyle Hayden speech at Iran-America Society Tehran, “The Work of the Near East Foundation in Iran,” November 12, 1952, RG 306, entry P74, box 2, folder: Reports 1951, NARA.

55. Arthur Boyce report, 1948, PHS-ACB-360.

56. Federal Security Agency Public Health Service, “Staff Study and Recommendations for Point IV Health Project in Iran,” May 16, 1950, pp. 10–11, RG 59, Records of the Office of Greek, Turkish, and Iranian Affairs 1932–1951, Subject File/Iran, box 37, folder 3.4430 Projects US General, NARA. See also “Eisenhower, Shah Praise Self-Help,” New York Times, February 8, 1955.

57. George Woodbridge to Haldore Hanson, “Near East Foundation and Iran,” December 7, 1950, RG 59, Records of the Office of Greek, Turkish, and Iranian Affairs 1932–1951, Subject File/Iran, box 36, folder 3.4434 Near East Foundation, NARA. See also Daniel, “Pioneering Point Four”; Press Release, “State Department Announcement of Point Four Project in Iran,” October 19, 1950, in The United States and Iran, ed. Alexander and Nanes, 211–12.

58. Sabahi, The Literacy Corps in Pahlavi Iran.

59. Dorn and Ghodsee, “The Cold War Politicization of Literacy.”

60. “Point Four Assistance to the Ministry of Education through the Education Division,” August 15, 1962, attached to memorandum from Clarence Hendershot to Maurice Williams, August 20, 1962, RG 286, AID Iran Executive Office, entry P450, box 14, folder: Education July–October FY63, NARA.

61. Fereshteh, “The Influence of American Education and Culture on Developing Nations,” 5.

62. House Committee on Government Operations, United States Aid Operations in Iran, 85th Cong., 1st sess., January 28, 1957.

63. Stewart Hamblen, End of Tour Report, January 12, 1961, RG 286, Aid Iran Executive Office, entry P450, box 10, folder: Reports-Education Jan. 1961 to June 1962, NARA.

64. US Operations Mission to Iran, Engineering and Construction Division, “Key Map to Public, Government, USA and UN Offices in Tehran,” October 28, 1953, Richard Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, 1953 Far East Trip, box 2, folder: Iran II, Richard Nixon Presidential Library, Yorba Linda, CA.

65. Community School Yearbooks 1956 and 1957, advertisements sections.

66. Community School Yearbooks 1963 and 1965, advertisements sections.

67. Clement Scott, November 7, 1948; November 23, 1948; July 24, 1949; January 25, 1952. All in McClennen, ed., Remembering Clem.

68. Clement Scott, November 25, 1951; January 25, 1952; May 18, 1952; December 5, 1952. All in McClennen, ed., Remembering Clem.

69. Warne, Mission for Peace, 300–302.

70. Thomas Edwards, End of Tour Report, April 27, 1961, RG 286, Aid Iran Executive Office, entry P450, box 10, folder: Reports-Education Jan. 1961 to June 1962, NARA.

71. Evelyn Sharp, End of Tour Report, May 7, 1962, RG 286, AID Iran Executive Office, entry P450, box 11, folder: Reports End of Tour S-W 1961, NARA. See especially pp. 2, 9–10, 12.

72. Clarence Hendershot, “The AID Education Program in Iran 1951 to 1965,” August 3, 1965, RG 286, AID Iran Education Division, entry P492, box 1, folder: Education, NARA.

73. “Luanna Bowles, 82, Educator, is Dead,” New York Times, July 30, 1975.

74. Luanna Bowles, “The New Nationwide Program of Fundamental Education in Iran,” 85–86, 95–96.

75. Evelyn Sharp, “Some Facts Concerning the Department of Adult Education,” USOM Education Division, November 1961, pp. 2–3, in RG 286, AID Iran Executive Office, entry P450, box 10, folder: Reports-Education Jan. 1961 to June 1962, NARA. (Hereafter, Sharp, “Some Facts Concerning the Department of Adult Education.”)

76. Sharp, “Some Facts Concerning the Department of Adult Education,” 2, 8; Stewart Hamblen, End of Tour Report, January 12, 1961, RG 286, Aid Iran Executive Office, entry P450, box 10, folder: Reports-Education Jan. 1961 to June 1962, NARA.

77. Sabahi, “The Literacy Corps in Pahlavi Iran.”

78. “Educator Birjandi,” in Point 4 Profiles, 2–11, quotes on 2, 4, 9.

79. Del Be Del, January 1964, 11, Parvin Birjandi on Amir as director of the Literacy Corps; Del Be Del, July 1966, 4, on social gatherings in the United States; Del Be Del, July 1970, 2–3, on retirement.

80. Clarence Hendershot to Halsey Wilbur, February 28, 1963, RG 286, AID Iran Education Division, entry P492, box 6, folder: Information—Monthly Report to Director 1, NARA.

81. Airgram 370 from Tehran to State, “Women’s Literacy Corps,” January 13, 1965, RG 59 Central Foreign Policy Files 1964–1966, box 365, folder: EDU Education and Culture Iran 1/1/64, NARA. For context see AID Iran Program Office Education Division Monthly Report, January 28, 1965, RG 286, AID Iran Education Division, entry P492, box 6, folder: Information—Monthly Report to Director 1, NARA. See also Farian Sabahi, “Gender and the Army of Knowledge in Pahlavi Iran, 1968–1979,” in Women, Religion, and Culture in Iran, ed. Ansari and Martin, chap. 7.

82. Iran Mission Annual Narrative Report, 1964, PHS-161-2-18.

83. AID Iran Program Office Education Division Monthly Report, September 29, 1965, RG 286, AID Iran Education Division, entry P492, box 6, folder: Information—Monthly Report to Director 1, NARA.

84. Iran Mission Annual Narrative Report, 1965, PHS-161-2-19.

85. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 131. More comprehensive statistics available in Harris, A Social Revolution, 73, table 4. Literacy rates were much higher among men than women and in cities when compared to rural areas.

86. John Elder, “A Survey of the Production of Persian Christian Literature,” January 8, 1960, PHS-JE-360.

87. Stewart Hamblen, End of Tour Report, January 12, 1961, RG 286, Aid Iran Executive Office, entry P450, box 10, folder: Reports-Education Jan. 1961 to June 1962, NARA.

88. Luebke, Identifying Problems Affecting Adult Literacy Training Programs in the CENTO Region; Furter, Possibilities and Limitations of Functional Literacy.

89. Brandt, Literacy in American Lives, 20.

90. Iran Mission Annual Narrative Report, 1967, PHS-161-2-21.

91. Pahlavi, The White Revolution.

92. Wytenbroek, “Generational Differences.”

93. Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong, chap. 5, especially pp. 110–11.

94. Kashani-Sabet, Conceiving Citizens.

95. Robert Bucher, Report on South Tehran Social Service Center, 1952, PHS-RYB-360.

96. Interview with Sattareh Farmanfarmaian, in Faithful Angels, ed. Billups, 90.

97. Robert Bucher, Annual Report on Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12. See also Grigor, “Tehran: A Revolution in Making.”

98. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

99. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 19, 39, 84; Ghiabi, “Under the Bridge in Tehran,” 166.

100. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12. For more on Behaeddin, see Del Be Del, November 1946, 1; May 1948, 5–6; August 1948, 11.

101. Leree Chase profile, May 1961, PHS-LSC-360.

102. Ruth Elder, March 3, 1941, PHS-RRE-360; Ruth Elder, April 21, 1941, PHS-RRE-360; Ruth and John Elder, May 17, 1941, PHS-RRE-360.

103. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

104. Lawes, Women and Reform in a New England Community, chap. 2; Hewitt, Women’s Activism and Social Change.

105. “Juniata Woman Is En Route Home: Miss Leree Chase, Missionary in Persia, Will Arrive Here Middle of May,” Altoona Tribune (Altoona, PA), April 4, 1929.

106. Grace Visher Payne reports, 1937 and 1939; Publicity Release for Payne, 1942; Missionary Profile of Payne, April 1956. All in PHS, Grace Visher Payne, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-GVP-360). See also Ruth Elder, April 7, 1941, PHS-RRE-360.

