Notes

Introduction

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2.Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016: Contributing to Food Security and Nutrition for All (Rome: FAO, 2016).

3.J. A. Koslow et al., “Continental Slope and Deep-Sea Fisheries: Implications for a Fragile Ecosystem,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 57 (2000): 548–557.

4.G. Barone et al., “Estimated Dietary Intake of Trace Metals from Swordfish Consumption: A Human Health Problem,” Toxics 6, no. 2 (2018): 22.

5.I. Urbina, “Palau vs. the Poachers,” New York Times, February 17, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/21/magazine/palau-vs-the-poachers.html.

Part I

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4.P. Greenberg, The Omega Principle: Seafood and the Quest for a Long Life and a Healthier Planet (New York: Penguin Press, 2018).

5.D. Pauly and I. Tsukayama, The Peruvian Anchoveta and Its Upwelling Ecosystem: Three Decades of Change (Callao, Peru: Instituto del Mar del Peru, 1987).

6.J. Tarazon and W. Arntz, “The Peruvian Coastal Upwelling System,” in Coastal Marine Ecosystems of Latin America. Ecological Studies, Vol. 144, ed. U. Seeliger and B. Kjerfve (Berlin: Springer, 2001), 229-244.

1. All Together Now

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3.Bartlett, Guano: A Treatise, title page.

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23.T. J. Pitcher, “Shoaling and Schooling in Fishes,” in Comparative Psychology: A Handbook, ed. G. Greenberg and M. M. Hararway (New York: Garland, 1998), 748–760.

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25.J. E. Herbert-Read et al., “Proto-cooperation: Group Hunting Sailfish Improve Hunting Success by Alternating Attacks on Grouping Prey,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 283 (2016): 20161671.

26.P. Domenici et al., “How Sailfish Use their Bills to Capture Schooling Prey,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281 (2014): 20140444.

27.S. P. Oliver et al., “Thresher Sharks Use Tail-Slaps as a Hunting Strategy,” PLoS ONE 8, no. 7 (2013): e67380.

28.R. P. Wilson et al., “Conspicuous Coloration May Enhance Prey Capture in Some Piscivores,” Animal Behaviour 35, no. 5 (1987): 1559–1560.

29.U. Kils, “The ecoSCOPE and dynIMAGE: Microscale Tools for In Situ Studies of Predator-Prey Interactions,” Ergebnisse der Limnologie 36 (1992): 83–96.

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31.W. Root, Food (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980).

32.B. Wilson, R. S. Batty, and L. M. Dill, “Pacific and Atlantic Herring Produce Burst Pulse Sounds,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B (Supplement) 271 (2004): S95–S97.

33.P. Greenberg, The Omega Principle: Seafood and the Quest for a Long Life and a Healthier Planet (New York: Penguin Press, 2018).

34.A. D. Thaler, “Herring Wars: Quotas, Conflicts, and Climate Change in the North Atlantic,” Southern Fried Science, July 25, 2013, https://www.southernfriedscience.com/herring-wars-quotas-conflicts-and-climate-change-in-the-north-atlantic.

35.Greenberg, The Omega Principle.

36.“Atlantic Herring, Clupea harengus Linnaeus 1758,” FishBase: A Global Information System on Fishes, accessed August 11, 2020, https://www.fishbase.se/summary/24.

37.M. S. Love, Certainly More than You Want to Know about the Fishes of the Pacific Coast: A Postmodern Experience (Santa Barbara, CA: Really Big Press, 2011).

38.J. Radovich, “The Collapse of the California Sardine Fishery: What Have We Learned?” in Resource Management and Environmental Uncertainty: Lessons from Coastal Upwelling Fisheries, ed. M. H. Glantz and J. D. Thompson (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1981), 56–78.

39.T. R. Baumgartner, A. Soutar, and F. Ferreira-Bartrina, “Reconstruction of the History of the Pacific Sardine and Northern Anchovy Populations over the Past Two Millennia from Sediments of the Santa Barbara Basin, California,” California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Reports 33 (1992): 24–40.

40.Baumgartner, Soutar, and Ferreira-Bartrina, “Reconstruction of the History.”

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43.Kaltenberg and Benoit-Bird, “Diel Behavior,” 247–262.

44.Love, Certainly More.

45.V. G. Russell, “Pearl Essence in San Pedro,” California Fish & Game 13, no. 3 (1927): 216–217.

46.M. Verhaegen, P. F. Puech, and S. Munro, “Aquarboreal Ancestors?” TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution 17, no. 5 (2002): 212–217.

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48.J. Zilhão et al., “Last Interglacial Iberian Neandertals as Fisher-Hunter-Gatherers,” Science 367, no. 6485 (2020).

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50.Greenberg, The Omega Principle.

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52.P. Barberger-Gateau et al., ”Fish, Meat, and Risk of Dementia: Cohort Study,” British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition) 325, no. 7370 (2002): 932–933.

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56.Frye, The Men All Singing, 20.

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59.Greenberg, The Omega Principle.

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2. Hot Blooded

1.“$3.1 Million: Giant Tuna Auctioned Off at Record High Price in Japan,” Korea Times, January 6, 2019.

2.L. E. Lilly et al., “Effect of Temperature Acclimation on Red Blood Cell Oxygen Affinity in Pacific Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus orientalis) and Yellowfin Tuna (Thunnus albacares),” Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 181 (2015): 36–44.

3.M. Miya et al., “Evolutionary Origin of the Scombridae (Tunas and Mackerels): Members of a Paleogene Adaptive Radiation with 14 Other Pelagic Fish Families,” PLoS ONE 8, no. 9 (2013): e73535

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6.M. M. Walker et al., “A Candidate Magnetic Sense Organ in the Yellowfin Tuna, Thunnus albacares,” Science 224 (1984): 751–753.

7.J. Willis et al., “Spike Dives of Juvenile Southern Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus maccoyii): A Navigational Role?” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 64 (2009): 57–68.

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14.D.-E. Nilsson et al., “A Unique Advantage for Giant Eyes in Giant Squid,” Current Biology 22 (2012): 683–688.

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16.Block, Booth, and Carey, “Direct Measurement,” 264–284.

17.Janaki Lenin, “Conserving Bluefin Tuna and Sharks: An interview with Barbara Block,” Current Conservation, June 2, 2013.

18.B. A. Block et al., “Migratory Movements, Depth Preferences, and Thermal Biology of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna,” Science 293, no. 5533 (2001): 1310–1314.

19.J. D. Altringham and B. A. Block, “Why Do Tuna Maintain Elevated Slow Muscle Temperatures? Power Output of Muscle Isolated from Endothermic and Ectothermic Fish,” The Journal of Experimental Biology 200 (1997): 2617–2627.

20.K. N. Holland et al., “Physiological and Behavioral Thermoregulation in Bigeye Tuna (Thunnus obesus),” Nature 358 (1992): 410–412.

21.J. B. Graham and K. A. Dickson, “Physiological Thermoregulation in the Albacore Thunnus alalunga,” Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 54 (1981): 470–486.

22.K. M. Schaefer, D. W. Fuller, and B. A. Block, “Movements, Behavior, and Habitat Utilization of Yellowfin Tuna (Thunnus albacares) in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean, Ascertained through Archival Tag Data,” Marine Biology 152 (2007): 503–525.

23.A. J. Williams et al., “Vertical Behavior and Diet of Albacore Tuna (Thunnus alalunga) Vary with Latitude in the South Pacific Ocean,” Deep-Sea Research II 113 (2015): 154–169.

24.M. K. Musyl et al., “Vertical Movements of Bigeye Tuna (Thunnus obesus) Associated with Islands, Buoys, and Seamounts near the Main Hawaiian Islands from Archival Tagging Data,” Fisheries Oceanography 12 (2003): 152–169.

25.R. T. Kraus and J. R. Rooker, “Patterns of Vertical Habitat Use by Atlantic Blue Marlin (Makaira nigricans) in the Gulf of Mexico,” Gulf and Caribbean Research 19 (2007): 89–97.

26.J. B. Graham and K. A. Dickson, “Tuna Comparative Physiology,” Journal of Experimental Biology 207 (2004): 4015–4024.

27.R. W. Hill, G. A. Wyse, and M. Anderson, Animal Physiology, 4th Edition (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 2004).

28.Lilly et al., “Effect of Temperature Acclimation,” 36–44.

29.H. A. Shiels, A. Di Maio, S. Thompson, and B. A. Block, “Warm Fish with Cold Hearts: Thermal Plasticity of Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Bluefin Tuna,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 278 (2010): 18–27.

30.B. B. Collette et al., “Xiphias gladius,” The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2022): e.T23148A46625751.

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34.“Five Men and the Sea: Huge Marlin Sinks Filipino Fishing Boat,” Agence France-Presse, October 10, 2018.

35.R. Ellis, Swordfish: The Life of an Ocean Gladiator (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).

36.J. G. Frazier et al., “Impalement of Marine Turtles by Billfishes,” Fisheries Science 39 (2014): 85–96.

37.E.F.K. Zarudzki, “Swordfish Rams the Alvin,” Oceanus 13 (1967): 14–18.

38.S. Marras et al., “Not So Fast: Swimming Behavior of Sailfish During Predator–Prey Interactions Using High-Speed Video and Accelerometry,” Integrative and Comparative Biology 55 (2015): 719–727.

39.I. Nakamura, “Xiphiidae,” in Fishes of the North-Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Vol. 2, ed. P.J.P. Whitehead, M. L. Bauchot, J. C. Hureau, J. Nielsen, and E. Tortonese (Paris: UNESCO, 1986), 1006–1007.

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48.G. Barone et al., “Estimated Dietary Intake of Trace Metals from Swordfish Consumption: A Human Health Problem,” Toxics 6 (2018).

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51.E. Ries, Tales of the Golden Years of California Ocean Fishing 1900–1950 (Laguna Hills, CA: Monterey Publications, 2007), 55.

52.F. A. Parrish et al., “Foraging Interaction between Monk Seals and Large Predatory Fish in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands,” Endangered Species Research 4 (2008): 299–308.

