Index

Figures are indicated by page numbers in italics.

• Abd al-Qadir al-Maghrabi, 56–59, 61–64, 67–68, 74–75, 82, 111–12
• Ackermann, Rudolph, 163, 166–67
• Adam Bede (Eliot), 67–81; Eliot's The Lifted Veil and, 81; ethnographic witnessing and, 73; Lane and, 68, 71–73; mesmerism and, 18, 55, 71, 74, 76–77, 80–81, 101; metafictional reflection and, 72–80; metalepsis and, 71–72, 77; mirror of ink and, 18, 55, 68–72, 83, 199n42; novel-as-mirror construction, 69, 79–80; opening of, 68–69; realism and, 55, 67–69; travelogue comparison, 73; virtual aesthetics/sight and, 55, 80; vision at a distance and, 77, 83
• Adorno, Theodor, 122
• agency, 23, 33–34, 110, 162–63, 172
• Algeria: colonialism and pedagogy of disenchantment in, 24–25, 51; magic shows by Robert-Houdin and, 25, 29, 38, 40, 50, 146–47, 151
• American citizenship in early republic, 34
• Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799), 107
• Armstrong, Isobel, 4, 88, 179
• artificial darkness, 43, 60
• automatism, 171–72, 175

• Bak, Meredith, 7, 164–66, 192n31
• Barère, Bertrand, 126–27, 206n28
• Barrow, John, 56, 61–62, 198n27
• Baynes, Thomas Mann, 164
• Bazin, André, 186–87
• Borges, Jorge Luis: “The Mirror of Ink,” 52–54, 65–66, 75
• Braid, James, 75, 110
• Bray, Cara, 76
• Brewster, David, 187; compared to Pepper, 35; diamonds, optical use of, 89–90; display case for Koh-i-noor built by, 97, 103; distinguishing between real and virtual images, 11; on French refusal to learn optics, 152; gendering of pedagogy of disenchantment and, 36; as inventor of kaleidoscope and stereoscope, 12, 29, 103; on Koh-i-noor's lackluster appearance, 96, 109; showmanship of, 32; use of term “virtual,” 192n24; works by: A Treatise on New Philosophical Instruments, 89–90; A Treatise on Optics, 11, 192n25; Treatise on the Kaleidoscope, 32. See also Letters on Natural Magic
• British civilizational ideology, 6, 18, 117, 181
• British East India Company, 84–88, 92–93, 95–96, 99, 101, 114
• Brougham, Lord, 57
• Bruegel the Elder, Pieter: Children Games, 167–68
• Burton, Richard Francis, 18, 52–53, 75–76, 199n63; The Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa, 52, 66; “Spiritualism in Eastern Lands,” 75
• Bury, Thomas Talbot, 164, 166
• Byerly, Alison, 5, 16, 68, 73, 190n11

• Cambon, Pierre-Joseph, 127
• camera lucida, 57, 65
• camera obscura, 135, 193n34
• Carlyle, Thomas, 155; Dickens and, 145–46; dissolving view and, 137–38; Eliot and, 139; optical technology and, 17, 135; phantasmagoria and, 119, 135, 137–40, 150, 152, 208n64; Robertson and, 135–36, 139–40; works by: “The Diamond Necklace,” 136–38; “On History,” 136, 138–39. See also The French Revolution
• Chaplin, Charlie. See Modern Times
• Chesterton, G. K., 140
• Chicago World Fair (1893), 178
• Childe, Henry Langdon, 133
• Chung Ling Soo (Robinson's stage name), 44
• cinema: continuous unfolding of images and, 53, 55–56, 81–82; hypnotist's voice and, 82; as media for “seeing things,” 186; mirror of ink's legacy, 82–84; moving-image toys and, 155; myth and, 22, 186; origins of, 9, 20, 81, 155, 185; reading vs. early film spectatorship, 82. See also Lumière, Auguste and Louis; Modern Times
• circular and repetitive motion: in Hardy's fiction, 170–72, 174, 177–83; of Lumière film Horse Trick Riders, 186; Modern Times and, 153–58, 184; of phenakistoscopes, 20, 162–63, 165–67, 169, 186
• civilizational logic. See British civilizational ideology
• clairvoyance, 18, 58, 71, 74, 76–77, 80–81, 112, 201n88
• Collins, Wilkie: India and, 106, 108, 111, 114–15, 152; mirror of ink and, 54; virtuality and, 17; works by: “Magnetic Evenings at Home” (essay series), 76; “My Black Mirror” (short story), 76. See also The Moonstone
• Collyer, Robert H., 78–79, 78, 83
• colonialism: British superiority, 35, 55; justification for colonial violence, 39; Koh-i-noor as symbol of British imperialism, 84–85, 90–94; magic panic and, 18; male travel in imperial age as “erotics of ravishment,” 64; masculine work of governance and, 35–36; mirror of ink as figure for, 66, 83; optical conjuring and imperial ambitions, 73; popular scientific imaginary and, 34
• Cranford (Gaskell), 20, 23–24, 39–51; ambivalence toward magicians, 46–47; Brewster's Letters on Natural Magic and, 23–24, 40–45, 47–51; conjuring diagrams in, 41–42, 45; as defense of credulous women, 46, 51; Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities and, 152; female magic panic in, 18, 24, 39–40, 42–43, 49, 51, 134, 152; magician Signor Brunoni compared to Peter Jenkyns, 48–49; magician Signor Brunoni gazing through holes in curtain, 43, 48–49; magician Signor Brunoni revealed as Englishman, 43; old-time magic of mirrors and glass, 43; patriarchal domination, 18, 40, 47–51; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 18, 24, 40, 43–46, 51; Peter Jenkyns's magic and stories, 47–48, 50; rational magic and, 41; rational recreations critiqued in, 46; relationship between conjuring and fiction, 45–46; structure of novel, 193n6; trope of women as superstitious, 38, 42–46, 51; vanishing canary trick, 42, 196n56; virtual images, fear of, 43
• Crary, Jonathan, 15–16, 192n34