107. Del Be Del, February 1947, 14.

108. Grace Visher Payne, “Children’s Health Centers of Tehran,” 1947, PHS-GVP-360; Grace Visher Payne, “A Strange Request,” PHS-382-1-8, Grace Visher Payne Papers.

109. Biography of Robert Young Bucher, August 1948; Record of Service of Robert Young Bucher and Carolyn Margaret Wilson Bucher, November 15, 1971. Both in PHS-RYB-424.

110. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

111. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, September 27, 1954, PHS-RYB-424.

112. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, April 14, 1955, PHS-RYB-424.

113. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1957, PHS-RYB-424.

114. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, September 27, 1954, PHS-RYB-424.

115. Robert Bucher, March 10, 1956, PHS-RYB-424.

116. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1957, PHS-RYB-424.

117. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, January 24, 1957, PHS-RYB-424.

118. Robert Bucher report, 1943, PHS-RYB-424.

119. Robert Bucher letter with 1953 report, November 30, 1953, PHS-RYB-424.

120. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, January 13, 1958, PHS-RYB-424.

121. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1957, PHS-RYB-424.

122. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, January 24, 1957, PHS-RYB-424.

123. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, April 14, 1955, PHS-RYB-424.

124. Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong, 132, discussion from 132–38.

125. Frederick Simmons, “Religious Organizations and the United States Aid Program,” July 16, 1962, and attachment, RG 286, AID Iran Executive Office, entry P450, box 14, folder: Education July-October FY63, NARA.

126. Schäfer, “Evangelical Global Engagement and the American State after World War II,” especially pp. 1073–74.

127. Donald Wilber, The Iran Foundation 1948–1955 (May 1955), 22, Manuscript Collection 468, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection, group 3, series 1, box 107, file 3, University of Arkansas Libraries Special Collections, Fayetteville, Arkansas.

128. Wieters, The NGO CARE and Food Aid from America, 17–18, 25, 122.

129. Pahlavi, Mission for My Country, 304–305.

130. Wieters, The NGO CARE and Food Aid from America, 122–35; Ahlberg, Transplanting the Great Society, 45–47.

131. Sarah McDowell report, Iran Bethel, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

132. Robert Bucher report, Social Evangelistic Work in South Tehran, 1958, PHS-161-2-14.

133. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran 1957, PHS-RYB-424.

134. Ruth and John Elder, December 1960, PHS-JE-360; Pahlavi, Mission for My Country, 304.

135. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1963, PHS-161-2-17; Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1964, PHS-161-2-18.

136. Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong, 126, 151.

137. Karimi, Domesticity and Consumer Culture in Iran, 2, 6–7, 10, 95. See all of chap. 3.

138. Leree Chase report, South Tehran Social Evangelistic Center, 1962, PHS-161-2-16; Sarah McDowell report, Women’s Work in Tehran, 1962, PHS-161-2-16.

139. Robert Bucher report, Social Evangelistic Work in South Tehran, 1958, PHS-161-2-14.

140. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1957, PHS-RYB-424.

141. Robert Bucher report, South Tehran Social Service Center, 1952, PHS-RYB-360.

142. A. Catherine Alexander report, Women’s Work in Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

143. Ruth and John Elder, December 1960, PHS-JE-360.

144. A. Catherine Alexander report, Women’s Work in Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

145. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

146. Schayegh, Who Is Knowledgeable Is Strong, chap. 6.

147. Takeuchi, “Cold War Manifest Domesticity.”

148. Leree Chase report, South Tehran Social Evangelistic Center, 1962, PHS-161-2-16.

149. Sarah McDowell report, Women’s Work in Tehran, 1962, PHS-161-2-16.

150. Robert Bucher report, Social Evangelistic Work in South Tehran, 1958, PHS-161-2-14.

151. A. Catherine Alexander report, Women’s Work in Tehran, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

152. Robert Bucher report, Social Service Work in South Tehran, 1957, PHS-RYB-424.

153. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, February 8, 1961, PHS-RYB-424.

154. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 153–54.

155. Healy, International Social Work, chap. 6, especially pp. 158–59.

156. For context, see Harris, A Social Revolution, chap. 2; Schayegh, “The Development of Social Insurance in Iran.”

157. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers. On Iran, Kashani-Sabet, Conceiving Citizens.

158. Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 56–57, 103–104.

159. Interview with Sattareh Farmanfarmaian, in Faithful Angels, ed. Billups, 81.

160. Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 108.

161. Robert Bucher report, South Tehran Social Service Center, 1952, PHS-RYB-360-22–22.

162. Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 210–11.

163. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, vii. On her time at the University of Southern California, see Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 159–70.

164. Kashani-Sabet, “The Haves and the Have Nots”; Karamipour and Shannon, “Religious Modernism in Pre-University Schools.”

165. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 33–34, 119–20, 134; John Crume (US embassy Tehran) to State Department, “Public Health Activities in Iran,” May 27, 1949, RG 59, Records of the Officer-in-Charge of Iranian Affairs, Subject File 1946–1954, box 45, folder: Public Health Iran, NARA.

166. Mackenzie and Weisbrot, The Liberal Hour; Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World; Latham, Modernization as Ideology; Ahlberg, Transplanting the Great Society.

167. Millspaugh, Americans in Persia, 44–45.

168. John Crume (US embassy Tehran) to State Department, “Public Health Activities in Iran,” May 27, 1949, RG 59, Records of the Officer-in-Charge of Iranian Affairs, Subject File 1946–1954, box 45, folder: Public Health Iran, NARA.

169. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 121. See also Altmeyer, The Formative Years of Social Security; Lilienthal, The Road to Change.

170. Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 208–10.

171. Kerr, The Arab Cold War.

172. Robert Bucher, November 5, 1958, PHS-RYB-424.

173. Farah Pahlavi, An Enduring Love. See also Houchang Chehabi, “The Shiraz Festival and Its Place in Iran’s Revolutionary Mythology,” and Samine Tabatabaei, “Nation Branding: The Prospect of Collecting Modern and Contemporary Art in Pahlavi Iran,” in The Age of Aryamehr, ed. Alvandi, chaps. 5–6.

174. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 134.

175. Jalali, Peyman, and Majd, “Study of Abortion at Farah Maternity Hospital.”

176. Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, chap. 10.

177. Robert Bucher, November 5, 1958, PHS-RYB-424; Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 209–10.

178. Robert Bucher, November 5, 1958, PHS-RYB-424.

179. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 122–23. See material in folder: EDX 21 Iran 1964, located in RG 59, Records Relating to the Cleveland International Program for Youth Leaders and Social Workers, box 1, NARA.

180. Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 232–33.

181. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, September 12, 1962, PHS-RYB-424; Robert and Carolyn Bucher, January 15, 1963, PHS-RYB-424.

182. Interview with Sattareh Farmanfarmaian, in Faithful Angels, ed. Billups, 85–86, 88–89; Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 232–33.

183. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 74–83.

184. Robert Bucher to Rodney Sundberg, [1967], PHS-RYB-424.

185. Robert and Carolyn Bucher, March 26, 1966, PHS-RYB-424.

186. Robert Bucher to Rodney Sundberg, March 30, 1966, PHS-RYB-360.

187. Iran Mission Annual Narrative Report, 1966, PHS-161-2-20.

188. Del Be Del, July 1970, 9.

189. Del Be Del, April 1971, 11–12.

190. Del Be Del, February 1973, 13–14.

191. See the material at PHS in the biographical file of William Laughren Huskins in RG 414. In addition to the undated brochure on the Javadieh Community Welfare Center, see “Teheran School of Social Work Demonstration Projects,” June 1970; Shahla Kalantari, “The New ‘Patient Rocks,’ ” Kayhan International, March 15, 1970.

192. Prigmore, Social Work in Iran, 84–86, 162–63.

193. Iran Mission Annual Narrative Report, 1967, PHS-161-2-21.

1. Jane Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1957, PHS-161-2-13. Among other passages, see Genesis 28:10–22, in Harper Collins Study Bible.

