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Index
Page numbers followed by letter “f” refer to figures.
- African Americans: cowboys, 74; on seagoing cowboy crews, 60, 229n15
- agriculture: American, wartime boom in, 49; rehabilitation of, animals’ essential role in, 28, 30, 31–32, 42–43
- agriculture, Polish: postwar condition of, 23–24, 88–89, 137; prewar, 29; Roosevelt’s concern about, 30, 89; UNRRA reports on crisis of, 31
- Albania, UNRRA aid to, 1
- American Dairy Cattle Company, 25
- American Friends Service Committee, 64; Nobel Peace prize for, 190; and post–World War I aid, 25; and relief work during Spanish Civil War, 36. See also Quakers
- American Humane Association (AHA), 96–97, 99; on animal losses during overseas travel, 131; inspections of UNRRA animal holding centers and ports, 97–98, 106, 112
- American Red Cross, 25
- American Red Star Animal Relief program, 243n23
- American Relief Administration (ARA), 25–26, 80
- Anglo-American Atlantic Charter, 27–28, 82
- Animal Rescue League of Boston, 106
- animals: and “cycle of empowerment,” 39; and humanitarian aid programming, 194, 96; modern-day transport on live export ships, 98; and postwar rehabilitation, 28, 30, 31–32, 42–43, 194; as symbols, 88, 159. See also cattle; horses
- animals, Heifer Project’s, in Poland, 87, 102, 177, 182–88; placement of, 178–80
- animals, UNRRA: black-market trading in Poland, 166; branding at ports in Poland, 142, 170; conditions on ships, 114–17, 151–53, 157–59, 165–71; feeding on ships, 117, 119–21, 112–13; overland journeys in Poland, 150–51, 186; poor health of, Polish responses to, 171–73; sale by recipient (Polish) government, 152–54; theft in Poland, 169; unhealthy, fate upon arrival in Poland, 145–50; unloading at ports in Poland, 141–42, 2, 152; vaccination of, 95, 107; winter sailing and hardships for, 126, 129, 173
- animal welfare: Christian ethics and, 98; class-based assumptions regarding, 173–74; in Communist Poland, 174–76; Heifer Program and, 106; and humanitarianism, 17, 173, 176; in prewar Poland, 173, 175, 176; UNRRA and, 96–99
- Arcab, Bronisław, 183
- Australia, and animal exports, 196, 198, 199
- Austria, UNRRA aid to, 14, 23
- Baltic Sea: ports in, and UNRRA deliveries, 136; unexploded mines in, 117–18, 135
- Baltimore (Maryland), port of, 45, 50, 104, 106, 117, 128
- Bantz, Floyd, 230n34, 249n52
- Baptists, and Heifer Project, 39, 103
- Belgium, Heifer Project aid to, 223n58
- Bierut, Bolesław, 273n64
- births, animal: during maritime animal transport, 250n64
- Black Sea shipments, 135–36
- Bolshevism, spread of, ARA food aid program aiming to stop, 26, 28
- Bomberger, Luke R., 125
- Bonnell, John Sutherland, 47
- Bowman, Paul Hoover, 71
- Brant, Wayne, 228n5
- Brethren: beliefs of, 34–35; and conscientious objection, 65, 66; donations to Heifer Project, 101, 103; food aid during Spanish Civil War, 36; international outlook of, 83–85; relief work by, 35–36, 64; seagoing cowboys, 68; service ethic of, 35, 37
- Brethren Service Committee (BSC): Christian inflections in recruiting approach of, 57, 58–59; commitment to relief and charity-giving, 35, 192–93; establishment of, 64; headquarters of, 38, 39, 52, 64–65, 192; Material Goods program of, 52, 52–53; partnership with UNRRA, 41, 43–45, 189, 178, 179, 190–91, 192; and recruitment of seagoing cowboys, 43–44, 52, 55–62; relief programs of, 40; volunteers for, 52–53, 190
- Bushong, Benjamin G., 231n64
- Byler, Delmar, 72
- Byler, Joe, 72
- Byrd, Julia, 231n59
- Canada: relief animals sent from, 43, 50, 92; support for UNRRA, 14, 22
- Catholics: and Heifer Project, 39, 103; and NSBRO, 65; and relief work, 15