• Daedaleum (zoetrope), 162
• Dalhousie, Marquess of, 92–94, 98, 107
• Dante, 177, 181
• Dee, John, 76
• Della Porta, Giambattista, 28
• depth perception, 4, 10, 12, 14
• despotism: civilizing, 35, 50; democratization of knowledge vs., 47; fraudulence of the senses as, 33; magic panic causing susceptibility to, 23; as opposite of entertainment, 33; of patriarchal power, 38–39, 50; rational recreations as protection against, 31
• devilry, 169, 180–81
• diamonds: associated with India and British plunder, 87–88, 101, 103; cultural histories of, 201n8; magnification use of, 89–90; modern technology used to cut and polish, 88–89, 98; as optical technology, 85, 87–90, 110; as “oriental” optical media, 98; phosphorescence of, 89, 99, 106, 109–11, 114–15; virtual travel and contact with scenes of empire, 19, 87, 103–4, 106; vision at a distance and, 99. See also Koh-i-noor diamond
• Dickens, Charles, 19–20, 45, 196n66; British nationalism of, 147; dissolving views and, 137; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 119, 146, 152; persistence of vision and, 140; phantasmagoria and, 135, 150, 152, 155; works by: A Christmas Carol, 30; Hard Times, 158; “The Haunted Man” (theatrical adaptation), 27; Oliver Twist, 151. See also Household Words; A Tale of Two Cities
• dioramas, 3–4, 99
• Dircks, Henry, and Dircksian Phantasmagoria, 26–27, 133
• disenchantment. See pedagogy of disenchantment
• dissolving views, 3, 5, 80–81, 123, 133, 135, 137, 140
• Dulac, Nicolas, 154, 163, 166, 169, 171
• Duncan, Ian, 108, 111, 114
• Dutch paintings, realism of, 55, 68–69, 80

• Edison, Thomas, 185
• Egypt. See The Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians
• Egyptian magic trick. See mirror of ink
• Eisenstein, Sergei, 140
• Eliot, George, 51, 187; on book's transfiguration through act of reading, 63–64; Carlyle and, 139; mirror of ink and, 67; as novelist of ordinary life, 69, 198n40; optical technology and, 17; personal experience with mesmerism, 76–77; realism and, 18, 55, 67–69, 72, 80, 83, 197n10; virtual sight and, 80; works by: The Lifted Veil, 18, 55–56, 79–81, 101; Middlemarch, 190n11. See also Adam Bede
• Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 14
• empire. See colonialism
• Enlightenment rationality, 25, 31–32, 47, 128, 139, 146
• ethnographic witnessing, 73, 77

• Faust story, 169
• Ferriar, John, 30, 33, 40
• Film History: An Introduction (Bordwell, Thompson, and Smith), 161
• flicker fusion, 60, 189n3
• flip-books, 2, 9, 12, 14–15, 162
• France: Anglo-French antipathy, 151; birth of modern nation linked to phantasmagoria, 118; censorship of phantasmagoria, 121, 126–27, 129–30; Second Empire, 116; superstition of French people and susceptibility to magic panic, 147–49, 152. See also Algeria; French Revolution; A Tale of Two Cities
• French Revolution, 19–20, 116–52; Committee on Public Safety, 126; exhumation and destruction of ancient royal tombs, 131–32; Girondists, 127; Jacobins, 126–27, 145; Napoleon III undoing political gains of, 117, 132; National Convention, 131; Reign of Terror, 19, 120, 125–27, 129–33, 135, 144, 148–51, 206n24; September Massacres (1792), 136; storming of the Bastille, 136, 138; Thermidorean Reaction, 127. See also The French Revolution; A Tale of Two Cities
• The French Revolution (Carlyle), 19, 118–19, 132–33; Carlyle's earlier works as foundation of, 136; dissolving views and, 138; influence on Dickens (see A Tale of Two Cities); Marx and, 135–36, 139, 207n53; nationalism and, 139; phantasmagoria and, 137–40, 208n64
• Freud, Sigmund, 167, 171, 180
• Friedberg, Anne, 11, 192n24