2. On Doolittle, see Rostam-Kolayi, “From Evangelizing to Modernizing Iranians”; Voorhees, Is Love Lost. On an earlier period of women’s education in Iran, see Murre-van den Berg, “ ‘Dear Mother of My Soul.’ ”

3. Tristan Bunnell, “The International Baccalaureate and the Role of the ‘Pioneer’ International Schools,” in International Education and Schools, ed. Pearce, 173.

4. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 7; “Community,” Online Etymology Dictionary.

5. Mehan, “Manifestation of Modernity in Iranian Public Squares”; Parham, “Remnants of Lalezar,” The Guardian Tehran Bureau, February 26, 2015.

6. Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, chap. 3, especially p. 96.

7. Pahlavi, Mission for My Country, 245.

8. Commodore Fisher, “The Shah’s White Revolution: First Installment,” and “The Shah’s White Revolution: Second Installment.”

9. Mary Hayden and Jeff Thompson, “International Schools: Antecedents, Current Issues and Metaphors for the Future,” in International Education and Schools, ed. Pearce, 4–8. For context, see Christiaens, Goddeeris, and Verstraete, Missionary Education; Zimmerman, Innocents Abroad.

10. Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran. On private religious education in Iran, see Farah, “ ‘The School Is the Link between the Jewish Community and the Surrounding Milieu’ ”; Ringer, Pious Citizens; Rostam-Kolayi, “Origins of Iran’s Modern Girls’ Schools”; Shahvar, The Forgotten Schools.

11. The Tehran-American School, for example, was an English-language school that only admitted US passport holders. “The American School, Tehran, Iran,” RG 59, Records of American Sponsored Schools, box 31, folder: American School of Tehran, Iran, FY 1964, NARA.

12. Donald Black, “Re: Community School,” March 14, 1967, PHS-161-3-15. According to Black these were the views of Charles and Ethel Frey, longtime teachers at Community School.

13. Becker, Revival and Awakening, chap. 4, quotes on pp. 137, 143, 145, 147. See also Elisha, Moral Ambition.

14. Lilley, Barker, and Harris, “The Global Citizen Conceptualized”; Willkie, One World.

15. Amin, The Making of the Modern Iranian Woman; Hendelman-Baavur, Creating the Modern Iranian Woman.

16. Richard Irvine, “Iranzamin, Tehran International School,” Encyclopedia Iranica.

17. Elder, History of the Iran Mission, 82.

18. Commodore Fisher, “Alborz Foundation—Community School: An Explanation,” [1947], PHS-91-16–17.

19. Richard Irvine, “An Open Letter to Mr. Commodore Fisher,” June 1962, PHS-161-2-16.

20. Program Agency Board Memorial Minutes, February 26–28, 1987, “Commodore B. Fisher,” PHS-CBF-424.

21. Commodore Fisher to Orville Reed, December 1, 1919, PHS-CBF-360. See also the profiles of Commodore Fisher in PHS-CBF-424.

22. Franke Fisher, July 1, 1930, PHS, Franke Sheddan Fisher, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-FSF-360).

23. Sarah McDowell, “Early History of Community School.” Thank you to Andrew Waterhouse for sending me this document in July 2020.

24. Franke Fisher to Irene Sheppard, November 23, 1933, PHS-91-20-15.

25. “Actions of Annual Meeting Requiring Board Attention,” Persia Mission, [August 1931]; Robert Speer to Irene Sheppard, January 11, 1932; “Prospectus: The School for Missionary Children at Hamadan, Persia,” May/June 1932. All in PHS-91-20–15.

26. Charles Hart (Tehran) to Secretary of State (Washington), June 17, 1932, RG 59, Department of State Decimal File 391.1163/43, NARA.

27. William Wysham, My Life and Times, 1976, 170–71, 184, at PHS; Sarah McDowell, “Early History of Community School.”

28. Irene Sheppard to Robert Speer, June 27, 1932; William Wysham to Irene Sheppard, December 17, 1934. Both in PHS-91-20–15.

29. “Report of the School for Missionaries’ Children (Community School) 1935–1936,” PHS-91-20–15. William Wysham was the first chair of the school committee, which this year included Sarah McDowell and others.

30. Maud Rowlee, “Community School 1939–1940,” PHS-91-20–15. John Elder was, in 1940, chair of the school committee, which expanded to include members of the US legation, beginning with Cornelius Van Engert.

31. Translation of letter from Iranian foreign minister to British ambassador, April 17, 1947, PHS-91-17–12.

32. J. D. Payne to Walter Groves, October 29, 1946, PHS-91-16–17.

33. Walter Groves to Commodore Fisher, February 12, 1946, PHS, Commodore Fisher Papers, folder: correspondence and reports.

34. Commodore and Franke Fisher, October 25, 1940, PHS-CBF-424; Profile of Mrs. Commodore B. Fisher, November 1961, PHS-CBF-424.

35. Community School Yearbook 1956, administration section; Community School Yearbook 1958, 10–11. For an earlier period, see Maud Rowlee and John Elder report, Community School, 1945, PHS-91-20–15.

36. “The Community School, Tehran, Iran,” RG 59, General Records of the Department of State, Records of American Sponsored Schools, box 31, folder: Iran, Tehran, the Community School, NARA.

37. Commodore Fisher report, Community School, June 15, 1944, PHS-91-20–15.

38. Commodore Fisher report, Community School, June 1, 1943, PHS-91-20–15.

39. Map, Sahab Geographic and Drafting Institute, “Tehran,” October 1958.

40. Commodore Fisher report, Community School, 1942, PHS-91-20–15.

41. Herrick Young, Alborz board of trustees, minutes of meeting, June 25, 1948, Ralph Cooper Hutchison Papers, Library of Congress.

42. Alborz board of trustees, docket of meeting, January 13, 1949, Ralph Cooper Hutchison Papers, Library of Congress. See also J. L. Dodds (BFM/PCUSA) to Alborz board of trustees, September 30, 1949, in same location.

43. Commodore Fisher, March 2, 1941, PHS-CBF-424; Commodore Fisher, “Uniting Nations in Iran.”

44. Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 30–31.

45. Community School Yearbook 1956, administration section.

46. Richard Irvine, January 1952, PHS-JRI-360.

47. Community School Yearbook 1962, front matter, emphasis added; Isaiah 2:4, in Harper Collins Study Bible.

48. “A Letter from the Publisher,” Time 53, no. 24 (June 13, 1949): 12.

49. Community School Yearbook 1958, 10.

50. Joan Rankin, August 23, 1960, PHS-486-1-5, Joan Rankin Papers.

51. Community School Yearbook 1963, 34–45; Community School Yearbook 1966, 5–12; Community School Yearbook 1959, unpaginated tribute; Community School Yearbook 1980, 12.

52. Johnson, Middle East Pilgrimage, 124.

53. Richard Irvine, January 1952, PHS-JRI-360.

54. Community School Yearbook 1957, 37; Community School Yearbook 1959, scholastics and spiritual sections, 37–44; Community School Yearbook 1963, 69. See also the 1961–62 Community School “master schedule” in PHS-161-2-15.

55. Wysham, My Life and Times, 171, at PHS.

56. Community School Yearbook 1957, 46–47; Community School Yearbook 1958, 6, 54–57; Community School Yearbook 1963, 72.

57. Richard Irvine, “An Open Letter to Mr. Commodore Fisher,” June 1962, PHS-161-2-16.

58. Richard and Mary Ann Irvine to Rodney Sundberg, June 24, 1967, PHS-JRI-360.

59. Richard and Mary Ann Irvine, December 4, 1967, PHS-JRI-360.

60. Richard Irvine, “Iranzamin, Tehran International School,” Encyclopedia Iranica; Parvaneh, “Iranzamin School Co-Founder Mary Ann Irvine Passes Away,” Kayhan Life, June 25, 2017.

61. Airgram A-415 from American Embassy Tehran to Department of State, September 27, 1969, Manuscript Collection 468, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection, group 16, box 318, file 7, University of Arkansas. The 1966 Community School yearbook announced on p. 97 that, “Those planning for college were delighted to hear the recognition of the CHS diploma by the Ministry of Education.”