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54.M. S. Love, Certainly More than You Want to Know about the Fishes of the Pacific Coast: A Postmodern Experience (Santa Barbara, CA: Really Big Press, 2011).

55.Corson, Story of Sushi.

56.M. Bricklin, Nutrition Advisor: The Ultimate Guide to Health-Boosting and Health-Harming Factors in Your Diet (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1993).

57.Corson, Story of Sushi, 143.

58.G. Lean, “Why Mackerel Has Been Taken Off the Ethical ‘Fish to Eat’ List,” The Telegraph, January 22, 2013.

59.J. D. Morrow et al., “Evidence that Histamine is the Causative Toxin of Scombroid-Fish Poisoning,” New England Journal of Medicine 324 (1991): 716–720.

60.J. M. Hungerford, “Scombroid Poisoning: A Review,” Toxicon 56 (2010): 231–243.

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63.B. R. Moore et al., “Stock Discrimination and Movements of Narrow-Barred Spanish Mackerel across Northern Australia as Indicated by Parasites,” Journal of Fish Biology 63 (2003): 765–779.

64.P. Escolar, “Escolar: The World’s Most Dangerous Fish,” Medellitin Blog, July 22, 2010, http://blog.medellitin.com/2008/12/escolar-world-most-dangerous-fish.html.

65.H. McGee, On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen (New York: Scribner, 2004), 187.

66.M. Burros, “A Fish Puts Chefs in a Quandary,” New York Times, March 10, 1999. https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/10/dining/eating-well-a-fish-puts-chefs-in-a-quandary.html.

67.Lenin, “Conserving Bluefin Tuna.”

68.A. Turns, “Hook to Plate: How Blockchain Tech Could Turn the Tide for Sustainable Fishing,” The Guardian, June 9, 2021.

69.Jorge Ramírez, MSc, interview by Joe E. Meisel, June 3, 2021.

70.C. Guinet et al., “Killer Whale Predation on Bluefin Tuna: Exploring the Hypothesis of the Endurance-Exhaustion Technique,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 347 (2007): 111–119.

3. The Oldest Fishes in the Sea

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2.M. I. Coates, “Beyond the Age of Fishes,” Nature 458 (2009): 413–414.

3.L. Frey et al., “The Early Elasmobranch Phoebodus: Phylogenetic Relationships, Ecomorphology and a New Time-Scale for Shark Evolution,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 286 (1029): 20191336.

4.Chris Lowe, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, September 16, 2020.

5.G. W. Marshall, Jr., et al., “The Dentin Substrate: Structure and Properties Related to Bonding,” Journal of Dentistry 25, no. 6 (1997): 441–458.

6.W. Raschi and C. Tabit, “Functional Aspects of Placoid Scales: A Review and Update,” Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 43, no. 1 (1992): 123–147.

7.F. D. Arisoy et al., “Bioinspired Photocatalytic Shark-Skin Surfaces with Antibacterial and Antifouling Activity via Nanoimprint Lithography,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 10, no. 23 (2018): 20055–20063.

8.M. Lee, “Shark Skin: Taking a Bite out of Bacteria,” in Remarkable Natural Material Surfaces and Their Engineering Potential, ed. M. Lee (New York: Springer, 2014), 15–27.

9.H. L. Pratt, Jr., “Reproduction in the Blue Shark Prionace flauca,” Fisheries Bulletin 77 (1979): 445–470.

10.K. Gammon, “We’re Seeing More than Ever: White Shark Populations Rise off California Coast,” The Guardian, November 6, 2020.

11.C. G. Lowe, “Bioenergetics of Free-Ranging Juvenile Scalloped Hammerhead Sharks (Sphyrna lewini) in Kane’ohe Bay, O’ahu, HI,” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 278, no. 2 (2002): 141–156.

12.D. D. Chapman et al., “The Behavioural and Genetic Mating System of the Sand Tiger Shark, Carcharias taurus, an Intrauterine Cannibal,” Biology Letters 9 (2013): 20130003.

13.G. K. Ostrander et al., “Shark Cartilage, Cancer and the Growing Threat of Pseudoscience,” Cancer Research 64 (2004): 8485–8491.

14.C. B. Fox, “Squalene Emulsions for Parenteral Vaccine and Drug Delivery,” Molecules 14 (2009): 3286–3312.

15.M. Zasloff et al., “Squalamine as a Broad-Spectrum Systemic Antiviral Agent with Therapeutic Potential,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 38 (2011): 15978–15983.

16.M. Kovaleva et al., “Shark Variable New Antigen Receptor Biologics—A Novel Technology Platform for Therapeutic Drug Development,” Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy 14, no. 10 (2014): 1527–1539

17.M. Leslie, “Mini-Antibodies Discovered in Sharks and Camels Could Lead to Drugs for Cancer and Other Diseases,” Science, May 10, 2018.

18.G. Zhao et al., “A Novel Nanobody Targeting Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) Receptor-Binding Domain Has Potent Cross-Neutralizing Activity and Protective Efficacy against MERS-CoV,” Journal of Virology 92, no. 18 (2018): e00837–18.

19.S. Parker, The Encyclopedia of Sharks, 2nd Edition (Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2008).

20.S. Wroe et al., “Three-Dimensional Computer Analysis of White Shark Jaw Mechanics: How Hard Can a Great White Bite?” Journal of Zoology 276, no. 4 (2008): 323–410.

21.J. A. Cooper et al., “Body Dimensions of the Extinct Giant Shark Otodus megalodon: A 2D Reconstruction,” Scientific Reports 10 (2020):14596.

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23.Parker, Encyclopedia of Sharks.

24.M. Laskaa et al., “Detecting Danger—Or Just Another Odorant? Olfactory Sensitivity for the Fox Odor Component 2,4,5-Trimethylthiazoline in Four Species of Mammals,” Physiology & Behavior 84, no. 2 (2005): 211–215.

25.W. McKeever, Emperors of the Deep (New York: Harper One, 2019).

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27.Parker, Encyclopedia of Sharks.

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32.M. Piccolino and M. Bresadola, Shocking Frogs: Galvani, Volta, and the Electric Origins of Neuroscience (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

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35.B. King and J. Long, “How Sharks and Other Animals Evolved Electroreception to Find Their Prey,” Phys.org, February 13, 2018, https://phys.org/news/2018-02-sharks-animals-evolved-electroreception-theirprey.html.

36.R. M. Kempster, I. D. McCarthy, and S. P. Collin, “Phylogenetic and Ecological Factors Influencing the Number and Distribution of Electroreceptors in Elasmobranchs,” Journal of Fish Biology 80, no. 5 (2012): 2055–2088.

37.R. M. Kempster et al., “Electrosensory-Driven Feeding Behaviours of the Port Jackson Shark (Heterodontus portusjacksoni) and Western Shovelnose Ray (Aptychotrema vincentiana),” Marine and Freshwater Research 67 (2016): 187–194.

38.A. J. Kalmijn, “Electric and Magnetic Field Detection in Elasmobranch Fishes,” Science 218, no. 4575 (1982): 916–918.

39.A. P. Klimley, “Highly Directional Swimming by Scalloped Hammerhead Sharks, Sphyrna lewini and Subsurface Irradiance, Temperature, Bathymetry, and Geomagnetic Field,” Marine Biology 117 (1993): 1–22.

40.J. M. Morson and J. F. Morrissey, “Morphological Variation in the Electric Organ of the Little Skate (Leucoraja erinacea) and Its Possible Role in Communication during Courtship,” in Biology of Skates. Developments in Environmental Biology of Fishes 27, ed. D. A. Ebert and J. A. Sulikowski (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2007), 161–169.

41.N. W. Bellono, D. B. Leitch, and D. Julius, “Molecular Tuning of Electroreception in Sharks and Skates,” Nature 558, no. 7708 (2018): 122–126.

42.B. O. Bratton and J. L. Ayers, “Observations on the Electric Organ Discharge of Two Skate Species (Chondrichthyes: Rajidae) and its Relationship to Behavior,” Environmental Biology of Fishes 20 (1987): 241–254.

43.J. A. Sisneros, T. C. Tricas, and C. A. Luer, “Response Properties and Biological Function of the Skate Electrosensory System during Ontogeny,” Journal of Comparative Physiology A 183 (1998): 87–99.

44.J. Mortenson and R. H. Whitaker, “Electric Discharge of Free Swimming Female Winter Skates (Raja ocellata),” American Zoologist 13 (1973): 1266.

45.C. W. Coates and R. T. Cox, “Observations on the Electric Discharge of Torpedo occidentalis,” Zoologica 27 (1942): 25–28.

46.C. G. Lowe, R. N. Bray, and D. R. Nelson, “Feeding and Associated Electrical Behavior of the Pacific Electric Ray Torpedo californica in the Field,” Marine Biology 120 (1994): 161–169.

47.L. M. Mir, “Electrochemotherapy and Electric Pulses,” in Electromagnetic Fields, Environment and Health, ed. A. Perrin and M. Souques (Paris: Springer, 2012), 25–34.

48.Y. Tanaka et al., “An Electric Generator Using Living Torpedo Electric Organs Controlled by Fluid Pressure-Based Alternative Nervous Systems,” Scientific Reports 6, no. 25899 (2016).

49.C. M. Pedroso et al., “Morphological Characterization of the Venom Secretory Epidermal Cells in the Stinger of Marine and Freshwater Stingrays,” Toxicon 50 (2007): 688–697.

50.K. Baumann et al., “A Ray of Venom: Combined Proteomic and Transcriptomic Investigation of Fish Venom Composition Using Barb Tissue from the Blue-Spotted Stingray (Neotrygon kuhlii),” Journal of Proteomics 109 (2014): 188–198.

51.R. F. Clark et al., “Stingray Envenomation: A Retrospective Review of Clinical Presentation and Treatment in 119 Cases,” Journal of Emergency Medicine 33, no. 1 (2007): 33–37.