• galvanism, 129–30, 180
• Gaskell, Elizabeth, 187; editorial conflict with Dickens, 196n66; virtuality and, 17. See also Cranford
• Gaudreault, André, 154, 163, 166, 169, 171, 210n5
• gaze: camera lucida and, 57, 65; Collins's The Moonstone and, 110–13; Eliot's readers and, 69, 72, 79; Gaskell's Cranford and, 49; imperialist gaze, Egypt as object of, 66–67, 73; mirror of ink and nineteenth-century ink gazing, 54, 65–67, 199n42; observer's eye in Hardy's works, 177, 179; “right to look,” 67; snake hypnotizing its prey by, 111
• ghosts. See phantasmagoria
• Giroux, Alphonse, 164; “Le bûcheron et le souris” (“The Woodcutter and the Mouse”), 166
• Gordon, Margaret Maria, 97
• Goring, C. R., 90, 101
• Gorky, Maxim, 82–83
• gothic horror and aesthetics, 80–81, 124, 128
• Great Exhibition (London 1851), 83–115; Crystal Palace, 19, 91, 95–97; Daria-i-noor on display, 88, 91; glass replica of Koh-i-noor on display, 94; in Hardy's “The Fiddler of the Reels,” 178; Hope Diamond on display, 88, 91; Illustrated Exhibitor, 85, 94, 97; Koh-i-noor on display, 19, 85, 90, 91 (see also Koh-i-noor diamond); narratives of empire associated with, 86, 105, 201n10; Official Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Great Exhibition, 90–92
• Gunning, Tom, 11–12, 22, 28, 60, 148, 163, 192n21, 192n29, 209n84

• Hardy, Thomas, 20, 211–12n35; circularity and repetition across fiction of, 170–72, 174, 177–84; critiquing industrial modernity, 156, 170, 173–75; Modern Times (film) and, 157, 174, 182–84; on nonconscious motivation or automatism, 171–73, 175; optical toys and, 175–76; on perpetual, repetitive nature of work, 172–73; phenakistoscope and, 156, 170–72, 175, 181, 184; roundabout used to collapse technologies of work and play, 174–75, 177; virtual image and, 177; visual culture and, 156
• Hardy, Thomas, works by: “The Fiddler of the Reels” (short story), 157, 170, 173, 178–81, 183–84; Life's Little Ironies, 157, 173; The Mayor of Casterbridge, 8, 157, 170–73, 177, 182–84; “On the Western Circuit” (short story), 156–57, 170, 173–78, 181, 183, 186, 212n50; The Return of the Native, 133–34; Wessex novels, 170, 173
• Heard, Mervyn, 121, 206n12, 206n26, 206n28
• Hibbert, Samuel, 30, 33, 40
• Hooper, William, 31–34, 41
• Hope Diamond, 88–89, 91
• Horner, William George, 162
• Household Words (Dickens's magazine), 23; Gaskell's Cranford in, 193n6, 196n66; “Robertson, Artist in Ghosts” (Dickens's essay) in, 141, 145–52, 209n77; “A Shilling's Worth of Science” (essay) in, 36, 42, 46–47
• “How to See Pictures” (The National Magazine, 1856), 10–12, 15
• hypnotism, 18, 75, 82, 110–11

• imperialist panic, 108, 114
• India: black ink called “Indian ink,” 83; British taking full control of, 107; Collins and, 106, 108, 111, 114–15; Dalhousie's annexation of Punjab, 92; Lahore Treasury, 92–93; as realm of imaginative license, 47; Sikh Empire, 92–93; as source of diamonds, 87. See also Koh-i-noor diamond; The Moonstone (Collins); O’Brien's “The Diamond Lens”
• Indian magic and magicians, 43–44, 106, 114
• Indian Uprising (1857–1858), 107–8, 111, 151
• ink gazing. See mirror of ink