62. R. Park Johnson to Rodney Sundberg, April 9, 1967, PHS-161-3-15.

63. Douglas Hill report, 1968, PHS-161-2-22.

64. Del Be Del, December 1968, 15.

65. Douglas Hill report, 1968, PHS-161-2-22.

66. Durwood Busse to Robert Lodwick, August 9, 1968, PHS-161-3-16.

67. Amiri is identified as “Persian Director” in the yearbooks of the 1970s. See especially the 1978 Community School Yearbook, p. 107.

68. PHS Live webinar, “Remembering the Community School of Tehran,” April 27, 2022.

69. R. Park Johnson, Durwood Busse, and Kenneth Thomas to “faculty, parents, and friends of Community School,” April 6, 1967, PHS-161-3-15.

70. Del Be Del, February 1973, 13. Hill reported on the “founding bodies” that pledged to sponsor the school as American Presbyterians withdrew funding. Douglas Hill to Robert Lodwick, October 11, 1969, PHS-161-3-17.

71. Community School Board of Trustees, minutes of meeting, December 10, 1968, PHS-161-3-16; Community School Yearbook 1969, 45.

72. “Farough Farman-Farmaian Obituary,” Washington Post, March 21, 2014; Christopher Buyers, The Royal Ark, Qajar Dynasty Genealogy.

73. Community School Yearbook 1973, 96–97; Community School Yearbook 1974, 78.

74. Community School Yearbook 1975, 90.

75. John Buese, “Local Man Says He’ll Return to Work in Iran,” The Times Leader (Wilkes-Barre, PA), February 28, 1979.

76. Del Be Del, August 1975, 6.

77. Pat Peck, “Community School Alumni Bulletin,” 2nd Edition, December 1977, PHS, Commodore Fisher Papers, folder: clippings and pamphlets.

78. Community School Yearbook 1973, 70.

79. “Community School to Be Public Park,” [Kayhan International] n.d. On page 8 of the May 1978 issue of Del Be Del, it was reported that Clement Scott “sent a clipping headed ‘Community School to be Public Park,’ ” which dates the announcement to early 1978.

80. Mary Hayden and Jeff Thompson, “International Schools: Antecedents, Current Issues and Metaphors for the Future,” in International Education and Schools, ed. Pearce, chap. 1, quote and typologies on p. 5.

81. For methodological context on young people in international affairs, see Rouleau, “Children Are Hiding in Plain Sight in the History of US Foreign Relations”; Schulz, Hawaiian by Birth.

82. Richard Irvine report, Community School, June 1961, PHS-161-2-15. See also Avery, Memories of Beirut and Tehran, especially chap. 7 on Community School.

83. Adelaide Frame, “Adaptation of the Narrative of the Iran Mission,” 1941, PHS-91-16–17.

84. Commodore Fisher report, Community School, 1942, PHS-91-20–15.

85. Chehabi, “Iran and Iraq.”

86. Cohen, “The Anti-Jewish Farhud in Baghdad, 1941”; Haim, “Aspects of Jewish Life in Baghdad under the Monarchy”; Sternfeld, Between Iran and Zion, 32–36.

87. Dallalfar, “Iraqi Jews in Iran,” in Esther’s Children, ed. Houman Sarshar, 277, 279.

88. Farah, “ ‘The School Is the Link between the Jewish Community and the Surrounding Milieu’ ”; Rabbie, “Iraqi Jews in Iran.” See also Cohen, “Iranian Jewry and the Educational Endeavors of the Alliance Israélite Universelle”; Headrick, “A Family in Iran.”

89. Muller, The Dancer in Beirut, 129, 141.

90. Charles Hulac report, August 22, 1949, PHS-91-16–16.

91. David Shamoon, interview with Julian Cole Phillips, September 22, 2015, pp. 1, 3–4, 9; Harry Shamoon, interview with Julian Cole Phillips, September 24, 2015, pp. 1–5. Both at PHS, Julian Cole Phillips, Oral History of Community School Tehran.

92. PHS Live webinar, “Remembering the Community School of Tehran,” April 27, 2022; Del Be Del, September 1971, 6.

93. Richard Irvine report, Community School, June 1961, PHS-161-2-15.

94. Richard and Mary Ann Irvine, July 14, 1954, PHS-JRI-360.

95. “The American School, Tehran, Iran,” RG 59, Records of American Sponsored Schools, box 31, folder: American School of Tehran, Iran, FY 1964, NARA.

96. Richard Irvine report, Community School, June 1961, PHS-161-2-15. This report has addendums on enrollment history, the national and religious backgrounds of the students, and a master schedule for the following year.

97. Mary Thompson and Frank Wilson, “Report of Evaluation Consultants to the Policy Committee of Community School Teheran,” November 1966, PHS-161-2-20.

98. Zirinsky, “Community School and Twentieth Century History,” 5–6, 8–9. Thank you to Michael Zirinsky for sending me this document in November 2021. See also the Elders, Growing Up in Iran, 39–41, PHS, Elder Family Papers, 17–0714; Schwarzkopf, It Doesn’t Take a Hero, 30–31. The John Westberg Papers are at William and Mary College. For context on this period, see Ward, Searching for Hassan, chap. 3.

99. Commodore Fisher report, Community School, 1942, PHS-91-20–15.

100. Ramazani, The Dance of the Rose and the Nightingale, 49–51, 252–53. She helped establish the Iranian National Ballet Company and later lived for decades in Virginia with her husband, the scholar R. K. Ramazani.

101. Joan Rankin, February 1955, PHS-486-1-1; Joan Rankin, September 9, 1956, PHS-486-1-3. Both in Joan Rankin Papers.

102. Joan Rankin, November 11, 1962, PHS-486-1-6, Joan Rankin Papers. At this time, upper-grade teachers filled out report cards, and lower-grade teachers visited the homes of students. Because the children of Prince Abdul Reza Pahlavi, the shah’s half-brother, attended the school, Rankin noted that “some teachers make home calls at the palace.” See pp. 93 and 96 in the 1963 Community School Yearbook for pictures of Kamyar and Sarvenaz Pahlavi.

103. Kamyar Guivechi, interview with Julian Cole Phillips, October 26, 2015, pp. 1–2 and 10, PHS, Julian Cole Phillips, Oral History of Community School Tehran.

104. Bahrampour, To See and See Again, 9–10, 71–74.

105. Pollock and Van Reken, Third Culture Kids.

106. Kashani-Sabet, Martyrdom Street, 124. According to the author, Community School was the inspiration for the school in the novel.

107. Reminiscences of Jane Doolittle in an interview with Behruz Nikzat, September 30, 1983, Oral History of Iran Collection of the Foundation for Iranian Studies, pp. 1–2; Voorhees, Is Love Lost, 5, 9, 12, 55, and photographs.

108. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1964, PHS-161-2-18.

109. Jane Doolittle profile, May 1954, PHS-JED-360.

110. Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, 56–60, 108–109; Rostam-Kolayi, “From Evangelizing to Modernizing Iranians,” 219, 229; Voorhees, Is Love Lost, 71, 79–80n. 1, 84.

111. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1966, PHS-161-2-20; Doolittle report, 1945, PHS-JED-360.

112. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1963, PHS-161-2-17.

113. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1966, PHS-161-2-20.

114. Doolittle, August 15, 1941, PHS-JED-360.

115. Doolittle, January 22, 1942, PHS-JED-360.

116. Parham, “Remnants of Lalezar,” The Guardian Tehran Bureau, February 26, 2015; Karimi, Domesticity and Consumer Culture in Iran, 52; Voorhees, Is Love Lost, 31, 75.

117. Voorhees, Is Love Lost, 55, 66n. 1.

118. “From 1944 Report,” in Report of Jane Doolittle Project, May 1947, PHS-JED-360.

119. Doolittle report, 1943, PHS-JED-360.

120. Doolittle report, 1943, PHS-JED-360.

121. Doolittle, February 14, 1941, PHS-JED-360.

122. Doolittle, November 19, 1943, PHS-JED-360.

123. “From 1944 Report,” in Report of Jane Doolittle Project, May 1947, PHS-JED-360.

124. Doolittle report, 1943, PHS-JED-360.

125. Doolittle, February 14, 1941, PHS-JED-360.

126. “From 1945 Report,” in Report of Jane Doolittle Project, May 1947, PHS-JED-360.