52.N. K. Dulvy and J. D. Reynolds, “Evolutionary Transitions among Egg-Laying, Live-Bearing and Maternal Inputs in Sharks and Rays,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 264 (1997): 1309–1315.

53.H. Jung et al., “The Ancient Origins of Neural Substrates for Land Walking,” Cell 172, no. 4 (2018): 667–682.

54.R. E. Ball, M. K. Oliver, and A. B. Gill, “Early Life Sensory Ability—Ventilatory Responses of Thornback Ray Embryos (Raja clavata) to Predator-Type Electric Fields,” Developmental Neurobiology 76, no. 7 (2015): 721–729.

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56.K. L. Omori and R. A. Fisher, “Summer and Fall Movement of Cownose Ray, Rhinoptera Bonasus, along the East Coast of United States Observed with Pop-Up Satellite Tags,” Environmental Biology of Fishes 100 (2017): 1435–1449.

57.M. E. Porter et al., “Aquatic Walking and Swimming Kinematics of Neonate and Juvenile Epaulette Sharks,” Integrative and Comparative Biology 62, no. 6 (2022): 1710–1724.

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62.Parker, Encyclopedia of Sharks.

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64.Lowe, interview.

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66.Parker, Encyclopedia of Sharks.

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69.K. C. Newton, J. Wraith, and K. A. Dickson, “Digestive Enzyme Activities Are Higher in the Shortfin Mako Shark, Isurus oxyrinchus, than in Ectothermic Sharks as a Result of Visceral Endothermy,” Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 41 (2015): 887–898.

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82.G.M.S. Vianna et al., “Shark-Diving Tourism as a Financing Mechanism for Shark Conservation Strategies in Malaysia,” Marine Policy 94 (2018): 220–226.

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84.R. G. Dwyer et al., “Individual and Population Benefits of Marine Reserves for Reef Sharks,” Current Biology 30 (2020): 480–489.

85.Gammon, “We’re Seeing More than Ever.”

86.Julia Mueller, “House Bans Shark Fin Trade, Curbs Illegal Fishing,” The Hill, December 8, 2022.

4. Greats of the Great Blue

1.B. M. Norman et al., “Undersea Constellations: The Global Biology of an Endangered Marine Megavertebrate Further Informed through Citizen Science,” BioScience 67, no. 12 (2017): 1029–1043.

2.P. J. Motta et al., “Feeding Anatomy, Filter-Feeding Rate, and Diet of Whale Sharks Rhincodon typus during Surface Ram Filter Feeding off the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico,” Zoology 113 (2010): 199–212.

3.C. R. McClain et al., “Sizing Ocean Giants: Patterns of Intraspecific Size Variation in Marine Megafauna,” PeerJ 3 (2015): e715.

4.A. P. Martin, “Metabolic Rate and Directional Nucleotide Substitution in Animal Mitochondrial DNA,” Molecular Biology and Evolution 12, no. 6 (1995): 1124–1131.

5.L. C. Strotz et al., “Metabolic Rates, Climate and Macroevolution: A Case Study Using Neogene Molluscs,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 285 (2018): 20181292.

6.S. J. Kiraly, J. A. Moore, and P. H. Jasinski, “Deepwater and Other Sharks of the U.S. Atlantic Ocean Exclusive Economic Zone,” Marine Fisheries Review 65, no. 4 (2003): 1–64.

7.J. Nielsen et al., “Eye Lens Radiocarbon Reveals Centuries of Longevity in the Greenland Shark (Somniosus microcephalus),” Science 353, no. 6300 (2016): 702–704.

8.R. de la Parra Venegas et al., “An Unprecedented Aggregation of Whale Sharks, Rhincodon typus, in Mexican Coastal Waters of the Caribbean Sea,” PLoS ONE 6, no. 4 (2011): e18994.

9.Motta, “Feeding Anatomy,” 199–212.

10.J. J. Jambeck et al., “Plastic Waste Inputs from Land into the Ocean,” Science 347, no. 6223 (2015): 768–771.

11.Law et al., “The United States’ Contribution of Plastic Waste to Land and Ocean,” Science Advances 6 (2020): eabd0288.

12.N.A.S. Abreo, D. Blatchley, and M. D. Superio, “Stranded Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) Reveals Vulnerability of Filter-Feeding Elasmobranchs to Marine Litter in the Philippines,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 141 (2019): 79–83.

13.Motta, “Feeding Anatomy,” 199–212.

14.H. M. Guzman et al., “Longest Recorded Trans-Pacific Migration of a Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus),” Marine Biodiversity Records 11 (2018): 8.

15.S. A. Eckert and B. S. Stewart, “Telemetry and Satellite Tracking of Whale Sharks, Rhincodon typus, in the Sea of Cortez, Mexico, and the North Pacific Ocean,” Environmental Biology of Fishes 60 (2001): 299–308.

16.R. E. Hueter, J. P. Tyminski, and R. de la Parra, “Horizontal Movements, Migration Patterns, and Population Structure of Whale Sharks in the Gulf of Mexico and Northwestern Caribbean Sea,” PLoS ONE 8, no. 8 (2013): e71883.

17.A. R. Hearn et al., “Adult Female Whale Sharks Make Long‑Distance Movements Past Darwin Island (Galapagos, Ecuador) in the Eastern Tropical Pacific,” Marine Biology 163 (2016): 214.

18.C. T. Perry et al., “Comparing Length-Measurement Methods and Estimating Growth Parameters of Free-Swimming Whale Sharks (Rhincodon typus) near the South Ari Atoll, Maldives,” Marine and Freshwater Research 69, no. 10 (2018): 1487–1495.

19.A.L.F. Castro et al., “Population Genetic Structure of Earth’s Largest Fish, the Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus),” Molecular Ecology 16 (2007): 5183–5192.

20.Jennifer Schmidt, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, March 23, 2021.

21.D. Rowat and K. S. Brooks, “A Review of the Biology, Fisheries and Conservation of the Whale Shark Rhincodon typus,” Journal of Fish Biology 80 (2012): 1019–1056.

22.C.J.A. Bradshaw et al., “Decline in Whale Shark Size and Abundance at Ningaloo Reef over the Past Decade: The World’s Largest Fish Is Getting Smaller,” Biological Conservation 141, no. 7 (2008): 1894–1905.

23.C. A. Rohner et al., “Trends in Sightings and Environmental Influences on a Coastal Aggregation of Manta Rays and Whale Sharks,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 482 (2013): 153–168.

24.M. B. Kaplan and S. Solomon, “A Coming Boom in Commercial Shipping? The Potential for Rapid Growth of Noise from Commercial Ships by 2030,” Marine Policy 73 (2016): 119–121.

25.UNCTAD (UN Conference on Trade and Development), Review of Maritime Transport 2016 (Geneva, Switzerland: UNCTAD, 2016).

26.L. Fox et al., “Quantifying the Effect of Anthropogenic Climate Change on Calcifying Plankton,” Scientific Reports 10 (2020): 1620.

27.J. A. McKinney et al., “Feeding Habitat of the Whale Shark Rhincodon typus in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Determined Using Species Distribution Modelling,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 458 (2012): 199–211.

28.B. M. Norman and D. L. Morgan, “The Return of ‘Stumpy’ the Whale Shark: Two Decades and Counting,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14, no. 8 (2016): 449–450.

29.E. F. Cagua et al., “Whale Shark Economics: A Valuation of Wildlife Tourism in South Ari Atoll, Maldives,” PeerJ 2 (2014): e515.

30.Z. Anna and D. S. Saputra, “Economic Valuation of Whale Shark Tourism in Cenderawasih Bay National Park, Papua, Indonesia,” Biodiversitas 18, no. 3 (2017): 1026–1034.

31.F. Womersley et al., “Wound-Healing Capabilities of Whale Sharks (Rhincodon typus) and Implications for Conservation Management,” Conservation Physiology 9, no. 1 (2021): coaa120.

32.J. I. Fasick et al., “The Retinal Pigments of the Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) and their Role in Visual Foraging Ecology,” Visual Neuroscience 36 (2019): E011.

33.M. G. Meekan et al., “Swimming Strategy and Body Plan of the World’s Largest Fish: Implications for Foraging Efficiency and Thermoregulation,” Frontiers in Marine Science 2 (2015): 64. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2015.00064.

34.J. P. Tyminski et al., “Vertical Movements and Patterns in Diving Behavior of Whale Sharks as Revealed by Pop-Up Satellite Tags in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico,” PLoS ONE 10, no. 11 (2015): e0142156.

35.Meekan et al., “Swimming Strategy.”

36.A. C. Gleiss, B. Norman, and R. P. Wilson, “Moved by that Sinking Feeling: Variable Diving Geometry Underlies Movement Strategies in Whale Sharks,” Functional Ecology 25 (2011): 595–607.

37.Meekan et al., “Swimming Strategy.”

38.M. Thums et al., “Evidence for Behavioural Thermoregulation by the World’s Largest Fish,” Journal of the Royal Society Interface 10 (2013): 20120477.

39.D. W. Sims and V. A. Quayle, “Selective Foraging Behaviour of Basking Sharks on Zooplankton in a Small-Scale Front,” Nature 393 (1998): 460–464.

40.G. B. Skomal et al., “Transequatorial Migrations by Basking Sharks in the Western Atlantic Ocean,” Current Biology 19 (2009): 1019–1022.

41.S. D’Hondt, “Consequences of the Cretaceous/Paleogene Mass Extinction for Marine Ecosystems,” Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005): 295–317

42.M. Friedman et al., “100-Million-Year Dynasty of Giant Planktivorous Bony Fishes in the Mesozoic Seas,” Science 327 (2010): 990–993.

43.C. Pimiento et al., “Evolutionary Pathways Toward Gigantism in Sharks and Rays,” Evolution 73, no. 3 (2019): 588–599.

44.A. P. Summers, “Stiffening the Stingray Skeleton—An Investigation of Durophagy in Myliobatid Stingrays (Chondrichthyes, Batoidea, Myliobatidae),” Journal of Morphology 243 (2000): 113–126.