• Jameson, Fredric, 145, 151
• Jewish iconography, 80–81
• kaleidoscopes, 4, 9, 11, 29, 89, 95, 176–77
• Khruse, Khia Khan, 44
• kinetoscopes, 185
• King, Charles, 96, 107, 115
• Kircher, Athanasius, 28
• Koh-i-noor diamond: arrival in England and presentation to Queen Victoria, 84–85, 96; audience desire for optical empire and, 86; compared to glass, 88–90, 94; as crystal ball in Victorian imagination, 86; Crystal Palace compared to, 95; curse of ruin to its possessors, 107; Dalhousie acquiring for Queen Victoria, 92–94; display conditions and lackluster appearance, 19, 85, 88, 90–92, 91, 96–97, 103; glass replica on display, 94; as “The Great Diamond of Runjeet Singh,” 91–92; imperial supremacy of Britain symbolized by, 84–86, 90–95; in Indian history and symbolism of, 93; public disappointment upon viewing, 19, 85–86, 94, 96, 109, 115; recutting of, 97–98; reflecting India as Britain's most precious jewel, 92; virtual contact with India through, 86, 99, 106; vision at a distance and, 99, 115
• Koran passage on lifting of woman's veil, 58, 64–65, 81
• Lane, Edward William, 18, 51; biography of, 56–57; Brewster's Letters on Natural Magic and, 57; camera lucida of, 57, 65; Description of Egypt, 57; disavowal of mirror of ink, 67; as ethnographer, 73; Mansur Effendi as Egyptian name, 57; mirror of ink and, 54, 56, 63, 64–67, 111. See also The Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians; mirror of ink
• Lane-Poole, Sophia, 67
• Law, Jules, 5, 16–17, 80, 190n11
• legerdemain, 26, 194n12
• Leopardi, Giacamo, 147–49, 209n85
• Letters on Natural Magic (Brewster), 29–35; aesthetic pleasure from spectral illusions, 33, 46; aimed at mass audience, 29, 41; conjuring diagrams in, 41; educational agenda of, 30–33, 46; Gaskell's Cranford and, 23–24, 40–45, 47–51; influence of, 29; justification of racial and patriarchal regimes in, 23–24, 34, 39; Lane and, 60; mirror of ink and, 61–62; on optical illusions, 30, 61–62, 61; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 23–24, 29, 48, 128; scientific lecture beyond female understanding, 37–38; showmanship of, 32
• Levy, Amy, 134
• Lewes, George Henry, 76
• Lewis, Matthew, 124
• Locke, John, 31
• Louis XVI (French king), 120–21, 128–29, 147, 149–50
• Lovecraft, H. P., 100
• Lukàcs, Georg, 144–45, 150–51
• Lumière, Auguste and Louis, 82–83; Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat (film), 1, 2, 13, 20, 185–86, 189n1; Horse Trick Riders, 186