- cattle, 76–77; on board of UNRRA ships, 115, 177; bred before shipping overseas, 38, 121; breeds chosen for aid programs, 85, 86; cost of, 42; dual-purpose approach to, 85–86; in Heifer Project, 76; “international language” of, 122; losses during UNRRA operation, 130–31, 150; Poland’s need for, 192; Polish prewar population of, 24, 31; and postwar rehabilitation of agricultural societies, 28; real and symbolic value of, 78; shipping as humanitarian aid, idea for, 76; UNRRA shipments to Poland, impact of, 89. See also cow(s)
- Chaloupka Wood, Clara, 190
- children: American, as potential givers of aid, 84–85; donated animals earmarked for, 191; images of, in humanitarian fundraising campaigns, 47, 185–86; milk as essential to development of, 82, 83–84, 87, 191; Polish, photographed with cows/drinking milk, 83, 163–64, 82
- China: Heifer Project and, 35; UNRRA aid to, 14
- Christianity/Christian ethics: and animal welfare activism in postwar period, 98; and Heifer Project, 47–48; and mid-century humanitarianism, 45–48, 134; and seagoing cowboys, 57, 58–59, 60, 62, 72–73, 74, 75; and statesmanship, 46, 45–47, 73
- Churchill, Winston, 12, 81
- Civilian Public Service (CPS), 235n102
- Clay, Lucius, 28
- Coast Guard, and seagoing cowboys, 61, 62
- Cohnstadt, Martin, 73
- colleges, recruitment of seagoing cowboys at, 55–56, 72
- concentration camp(s): images of starving bodies at, and commitment to food as global human right, 32–33; seagoing cowboys’ visit to, 139; victims of, horses arriving in Poland compared to, 176
- Conscientious Objectors: number of, 211n13. See also Civilian Public Service
- Constanza (Romania), and UNRRA deliveries destined for Poland, 135–36
- corruption: in distribution of UNRRA aid/animals, 165, 166, 169–71; in procurement of UNRRA animals, 93–94; among veterinarians, 133
- cow(s): and civilization, 77; as essential component of postwar aid programs, 82; gift of, as direct gesture of humanitarian aid, 162–64, 177; importance for Brethren, 78; importance for local economy, 85; milk yields of, 164, 185; treatment of, and milk quality, 123; women’s responsibility for, 161–62
- cowboy(s): American, 73–74, 75; origins of term, 73. See also seagoing cowboys
- Cox, Harvey, 58, 138, 140
- CPS. See Civilian Public Service
- Czechoslovakia: Heifer Project and, 106
- Danish Red Cross, 139, 190
- deaths, of UNRRA animals, 130, 150, 143–44, 148, 150; during initial period after arrival in Poland, 154–55; during ocean crossings, 106–116, 117, 119, 122, 126, 127–30, 172–73, 167; seen as justified by greater cause, 130; during transfer to ports in US, 96, 99; during unloading at ports in Poland, 141–42
- deaths, present-day live animal transport and, 99
- Declaration of the United Nations (1942), 13
- Denmark: relief cattle from, 191; relief horses from, 50–51. See also under Danish
- Department of Agriculture (US): Bureau of Animal Industry, inspectors from, 95, 96; Livestock Branch of, 43; veterinarians from, at UNRRA holding centers, 97
- diseases, among UNRRA animals: upon arrival in Poland, 142, 143, 145–50, 171–72, 173; discovery at US ports, 96, 106–115, 126, 128, 129; spread during shipping, 99
- diseases, present-day live animal transport and, 197, 198
- Displaced Person (DP) camps, 14
- Dobrowolski, Anatol, 170
- draft animals: and agricultural rehabilitation, 31; cattle used as, 89; horses as, 50, 76; oxen as, 77, 85
- Drury, Charles M. “Bud,” 22, 160, 189
- Ebey, Robert, 122, 126
- Eby, Kermit, 37, 38, 48
- ecumenicalism: and Heifer Project, 39, 41, 55, 69; and UNRRA, 46–47