127. Doolittle, Oral History of Iran Collection of the Foundation for Iranian Studies, pp. 23–25. See also the Iran Bethel “Diba Street” property file folder in PHS-437–22.

128. Doolittle report, 1950, PHS-JED-360; Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1958, PHS-161-2-14; Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1961, PHS-161-2-15.

129. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1964, PHS-161-2-18; Doolittle report, 1950, PHS-JED-360; Doolittle report, 1951, PHS-JED-360.

130. Sarah McDowell report, Iran Bethel, 1956, PHS-161-2-12.

131. Karimi, Domesticity and Consumer Culture in Iran, 39–42, quotes on 41. See also Annie Stocking Boyce, “Government Education for Girls in Persia,” and “Moslem Women in the Capital of Persia”; John Elder, “Family Life in Shi‘ah Islam.”

132. Joan Rankin, January 26, 1964, PHS-486-1-8; Hazel Fuller, October 9, 1964, PHS-486-1-16. Both in Joan Rankin Papers.

133. Karimi, Domesticity and Consumer Culture in Iran; Rostam-Kolayi, “From Evangelizing to Modernizing Iranians.”

134. Del Be Del, October 1963, 8.

135. Kathryne Crook, “Central Presbyterian Meet Features Guest from Iran,” Paris News (Paris, TX), June 19, 1958.

136. Alice Johnson, June 26, 1964, PHS, Alice Eaton Johnson, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-AEJ-360).

137. Arizzi, “Modeling Professional Femininity through US Media Culture,” iii. For different contexts, see Kerber, “Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman’s Place”; Le Renard, A Society of Young Women.

138. Amin, The Making of the Modern Iranian Woman, 163–65.

139. Voorhees, Is Love Lost, 72–73, 104. For context, see Pirnazar, “Voluntary Conversions of Iranian Jews in the Nineteenth Century”; Berberian and Grigor, “Pictorial Modernity and the Armenian Women of Iran.”

140. Voorhees, Is Love Lost, 101. They lived together since the 1940s and, after passing away in 1990 and 1992, respectively, they were, according to interment.net, buried in the same cemetery in Cortland, New York.

141. William Miller, May 13, 1975, PHS-417-10–22, William Miller Papers.

142. Kathryne Crook, “Central Presbyterian Meet Features Guest from Iran,” Paris News (Paris, TX), June 19, 1958. For a personal picture, see St. Joseph News-Press/Gazette (St. Joseph, MO), May 1, 1958.

143. Doolittle, Oral History of Iran Collection of the Foundation for Iranian Studies, p. 12.

144. Information from the following Iran Bethel reports: 1957 PHS-161-2-13; 1958 PHS-161-2-14; 1961 PHS-161-2-15; 1962 PHS-161-2-16; 1963 PHS-161-2-17; 1964 PHS-161-2-18.

145. William Miller, May 13, 1975, PHS-417-10–22; Walter Groves to William Miller, January 17, 1977, PHS-417-10–23. Both in William Miller Papers.

146. “Iranian Woman Educator to Speak Sunday Morning at Hopewell Church,” Franklin Evening Star (Franklin, IN), February 19, 1948.

147. “Two to Speak Here Sunday on Missions,” Fremont Tribune (Fremont, NE), April 1, 1948. See also “Foreign Teachers from Far East Please Audience,” Coos Bay Times (Coos Bay, OR), May 25, 1948.

148. “Iranian, Chinese Leaders to Speak; Descendant of Mohammed One of Two Visitors to City Tomorrow,” Cumberland Sunday Times (Cumberland, MD), January 4, 1948.

149. “Foreign Grade School Principal Speaks at Wales,” Waukesha Daily Freeman (Waukesha, WI), March 3, 1948.

150. “Missionaries from Iran, China Address Church Women,” News-Herald (Franklin, PA), February 10, 1948.

151. Doolittle report, Board of Education, 1956, PHS-91-19–16.

152. Doolittle report, 1958, PHS-161-2-28.

153. “Brilliant Persian Student Needs Funds to Finish Studies in USA,” Iola Register (Iola, Kansas), November 7, 1947; “Iranian Finds Iola Neat and Clean, Praises US Christmas Spirit,” Iola Register (Iola, Kansas), December 23, 1947; “De Paul to Give 772 Degrees in Rites This Week,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 6, 1948. On Iranian women in medicine, see Amin, The Making of the Modern Iranian Woman, chap. 6.

154. Doolittle, December 4, 1949, PHS-JED-360.

155. Voorhees, Is Love Lost, 76–77.

156. “Curry,” The Age (Melbourne, Australia), July 1, 1964.

157. Del Be Del, April 1965, 3.

158. Del Be Del, October 1967, 7.

159. Amin, The Making of the Modern Iranian Woman, chap. 6.

160. “From 1946 Report,” in Report of Jane Doolittle Project, May 1947, PHS-JED-360. Emphases in original.

161. Hendelman-Baavur, Creating the Modern Iranian Woman, 290.

162. Amin, The Making of the Modern Iranian Woman, chap. 4; Najmabadi, Women with Mustaches and Men without Beards, chap. 5; Paidar, Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran; Sedghi, Women and Politics in Iran.

163. Naghibi, Rethinking Global Sisterhood, 2, 39, 46.

164. Amos and Parmar, “Challenging Imperial Feminism”; Koikari, Pedagogy of Democracy.

165. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1961, PHS-161-2-15. See also Michael Zirinsky, “A Presbyterian Vocation to Reform Gender Relations in Iran: The Career of Annie Stocking Boyce,” in Women, Religion, and Culture in Iran, ed. Ansari and Martin, chap. 4; Zirinsky, “Harbingers of Change,” 182–83.

166. Mahnaz Afkhami, “The Women’s Organization of Iran: Evolutionary Politics and Revolutionary Change,” in Women in Iran, ed. Beck and Nashat, chap. 4, especially pp. 112–14. See also Cronin, The Making of Modern Iran, chaps. 9–11.

167. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1957, PHS-161-2-13.

168. “Women Today: Iran Woman Tells of Rights’ Fight,” Intelligencer Journal (Lancaster, PA), May 13, 1958.

169. Paidar, Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran, 140–46.

170. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1964, PHS-161-2-18.

171. Haleh Esfandiari, “The Role of Women Members of Parliament, 1963–88,” in Women in Iran, ed. Beck and Nashat, chap. 5, especially pp. 140–41; Iran Office of Program Agency, Newsletter, October 19, 1974, PHS-417-13–34, William Miller Papers.

172. Joan Rankin, March 18, 1962, PHS-486-1-6, Joan Rankin Papers.

173. Joan Rankin, September 26, 1964, PHS-486-1-8, Joan Rankin Papers.

174. Hazel Fuller, September 27, 1964, PHS-486-1-16, Joan Rankin Papers.

175. Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer, 155; Laville, Cold War Women.

176. Airgram A-133 from American Embassy Tehran to Department of State, August 28, 1963, Manuscript Collection 468, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection, group 16, box 318, file 6, University of Arkansas.

177. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1961, PHS-161-2-15.

178. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1963, PHS-161-2-17.

179. Del Be Del, June 1963, 6.

180. Joan Rankin, March 1 and March 14, 1965, both in PHS-486-1-9, Joan Rankin Papers.

181. Hazel Fuller, March 7, 1965, PHS-486-1-16, Joan Rankin Papers.

182. Surur Amiri et al., Iran Bethel Alumnae Association, December 14, 1964, PHS-161-3-34. This letter has the signatures of dozens of members.

183. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1965, PHS-161-2-19.

184. Del Be Del, April 1972, 6.

185. Del Be Del, April 1965, 11; Del Be Del, July 1966, 12; Del Be Del, June 1967, 10.

186. Doolittle report of July 1981 quoted in Voorhees, Is Love Lost, 146–47.

187. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1966, PHS-161-2-20.

188. Doolittle report, Iran Bethel, 1966, PHS-161-2-20.

189. Frances Mecca Gray profile, PHS, Frances Mecca Gray, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-FMG-360).

190. Frances Mecca Gray, “A Preliminary Evaluation of Iran Bethel,” December 1, 1966, PHS-FMG-360.

191. Frances Mecca Gray report, Iran Bethel, October 1967, PHS-161-2-21.

192. Damavand College President’s Report to the Board of Trustees 1974–75, PHS-FMG-360; Heisey, “Reflections on a Persian Jewel.”