• Madou, Jean-Baptiste, 163–64
• magic: ambivalence toward, 46–47, 62–63, 67; Egyptian (see mirror of ink); Indian magic, 43–44, 106, 114; mesmerism and, 75–76; native magic, 6, 24; natural magic, 161; optical magic, 15; rational magic, 17–18, 41, 51, 128; separating optical illusions from belief in, 17; stage magic, 6, 25–29, 41, 195n55; Western magic, 24
• magic lanterns, 3–5, 190n11; affordability of, 31; Carlyle and, 135; diamonds’ virtual effects compared to, 89, 99; dissolving views and, 3, 5, 80–81, 123, 133, 137, 140; Eliot's The Lifted Veil and, 80; London theatrical use of, 133; mirror of ink and, 54, 83; as optical art, 26; Professor Pepper and, 5, 29, 133; Sudanese sorcerer and, 54. See also phantasmagoria
• magic panic: associated with “savages,” 22; defined, 18; failure to recognize technical origins of illusion and, 22; Gaskell's Cranford and, 18, 24, 39–40, 42–43, 49, 51, 134, 152; indicating the weak and susceptible to tyranny, 23, 50; myth of early film spectatorship and, 22; as resistance to patriarchal control, 51; in revolutionary-era France, 146, 148
• magicians. See showmen
• The Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians (Lane), 53–67; Barrow and, 61–62, 198n27; Burton and, 75; Collyer and, 78–79, 78; critical reception of, 56–57, 61; descriptive excess of, 57–58, 73; Eliot's Adam Bede and, 68, 70–73; Eliot's The Lifted Veil and, 81; illustrations in, 57; kinship with imperialist literary project, 55, 64–67, 73, 82; Lane's views of Egyptian magic in, 62–63, 66, 75; mesmerism and, 74; mirror of ink trick told by Lane, 53–54, 56, 58–59, 62–64, 63, 82; Orientalism and, 56, 62, 66–67, 72–73, 83; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 55, 63; “real vision at a distance” and, 83; research and writing of, 57. See also mirror of ink
• Martineau, Harriet, 18, 152; Eastern Life, Past and Present, 74, 112; Letters on Mesmerism, 74; mirror of ink and, 54, 67, 74–76, 112
• Marx, Karl, 116–18, 135–36, 139, 150, 152, 155, 207n53, 211n20; works by: Capital, Volume 1, 135; The Communist Manifesto, 135; The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, 116–18, 132–33, 135, 139, 150; The German Ideology, 135
• masculinity: art of conjuring and, 42; imperial male travel as “erotics of ravishment,” 64; lifting of Islamic woman's veil in Koran passage, 58, 64–65, 81; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 18, 34–36; science as masculine recreation, 35–36, 41. See also patriarchy
• al-Masmudī, Abderramen, 52
• mass culture approach, 1, 4, 6–7, 10, 14–15
• media archaeology, 6–8, 16
• Méliès, Georges, 185
• Mémoires récreatifs, scientifiques, et anecdotiques (Robertson), 118–19, 122, 124, 128–31; anecdotal history of the French Revolution (Volume I), 128, 145; Carlyle and, 135–36, 139–40; on Couvent des Capucines as staging venue, 130–31; Dickens influenced by (see A Tale of Two Cities); Enlightenment hero, Robertson's self-image as, 146; misleading later scholars and historians, 134; reprinting Poultier d’Elmotte's editorial, 126–28, 132, 134, 142, 150; Roche's introduction (1840 ed.), 145
• Mercier, Sébastian, 120
• mesmerism, 83; Collins's The Moonstone and, 76, 111, 114; Eliot's Adam Bede and, 18, 55, 71, 74, 76–77, 80–81, 101; Eliot's The Lifted Veil and, 101; Hardy's “The Fiddler of the Reels” and, 180–81; mirror of ink and, 74–77, 79, 83, 112; novelists as mesmerists, 71–72; as parlor entertainment, 112
• metafictional reflection: Eliot's Adam Bede and, 72–80; Gaskell's Cranford and, 45–46
• metalepsis, 71–72, 77
• microscopes: affordability of, 31; jewel or diamond, 89–90, 101; oxyhydrogen, 102. See also O’Brien, Fitz-James; projection microscopes
• Mirabeau, Honoré, 117–18, 120, 129, 138
• mirror of ink, 18, 51–83; Barrow and, 61–62, 198n27; Borges and, 52–54, 65–66, 75; in British literature of 1850s, 70–71; Collins and, 76, 106, 111–12, 114; compared to phantasmagoria, 60; described and drawing of, 58–59, 62–63, 63; doubling for book and writing process, 63–65; Eliot and, 55–56, 68, 70–72, 80, 199n42; hypnotism and, 75; imperialism and, 66, 82–83; as Islamic natural magic, 59; Lane and (see Lane, Edward William; The Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians); legacy in cinema, 82–84, 185; Martineau and, 54, 67, 74–75, 112; as medium for virtual sight/optical magic, 18, 54, 65, 79; mesmerism and, 74–77, 79, 83, 112; Nelson's image in, 59, 61–62, 66, 82; nineteenth-century ink gazing and, 54, 65; psychography and, 78–79; as racialized entertainment, 112; sciences of mind and, 18, 54, 71; as trope for seeing things not really there, 71, 112–13; virtual aesthetics and, 54; young boy as clairvoyant medium and only one who can see, 58, 66, 75. See also The Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians
• Modern Times (Chaplin film), 20, 153–69, 154; assembly lines and industrial work, 157–58, 165, 182; compared to Hard Times, 158; Hardy's “On the Western Circuit” and, 174; Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge and, 157, 182–84; phenakistoscope and, 153–55, 169; spinning in place, 157–70, 182–84
• modernity, 22, 39; critiquing industrial modernity, 156, 170, 173–75, 177–78
• The Moonstone (Collins), 19, 87, 105–15; compared to O’Brien's “The Diamond Lens,” 109–11; as critique of colonialism, 108, 110–11, 114; curse on Moonstone, 107; imperialist panic, 108, 114; Indian magic and, 106, 111, 114–15; Indian savagery connected to wonder and romance, 108, 114; Koh-i-noor allusions, 105–7, 109, 114–15; mesmerism and, 76, 111, 114; mirror of ink and, 76, 106, 111–12, 114; Moonstone returned to India as third eye of idol, 106; opium and, 108, 111, 113–15; suspense as recreational experience, 108; trope of Indian savagery, 113, 115; virtual aesthetics and sight, 106, 115; as virtual encounter with colonial India, 87, 110, 113–15
• moving-image toys, 11–12, 152, 155–56, 173, 175, 177–80. See also flip-books; phenakistoscopes; praxinoscopes; zoetropes
• moving pictures. See cinema
• Murray, John, and Murray's Family Library, 29–30, 56
• Muybridge, Eadweard, 176, 186
• mysticism, 24–25, 62. See also superstition

• Napoleon I and Napoleonic wars, 56, 66, 116–17, 129
• Napoleon III and French Revolution of 1848, 116–17, 132
• National Gallery for Practical Science, Blending Instruction and Amusement (London), 15
• nationalism, 20, 117–18, 125–26, 132–33, 139, 147, 150–51
• native magic, 6, 24. See also superstition
• Neveu, François-Edouard, 24
• novels: archival play and, 7–8; realist, 55, 67–68; relationship to aesthetics of the virtual image, 5–6, 70–71. See also reading; specific authors and titles