- education: agricultural, in Poland, 191; on board of UNRRA ships, 60, 133; at Civilian Public Service (CPS) camps, 67
- Erb, Paul, 73
- Ethiopia, live animal aid to, 209n15
- Europe: founding myth of, 77–78; liberation of, 12, 14; post–World War II recovery of, UNRRA livestock program and, 50–51. See also specific countries
- Fast, Henry A., 69
- fertilizer: reliance on farmyard manure, 29, 77; shortages in Poland, 24
- film(s): on food security, 28; Polish, on UNRRA aid, 161–62, 172–73; UNRRA promotional, 47
- First International Declaration on the Rights of the Child, 82
- food: as basic right, 26, 32–33; in Churchill’s statement on Nazi defeat, 12; as component of relief, 16; and political stability, 28; and postwar international order, 27; post–World War I deliveries of, 25–26; post–World War II aid policies, 26; shortages of, addressing in short term, 24–25; as weapon, 26, 49
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 32, 81; on Poland’s need for cattle, 192
- food security: as FAO’s goal, 32; film about, 28; long-term, UNRRA’s Poland program and, 25, 28; pursuit of, as priority after World War II, 5; Russian invasion of Ukraine and issue of, 203–4
- France, Heifer Project and, 223n58
- freedom from want: as fundamental right, 82; Hot Springs Resolution on, 29; Roosevelt on, 26–27, 28
- French, Paul Comly, 65, 68
- Friends. See American Friends Service Committee; Quakers
- Friesen, Gerhard, 137
- Gdan´sk (Poland), 56; port of, 130, 136, 141; seagoing cowboys’ impressions of, 137–38, 147–48, 149, 150
- Gdynia (Poland): port of, 130, 136; UNRRA office in, 21; veterinary clinic in, 147
- Germany: American Dairy Cattle Company’s shipments to, 209n15
- Getz, Paul A., 190
- Gingerich, John, 128
- Gingerich, Melvin, 250n59
- Gingerich, Owen, 72, 117, 119, 132, 133, 138
- global cooperation: and relief animal programs, 13
- government(s): new understanding of role of, 13, 36. See also Polish government
- Grater, Ed, 125
- Greece: Heifer Project and, 43, 178, 43; UNRRA and, 45, 51, 91
- Gregg, John P., 22
- Griggs, Charles and Frank, 97
- Guetzkow, Harold Steere, 71
- Hamilton, Stanley, 102
- Hays, M. E., 22, 118, 167, 186, 187
- Heatwole, Kenneth M., 123, 139, 140
- Heifer Project, 83–85, 106; appeals for donations, 83–84, 100–101; Brethren’s assessment of, 181, 183, 188, 192–93; BSC and, 38, 39, 52, 64–65, 192; cattle breeds used by, 86; Christian ethics and, 47–48; collection/holding centers, 104–180, 182–83, 185–88; donations to, 100–104; ecumenicalism and, 39, 41, 55, 69; and European rehabilitation, 33; executive directors of, 61, 182–88; goals of, 78, 106; incorporation of, 193–94; logic of, 38–39; Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and, 98; number of animals delivered by, 193; origins of, 36–38, 81; partnership with UNRRA, 38–39, 180–81, 191, 102, 178–80; and Polish government, 177–78, 181–82, 191, 192; Polish scholarship on, 19; in post-UNRRA period, 189, 190–92, 193; and principle of political neutrality in aid distribution, 38, 48; shipments to Greece, 43, 178, 87, 177, 40–41, 102; success of, 193; UNRRA livestock program compared to, 100, 179, 180, 182
- Heifer Project International (Heifer International), 207n7
- Helstern, Russell, 125
- Hendrickson, Roy F., 43
- Henson, Edwin R., 43, 68
- Hershey, Lewis Blaine, 66
- Hertzler, Daniel, 254n146
- Hirschmann, Ira, 20
- Hitler, Adolf, 5
- Holderman, Earl, 228n6
- Holle, H. A., 82
- Hoover, Herbert, 26; American Relief Administration (ARA) under, 25, 26, 80; on children as victims of World War II, 82
