NOTES

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION

1. Marylin Bender, “Black Capitalist: Listing of His Concern on Amex Marks a ‘First,’” New York Times, January 24, 1971, F2.

2. Wall Street Journal, “Chatham Bank, Chicago, Is Being Liquidated,” August 22, 1963, 6; Chicago Defender, “$1,243,360 Paid Off by FDIC for Chatham,” September 5, 1963, 3; Beverly Jensen, “Independence Bank of Chicago,” Black Enterprise, June 1977, 106.

3. Timuel D. Black Jr., Bridges of Memory: Chicago’s First Wave of Black Migration, an Oral History (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2003), 375.

4. A. L. Foster, “Other People’s Business: Charter for That Bank,” Chicago Defender, June 6, 1964, 6.

5. William Robbins, “Takeovers Lift Standing of Largest Black Bank,” New York Times, July 24, 1979, D1.

6. Nelson Algren, Chicago: City on the Make (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Co., 1951).

7. Randi Storch, Red Chicago: American Communism at Its Grassroots, 1928–1935 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007); Preston H. Smith II, Racial Democracy and the Black Metropolis: Housing Policy in Postwar Chicago (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012); Jeffrey Helgeson, Crucibles of Black Empowerment: Chicago’s Neighborhood Politics from the New Deal to Harold Washington (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014); Adam Green, Selling the Race: Culture, Community, and Black Chicago, 1940–1955 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Davarian L. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes: Modernity, the Great Migration, and Black Urban Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); Bill V. Mullen, Popular Fronts: Chicago and African-American Cultural Politics, 1935–46 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999); Jakobi Williams, From the Bullet to the Ballot: The Illinois Chapter of the Black Panther Party and Racial Coalition Politics in Chicago (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013).

8. Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993); Stephanie Shaw, What a Woman Ought to Be and Do: Black Professional Women Workers during the Jim Crow Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).

9. Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990); Charles T. Banner-Haley, The Fruits of Integration: Black Middle-Class Ideology and Culture, 1960–1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1994); Touré F. Reed, Not Alms But Opportunity: The Urban League and the Politics of Racial Uplift (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008).

10. E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie: The Rise of a New Middle Class (New York: Free Press, 1957); Nathan Hare, The Black Anglo-Saxons (New York: Marzani and Munsell, 1965); Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: Historical Analysis of the Failure of Black Leadership (New York: Morrow, 1967), 90, 312; Albert Murray, The Omni-Americans: New Perspectives on Black Experience and American Culture (New York: Outerbridge & Dienstfrey, 1970), 86–90; Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Random House, 1967), 53; Harold Cruse, Plural but Equal: Blacks and Minorities in America’s Plural Society (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1987), 389.

11. Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991); Martin Kilson, “Political Change in the Negro Ghetto, 1900–1940’s,” in Key Issues in the Afro-American Experience, vol. 2, Nathan Huggins, Martin Kilson, and Daniel Fox, eds. (Chicago: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1971), 171; Adam Green, Selling the Race: Culture, Community, and Black Chicago, 1940–1955 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); George Lipsitz, How Racism Takes Place (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011), 57.

12. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 7, 49–61; John Bauman, Norman Hummon, and Edward Muller, “Public Housing, Isolation, and the Urban Underclass: Philadelphia’s Richard Allen Homes, 1941–1965,” Journal of Urban History 17 (May 1991): 264–92; William J. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 43; Alan Ehrenhalt, The Lost City: Discovering the Forgotten Virtues of Community in the Chicago of the 1950s (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 140; Robert G. Spinney, City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000), 207–8; Eugene Robinson, Disintegration: The Splintering of Black America (New York: Doubleday, 2010), 20–21, 38–39, 49.

13. Mary Pattillo-McCoy, Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Lynne Feldman, A Sense of Place: Birmingham’s Black Middle-Class Community (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999); Bruce D. Haynes, Red Lines, Black Spaces: The Politics of Race and Space in a Black Middle-Class Suburb (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001); Marcus Anthony Hunter, Black Citymakers: How the Philadelphia Negro Changed Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); Todd M. Michney, Surrogate Suburbs: Black Upward Mobility and Neighborhood Change in Cleveland, 1900–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017).

14. Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), xiv, xxi.

15. For a concise contemplation, see Bill E. Lawson, “Uplifting the Race: Middle-Class Blacks and the Truly Disadvantaged,” in The Underclass Question, Bill E. Lawson, ed. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), 90–113.

16. Mahalia Jackson with Evan McLeod Wylie, Movin’ On Up, (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1966), 46.

17. James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 94–97; Thomas Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle-Class Reform in Chicago, 1880–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 116–17.

18. Jackson, Movin’ On Up, 46.

19. Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).

20. Rick Halpern, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago’s Packinghouses, 1904–1954 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); James R. Ralph Jr., Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993); Arvarh E. Strickland, History of the Chicago Urban League (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1966); Christopher Robert Reed, The Chicago NAACP and the Rise of Black Professional Leadership, 1910–1966 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997).

21. Michelle Mitchell, African Americans and the Politics of Racial Destiny after Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).

22. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Three Centuries of Discrimination,” The Crisis, December 1947, 363.

23. Smith II, Racial Democracy and the Black Metropolis, xii, 8.

24. Robert Weems, Black Business in the Black Metropolis: The Chicago Metropolitan Assurance Company, 1925–1985 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996); Christopher Robert Reed, The Rise of Chicago’s Black Metropolis, 1920–1929 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011); Robert Weems and Jason Chambers, Building the Black Metropolis: African American Entrepreneurship in Chicago (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2017).

25. For works on the creation of segregated Chicago, see Chicago Commission on Race Relations (CCRR), The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922); Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967); Philpott, Slum and the Ghetto, 113–14; Sylvia Hood Washington, Packing Them In: An Archaeology of Environmental Racism in Chicago, 1865–1954 (New York: Lexington Books, 2005); Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto.

26. For examples that put pioneers at the center of the story, see L. K. Northwood and Ernest A. T. Barth, Urban Desegregation: Negro Pioneers and Their White Neighbors (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1965); Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2004); Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004); Beryl Satter, Family Properties: Race, Real Estate, and the Exploitation of Black Urban America (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2009); Todd M. Michney, Surrogate Suburbs: Black Upward Mobility and Neighborhood Change in Cleveland, 1900–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017).

27. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1954); Selwyn James, “We Refused to Give Up Our Homes,” Redbook, December 1955; Ellsworth Rosen, “When a Negro Moves Next Door,” Saturday Evening Post, April 1959, 32–33, 139–42; Ralph Bass, “Prejudice Won’t Make Us Sell Our House!” Coronet, July 1959, 103–7.

28. Stephen Grant Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighborhoods (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2000); Amanda Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Eileen M. McMahon, What Parish Are You From? A Chicago Irish Community and Race Relations (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995); Gerald Gamm, Urban Exodus: Why the Jews Left Boston and the Catholics Stayed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).

29. St. Clair Drake, “Folkways and Classways within the Black Ghetto,” in The Making of Black America: Essays in Negro Life and History, vol. 1, August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, eds. (New York: Atheneum, 1969), 448.

30. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged; Lemann, Promised Land; Kenneth Karst, Belonging to America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989).

31. Sidney Kronus, The Black Middle Class (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing, 1971), 51; Alan B. Anderson and George W. Pickering, Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in Chicago (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 87–89; Ralph Jr., Northern Protest..

32. Bart Landry, The New Black Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987).

33. For exceptions, see Theresa A. Hammond, A White-Collar Profession: African American Certified Public Accountants since 1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); George Davis and Glegg Watson, Black Life in Corporate America: Swimming in the Mainstream (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1982); Edward D. Irons and Gilbert W. Moore, Black Managers: The Case of the Banking Industry (New York: Praeger, 1985); Jason Chambers, Madison Avenue and the Color Line: African Americans in the Advertising Industry (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008).

34. Robin D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York: Free Press, 1996); Roger Horowitz, “Negro and White, Unite and Fight”: A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking, 1930–1990 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Bruce Nelson, Divided We Stand: American Workers and the Struggle for Black Equality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Nancy MacLean, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 342; William P. Jones, The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2013).