45.C. Pimiento et al., “Geographical Distribution Patterns of Carcharocles megalodon over Time Reveal Clues about Extinction Mechanisms,” Journal of Biogeography 43, no. 8 (2016): 1645–1655.

46.O. Lambert et al., “The Giant Bite of a New Raptorial Sperm Whale from the Miocene Epoch of Peru,” Nature 466 (2010): 105–108.

47.D. Stevens et al., Guide to the Manta and Devil Rays of the World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018).

48.F. E. Fish et al., “Hydrodynamic Performance of Aquatic Flapping: Efficiency of Underwater Flight in the Manta,” Aerospace 3, no. 3 (2016): 20.

49.J. D. Swenson et al., “How the Devil Ray Got Its Horns: The Evolution and Development of Cephalic Lobes in Myliobatid Stingrays (Batoidea: Myliobatidae),” Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 6, no. 181 (2018). doi: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00181.

50.K. Onimaru et al., “A Shift in Anterior–Posterior Positional Information Underlies the Fin-to-Limb Evolution,” eLife 4 (2015): e07048.

51.Motta, “Feeding Anatomy,” 199–212.

52.R. V. Divi et al., “Manta Rays Feed Using Ricochet Separation, a Novel Nonclogging Filtration Mechanism,” Science Advances 4 (2018): eaat9533.

53.M. P. O’Malley et al., “Characterization of the Trade in Manta and Devil Ray Gill Plates in China and South-east Asia through Trader Surveys,” Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 27 (2017): 394–413.

54.C. Ari, “Encephalization and Brain Organization of Mobulid Rays (Myliobatiformes, Elasmobranchii) with Ecological Perspectives,” Open Anatomy Journal 3 (2011): 1–13.

55.A. Fathy, H. Rezk, and D. Yousri, “A Robust Global MPPT to Mitigate Partial Shading of Triple-Junction Solar Cell-Based System Using Manta Ray Foraging Optimization Algorithm,” Solar Energy 207 (2020): 305–316.

56.H. Lassauce et al., “Diving Behavior of the Reef Manta Ray (Mobula alfredi) in New Caledonia: More Frequent and Deeper Night-Time Diving to 672 Meters,” PLoS ONE 15, no. 3 (2020): e0228815.

57.K. B. Burgess et al., “Manta birostris, Predator of the Deep? Insight into the Diet of the Giant Manta Ray through Stable Isotope Analysis,” Royal Society Open Science 3 (2016): 160717.

58.R. L. Alexander, “Evidence of Brain-Warming in the Mobulid Rays, Mobula tarapacana and Manta birostris (Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii: Batoidea: Myliobatiforrnes),” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 118 (1996): 151–164.

59.C. Ari, “Rapid Coloration Changes of Manta Rays (Mobulidae),” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 113 (2014): 180–193.

60.C. Ari and D. P. D’Agostino, “Contingency Checking and Self-Directed Behaviors in Giant Manta Rays: Do Elasmobranchs Have Self-Awareness?” Journal of Ethology 34 (2016): 167–174.

61.R.J.Y. Perryman et al., “Social Preferences and Network Structure in a Population of Reef Manta Rays,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 73 (2019): 114.

62.G.M.W. Stevens, “Conservation and Population Ecology of Manta Rays in the Maldives” (doctoral thesis, University of York, 2016).

63.D. A. Croll et al., “Vulnerabilities and Fisheries Impacts: The Uncertain Future of Manta and Devil Rays,” Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 26 (2016): 562–575.

64.J. V. Schmidt et al., “Paternity Analysis in a Litter of Whale Shark Embryos,” Endangered Species Research 12 (2010): 117–124.

65.F.H.V. Hazin et al., “Reproduction of the Blue Shark Prionace glauca in the South-Western Equatorial Atlantic Ocean,” Fisheries Science 60 (1994): 487–491.

66.Australian Museum, “One of the World’s Largest Fish Develops from a Tiny Larval Mola Sunfish,” media release, July 22, 2020.

67.E. Sawai et al., “Redescription of the Bump‑Head Sunfish Mola alexandrini (Ranzani 1839), Senior Synonym of Mola ramsayi (Giglioli 1883), with Designation of a Neotype for Mola mola (Linnaeus 1758) (Tetraodontiformes: Molidae),” Ichthyological Research 65 (2018): 142–160.

68.E. W. Gudger, “From Atom to Colossus,” Natural History 38 (1936): 26–30.

69.J. Schmidt, “New Studies of Sun-Fishes Made during the ‘Dana’ Expedition, 1920,” Nature 107 (1921): 76–79.

70.E. C. Pope et al., “The Biology and Ecology of the Ocean Sunfish Mola mola: A Review of Current Knowledge and Future Research,” Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 20 (2010): 471–487.

71.M. Nyegaard et al., “Hiding in Broad Daylight: Molecular and Morphological Data Reveal a New Ocean Sunfish Species (Tetraodontiformes: Molidae) that Has Eluded Recognition,” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 182, vol. 3 (2017): 631–658.

72.Y. Watanabe and K. Sato, “Functional Dorsoventral Symmetry in Relation to Lift-Based Swimming in the Ocean Sunfish Mola mola,” PLoS ONE 3, no. 10 (2008): e3446.

73.D. P. Cartamil and C. G. Lowe, “Diel Movement Patterns of Ocean Sunfish Mola mola off Southern California,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 266 (2004): 245–253.

74.N. C. Wegner et al., “Whole-Body Endothermy in a Mesopelagic Fish, the Opah, Lampris guttatus,” Science 348, no. 6236 (2015): 786–789.

75.O. Gon, “Lampridae,” in Fishes of the Southern Ocean, ed. O. Gon and P. C. Heemstra (Grahamstown, South Africa: J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology, 1990), 215–217.

76.J. Blum, “Massachusetts Coastal Town Orders Locals to Stop Calling 911 about Giant Fish,” Huffington Post, October 14, 2020, https://www.huffpost.com/entry/sunfish-massachusetts-911_n_5f875826c5b6c5eccffcf2da.

77.L. Silvani, M. Gazo, and A. Aguilar, “Spanish Driftnet Fishing and Incidental Catches in the Western Mediterranean,” Biological Conservation 90 (1999): 79–85.

78.S. Tudela et al., “Driftnet Fishing and Biodiversity Conservation: The Case Study of the Large-Scale Moroccan Driftnet Fleet Operating in the Alboran Sea (SW Mediterranean),” Biological Conservation 121 (2005): 65–78.

79.Cartamil and Lowe, “Diel Movement Patterns,” 245.

80.L. Brotz et al., “Increasing Jellyfish Populations: Trends in Large Marine Ecosystems,” Hydrobiologia 690 (2012): 3–20.

81.R. H. Condona et al., “Recurrent Jellyfish Blooms Are a Consequence of Global Oscillations,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, vol. 3 (2013): 1000–1005.

82.J. F. Purcell, “Jellyfish and Ctenophore Blooms Coincide with Human Proliferations and Environmental Perturbations,” Annual Review of Marine Science 4 (2012): 209–235.

83.B. S. Halpern et al., “A Global Map of Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems,” Science 319 (2008): 948–952.

84.A. J. Richardson et al., “The Jellyfish Joyride: Causes, Consequences and Management Responses to a More Gelatinous Future,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24, vol. 6 (2009): 312–322.

85.J. Roman and J. J. McCarthy, “The Whale Pump: Marine Mammals Enhance Primary Productivity in a Coastal Basin,” PLoS ONE 5, no. 10 (2010): e13255.

86.J. J. Williams et al., “Mobile Marine Predators: An Understudied Source of Nutrients to Coral Reefs in an Unfished Atoll,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 285 (2018): 20172456.

87.L. R. Peel et al., “Stable Isotope Analyses Reveal Unique Trophic Role of Reef Manta Rays (Mobula alfredi) at a Remote Coral Reef,” Royal Society Open Science 6 (2019): 190599.

Part II

1.J. Verne, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (New York: Butler Brothers, 1887).

2.“Know Your Ocean: Twilight Zone,” Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, accessed November 14, 2022, https://www.whoi.edu/know-your-ocean/ocean-topics/how-the-ocean-works/ocean-zones/twilight-zone/.

3.L. Pellissier et al., “Quaternary Coral Reef Refugia Preserved Fish Diversity,” Science 344, no. 6187 (2014): 1016–1019.

5. An Oasis of Abundance

1.J. M. de Goeij et al., “Surviving in a Marine Desert: The Sponge Loop Retains Resources within Coral Reefs,” Science 342, no. 6154 (2013): 108–110.

2.L. Rix et al., “Coral Mucus Fuels the Sponge Loop in Warm- and Cold-Water Coral Reef Ecosystems,” Scientific Reports 6 (2016): 18715.

3.J. R. Pawlik et al., “Chemical Warfare on Coral Reefs: Sponge Metabolites Differentially Affect Coral Symbiosis in Situ,” Limnology and Oceanography 52, no. 2 (2007): 907–911.

4.J. L. Wulff, “Trade-offs in Resistance to Competitors and Predators, and Their Effects on the Diversity of Tropical Marine Sponges,” Journal of Animal Ecology 74 (2005): 313–321.

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6.B. Pelster, “The Generation of Hyperbaric Oxygen Tensions in Fish,” News in Physiological Science 16 (2001): 287–291.

7.M. Berenbrink et al., “Evolution of Oxygen Secretion in Fishes and the Emergence of a Complex Physiological System,” Science 307, no. 5716 (2005): 1752–1757.

8.M. D. Tietbohl, D. K. Ngugi, and M. L. Berumen, “A Unique Bellyful: Extraordinary Gut Microbes Help Herbivorous Fish Eat Seaweeds,” Biodiversity Frontiers for Young Minds 8, article 58 (2020).

9.J. H. Choat and L. Axe, “Growth and Longevity in Acanthurid Fishes: An Analysis of Otolith Increments,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 134 (1996): 15–36.