193. Frances Mecca Gray, May 18, 1970 and November 13, 1971, PHS-FMG-360.

194. Frances Mecca Gray, personnel development interview report, September 28, 1974, PHS-FMG-360.

195. Doolittle, Oral History of Iran Collection of the Foundation for Iranian Studies, pp. 36–37.

196. Del Be Del, January 1975, 14.

197. Del Be Del, February 1974, 9; Del Be Del, August 1975, 5.

198. Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran.

199. Loss, Between Citizens and the State, 2–3.

1. Matthew 11:1–19, in Harper Collins Study Bible; “Friendship Evangelism,” July 18, 1945, PHS, Commodore Fisher Papers, folder: correspondence and reports.

2. Clark and Ledger-Lomas, “The Protestant International”; Fischer-Tiné, Huebner, and Tyrrell, Spreading Protestant Modernity.

3. Kaufman, “Three Views of Associationalism in 19th-Century America,” 1296–345, quotes on 1296–98; Schlesinger, “Biography of a Nation of Joiners”; Tocqueville, Democracy in America.

4. Hawley, “Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an ‘Associative State’ ”; Hogan, “Corporatism.”

5. Costigliola, Awkward Dominion; De Grazia, Irresistible Empire.

6. Bull, The Anarchical Society; Iriye, Global Community.

7. Keddie, “Anjoman,” in Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa, ed. Mattar, 1:206–207; Bayat, Algar, and Hanaway, “Anjoman (Organization),” Encyclopedia Iranica; Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan, 36–53, especially 40.

8. See Miller’s two-part essay, “Political Organization in Iran: From Dowreh to Political Party.”

9. Roshchin, Friendship among Nations; Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration, chap. 2.

10. Oelsner and Vion, “Introduction, Special Issue: Friendship and International Relations,” 2–3. See also Koschut and Oelsner, Friendship and International Relations.

11. Berenskoetter, “Friends,” 671.

12. Patsias and Deschênes, “Unsociable Sociability”; Oelsner and Vion, “Friends in the Region”; Hahn, “Commentary: Special Relationships.”

13. Moradian, This Flame Within, chap. 2.

14. Oelsner and Vion, “Introduction, Special Issue: Friendship in International Relations,” 3–4.

15. Charles and Jeanette Hulac, July 21, 1947, PHS-CRH-360. Emphasis in original. On Aristotle’s differentiation between intrinsic and instrumental friendship, see Berenskoetter, “Friends,” 664–68.

16. Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order; Gorman, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s.

17. Schuler report, Tehran Church and City Evangelistic Work, 1917, PHS-91-19–15.

18. Ivan Otis Wilson report, Tehran Evangelistic Work, 1926, PHS-91-19–15.

19. Boyce, “Alborz College of Teheran and Dr. Samuel Martin Jordan,” 159; Gheissari, “The American College of Tehran,” 675; Ricks, “Alborz College of Tehran,” 639, 642–43.

20. William Wysham report, Evangelical Church of Tehran, 1930, PHS-91-19–15; Schuler report, Evangelical Church of Tehran, 1931, PHS-91-19–15.

21. Piper, Robert E. Speer; William Miller, “Robert E. Speer.”

22. John Ghazvinian, “Flags of Inconvenience: State Failure, Nationhood, and Contested Sovereignty in the Late Qajar Encounter with the United States,” in American-Iranian Dialogues, ed. Shannon, chap. 1. In addition to other documents in the folder “Iranian Legation 1921–44,” see Topakyan (consul-general) to Robert Speer, November 26, 1912, PHS-91-23–12.

23. Milani, Eminent Persians, 1:37–43.

24. Hossein Ala to Robert Speer, March 13, 1924, PHS-91-23–12.

25. Program for “dinner tendered by the Persian minister in honor of Dr. Ernest L. Bogart,” October 26, 1923, PHS-91-23–12. Allen Dulles and others were on the guest list.

26. Invitation to “a reception in celebration of the coronation of … Reza Shah Pahlavi,” April 26, 1926, PHS-91-23–12.

27. Hossein Ala to Robert Speer, July 10, 1922, PHS-91-23–12.

28. “Constitution of the Persia Society,” 1925, PHS-91-24–11; “Officers of the Persia Society,” 1925, PHS-91-24–11.

29. Robert Speer to Morgan Shuster, January 21, 1926, PHS-91-24–11; Mirza Mahmoud Khan Saghaphi, April 1, 1926, PHS-91-24–11.

30. Hossein Ala to Robert Speer, March 13, 1924, PHS-91-23–12.

31. Rizvi, “Art History and the Nation,” 45–65, especially 46–47.

32. Saleh, Cultural Ties between Iran and the United States, 97.

33. “Constitution of the Iran-America Society,” as amended November 9, 1964, p. 1, in James Bill Papers, box 6, folder 19. Hereafter, “Constitution of the Iran-America Society.” The James Bill Papers are at the College of William and Mary.

34. Saleh, Cultural Ties between Iran and the United States, 97; Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet, 54–68; Sadiq, “Modern Persia and Her Educational System.”

35. Annie Boyce, March 31, 1941, PHS-ASB-360.

36. Annie Boyce report, 1942, PHS-ASB-360.

37. Arthur Boyce report, 1948, PHS-ACB-360.

38. “Allahyar Saleh,” Biographic Sketch, October 1959, Digital National Security Archive, IR00376, document 1679096720.

39. Memorandum, Division of Near Eastern Affairs (Murray), November 5, 1941, FRUS 1941 III, document 347.

40. Telegram from Tehran (Dreyfus) to secretary of state, April 6, 1943, FRUS 1943 IV, document 537.

41. Millspaugh, Americans in Persia, 92–96.

42. Millspaugh, Americans in Persia, 157–58.

43. Arthur Boyce report, 1943, PHS-ACB-360. Emphasis in original. On the location, see “Constitution of the Iran-America Society,” p. 2, James Bill Papers.

44. Wilber, Adventures in the Middle East, 115.

45. Wilber, Adventures in the Middle East, 117.

46. Franklin Roosevelt to Hassan Esfandiary, December 30, 1943, reprinted in Saleh, Cultural Ties between Iran and the United States, 104.

47. “Friendship Evangelism,” July 18, 1945, PHS, Commodore Fisher Papers, folder: correspondence and reports. Emphasis in original.

48. “Constitution of the Alborz Foundation for Iranian Students,” March 18/June 19, 1947, PHS-91-16–18.

49. Program, “Dedication of the Alborz Foundation,” April 28, 1959, PHS-91-17–22; Alborz Foundation, “The Order of Service for the Dedication of the Chapel,” May 29, 1966, PHS-91-17–22.

50. Annie Boyce report, 1941, PHS-ASB-360. See also Boyce, “Alborz College of Teheran and Dr. Samuel Martin Jordan.”

51. Annie Boyce, January 19, 1944, PHS-ASB-360; Annie Boyce, December 7, 1944, PHS-ASB-360; Annie Boyce, October 25, 1947, PHS-ASB-360.

52. Arthur Boyce report, 1948, PHS-ACB-360.

53. “Lafayette Aide Named,” New York Times, June 25, 1950; Charles and Jeanette Hulac, November 26, 1946, PHS-CRH-360; Hulac to P. Hewison Pollock, December 27, 1962, PHS-CRH-360.

54. Memorandum of Conference, December 8, 1946, PHS-91-16–18.

55. There is no indication that Hulac’s CIA ties existed during his time with the Alborz Foundation, as they likely came later when he worked with the American Friends of the Middle East. See Wilford, America’s Great Game, 239; Shannon, Losing Hearts and Minds, 34–36.

56. Alborz Foundation provisional board of managers, minutes of meeting, May 9, 1947, PHS-91-17–11. In Tehran, the board of managers included Hulac, an Iranian Christian, and Arthur Boyce, John Elder, and Commodore Fisher.