• O’Brien, Fitz-James: “The Diamond Lens” (short story), 8, 19, 86–87, 99–105; Alexander the Great analogy, 102; biblical allusions, 102; biography of O’Brien, 99; critical reception of, 100; diamond microscope and, 100–101; Koh-i-noor and, 99–101, 105; microscope as imaginary medium, 105; optical-imperial technology created, 102; slave trade critiqued in, 101, 105; specular allegory of resource extraction economy, 105; virtual aesthetics and, 87, 103, 115
• opium, 108, 111, 113–15
• optical conjuring and trickery, 3–4, 192n21; diagrams for conjuring, 41, 45; Eliot's Adam Bede and, 72; English magicians taking foreign names and titles, 43–44; entertainment of, 22–23, 32–33, 39; imperial ambitions and, 73; as masculine art, 42; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 24; scientific practice and, 31; sleight of hand and stage magic, 6, 25–29, 41, 194n12. See also mirror of ink; Pepper's Ghost
• optical spectatorship: cultural history and, 3, 6, 8, 15, 34; Eliot's Adam Bede and, 72; Gaskell's Cranford and, 40; Hardy's “The Fiddler of the Reels” and, 179; historical analysis of, 9
• optical technology of Victorian age, 3, 9; Crary's study of, 15–16; Hardy's roundabout and, 175; lens- and mirror-based technologies, 11, 192n25; open questions from, 21; still used in contemporary life, 9; as triumph of Western scientific advancement, 6; as virtual archive, 7; virtual image created by, 10. See also optical conjuring; optical toys; specific device
• optical toys, 7; Brewster's invention of, 30; of eighteenth-century elites, 15–16; Hardy and, 175–76; in middle-class homes, 4, 10, 15; paper-based, 11–12, 152; spectator as operator and audience, 161–62; virtual images created by, 14–15. See also moving-image toys; phenakistoscopes; pseudoscopes
• Orientalism: Eliot's Adam Bede and, 69, 81; Lane's The Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians and, 56, 62, 66–67, 72–73, 83; Said and, 57, 110
• the other, 39, 44–45, 74, 81. See also race and racial discrimination

• painting. See Dutch paintings, realism of
• pane-of-glass technique, 26–27
• panic. See imperialist panic; magic panic
• Paris, John Ayrton, 60–61
• Parlour Magazine of the Literature of All Nations, 100
• patriarchy: Gaskell's Cranford and, 18, 40, 47, 49–51; popular scientific imaginary and, 34
• Paxton, Joseph, 95–97
• pedagogy of disenchantment, 21–51; associated with modernity, masculinity, class privilege, and whiteness, 18, 23–24, 34, 39; Brewster and, 23–24, 29, 128; Carlyle and, 119; civilizational logic and, 22, 117; defined, 21; Dickens and, 119, 146, 152; female mystification at optical tricks, 42; Gaskell and, 18, 24, 40, 43–46, 51; interpretive possibilities of, 22–23; Lane and, 55, 63
• Pellat, Apsley, 94
• Pepper, John Henry, 26–27, 29, 35, 38, 187; The Boy's Playbook of Science, 35–36, 41
• Pepper's Ghost, 5, 26–29, 27, 36–38, 123–24, 133–34
• persistence of vision, 15, 62, 140, 176–77, 210n13, 211n20; as flicker fusion, 60, 189n3; phenakistoscope and, 159–60, 169; thaumatrope and, 4
• phantasmagoria, 5, 19–20, 115–52; audience experience of, 123–25, 131–32; Brewster and, 31–32; Carlyle and, 119, 137–40, 208n64; censorship of, 121, 126–27, 129–30; compared to mirror of ink, 60; Couvent des Capucines staging of, 130–31; derivation of term, 120; Dickens and, 119; Dircksian Phantasmagoria, 26–27, 133; distinguished from phenakistoscope, 161; dominant subjects of spectral illusions, 28, 31, 124–25, 124–25; Gaskell's Cranford and, 40–41, 43; ghosts as pervasive trop after Reign of Terror, 126; history as phantasmagoria show, 132–40; as history show, 120–32; influence on Victorian literary culture, 133–34; magic lanterns and, 19, 117, 121–23, 122; metaphoric uses of term, 135; nationalism and, 125–26, 132–33; Pepper's Ghost compared to, 123–24; Philidor and, 28, 118–21, 124–25, 128; scientific arguments disproving, 30; as scientific lecture-demonstration, 129; “The Sphinx,” 27; theory of apparitions and, 30; transforming meaning of, 134; in Victorian discourses of French Revolution, 119. See also French Revolution; Robertson, Étienne-Gaspard
• phenakistoscopes, 15, 20, 153–86, 154, 164, 168; archival play and, 7; called “Living Pictures,” 162, 169; circular and repetitive motion of, 20, 162–63, 165–67, 169, 186; compared to stereoscopes, 161; described, 158–59; Freud's compulsion to repeat and, 167, 180; Hardy and, 156, 170–72, 175, 180; industrial capitalism and, 156, 163, 169; Modern Times (film) and, 153–55, 184; Moonstone compared by Collins to, 109–10; O’Brien's “The Diamond Lens” and, 8; as optical toys, 4, 14, 159–60; Plateau as inventor, 158, 160, 210n12; related to earliest moving pictures, 161, 185–86; spectator as operator and audience, 161–63, 169
• Philidor, Paul, 28, 118–21, 124–25, 128, 138, 206n12
• Philipstahl, Paul de, 133, 206n12
• phosphorescence, 89, 99, 106, 109–11, 114–15
• pictorial turn, 4
• Plateau, Joseph, 158–61, 163–66, 185–86, 210n12
• Plotz, John, 5, 16–17, 85, 175, 190n11, 201n89, 212n52
• Poultier d’Elmotte, François Martin: L’Ami des lois editorial (1798), 126–28, 132, 134, 142, 150, 206n26, 206n28
• praxinoscopes, 20, 155, 161–62, 176, 176
• “precinematic,” rejection of term, 8–9, 81–82, 191n18
• prestidigitation, 26, 194n12
• Pritchard, Andrew, 90, 101
• projection microscopes, 5, 37, 37
• pseudoscopes, 10–12, 14–15
• psychography, 78–79, 78
• Punch cartoons, 37, 37, 41, 44, 46–47, 51, 85, 97–98, 98, 102–3, 109, 166–67
• race and racial discrimination: darkness as source of mystery and occult, 83; Indians in Collins's The Moonstone, 106, 108, 110–11, 113–15; magic as racial performance, 18, 44; mirror of ink as racialized entertainment, 112; racialized others’ susceptibility and inability to experience rational amusement, 39, 74; white supremacy, 44–45, 94, 98
• rational magic, 17–18, 41, 51, 128. See also pedagogy of disenchantment
• rational recreations, 24, 31, 33–34, 39, 46, 61–62, 134, 161, 185
• reading: book using ink on paper to make images for, 69–70; book's transfiguration through act of, 63–65; continuous unfolding of images compared to, 53, 55–56, 81–82; Eliot's readers, 69, 72, 79; realist fiction, reader as traveler in, 68; as technological extension of vision, 82; watching a film compared to, 53
• real vision at a distance. See vision at a distance
• realism: aesthetics of realist painting, 68–69, 80; of Dutch paintings, 55, 68–69, 80; Eliot and, 18, 55, 67–69, 72–73, 80, 83, 197n10; virtual travel and, 16
• Reform Act (Britain, 1832), 34
• Robert-Houdin, Jean-Eugène, 151; Confidences d’un prestidigitateur (memoir), 25, 38, 50–51, 128; magic shows in Algeria, 24–26, 29, 40, 147, 194n7
• Robertson, Étienne-Gaspard, 19, 118–19, 123–33; Carlyle and, 135–36, 139–40; Dickens's essay on, 141, 145–52, 209n77; phantasmagoria of, 124–25, 124–25, 128–32, 135, 139–40, 143, 150–52, 155, 206n24; Philidor and, 119, 121, 124–25, 128; Poultier d’Elmotte's editorial reprinted by (see Poultier d’Elmotte, François Martin). See also Mémoires récreatifs
• Robespierre, Maximillien, 117, 127, 143
• Robinson, William Ellsworth (pseud. Chung Ling Soo), 44
• Roche, E., 145
• Romanticism, 53
• Rorschach tests, 54
• Royal Polytechnic Institution (London), 15, 26, 35–38, 42, 102, 133, 195n52
• Royle, John Forbes, 92