10.D. R. Robertson, N.V.C. Polunin, and K. Leighton, “The Behavioral Ecology of Three Indian Ocean Surgeonfishes (Acanthurus lineatus, A. leucosternon and Zebrasoma scopas): Their Feeding Strategies, and Social and Mating Systems,” Environmental Biology of Fishes 4 (1979): 125–170.

11.P. C. Craig et al., “Population Biology and Harvest of the Coral Reef Surgeonfish Acanthurus lineatus in American Samoa,” Fishery Bulletin 95 (1997): 680–693.

12.R. A. Horner, D. L. Garrison, and F. G. Plumley, “Harmful Algal Blooms and Red Tide Problems on the U.S. West Coast,” Limnology and Oceanography 425 no. 5,2 (1997): 1076–1088.

13.A. Ludka, “Hitchcock’s ‘The Birds’: Mystery Solved,” ABC News, December 28, 2011, https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/entertainment/2011/12/hitchcocks-the-birds-mystery-solved.

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21.Eurich et al., “Stable Isotope Analysis,” 17.

22.F. Cortesi et al., “Phenotypic Plasticity Confers Multiple Fitness Benefits to a Mimic,” Current Biology 25, no. 7 (2015): 949–954.

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35.C. S. Wardle, “The Limits of Fish Swimming Speed,” Nature 255 (1975): 725–727.

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38.N.A.J. Graham, S. J. Purkis, and A. Harris, “Diurnal, Land-Based Predation on Shore Crabs by Moray Eels in the Chagos Archipelago,” Coral Reefs 28 (2009): 397.

39.S. C. Barley et al., “To Knot or Not? Novel Feeding Behaviours in Moray Eels,” Marine Biodiversity 46 (2106): 703–705.

40.R. Bshary et al., “Interspecific Communicative and Coordinated Hunting between Groupers and Giant Moray Eels in the Red Sea,” PLoS Biology 4, no. 12 (2006): e431.

41.R. G. Turingan and P. C. Wainwright, “Morphological and Functional Bases of Durophagy in the Queen Triggerfish, Balistes vetula (Pisces, Tetraodontiformes),” Journal of Morphology 215 (1993): 101–118.

42.K. E. Korsmeyer, J. F. Steffensen, and J. Herskin, “Energetics of Median and Paired Fin Swimming, Body and Caudal Fin Swimming, and Gait Transition in Parrotfish (Scarus schlegeli) and Triggerfish (Rhinecanthus aculeatus),” Journal of Experimental Biology 205 (2002): 1253–1263.

43.F. H. Berry and L. E. Vogle, Filefishes (Monacanthidae) of the Western North Atlantic (Washington, DC: US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1961).

44.Y. Cai et al., “Filefish-Inspired Surface Design for Anisotropic Underwater Oleophobicity,” Advanced Functional Materials 24, no. 6 (2013): 809–816.

45.W. Gladstone, “Lek-Like Spawning, Parental Care and Mating Periodicity of the Triggerfish Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus (Balistidae),” Environmental Biology of Fishes 39 (1994): 249–257.

46.Karen P. Maruska, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, September 15, 2021.

47.M.C.P. Amorim, “Diversity of Sound Production in Fishes,” in Sound Communication in Fishes, ed. F. Ladich (Vienna: Springer, 2015), 71–104.

48.F. Ladich, “Fish Bioacoustics,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 28 (2014.):121–127.

49.J. M. Moulton, “Acoustic Behaviour of Fishes,” in Acoustic Behaviour of Animals, ed. R. G. Busnel (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1963), 655–693.

50.F. Ladich and A. A. Myrberg, Jr., “Agonistic Behavior and Acoustic Communication,” in Communication in Fishes, ed. F. Ladich et al. (Enfield, NH: Science Publishers, 2006).

51.M.C.P. Amorim, Y. Stratoudakis, and A. D. Hawkins, “Sound Production during Competitive Feeding in the Grey Gurnard,” Journal of Fish Biology 65 (2004): 182–194.

52.Amorim, “Diversity of Sound Production.”

53.M. A. Connaughton, “Sound Generation in the Searobin (Prionotus carolinus), a Fish with Alternate Sonic Muscle Contraction,” The Journal of Experimental Biology 207 (2004): 1643–1654.

54.J. F. Barimo and M. L. Fine, “Relationship of Swim-Bladder Shape to the Directionality Pattern of Underwater Sound in the Oyster Toadfish,” Canadian Journal of Zoology 76 (1998): 134–143.

55.Maruska, interview.

56.R. A. Kastelein et al., “Food Intake and Body Measurements of Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncates) in Captivity,” Marine Environmental Research 53, no. 2 (2002): 199–218.

57.L. Remage-Healey, D. P. Nowacek, and A. H. Bass, “Dolphin Foraging Sounds Suppress Calling and Elevate Stress Hormone Levels in a Prey Species, the Gulf Toadfish,” The Journal of Experimental Biology 209 (2006): 4444–4451.

58.J. Tournadre, “Anthropogenic Pressure on the Open Ocean: The Growth of Ship Traffic Revealed by Altimeter Data Analysis,” Geophysical Research Letters 41, no. 22 (2014): 7924–7932.

59.D. Alves et al., “Boat Noise Interferes with Lusitanian Toadfish Acoustic Communication,” Journal of Experimental Biology 224, no. 11 (2021): jeb234849.

60.J. J. Luczkovich et al., “The Lombard Effect in Fishes: How Boat Noise Impacts Oyster Toadfish Vocalization Amplitudes in Natural Experiments,” Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics 27 (2016): 010035.

61.A.O.H.C. Leduc et al., “Land-Based Noise Pollution Impairs Reef Fish Behavior: A Case Study with a Brazilian Carnival” Biological Conservation 253 (2021): 108910.

62.Maruska, interview.

6. Weird and Wonderful

1.J. Mann, Murder, Magic, and Medicine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 35.

2.W. Davis, The Serpent and the Rainbow: A Harvard Scientist's Astonishing Journey into the Secret Societies of Haitian Voodoo, Zombies, and Magic (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), 119.

3.Mann, Murder, Magic. 35.

4.S. Lohr, “One Man’s Fugu Is Another’s Poison,” New York Times, November 29, 1981.

5.J. Li et al., “Awareness on Tetrodotoxin of Illegal Activity: Forensic Issue from a Rare Homicide Case Report and Literature Review,” Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 79 (2021): 102152.

6.J. B. Cole et al., “Tetrodotoxin Poisoning Outbreak from Imported Dried Puffer Fish—Minneapolis, Minnesota, 2014,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 63, no. 51 (2015): 1222–1225.

7.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Tetrodotoxin: Biotoxin,” Emergency Response Safety and Health Database, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), accessed September 22, 2021, https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750019.html

8.T. Yasumoto et al., “Bacterial Production of Tetrodotoxin and Anhydrotetrodotoxin,” Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 50 (1986): 793–795.

9.M. J. Lee et al., “A Tetrodotoxin-Producing Vibrio Strain, LM-1, from the Puffer Fish Fugu vermicularis radiatus,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, no. 4 (2000): 1698–1701.

10.T. Saito et al., “Toxicity of the Cultured Pufferfish Fugu rubripes rubripes along with Their Resistibility against Tetrodotoxin,” Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 50 (1984): 1573–1575.

11.M. J. Caley and D. Schluter, “Predators Favor Mimicry in a Tropical Reef Fish,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 270 (2003): 667–672.

12.P. M. Vaelli et al., “The Skin Microbiome Facilitates Adaptive Tetrodotoxin Production in Poisonous Newts,” eLife 2020 (2003):9:e53898.

13.E. D. Brodie III and E. D. Brodie, Jr., “Tetrodotoxin Resistance in Garter Snakes: An Evolutionary Response of Predators to Dangerous Prey,” Evolution 44, no. 3 (1990): 651–659.

14.J. E. Randall et al., “Grammistin, the Skin Toxin of Soapfishes, and its Significance in the Classification of the Grammistidae,” Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratories 19, no. 2/3 (1971): 157–190.

15.V. R. Liguori et al., “Antibiotic and Toxic Activity of the Mucous of the Pacific Golden Striped Bass Grammistes selineatus,” American Zoologist 3, no. 4 (1963): 302.

16.Randall et al., “Grammistin,” 158.

17.E. Kalmanzon and E. Zlotkin, “An Ichthyotoxic Protein in the Defensive Skin Secretion of the Red Sea Trunkfish Ostracion cubicus,” Marine Biology 136 (2000): 471–476.

18.K. Tachibana, M. Sakaitani, and K. Nakanishi, “Pavoninins: Shark-Repelling Ichthyotoxins from the Defense Secretion of the Pacific Sole,” Science 226, no. 4675 (1984): 703–705.

19.V. S. Ramachandran et al., “Rapid Adaptive Camouflage in Tropical Flounders,” Nature 379 (1996): 815–818.

20.R. A. Patzner et al., The Biology of Gobies (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011).

21.J. Herler, P. L. Munday, and V. Hernaman, “Gobies on Coral Reefs,” in The Biology of Gobies, ed. R. A. Patzner et al. (Jersey, British Isles: Science Publishers, 2011), 493–529.

22.V. Hernaman and P. L. Munday, “Life-History Characteristics of Coral Reef Gobies. II. Mortality Rate, Mating System and Timing of Maturation,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 290 (2005): 223–237.

23.M. Depczynski and D. R. Bellwood, “The Role of Cryptobenthic Reef Fishes in Coral Reef Trophodynamics,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 256 (2003): 183–191.

24.M. Dirnwoeber and J. Herler, “Toxic Coral Gobies Reduce the Feeding Rate of a Corallivorous Butterflyfish on Acropora Corals,” Coral Reefs 32 (2013): 91–100.

25.G. E. Nilsson et al., “Hypoxia Tolerance and Air-Breathing Ability Correlate with Habitat Preference in Coral-Dwelling Fishes,” Coral Reefs 26 (2007): 241–248.

26.I. Karplus, “The Association between Gobiid Fishes and Burrowing Alpheid Shrimps,” Oceanography and Marine Biology 25 (1987): 507–562.