- horses: on board of UNRRA ships, 114–15, 116; challenges of caring for, 124–26; cost of, 42, 50; deaths on board of UNRRA ships, 116, 117, 119, 126, 127–29, 130; delivered to Poland, UNRRA livestock program and, 31, 88, 90–91, 161, 50, 76; elite status of, 88; as essential component of postwar aid programs, 50–51; as key to agricultural production, 87–88; killed during World War II, 130; Polish farmers receiving, 158, 7, 28; in postwar US, surplus population of, 93, 131, 92; slaughtered for meat, upon arrival in Poland, 143, 144; susceptibility to respiratory diseases, 115, 126, 128, 129, 130, 148; unhealthy, fate upon arrival in Poland, 143, 147–48, 176; unloading at Polish ports, 141–42, 1, 76, 172; used as breeding stock in Poland, 152; working conditions for, Polish Communist government’s regulation of, 174, 175
- horses, Polish: breeding programs, 90; historical importance of, 89–90; preferences for, 90–91; prewar population of, loss of, 24, 30, 31, 88, 89
- Hot Springs conference, 29, 30, 32
- Hulme, Kathryn, 110
- human-animal studies, 210n25
- humanitarianism: animal welfare and, 230n37
- humanitarianism, mid-century: bold ambitions of, 45–48, 134; Civilian Public Service (CPS) camps and, 67; different expressions of, 35; role of animals in, 194, 58, 201, 202–3
- Humanitarian League, 17
- human right(s), fundamental: food as, 26, 32–33; idea of, 26
- Humphrey, Hubert, 49
- hunger: approaches to alleviating, 32, 70; interpreted as consequence of government decisions, 36; malnourishment and undernourishment, 27, 29; milk seen as solution to, 78–79; plant-based solutions to, 194; and social instability, 25, 26. See also starvation
- hunger relief, soup kitchen model of, 26
- hunger studies, field of, 27
- Iceland, relief horses from, 50
- inspections: AHA, 97–98, 106; at ports, 106, 107; UNRRA vs. government, 95, 96
- International Humanitarian Bureau, 268n81
- internationalism: liberal, Christian ethics and, 48; vs. nationalist imperatives, 18; new, 13. See also global cooperation
- International Maritime Organization, 199
- Israel, cattle shipments to, 226n92
- Italy: Heifer Project and, 51; UNRRA aid to, 14
- La Guardia, Fiorello: Christian rhetoric used by, 45–46, 189; visit to Poland, 161
- Lane, Arthur Bliss, 51
- Lanzmann, Claude, 30
- Łaptos, Józef, 208n14, 247n7
- Laski (Poland), Institute for the Blind in, 185–86
- League of Nations: and First International Declaration on the Rights of the Child, 82; milk championed by, 80
- Legg, Stuart, 28
- Lehman, Herbert, 26, 82, 188, 189
- Levinson, G. Ben, 50
- Levinson, Sol, 50
- Levinson Livestock Company, 226n92
- Lewandowski, Antoni, 185
- Libby, Paul, 250n64
- Liberty ships, 110; animal loss rate on, 130; length of return trip for, 111; number of attendants required for, 112
- Liepert, Jerry, 252n98
- Lintner, Henry, 50
- Lintner, Robert: on animal condition upon arrival at ports, 230n33; on UNRRA fleet, 247n7
- live aid, use of term, 5
- live animal maritime transport, modern-day, 98; future of, 99; number of animals on, 196; UNRRA livestock program compared to, 2, 199–200
- livestock handlers. See seagoing cowboys
- loans, for purchase of UNRRA animals, 154, 155
- Lublin Committee (Polish Committee of National Liberation), 21
- Lutz, Harold T., 70
- MacDonald, Archibald, 106
- malnourishment, 27, 29
- manure: accumulation on board of ships, 115, 116, 126–27, 29, 77
- Martin, James, 252n103
- Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 98, 99
- Matecki, Tadeusz, 175, 176
- Mays, Benjamin, 60
- McCollum, Elmer V., 81
- McNett, Harold, 56, 57, 119
- Men and Hunger (report), 70–71
- Mennonites, 229n17
- Menshikov, Mikhail A., 22, 189
- Merchant Marine, UNRRA ship crews and, 61
- Methodists: and Heifer Project, 39, 101, 182; and NSBRO, 65; seagoing cowboys, 68