• Said, Edward, 56–57, 110
• Salt, Henry, 57
• Samee, Ramo, 44
• Schiller, Johann, 129
• sciences of the mind: Eliot's The Lifted Veil and, 79–81; Hardy's “The Fiddler of the Reels” and, 180; mirror of ink and, 18, 54, 71. See also mesmerism
• scientific literature: Brewster's Letters on Natural Magic as, 30; as masculine recreation, 35–36, 41; on optical technology, 6
• Scot, Reginald, 28, 194n12
• Scott, Walter, 151
• Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849), 84, 86, 93, 107
• “seeing things”: as aesthetic expression of civilizational ideal and Western supremacy, 3; as enlightened mode of spectatorship, 3; mirror of ink as trope for seeing things not really there, 71, 112–13; seeing things not really there as expression of modernity, 20; Victorian mass culture and, 1
• Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 81
• showmen: democratizing optical perception theories, 16; English magicians taking foreign names and titles, 43–44; in Gaskell's Cranford (see Cranford); imaginative uses of the virtual by, 17; marketed as inventors of technology, 25; memoirs dispelling superstition, 15, 25; natural magicians, 28; novelists as, 71–72; sleight of hand (see optical conjuring); supernatural agency disavowed by, 28
• Signor Blitz (Antonio van Zandt's stage name), 44, 196n58
• Singh dynasty in Sikh kingdom, 91–93, 95
• Sketchley, Arthur (Rose's pen name): “Mrs. Brown Visits the Polytechnic” (story), 36–37
• slavery, 34–35, 39, 101
• Soffe, W., 164–66, 169