27.J. L. Preston, “Communication Systems and Social Interactions in a Goby-Shrimp Symbiosis,” Animal Behavior 26 (1978): 791–802.

28.N. Oshima and R. Fujii, “Motile Mechanism of Blue Damselfish (Chrysiptera cyanea) Iridophores,” Cytoskeleton 8, no. 1 (1987): 85–90.

29.R. Fuller and A. Berglund, “Behavioral Responses of a Sex-Role Reversed Pipefish to a Gradient of Perceived Predation Risk,” Behavioral Ecology 7 (1996): 69–75.

30.H. N. Sköld, S. Aspengren, and M. Wallin, “Rapid Color Change in Fish and Amphibians – Function, Regulation, and Emerging Applications,” Pigment Cell Melanoma Research 26 (2012): 29–38.

31.V. S. Ramachandran et al., “Rapid Adaptive Camouflage in Tropical Flounders,” Nature 379 (1996): 815–818.

32.E. K. Tyrie et al., “Coral Reef Flounders, Bothus lunatus, Choose Substrates on Which They Can Achieve Camouflage with Their Limited Body Pattern Repertoire,” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 114 (2015): 629–638.

33.J. E. Randall, “A Review of Mimicry in Marine Fishes,” Zoological Studies 44, no. 3 (2005): 299–328.

34.B. H. Nagareda and J. M. Shenker, “Evidence for Chemical Luring in the Polkadot Batfish Ogcocephalus cubifrons (Teleostei: Lophiiformes: Ogcocephalidae),” Florida Scientist 72, no. 1 (2009): 11–17.

35.B. H. Nagareda and J. M. Schenker, “Dietary Analysis of Batfishes (Lophiiformes: Ogcocephalidae) in the Gulf of Mexico,” Gulf of Mexico Science 26, no. 1 (2008): 28–35.

36.C. L. Combs, “Structure and Probable Feeding Function of the Batfish Esca” (PhD diss., Florida State University, 1973).

37.P. Teske and L. C. Beheregaray, “Evolution of Seahorses' Upright Posture Was Linked to Oligocene Expansion of Seagrass Habitats,” Biology Letters 5, no. 4 (2009): 521–523.

38.Q. Lin et al., “The Seahorse Genome and the Evolution of Its Specialized Morphology,” Nature 540 (2016): 395–399.

39.M. M. Porter et al., “Why the Seahorse Tail Is Square,” Science 349, no. 6243 (2015): aaa6683–1.

40.J. Yeung, “Robotic Tail for Humans was Inspired by Seahorses,” CNN, 2019, accessed October 7, 2021, https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/japan-robotic-tail-intl-hnk-trnd/index.html.

41.B. J. Gemmell, J. Sheng, and E. J. Buskey, “Morphology of Seahorse Head Hydrodynamically Aids in Capture of Evasive Prey,” Nature Communications 4 (2013): 2840.

42.A.C.J. Vincent and L. M. Sadler, “Faithful Pair Bonds in Wild Seahorses, Hippocampus whitei,” Animal Behaviour 50 (1995): 1557–1569.

43.H. D. Masonjones and S. M. Lewis, “Courtship Behavior in the Dwarf Seahorse, Hippocampus zosterae,” Copeia 3 (1996): 634–640.

44.T.P.R. Oliveira et al., “Sounds Produced by the Longsnout Seahorse: a Study of their Structure and Functions,” Journal of Zoology 294 (2014): 114–121.

45.C. M. Whittington et al., “Seahorse Brood Pouch Transcriptome Reveals Common Genes Associated with Vertebrate Pregnancy,” Molecular Biology and Evolution 32, no. 12 (2015): 3114–3131.

46.Q. Lin, J. Lin, and D. Zhang, “Breeding and Juvenile Culture of the Lined Seahorse, Hippocampus erectus Perry, 1810,” Aquaculture 277 (2008): 287–292.

47.J. M. Lawson, S. J. Foster, and A.C. J. Vincent, “Low Bycatch Rates Add up to Big Numbers for a Genus of Small Fishes,” Fisheries 42, no. 1 (2017): 19–33.

48.M. Grey, A.-M. Blais, and A. C. Vincent, “Magnitude and Trends of Marine Fish Curio Imports to the USA,” Oryx 39 (2005): 413–420.

49.A.C.J. Vincent and H. J. Hall, “The Threatened Status of Marine Fishes,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11 (1996): 360–361.

50.M. Dahlberg, “A Review of Survival Rates of Fish Eggs and Larvae in Relation to Impact Assessments,” Marine Fisheries Review 41, no. 3 (1979): 1–12.

51.J. Tariel et al., “Alloparental Care in the Sea: Brood Parasitism and Adoption within and between Two Species of Coral Reef Altrichthys Damselfish?,” Molecular Ecology 28, no. 20 (2019): 4680–4691.

52.W. F. Figueira and S. J. Lyman, “Context-Dependent Risk Tolerance of the Bicolour Damselfish: Courtship in the Presence of Fish and Egg Predators,” Animal Behaviour 74, no. 2 (2007): 329–336.

53.T. Amundsen and E. Forsgren, “Male Mate Choice Selects for Female Coloration in a Fish,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 23 (2001.): 13155–13160.

54.N. L. Ratterman, G. G. Rosenthal, and A. G. Jones. “Sex Recognition via Chemical Cues in the Sex-Role-Reversed Gulf Pipefish (Syngnathus scovelli),” Ethology 115 (2009): 339–346.

55.G. E. MacGinitie, “The Natural History of the Blind Goby, Typhlogobius californensis Steindachner,” American Midland Naturalist 21, no. 2 (1939): 489–505.

56.A.F.H. Ros et al., “The Role of Androgens in the Trade-Off between Territorial and Parental Behavior in the Azorean Rock-Pool Blenny, Parablennius parvicornis,” Hormones and Behavior 46 (2004): 491–497.

57.E. Giacomello, D. Marchini, and M. B. Rasotto, “A Male Sexually Dimorphic Trait Provides Antimicrobials to Eggs in Blenny Fish,” Biology Letters 2, no. 3 (2006): 330–333.

58.J. Atema, “Chemical Senses, Chemical Signals, and Feeding Behavior in Fishes,” in Fish Behavior and Its Use in the Capture and Culture of Fishes, ed. J. E. Bardach et al. (ICLARM Conference Proceedings 5, International Center for Living Aquatic Resource Management, Manila, Philippines, 1980), 57–101.

59.N. Stacey, “Hormones, Pheromones and Reproductive Behavior,” Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 28 (2003): 229–235.

60.K. P. Maruska and T. C. Tricas, “Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Modulates Auditory Processing in the Fish Brain,” Hormones and Behavior 59 (2011): 451–464.

61.Karen Maruska, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, September 15, 2021.

62.J. C. Montgomery, N. Tolimieri, and O. S. Haine, “Active Habitat Selection by Pre-Settlement Reef Fishes,” Fish and Fisheries 2 (2001): 261–277.

63.N. Tolimieri, A. Jeffs, and J. Montgomery, “Ambient Sound as a Cue for Navigation in Reef Fish Larvae,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 207 (2000.): 219–224.

64.J. Atema, M. J. Kingsford, and G. Gerlach, “Larval Reef Fish Could Use Odour for Detection, Retention and Orientation to Reefs,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 241 (2002): 151–190.

65.A. G. Coppock, N. M. Gardiner, and G. P. Jones, “Sniffing out the Competition? Juvenile Coral Reef Damselfishes Use Chemical Cues to Distinguish the Presence of Conspecific and Heterospecific Aggregations,” Behavioural Processes 125 (2016): 43–50.

66.D.L. Dixson et al., “Coral Reef Fish Smell Leaves to Find Island Homes,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: 275 (2008): 2831–2839.

67.G. E. Forrester, “Competition in Reef Fishes,” in Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs, ed. C. Mora (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 34–40.

68.R. Lubbock, “Why are Clownfishes not Stung by Sea Anemones?,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 207, no. 1166 (1980): 35–61.

69.Z.A. Pratte et al., “Association with a Sea Anemone Alters the Skin Microbiome of Clownfish,” Coral Reefs 37 (2018): 1119–1125.

70.R. Goldshmid et al., “Aeration of Corals by Sleep-Swimming Fish,” Limnology and Oceanography 49, no. 5 (2004): 1832–1839.

71.M. Kremien, U. Shavit, T. Massa, and A. Genin, “Benefit of Pulsation in Soft Corals,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 22 (2013): 8978–8983.

72.N. Garcia-Herrera et al., “Mutualistic Damselfish Induce Higher Photosynthetic Rates in Their Host Coral,” Journal of Experimental Biology 220 (2017): 1803–1811.

73.T. Liberman, A. Genin, and Y. Loya, “Effects on Growth and Reproduction of the Coral Stylophora pistillata by the Mutualistic Damselfish Dascyllus marginatus,” Marine Biology 121 (1995): 741–746.

74.E. Sampaio et al., “Octopuses Punch Fishes during Collaborative Interspecific Hunting Events,” Ecology 102, no. 3 (2021): e03266.

75.P. L. Munday et al., “Skin Toxins and External Parasitism of Coral-Dwelling Gobies,” Journal of Fish Biology 62 (2003): 976–981.

76.Alexandra S. Grutter, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, October 20, 2021.

77.K. L. Cheney, A. S. Grutter, S. P. Blomberg, and N. J. Marshall, “Blue and Yellow Signal Cleaning Behavior in Coral Reef Fishes,” Current Biology 19 (2009): 1283–1287.

78.A. S. Grutter, “Parasite Removal Rates by the Cleaner Wrasse Labroides dimidiatus,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 130 (1996): 61–70.

79.A. S. Grutter et al., “Indirect Effects of an Ectoparasite Reduce Successful Establishment of a Damselfish at Settlement,” Functional Ecology 25 (2011): 586–594.