57. Hulac, First Annual Report Letter, [1948], PHS-91-16–16.

58. Hulac to William Spence, February 3, 1949, PHS-91-17–12.

59. Hulac, First Annual Report Letter, [1948], PHS-91-16–16.

60. Hulac to H. C. Coleman Jr., July 18, 1949, PHS-91-17–12.

61. Hulac to Charles Leber, May 30, 1949, PHS-91-17–8.

62. J. Mark Irwin, January 18, 1951, PHS-91-17–1.

63. William Miller to J. L. Dodds, June 7, 1950, PHS-91-17–1.

64. Jeanette Hulac, November 28, 1947, PHS-91-17–12.

65. Hulac report, August 22, 1949, PHS-91-16–16.

66. John Elder to J. L. Dodds, July 5, 1950, PHS-91-17–1.

67. William Miller to J. L. Dodds, June 7, 1950, PHS-91-17–1.

68. Herrick Young, Alborz board of trustees, minutes of meeting, April 5, 1950, Ralph Cooper Hutchison Papers, Library of Congress.

69. IAS Director, “Special Report on the Educational Counselling Service,” July–December 1951, enclosed with memorandum from US Embassy Tehran to Department of State, March 18, 1952, RG 306, P74, box 2, folder: Reports 1951, NARA.

70. Thomas McNair report, February 1950, PHS-91-17–1.

71. Thomas McNair to Herrick Young, June 20, 1949, PHS-91-16–17.

72. Sherman Fung, “A Sketch of Your Life,” PHS, Sherman Byron Fung, RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-SBF-360).

73. Sherman Fung, September 30, 1958, PHS-SBF-360.

74. Press release on Sherman Fung, November 21, 1957, PHS-SBF-360.

75. Frank Woodward report, Alborz Foundation, 1956, PHS-161-2-12; Woodward report, Alborz Foundation, 1957, PHS-161-2-13; Woodward report, Alborz Foundation, 1958, PHS-161-2-14; Program, “Dedication of the Alborz Foundation,” April 28, 1959, PHS-91-17–22.

76. Frank Woodward report, Alborz Foundation, 1958, PHS-161-2-14.

77. Durwood Busse report, Alborz Foundation, 1962, PHS-161-2-16.

78. Frank Woodward report, Alborz Foundation, 1956, PHS-161-2-12; Durwood Busse report, Alborz Foundation, 1961, PHS-161-2-15; Stanley Hollingsworth report, Alborz Foundation, 1965, PHS-161-2-19; Hollingsworth report, Alborz Foundation, 1966, PHS-161-2-20.

79. Memorandum to Christian Service Board Members, “A Recommendation Concerning an Adjustment of CSB Action 67–63,” November 1, 1967, PHS-161-3-31.

80. Paul Seto, “Armaghan Institute,” [November 1967], PHS-161-3-31; Alexa Smith, “Middle East Missionary Dies—Paul Seto,” Reformed Online, January 3, 2004.

81. “Iran Armaghan Institute Program and Personnel Activities Terminated, Record of Understandings,” COEMAR, June 30, 1972, PHS-437–2, folder: Iran Armaghan.

82. Braswell, To Ride a Magic Carpet; Hopkins, “An Overview of the Missions Activities of the Southern Baptist Convention’s Foreign Mission Board in Iran,” 168–76, especially 171.

83. Reminiscences of Richard Arndt in an interview with William Burr, May 9 and 27 and July 25, 1988, p. 140, in the Oral History of Iran Collection of the Foundation for Iranian Studies.

84. “Constitution of the Iran-America Society,” p. 2, James Bill Papers.

85. “What Is the Iran-America Society?” in IAS Publication No. 3, September 24, 1951, RG 306, P74, box 3, folder: Iran-America Society Publicity, NARA.

86. “Binational Centers: Tehran, Iran,” September 10, 1953, RG 306, P74, box 5, folder: Tehran, Iran Reports 1953, NARA. For a map with Mosaddeq’s home, see National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 435.

87. US Operations Mission to Iran, Engineering and Construction Division, “Key Map to Public, Government, USA and UN Offices in Tehran,” October 28, 1953, Richard Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, 1953 Far East Trip, box 2, folder: Iran II, Richard Nixon Presidential Library, Yorba Linda, CA.

88. Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Iran Country Reader, interview with Isabel Cumming, 147–48.

89. Miller, “Political Organization in Iran: From Dowreh to Political Party,” 159–67, quotes on 163–64.

90. For context, see Cronin, Soldiers, Shahs, and Subalterns in Iran, 245–57.

91. “Biography of a Friend,” in IAS Publication No. 1, August 24, 1951, RG 306, P74, box 3, folder: Iran-America Society Publicity, NARA.

92. Bamdad, From Darkness into Light, “translator’s preface” by F. R. C. Bagley, and “a note on the authoress” by Shams ol-Moluk Javaher-e Kalam, xi–xx.

93. Farmanfarmaian, Daughter of Persia, title of part 2; Ghazvinian, America and Iran, 19.

94. “Sultan Mahmoud Amerie (SFS ’24, MSFS ’25) of Persia becomes the first foreign recipient of scholarship funds to attend the School of Foreign Service,” Georgetown University.

95. “Med Prof off Today on Tour,” Daily News (New York), August 31, 1961; Harrison Salisbury, “Great Hopes Are Held for a New University in Iran,” Corpus Christi Caller-Times (Texas), November 19, 1961.

96. One organization with ties to New York and Shiraz, where Mehra was a doctor, was the Iran Foundation. Donald Wilber, The Iran Foundation, 1948–1955 (May 1955), Manuscript Collection 468, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection, group 3, series 1, box 107, file 3, University of Arkansas.

97. “Constitution of the Iran-America Society,” p. 2, James Bill Papers.

98. “An Old Friendship between Iran and America,” in IAS Publication No. 1, August 24, 1951, RG 306, P74, box 3, folder: Iran-America Society Publicity, NARA.

99. “Obituaries: Marcia M. Airis, Potomac Civic Activist,” Washington Post, December 28, 2011.

100. Foreign Service List (Washington, DC: US Department of State, October 1, 1951), 69–70.

101. “Rev. Robert L. Steiner,” New York Times, March 10, 1954; “Robert L. Steiner, Jr., 96,” Central Jersey, November 17, 2017.

102. “F. Taylor Gurney: Retired Attache in Iran,” Washington Post, October 26, 1973; “Henrietta Gurney: Mission Teacher in Iran,” Washington Post, November 8, 1974.

103. Heiss, Empire and Nationhood.

104. Belmonte, Selling the American Way, chap. 1; Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency.

105. “Constitution of the Iran-America Society,” p. 2, James Bill Papers.

106. James Passarelli to Dr. Eugene Delgado Arias (Institutes Branch, Division of Libraries and Institutes, Department of State), April 13, 1951, RG 306, P74, box 2, folder: Reports 1951, NARA.

107. Mohsen Raafat, translated editorial from front page of Raafat, May 5, 1951, RG 306, P74, box 2, folder: Tehran Reports 1951, NARA.

108. Davis McAbee Jones, “Busier in Retirement: Unexpected Is Expected in Passarelli Home,” Miami Herald, September 26, 1964; Georgina Cruz, “Language Closes World Gap,” Fort Lauderdale News, April 28, 1972. See also Foreign Service Operations Memorandum from US Embassy Tehran to Department of State, “Budget for Cultural Institute Tehran,” March 29, 1951, RG 306, P74, box 2, folder: Tehran, Iran Budget 1951, NARA.

109. “What Is the Iran-America Society?” in IAS Publication No. 3, September 24, 1951, RG 306, P74, box 3, folder: Iran-America Society Publicity, NARA.

110. “Society News of the Past Two Weeks,” in IAS Publication No. 2, [September 1951], RG 306, P74, box 3, folder: Iran-America Society Publicity 1952, NARA.

111. IAS Board of Directors, Report of Activities, May 5, 1953, RG 306, P74, box 5, folder: Tehran, Iran Reports 1953, NARA.

112. Hugh Kirkpatrick (IAS acting director), “Report of Annual General Assembly of the Membership and Election of Board of Directors,” July 17, 1953, enclosed with despatch no. 105 from US Embassy Tehran to Department of State, August 14, 1953, RG 306, P74, box 5, folder: Tehran, Iran Reports 1953, NARA.