- Metzger, John D., 192–93
- Metzger, Thurl, 181, 189–90, 193
- Meyer, Albert J., 58
- Meyer, Arthur D. (Art), 228n5, 250n59
- Middle East, live animal exports to, 196
- Mikołajczyk, Stanisław, 21, 31
- military draft: peace churches’ position on, 55, 62–63, 64, 65. See also Conscientious Objectors
- milk: adulterated/spoiled, 240n57
- Miller, Orie O., 65
- Miller, Paul, 193
- mines, unexploded: in Baltic Sea, 117–18, 135; in Poland, 23, 183; in Ukraine, 203
- Mock, Virgil, 102
- Morton, Nelle, 60
- pacifism: peace churches and, 35, 63–64, 67; seagoing cowboys witnessing war’s destruction and, 138; UNRRA and, 67
- pastors, on UNRRA ships, 72
- Pato, T. A., 172
- Pawlus, Stanisław, 158
- peace churches, 229n17
- The Peasants (Reymont), 162–63
- photographs: of animals, in Polish recipients’ letters to donors, 185; of Polish children drinking milk, 83, 163–64, 186–87, 100–101
- Piłsudski, Józef, 90
- Poland: agriculture of, precarious condition of, 23–24, 88–89, 137; animals received through UNRRA livestock program, 160, 161, 173, 174–76; charitable groups working in, 190; emerging Soviet control over, 20, 22, 135; food aid after World War I in, 25, 26; Heifer Project animals allocated to, 87, 102, 177–80, 20; postwar, seagoing cowboys’ impressions of, 136–41, 1, 20, 137, 155–56, 89–90; territorial changes after World War II, 24; UNRRA aid program in, deliveries of, 135–36; UNRRA aid program in, value of, 141–50; UNRRA animals’ overland journeys in, 150–51; wartime losses/suffering of, 20, 22–24, 137. See also agriculture, Polish; horses, Polish
- Polish citizens: in Displaced Person (DP) camps, 14; gratitude and affection toward UNRRA, 160–63; loans taken by, 154, 155
- Polish Committee of National Liberation (Lublin Committee), 21
- Polish government: Communist, suspicion of foreign charities, 258n61
- political neutrality, in aid distribution, 15, 21, 38, 48
- ports, Black Sea, and UNRRA deliveries destined for Poland, 135–36
- ports, Polish: branding of animals at, 142, 170; infrastructure problems and labor shortages at, 141; inspection of animals at, 145–46, 141–42, 136
- ports, US: accidents at, 112–13; animal welfare standards at, AHA on, 112; Heifer project animals shipped from, 104; inspections of animals at, 106, 107; transfer of animals to, 94–95; UNRRA and benefits to, 49–50
- Puerto Rico: Civilian Public Service camp in, 40; Heifer Project shipments to, 40–41, 102
- Quakers (Society of Friends), 34; beliefs of, 35; and conscientious objection, 65, 66; pacifist stand of, 63–64; relief aid during Spanish Civil War, 36, 37, 38, 39; relief aid during World War I, 64; reservations about relief work, 71; seagoing cowboys, 68. See also American Friends Service Committee
- railroad companies, UNRRA and benefits to, 49–50
- Rajchman, Ludwik, 87, 100
- reconstruction, UNRRA and goal of, 16, 43
- Recovered Territories, in Poland, 155–56; resettlement of, 156–57; UNRRA animals distributed to, 157–58, 161, 165
- Reed, Ollie E., 41
- rehabilitation: essential role of animals for, 28, 30, 31–32, 42–43, 194; UNRRA and goal of, 16, 20, 31, 32, 38
- Reiff Miller, Peggy: on age of seagoing cowboys, 247n3; on origins of term “seagoing cowboy,” 236n125; on peace-church background of seagoing cowboys, 229n17; picture book by, 251n80; on UNRRA ships’ schedules, 214n45
- relief: components of, 16; milk as essential component of, 38, 78–79, 80, 82, 85
- relief animal(s), use of term, 5
- relief work: and benefits to American companies, 49–51; Brethren and, 35–36, 64; and global cooperation, 39, 64; peace churches and, 64–65, 69; Quakers and, 36, 37, 38, 39, 64, 71; and US global leadership, 48–49; after World War I, 25–26; after World War II, 15, 26