80.K. L. Cheney, R. Bshary, and A. S. Grutter, “Cleaner Fish Cause Predators to Reduce Aggression toward Bystanders at Cleaning Stations,” Behavioral Ecology 19, no. 5 (2008): 1063–1067

81.A. Bshary and R. Bshary, “Interactions between Sabre-Tooth Blennies and their Reef Fish Victims: Effects of Enforced Repeated Game Structure and Local Abundance on Victim Aggression,” Ethology 116, no. 8 (2010): 681–690.

82.L. H. Salwiczek et al., “Adult Cleaner Wrasse Outperform Capuchin Monkeys, Chimpanzees and Orang-Utans in a Complex Foraging Task Derived from Cleaner-Client Reef Fish Cooperation,” PLoS ONE 7, no. 11 (2012): e49068.

83.D. Souter et al., eds., Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2020. Executive Summary (Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network of the International Coral Reef Initiative, 2020).

7. Slow Food

1.Cod Wars, directed by Magnus Vid¯ar Sigurd¯sson (BBC Four Documentary Films, 2001), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FsOytZMRXo0.

2.Cod Wars.

3.Cod Wars.

4.Cod Wars.

5.Cod Wars.

6.Cod Wars.

7.Cod Wars.

8.National Federation of Fish Friers. Accessed November 18, 2021, https://www.nfff.co.uk/pages/fish-and-chips.

9.D. A. Righton et al., “Thermal Niche of Atlantic Cod Gadus morhua: Limits, Tolerance and Optima. Marine Ecology Progress Series 420 (2010): 1–13.

10.R. M. Love, “Dark Colour in White Fish Flesh (Torry Advisory Note No. 76),” Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Support Unit for International Fisheries and Aquatic Research, 2001.

11.Bjarte Bogstad, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, June 11, 2019.

12.A. Thorsen et al., “Fecundity and Growth of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua L.) along a Latitudinal Gradient,” Fisheries Research 104, no. 1–3 (2010): 45–55.

13.D. Mountain et al., “Growth and Mortality of Atlantic Cod Gadus morhua and Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus Eggs and Larvae on Georges Bank, 1995 to 1999,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 353 (2008): 225–242.

14.Mountain et al., “Growth and Mortality,” 225–242.

15.B. Ellertsen et al., “Relation between Temperature and Survival of Eggs and First-Feeding Larvae of Northeast Arctic Cod (Gadus morhua L.),” Rapports et procès-verbaux des réunions 191 (1989): 209–219.

16.A. V. Dolgov, “The Role of Capelin (Mallotus villosus) in the Foodweb of the Barents Sea,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 59 (2002): 1034–1045.

17.H. Gjøsæter, B. Bogstad, and S. Tjelmeland, “Ecosystem Effects of the Three Capelin Stock Collapses in the Barents Sea,” Marine Biology Research 5, no. 1 (2009): 40–53.

18.G.A. Rose, “Capelin (Mallotus villosus) Distribution and Climate: A Sea ‘Canary’ for Marine Ecosystem Change,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 62 (2005): 1524–1530.

19.G. Rose, “A Brief History of Canada’s Iconic Northern Cod,” presentation at the University of British Columbia, April 29, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WR-ceVRoKO0.

20.D. Ø. Hjermann, B. Bogstad, A. M. Eikeset, G. Ottersen, H. Gjøsæter, and N. C. Stenseth, “Food Web Dynamics Affect Northeast Arctic Cod Recruitment,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274 (2007): 661–669.

21.J. S. Link et al., “Trophic Role of Atlantic Cod in the Ecosystem,” Fish and Fisheries 9 (2008): 1–30.

22.N. A. Yaragina, B. Bogstad, and Y. A. Kovalev, “Variability in Cannibalism in Northeast Arctic Cod (Gadus morhua) during the Period 1947–2006,” Marine Biology Research 5, no. 1 (2008): 75–85.

23.S. Mehl, “The Northeast Arctic Cod Stock’s Place in the Barents Sea Ecosystem in the 1980s: An Overview,” Polar Research 10, no. 2 (1991): 525–534.

24.D. A. Righton et al., “Thermal Niche.”

25.Rose, “A Brief History.”

26.Amy Willis, “National Fish and Chips Day: 24 Surprising Facts about Fish and Chips (Including How They Helped Defeat Hitler),” Metro UK, June 3, 2016.

27.Link et al., “Trophic Role,” 1–30.

28.H. Gjøsæter et al., “Predation on Early Life Stages Is Decisive for Year-Class Strength in the Barents Sea Capelin (Mallotus villosus) Stock,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 73, no. 2 (2016): 182–195.

29.Mehl, “The Northeast Arctic,” 525–534.

30.D. W. Sims et al., “Hunt Warm, Rest Cool: Bioenergetic Strategy Underlying Diel Vertical Migration of a Benthic Shark,” Journal of Animal Ecology 75 (2006): 176–190.

31.S. H. Espeland et al., “Diel Vertical Migration Patterns in Juvenile Cod from the Skagerrak Coast,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 405 (2010): 29–37.

32.M. F. Petersen and J. F. Steffensen, “Preferred Temperature of Juvenile Atlantic Cod Gadus morhua with Different Haemoglobin Genotypes at Normoxia and Moderate Hypoxia,” Journal of Experimental Biology 206 (2003): 359–364.

33.V. S. Kirpichnikov, Genetic Bases of Fish Selection (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981).

34.B. Björnsson, “Thermoregulatory Behaviour in Cod: Is the Thermal Preference in Free-Ranging Adult Atlantic Cod Affected by Food Abundance?,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 76, no. 9 (2018): 1515–1527.

35.M. Kurlansky, Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).

36.University of Exeter, “Scientists Search for Regional Accents in Cod,” ScienceDaily, accessed December 26, 2021, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161006111842.htm.

37.G. A. Rose, “Cod Spawning on a Migration Highway in the North-West Atlantic,” Nature 366 (1993): 458–461.

38.T. H. Huxley, “Inaugural Address, London Fisheries Exhibition (1885),” accessed on December 14, 2021, https://mathcs.clarku.edu/huxley/SM5/fish.html.

39.L. Z. Joncas, “Canadian Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries Report (1885),” in Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World, by Mark Kurlansky (NewYork: Penguin Books, 1997), 123.

40.Kurlansky, Cod: A Biography.

41.Kurlansky, Cod: A Biography.

42.Rose, “A Brief History.”

43.R. Schijns, R. Froese, J. A. Hutchings, and D. Pauly, “Food for Thought: Five Centuries of Cod Catches in Eastern Canada,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 78, no. 8 (2021): 2675–2683.

44.L. C. Hamilton and M. J. Butler, “Outport Adaptations: Social Indicators through Newfoundland’s Cod Crisis,” Human Ecology Review 8, no. 2 (2001): 1–11.

45.Kurlansky, Cod: A Biography.

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8. Into the Abyss

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25.J. M. Claes and J. Mallefet, “Early Development of Bioluminescence Suggests Camouflage by Counter-Illumination in the Velvet Belly Lantern Shark Etmopterus spinax (Squaloidea: Etmopteridae),” Journal of Fish Biology 73 (2008): 1337–1350.

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36.A. Dubin et al., “Complete Loss of the MHC II Pathway in an Anglerfish, Lophius piscatorius,” Biology Letters 15 (2019): 20190594.

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38.T. W. Pietsch, Oceanic Anglerfishes: Extraordinary Diversity in the Deep Sea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).

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40.Y. L. Tee and P. Tran, “On Bioinspired 4D Printing: Materials, Design and Potential Applications,” Australian Journal of Mechanical Engineering (2021): 10.1080.

41.M. Bessho-Uehara et al., “Kleptoprotein Bioluminescence: Parapriacanthus Fish Obtain Luciferase from Ostracod Prey,” Scientific Advances 6, no. 2 (2020): eaax4942.

42.C. Porcu et al., “Reproductive Biology of a Bathyal Hermaphrodite Fish, Bathypterois mediterraneus (Osteichthyes: Ipnopidae) from the South-Eastern Sardinian Sea (Central-Western Mediterranean),” Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 90, no. 4 (2010): 719–728.

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44.V. van Ginneken et al., “Eel Migration to the Sargasso: Remarkably High Swimming Efficiency and Low Energy Costs,” Journal of Experimental Biology 208 (2005): 1329–1335.

45.I. G. Priede et al., “The Absence of Sharks from Abyssal Regions of the World’s Oceans,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B 273 (2006): 1435–1441.

46.N. Pinte et al., “Ecological Features and Swimming Capabilities of Deep-Sea Sharks from New Zealand,” Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 156 (2020): 103187.

47.A. J. Pershing et al., “The Impact of Whaling on the Ocean Carbon Cycle: Why Bigger Was Better,” PLoS ONE 5, no. 8 (2010): e12444.

48.S. A. Mizroch et al., “Estimating the Adult Survival Rate of Central North Pacific Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae),” Journal of Mammalogy 85, no. 5 (2004): 963–972.

49.C. R. Smith and A.W.J. Demopoulos, “The Deep Pacific Ocean Floor,” in Ecosystems of the World, Volume 28: Ecosystems of the Deep Ocean, ed. P. A. Tyler (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2003), 179–218.

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52.J. Aguzzi et al., “Faunal Activity Rhythms Influencing Early Community Succession of an Implanted Whale Carcass Offshore Sagami Bay, Japan,” Scientific Reports 8 (2018.): 11163.

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54.C. R. Smith et al., “Whale-Fall Ecosystems: Recent Insights into Ecology, Paleoecology, and Evolution,” Annual Review of Marine Science 7 (2015): 571–596.

55.P. Wessel, D. T. Sandwell, and S.-S. Kim, “The Global Seamount Census,” Oceanography 23, no. 1 (2010): 24–33.

56.A. Genin and J. F. Dower, “Seamount Plankton Dynamics,” in Seamounts: Ecology, Fisheries, and Conservation, vol. 12, ed. T. J. Pitcher et al. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), 87-–100.

57.M. R. Clark et al., “The Ecology of Seamounts: Structure, Function, and Human Impacts,” Annual Review of Marine Science 2 (2010): 253–278.