• “The Sphinx” (optical illusion), 27
• Stampfer, Simon, 164, 210n12
• stanhope viewer, 90
• Steinberg, Ronen, 126, 206n24, 206n26
• stereoscopes and stereographs, 19; archival play and, 7; binocular vision and depth perception created by, 4, 12–13; Brewster stereoscope, 12, 13; “The Brighton Fancy Basket Maker” stereograph, 13–14, 13; description of stereoscope, 103; diamonds’ virtual effects compared to, 99; educational use of, 192n31; experimental science and, 192n31; history of, 12; as household toy, 4, 12, 14; as imperial technology, 104; lenticular, 11, 29, 103–4; Lumière's illusion reminiscent of, 185; Moonstone in Collins's story compared to, 109–10; O’Brien's “The Diamond Lens,” 8; phenakistoscope compared to, 161; stereograph from mid`1860s world's fair, 104, 104, 204n67; virtual images created by, 2, 13–14; virtual travel and, 104, 190n11
• Stodare, Colonel, 27
• stroboscope, 164, 210n12
• superstition: coexistence with disenchantment, 23; of colonial regions, 6; of French people, 147, 152; Lane and, 63; optical technology as superior to, 6; optical treatises aimed to dispel, 15, 31; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 21, 63; persistence in modernity, 147–48; of women, 38, 42–46, 51, 134
• A Tale of Two Cities (Dickens), 19–20, 118–19, 132–33; based on Carlyle and Robertson's works, 118–19, 140–41, 143–47, 151, 209n77; characters’ loss of individuality, 145; Dickens's essay on Robertson as basis for, 145–52; dissolving view and, 140–41; French Revolution as phantasmagoria, 140–52; imperialism and, 151; nationalism and, 151; “Recalled to Life” and, 20, 119, 141–44; writing history equated to phantasmagoria, 146, 150–51
• telepathy, 18, 78–79
• Teukolsky, Rachel, 4, 14, 69, 73
• thaumatropes, 4, 7, 60–61, 109–10
• Thomson, William MacLure, 65
• The Thousand and One Nights, 65, 198n27
• Thuriot, 136, 138
• Tobin, Thomas, 27
• travel writing: Eliot's Adam Bede compared to, 69, 73; imaginative uses of the virtual by, 17; imperial male travel as “erotics of ravishment,” 64–65; Lane's The Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians, 54, 62, 65–66; mesmerism and, 77; Murray's guidebooks covering mirror of ink, 56; reader as traveler in realist fiction, 68; virtual travel, 14, 16, 53, 68, 103–4, 190n11
• traveling somnambulism, 77, 201n88

• Underwood, Elmer and Bert, 104

• van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie, 100
• van Zandt, Antonio (pseud. Signor Blitz), 44
• Victoria (queen), 84–86, 91, 93, 96, 96, 103, 107
• Victorian literary culture: Indian savagery as trope, 113, 115; metafiction and, 72; mirror of ink as trope for seeing things not really there, 71, 112–13; optical media's relationship with, 4–5, 17; phantasmagoria's influence, 133–34; women as superstitious as trope, 38, 42–46, 51
• Victorian literary studies, 3, 5; aesthetics of the virtual image, 5–6, 16–17, 70–71; Eliot and realism, 18, 55, 67–69, 72, 80, 83, 197n10; referencing contemporary digital media and internet, 16; Victorian new media and, 5, 189n8
• virtual aesthetics: Brewster's gender and racial colonial imagination and, 23; civilizational politics and, 6, 18, 38; Collins's The Moonstone and, 115; conflicting conceptions of, 9, 16–17; defined, 2; Eliot's theorization of virtual literary aesthetics, 71; as ideal that transcends technology, 187; mirror of ink and, 54; O’Brien's “The Diamond Lens” and, 105, 115; separating optical illusions from belief in magic, 17, 147; theorizing in first half of nineteenth century, 22; Victorian culture's invention of, 9–17, 186. See also phantasmagoria
• virtual images: Brewster distinguishing between real and virtual images, 11; description of, 11–14; Gunning on, 11–12, 192n29; how Victorians saw, 10, 12; optical mass culture's creation of, 14–17; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 21–51; virtual sight, 18, 54, 69–70, 80–81, 106. See also mirror of ink; phantasmagoria
• virtuality: definition of, 10; difficulty in distinguishing from literary critical terms, 16–17; grounding in Victorian optical culture, 17; novelists’ imaginative uses of, 17; pedagogy of disenchantment and, 17–18, 21; political agency and, 33; reality and, 5, 11, 80, 190n11; tropes of how fiction can construct the real, 45; virtual imaginaries, 6, 8, 17, 187; virtual travel, 14, 16, 53, 68, 103–4, 190n11. See also pedagogy of disenchantment; virtual aesthetics; virtual images
• vision at a distance, 51, 56, 81–83, 87, 99, 115; Wells's phrase of, 18–19, 83, 86
• Voltaire, 117, 129

• Wallis, E., 164–66
• Wellington, Duke of, 97
• Wells, H. G., 51, 56; “The Remarkable Case of Mr. Davidson's Eyes,” 83, 201n89; on “vision at a distance,” 18–19, 83, 86
• Wharfedale printing press, 157–58, 158
• Wheatstone, Charles, 10, 12, 29
• Wollstonecraft, Mary, 47
• women: Brewster on patriarchal power, 38–39; as caregivers of men, 44–45; excluded from citizenship rights, 34; Gaskell on patriarchal power, 40–45; phantasmagoria and, 134; scientific lecture beyond understanding of, 36–38, 37; as superstitious, 38, 42–46, 51, 134; Wollstonecraft on weak and wretched state of, 47
• Wordsworth, William, 53, 197n4

• Zieger, Susan, 4, 54, 60, 114, 199n42
• zoetropes, 2, 4, 12, 14–15, 20, 155, 161–63, 179, 191n18
• zoopraxiscope, 176