- Reymont, Władysław, 162–63
- Rockwell, Norman, 28
- Rohrer, Glenn, 137
- Romania: and maritime live animal exports, 99; and UNRRA deliveries, 135–36
- Rooks, Lowell Ward, 12
- Roop Farm, 104–6
- Roosevelt, Franklin D.: on Four Freedoms, 26–27, 28, 32, 66; meeting with Karski, 29–30, 89
- Root, Kathryn, 228n6
- Ross, James M., 97, 98, 106
- Rowett Research Institute, 81
- Rowland, E. S., 132
- Royer, Byron P., 62, 116, 126
- Russia, Bolshevik: American Relief Administration (ARA) operations in, 25–26; Mennonites’ relief work in, 64
- Russia, invasion of Ukraine, 203–4
- Sabin, Donald R., 22
- Salt, Henry, 17
- Samuels, Gertrude, 46
- Sawyer, Warren D., 127, 139
- Schrock, Mark, 193
- seagoing cowboys: accounts/diaries of, 231n59
- Seeds of Destiny (film), 47, 51
- Selective Training and Service Act (US), 65
- Senger, Marvin, 231n63
- shipping industry: modern live animal transport, 99; after World War II, 50
- ships, UNRRA, 109–115, 116, 126–27; animal births on, 122, 106–116, 117, 119, 122, 126, 127–30, 172–73, 114–17, 116; feeding of animals on, 117, 118, 119–21, 112–13; mechanical problems and accidents involving, 117–18, 126; religious services on, 131–32; retrofitting to accommodate live animals, 109, 110, 126; ventilation problems on, 116–17, 129, 126, 129, 173
- Shoah (film), 30
- Shultz, Lawrence W., 58, 184
- Smeltzer, Ralph, 183
- Smith, Dwight, 57, 113–14, 137–38
- Smith, H. R., 126
- Snyder, Daniel, 184
- Society for the Protection of Animals (Poland), 174–76
- Society of Friends. See Quakers
- Sopot (Poland): holding stable at, 151; veterinary clinic in, 147
- soup kitchen(s): model for, 26; in Poland, seagoing cowboys volunteering at, 139
- Soviet Union: and agricultural destruction in Poland, 23–24, 137; confiscation of Polish horses by, 30, 31; emerging control over Poland, 20, 22, 135; Heifer Project shipments to, 193, 155, 156
- Spanish Civil War: peace churches’ relief work during, 36, 39, 48; West’s experience during, 36, 37, 81
- SS Alfred DuPont, 193
- SS Beloit Victory, animal loss rate on, 173
- SS Carroll Victory, 49
- SS Cedar Rapids Victory, 250n64; horses on board of, 115f
- SS Clarksville Victory, 257n49
- SS F.J. Luckenbach, 45, 110, 125, 186
- SS Frederic C. Howe, 125
- SS Lahaina Victory, 123, 173
- SS Mexican, 110, 132
- SS Morgantown Victory, 139
- SS Mt. Whitney, 110–130, 173; Heifer Project animals on, 178; number of attendants on, 54, 112; religious services on, 132; veterinarian’s report on, 129
- SS Norwalk Victory, 141
- SS Park Victory, 132, 142
- SS Robert W. Hart, 58, 120, 178
- SS Santiago Iglesias, 178, 184
- SS Stephen R. Mallory, 71, 117, 119
- SS Virginian, 45, 110, 136
- SS Wesley W. Barret, 128
- SS William S. Halsted, 102, 117, 178
- SS Woodstock Victory, 112; Heifer Project animals on, 178, 181
- SS Zona Gale, 106, 116
- starvation: fear of, in postwar period, 235n102
- Stine, Ora W., 61–62, 102
- Stine West, Carol Maxine, 61–62
- Styron, William, 250n64
- supervisors, on UNRRA ships, 54, 71–73, 118, 119, 123, 132
- Swedish aid groups, in Poland, 190
- Szczecin (Poland): UNRRA deliveries to, 130, 136, 155, 166, 21; veterinary clinic in, 147, 150
- Ukraine, Russian invasion of, 203–4
- undernourishment, 27, 29
- United Kingdom: Animal Welfare Act in, 14; dairy farms in, expansion in interwar period, 80; horses shipped to, during World Wars, 92; relief horses from, 50
- United Nations: and commitment to religious tolerance, 66; Conference on Food and Agriculture (Hot Springs conference), 29, 30, 32; first agency of, 13; First Council Sessions of, 20. See also UNRRA