58.H. T. Pinheiro et al., “Fish Biodiversity of the Vitória-Trindade Seamount Chain, Southwestern Atlantic: An Updated Database,” PLoS ONE 10, no. 3 (2015): e0118180.

59.D. M. Tracey and P. L. Horn, “Background and Review of Ageing of Orange Roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) from New Zealand and Elsewhere,” New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 33 (1999): 67–86.

60.Clark et al., “Ecology of Seamounts.”

61.Scales, The Brilliant Abyss.

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63.M. R. Clark et al., “The Effects of Commercial Exploitation on Orange Roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) from the Continental Slope of the Chatham Rise, New Zealand, from 1979 to 1997,” Fisheries Research 45 (2000): 217–238.

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65.W. R. Allen, “Ovulation, Pregnancy, Placentation and Husbandry in the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana),” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 361(1469): 821–834.

66.K. Crane, Sea Legs: Tales of a Woman Oceanographer (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2003), 54.

67.Crane, Sea Legs, 112.

68.S. K. Haldar, Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, 2nd Edition (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2020).

69.F. Gaill and S. Hunt, “Tubes of Deep Sea Hydrothermal Vent Worms Riftia pachyptila (Vestimentifera) and Alvinella pompejana (Annelida),” Marine Ecology Progress Series 34, no. 3 (1986): 267–274.

70.C. Arndt, F. Gaill, and H. Felbeck, “Anaerobic Sulfur Metabolism in Thiotrophic Symbioses,” Journal of Experimenal Biology 204 (2001): 741–750.

71.Z. Minic and G. Hervé, “Biochemical and Enzymological Aspects of the Symbiosis between the Deep-Sea Tubeworm Riftia pachyptila and Its Bacterial Endosymbiont,” European Journal of Biochemistry 271 (2004): 3093–3102.

72.S. Nakagawa and K. Takai, “Deep-Sea Vent Chemoautotrophs: Diversity, Biochemistry and Ecological Significance,” FEMS Microbiology Ecology 65, no. 1 (2008): 1–14.

73.S. Okada et al., “The Making of Natural Iron Sulfide Nanoparticles in a Hot Vent Snail,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 41 (2019): 20376–20381.

74.J. R. Voight, “A Review of Predators and Predation at Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents,” Cahiers de Biologie Marine 41 (2000.): 155–166.

75.G. Sancho et al., “Selective Predation by the Zoarcid Fish Thermarces cerberus at Hydrothermal Vents,” Deep-Sea Research I 52 (2005): 837–844.

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77.R. C. Vrijenhoek, “Genetic Diversity and Connectivity of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Metapopulations,” Molecular Ecology 19 (2010): 4391–4411.

78.Y. Yano et al., “Adaptive Changes in Membrane Lipids of Barophilic Bacteria in Response to Changes in Growth Pressure,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64, no. 2 (1998): 2572–2577.

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80.A. L. Samerotte et al., “Correlation of Trimethylamine Oxide and Habitat Depth within and among Species of Teleost Fish: An Analysis of Causation,” Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 80, no. 2 (2007): 197–208.

81.D. Lu, “Scientists Find Deepest Fish Ever Recorded at 8,300 Metres Underwater Near Japan,” The Guardian, April 3, 2023.

82.Scales, The Brilliant Abyss.

83.S. Shigeru and N. Kazuhiro, “Functional Morphology of Feeding Apparatus of the Cookie-cutter Shark, Isistius hrasiliensis (Elasmobranchii, Dalatiinae),” Zoological Science 9, no. 4 (1992): 811–821.

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85.J. M. Claes and J. Mallefet, “Bioluminescence of Sharks: First Synthesis,” in Bioluminescence in Focus—A Collection of Illuminating Essays, ed. B. Meyer-Rochow (Kerala, India: Research Signpost, 2009), 51-65.

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87.R. Proud et al., “From Siphonophores to Deep Scattering Layers: Uncertainty Ranges for the Estimation of Global Mesopelagic Fish Biomass,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 76, no. 3 (2019): 718–733.

88.P. A. Hulley, “Myctophidae,” in Check-List of the Fishes of the Eastern Tropical Atlantic (CLOFETA), Vol. 1, ed. J. C. Quero et al. (Paris: UNESCO, 1990), 429–483.

89.T. Valinassab, G. J. Pierce, and K. Johannesson, “Lantern Fish (Benthosema pterotum) Resources as a Target for Commercial Exploitation in the Oman Sea,” Journal of Applied Ichthyology 23 (2007): 573–577.

90.J.B.S. Haldane, “The Origin of Life,” Rationalist Annual 148 (1929): 3–10.

91.M. J. Russell, “The Importance of Being Alkaline,” Science 302 (2003): 580–581.

92.S. F. Jordan, E. Nee, and N. Lane, “Isoprenoids Enhance the Stability of Fatty Acid Membranes at the Emergence of Life Potentially Leading to an Early Lipid Divide,” Interface Focus 9 (2019): 20190067.

93.Scales, The Brilliant Abyss, 124.

Part III

1.J. A. Burns, “Vertebrate Paleontology and the Alleged Ice-Free Corridor: The Meat of the Matter,” Quaternary International 32 (1996): 107–112.

2.T. D. Dillehay et al., “New Archaeological Evidence for an Early Human Presence at Monte Verde, Chile,” PLoS ONE 10, no. 11 (2015): e0141923.

3.J. M. Erlandson et al., “The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, the Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas,” Journal of Island & Coastal Archaeology 2 (2007): 161–174.

4.J. M. Erlandson, “Anatomically Modern Humans, Maritime Adaptations, and the Peopling of the New World,” in The First Americans, ed. N. Jablonski (San Francisco: California Academy of Sciences, 2002), 59–92.

5.Robert Steneck, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, July 8, 2022.

6.J. M. Erlandson, T. C. Rick, and T. J. Braje, “Fishing up the Food Web?: 12,000 Years of Maritime Subsistence and Adaptive Adjustments on California’s Channel Islands,” Pacific Science 63, no. 4 (2009): 711–724.

7.J. M. Erlandson et al., “Ecology of the Kelp Highway: Did Marine Resources Facilitate Human Dispersal from Northeast Asia to the Americas?,” Journal of Island & Coastal Archaeology 10, no. 3 (2015): 392–411.

8.E. J. Duffy, “Biodiversity and the Functioning of Seagrass Ecosystems,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 311 (2006): 23–250.

9. Flowing River, Pounding Surf

1.Preceding text draws on several sources: M. Burke, Lords of the Fly: Madness, Obsession, and the Hunt for the World-Record Tarpon (New York: Pegasus, 2021); D. Simmons, “Swimming for Tarpon … and Staying Alive,” Key West Fly Fishing, April 30, 2020, https://keywestflyfishing.com/swimming-for-tarponand-staying-alive; E. Johnston, “Fly Fishing the Homosassa River,” Leisure Time Travel, March 1, 2011, https://www.leisuretimetravel.com/locklear.htm.

2.P. L. Forey et al., “Interrelationships of Elopomorph Fishes,” in Interrelationships of Fishes, ed. M.L.J. Stiassny et al. (San Diego: Academic Press, 1996), 175–191

3.P.J.P. Whitehead and R. Vergara, “Megalopidae,” in FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes: Western Central Atlantic (Fishing Area 31), Vol. 3, ed. W. Fischer (Rome: FAO, 1978).

4.A. P. Salati et al., “Effect of Different Levels of Salinity on Gill and Kidney Function in Common Carp Cyprinus carpio (Pisces: Cyprinidae),” Italian Journal of Zoology 78, no. 3 (2011): 298–303.

5.T. D. Clark et al., “Changes in Cardiac Output during Swimming and Aquatic Hypoxia in the Air-Breathing Pacific Tarpon,” Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 148 (2007): 562–571

6.R. S. Seymour et al., “Partitioning of Respiration between the Gills and Air-Breathing Organ in Response to Aquatic Hypoxia and Exercise in the Pacific Tarpon, Megalops cyprinoides,” Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 77, no. 5 (2004): 760–767.

7.R. S. Seymour et al., “Continuous Measurement of Oxygen Tensions in the Air-Breathing Organ of Pacific Tarpon (Megalops cyprinoides) in Relation to Aquatic Hypoxia and Exercise,” Journal of Comparative Physiology B 177 (2007): 579–587.

8.Seymour et al., “Partitioning of Respiration.”

9.S. M. Taylor, E. R. Loew, and M. S. Grace, “A Rod-Dominated Visual System in Leptocephalus Larvae of Elopomorph Fishes (Elopomorpha: Teleostei),” Environmental Biology of Fishes 92 (2011): 513–523.

10.A. V. Zale and S. G. Merrifield, “Species Profiles: Life History and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Florida): Ladyfish and Tarpon,” Oklahoma Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Biological Report 82(11.104), TR El-82–4 (1989).

11.J. Luo et al., “Migrations and Movements of Atlantic Tarpon Revealed by Two Decades of Satellite Tagging,” Fish and Fisheries 21, no. 2 (2020): 290–318.

12.J.-J. Albaret, “Mugilidae,” in Faune des Poissons d’Eaux Douce et Saumâtres de l’Afrique de l’Ouest, Tome 2. Coll. Faune et Flore Tropicales 40, ed. C. Lévêque et al. (Paris: Museum National d’Histoire Naturalle and Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, 2003), 601–611.

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14.K. J. Murchie et al., “Movement Patterns of Bonefish (Albula vulpes) in Tidal Creeks and Coastal Waters of Eleuthera, The Bahamas,” Fisheries Research 147 (2013): 404–414.

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36.K. A. Krumhansl et al., “Global Patterns of Kelp Forest Change over the Past Half-Century,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 48 (2016): 13785–13790.

37.Robert Steneck, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, July 8, 2022.

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48.Steneck, interview.

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10. Sweet and Salty

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Part IV

1.Megan Corazza, interview by Joe E. Meisel, December 18, 2022.

11. Fish to the Rescue

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32.Becca Franks, PhD, interview by Joe E. Meisel, October 24, 2022.

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