113. Minutes of Country Team Meeting, May 13, 1959, RG 59, Bureau of Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs, Supplemental Subject Files relating to Iran 1956–59, box 20, folder: Iran Country Team Meetings 1959, NARA.

114. Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Iran Country Reader, interview with L. Bruce Laingen, 83.

115. “Constitution of the Iran-America Society,” pp. 3–5, James Bill Papers. The locations are also listed on the back of the IAS Monthly Program, June 1967, RG 306, P46, box 322, folder: IAS Monthly Program, NARA.

116. Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Iran Country Reader, interview with Isabel Cumming, 147–48.

117. Jalal Al-e Ahmad, Occidentosis.

118. Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Iran Country Reader, interview with David Nalle, 246.

119. Howard Conklin Baskerville’s personnel file is at PHS in RG 360 (hereafter, PHS-HCB-360). Among other documents, this file contains a recommendation letter from Woodrow Wilson, then president of Princeton University, dated March 20, 1907. The most extensive treatment of Baskerville’s life is Aslan, An American Martyr in Persia.

120. Mohammad Jafar Amir Mahallati, “Aristotle and Iranian Ethicists: Friendship as a Moral and a Political Paradigm,” in Friendship in Islamic Ethics and World Politics, ed. Mahallati, 107; Frye, Greater Iran, xi.

121. Twain, The Innocents Abroad.

122. Bernstein, “An American Hero in Iran.”

123. Ryan, “Bush’s ‘Useful Idiots.’ ”

124. Kashani-Sabet, “American Crosses, Persian Crescents,” 622–24.

125. See the Baskerville letters and related documents from April 1909 at PHS in PCUSA/BFM correspondence, microform, vol. 204, Persia Letters: West Persia Mission, 1909, especially documents 1 and 2.

126. “Iranians Commemorate Death of American Mission Teacher: An Echo Down the Decades,” [1959], PHS-HCB-360.

127. Quote appears in most accounts of Baskerville, including Bernstein, “An American Hero in Iran.” See also Ricks, “Power Politics and Political Culture,” 167–69.

128. Despatch 101 from USIS-Tehran to USIA Washington, “Project to Celebrate 50th Anniversary of Death of Howard Baskerville,” RG 306, P74, box 21, folder: Iran 1959 Tehran Info. Gen., NARA.

129. Firuz Kazemzadeh to Edward Murrow (USIA), August 29, 1961; Henry Davis to Herbert Linneman (USIS-Tehran), September 6, 1961. Both in RG 306, P252, box 2, folder: Miscellaneous Action Messages Iran 1961 Secret, NARA. These documents relate to a proposed commemoration of Morgan Shuster.

130. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency.

131. Osgood, Total Cold War, 218–19, 250–51. See also Hucker, Public Opinion and Twentieth-Century Diplomacy; Krenn, The History of United States Cultural Diplomacy.

132. Theodore Hupper, Inspection Report of USIS Iran, submitted to USIA Washington on June 10, 1955, pp. 10–11, 19–21, and appendix A, RG 306, P130, box 3, folder: Inspection Report USIS Iran, NARA.

133. Arndt, Oral History of Iran Collection of the Foundation for Iranian Studies, 3–4.

134. Belmonte, Selling the American Way; Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Hixson, Parting the Curtain.

135. “Benjamin Franklin,” USIS-Tehran, January 25, 1956, RG 306, P46, box 113, NARA; “The Miracle of America,” USIS-Tehran, January 9, 1956, with Lincoln on the cover, RG 306, P46, box 115, NARA; “The Spirit of America: Militant Idealism,” USIS-Tehran, June 23, 1954, from Cornelius Van Engert speech at IAS, RG 306, P46, box 114, NARA. These are in folders with the same title as the respective pamphlets.

136. Remarks by Burnett Anderson (PAO) at the dedication of the USIS library as Abraham Lincoln Library, Tehran, Iran, February 13, 1960, RG 306, P74, box 34, folder: Tehran Reports 1960, NARA. Interestingly, the speaker after Anderson was Sadeq Rezazadeh Shafaq, who delivered a lecture on “What Lincoln Means to Me.” See also despatch 76 from USIS-Tehran to USIA Washington, “Inauguration of United States Information Service Abraham Lincoln Library,” February 25, 1960, RG 306, P74, box 34, folder: Tehran Reports 1960, NARA.

137. Harnack, Persian Lions, Persian Lambs, 66.

138. “Iranians Commemorate Death of American Mission Teacher: An Echo Down the Decades,” [1959], PHS-HCB-360.

139. Harnack, Persian Lions, Persian Lambs, 65–66.

140. Despatch 101 from USIS-Tehran to USIA Washington, “Project to Celebrate 50th Anniversary of Death of Howard Baskerville,” RG 306, P74, box 21, folder: Iran 1959 Tehran Info. Gen., NARA.

141. Afshar and Daryaee, Scholars and Humanists; Katouzian, “Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh.”

142. Sadeq Rezazadeh Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville, 1885–1909, Fiftieth Anniversary: The Story of an American Who Died in the Cause of Iranian Freedom and Independence” (Tehran: Kayhan Press, April 23, 1959), RG 306, Entry P46, box 113, folder: Tehran Howard Baskerville, NARA. Unless mentioned, all page references are to this original, archival version of the Baskerville essay. The spelling of “Shafagh” is transliterated as “Shafaq.”

143. Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville,” 10, 13.

144. Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville,” 26.

145. Dedication by Harold Josif, in Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville,” 5–6.

146. Foreword by Senator S. H. Taqizadeh, in Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville,” 3.

147. Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville,” 9, and p. 6 of the Josif dedication.

148. Foreword by Taqizadeh, in Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville,” 3.

149. Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville,” 23.

150. Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville,” 15, 24, 27.

151. Arndt, Oral History of Iran Collection of the Foundation for Iranian Studies, 39.

152. Despatch No. 101 from USIS-Tehran to USIA Washington, “Project to Celebrate 50th Anniversary of Death of Howard Baskerville,” RG 306, P74, box 21, folder: Iran 1959 Tehran Info. Gen., NARA.

153. See, for example, Saleh, Cultural Ties between Iran and the United States, 311.

154. Arthur Boyce, “Alborz College of Teheran and Dr. Samuel Martin Jordan”; Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville: The Story of an American Who Died in the Cause of Iranian Freedom and Independence.” Chapters 4 and 6 in Saleh, Cultural Ties between Iran and the United States.

155. Shafaq, “Howard Baskerville: The Story of an American Who Died in the Cause of Iranian Freedom and Independence” (Boston, MA: Ty Aur Press, 2008). For the original Boyce essay, of the same title on Jordan, see the Lafayette in Persia website.

156. “Iranians Commemorate Death of American Mission Teacher: An Echo Down the Decades,” [1959], PHS-HCB-360.

157. Bonakdarian, “Great Expectations,” 123–24.

158. Davis, “Evangelizing the Orient,” 192–98, 201.

159. Sherman Fung, May 6, 1959, PHS-SBF-360; “Dedication of the Alborz Foundation,” April 28, 1959, PHS-91-17–22.

160. Walter Groves, “What Is the Alborz Foundation?,” April 28, 1959, PHS, McMillan Family Papers, box 1.

161. Pahlavi, Mission for My Country, 131.

162. Sherman Fung, May 6, 1959, PHS-SBF-360.

163. Saunders, The Cultural Cold War.

1. Del Be Del, February 1944, 2; Del Be Del, May 1944, 3.

2. Khalil, America’s Dream Palace. See also Jacobs, Imagining the Middle East.

3. Little, American Orientalism; Said, Orientalism.

4. Ricks, “Alborz College of Tehran.”

5. For context, see Geiger, American Higher Education since World War II; Schrum, The Instrumental University.

6. Parviz Goes to College, film, [1930s], PHS-Pearl.

7. Webster, “American Presbyterian Global Mission Policy.”

8. For context, see Carpenter and Shenk, Earthen Vessels; McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders; Turek, To Bring the Good News to All Nations.

9. Miller, A Christian’s Response to Islam; Kidd, American Christians and Islam.