- United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 240n57
- United States: dairy farms in, expansion in interwar period, 80; geopolitical interests of, Poland’s importance for, 20; global leadership after World War II, 48–49; horses in, surplus after World War II, 93, 131, 14; postwar prosperity of, 49, 93, 131
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 32–33
- University of Minnesota Starvation Experiment, 235n102
- UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration), 13–14, 18; Agricultural Rehabilitation Division, 43; beneficiary countries, 14; and benefits to American farmers/companies, 49–51; Christian ethics and, 45–47, 73; Contributed Supplies Branch, 100, 18, 22; directors of, 12; Displaced Person (DP) camps operated by, 14; ecumenicalism and, 46–47; financing of, 14, 46–47; folding of operations, 190; and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 32; image-making by, 163–64; literature on, 18–19; long-term food security as goal of, 25, 28; member countries of, 13; Ocean Shipping Division, 42; origins of, 12, 13; pacifist stand of, 67; partnership with BSC, 41, 43–45, 189, 160–63; and political neutrality in aid distribution, 15, 21, 38, 48; priorities of (“three Rs”), 15–16, 38; Public Information Office, 83; and recipient governments, control over aid distribution, 144–45, 152–53, 179; rehabilitation goal of, 16, 31, 32, 38; reports on Poland’s agricultural crisis, 31; tasks of, 13–14, 15; Technical Committee on Agriculture, 43; types of aid distributed by, 14; and voluntary agencies, 15
- UNRRA Guard (Straz˙ UNRRA), 168–69
- UNRRA livestock program: and animal welfare, 96–99; assessments of animal suitability and quality, 94–96; BSC and logistical support for, 33; cattle in, 86, 87; deliveries to Poland, impact of, 160, 161, 60; distribution practices in Poland, complaints about, 165–71, 100, 109–100, 179, 180, 182; horses delivered to Poland, 31, 88, 90–91, 41–42; justification for, 96, 112, 116; loss rates, 130, 150, 182, 186–88; number of animals delivered through, 20, 137, 188, 189; and postwar European recovery, 43, 93–94, 100; rehabilitation goal and, 94–95, 96; transportation costs, 109; and veterinary supplies, contributions of, 149. See also animals, UNRRA; ships, UNRRA
- UNRRA’s Poland program, 209n20
- vaccinations, of UNRRA animals, 95, 107
- Vachon, John, 82; meeting with seagoing cowboys, 186–87, 83, 163–64, 90
- veterinarian(s): and design of retrofitted ships, 249n52
- veterinary clinics, in Poland, UNRRA animals sent to, 147–50, 172, 173, 177
- Victory ships, 110; animal loss rate on, 130; length of return trip for, 111; number of attendants required for, 111–12
- West, Dan: appeal for donations, 221n18
- West, Kenneth L., 62
- West, Philip, 48, 101
- White, David H., 185
- Wilder, A. G., 32, 88, 90, 130
- Wild West, in Poland, 261n123. See also Recovered Territories
- Willoughby, George, 257n49
- Wine, Jacob, 106, 114f
- Wiszniewski, E., 93–94, 184
- Witkowski, Ł., 172
- women: in postwar Poland, 231n59
- Woodbridge, George, 209n20
- World War I: conscription issue during, 64; and food shortages, 25; horses shipped to UK during, 92; peace churches and relief aid during, 64; relief programs after, 15, 25–26, 35; US exports of condensed milk during, 80
- World War II: as battle for food and land resources, 82; horses shipped to UK during, 92; livestock and agricultural lands destroyed during, 13; Poland’s suffering in, 20, 22–24, 137; relief programs during/after, 15, 26; US prosperity after, 49, 93; winning the peace in aftermath of, 26, 28