NOTES TO CHAPTER 1

1. Frank Marshall Davis, Livin’ the Blues: Memoirs of a Black Journalist and Poet (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 57–58.

2. Horace R. Cayton, Long Old Road (New York: Trident Press, 1965), 243; Elmer Irey as told to William J. Slocum, The Tax Dodgers: The Inside Story of the T-Men’s War with America’s Political and Underworld Hoodlums (New York: Greenberg, 1948), 187–89.

3. Time, “Business in Bronzeville,” April 18, 1938, 70–71.

4. Chicago Tribune, “Police Raid Swank Policy Racket Depot,” October 1, 1949, 1.

5. Orville Dwyer, “Policy Racket Pays Million in Protection,” Chicago Defender, May 14, 1946, 1; Roger Biles, Big City Boss in Depression and War: Mayor Edward J. Kelly of Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois Press, 1984), 91.

6. Chicago Tribune, “Roe Bosses Huge Policy Empire; Defies Syndicate,” June 20, 1951, 2.

7. Time, “The Conglomerate of Crime,” August 22, 1969, 31; Mark H. Haller, “Illegal Enterprise: A Theoretical and Historical Interpretation,” Criminology 28, no. 2 (1990): 218.

8. Raymond Grow, “De King Is Daid!” American Mercury, October 1939, 212–15.

9. Chicago Defender, “Threats of Death Sent to Jones Boys,” May 4, 1940, 2.

10. Chicago Sun, “Policy King’s Release Seen as Kin Arrive,” May 15, 1946, 1; Lester Velie, “The Capone Gang Muscles into Big Time Politics,” Colliers, September 30, 1950, 18; William J. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 82–84.

11. Time, “Emperor Jones,” May 27, 1946, 25; Time, “Lucky Ted,” August 8, 1952, 20.

12. Chicago Defender, “Jones Kidnap Starts Drive against Racket,” June 8, 1946, 8.

13. Albert N. Votaw, “Chicago: ‘Corrupt and Contented’?” New Republic, August 25, 1952, 12–13; Chicago Tribune, “Ted Roe, Policy Boss, Slain,” August 5, 1952, 1; Lee Blackwell, “Midnight Street Echoes Dread Tale Roe Is Dead—You Can’t Beat Mob,” Chicago Defender, August 16, 1952, 4.

14. Special Committee to Investigate Organized Crime in Interstate Commerce, The Kefauver Committee Report on Organized Crime (New York: Didier, 1951), 38–39.

15. Preston H. Smith II, Racial Democracy and the Black Metropolis: Housing Policy in Postwar Chicago (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012); Lisa Krissoff Boehm, Making a Way Out of No Way: African American Women and the Second Great Migration (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2009).

16. Richard Wright, “The Shame of Chicago,” Dec. 1951, Richard Wright Papers, Box 6, Folder 140, Beineke Library, Yale University.

17. Robert Weems, Black Business in the Black Metropolis: The Chicago Metropolitan Assurance Company, 1925–1985 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 93.

18. Leon Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Knopf, 1998), 150–63, 312–22; Tim Madigan, The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 179–82.

19. Christopher Robert Reed, The Rise of Chicago’s Black Metropolis, 1920–1929 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011), 9.

20. Richard Wright, Later Works (New York: Library of America, 1991), 880.

21. Chicago Whip, “Forward, Let’s Go!” December 9, 1922, 8.

22. Reed, Rise of Chicago’s Black Metropolis, 3.

23. Emmett Scott, Negro Migration during the War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1920), 17; James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 35, 81–82; Louise Venable Kennedy, The Negro Peasant Turns Cityward (New York: Columbia University Press, 1930), 53–54; Otis and Beverly Duncan, Chicago’s Negro Population: Characteristics and Trends (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 2.

24. George E. Haynes, “Negro Migration,” Opportunity, October 1924, 303; Opportunity, “Chicago,” March 1929, 69; National Committee on Negro Housing, “The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing,” July 1931, Irene McCoy Gaines Papers (IMG), Box 1, Folder 10, Chicago History Museum; Scott, Negro Migration during the War, 112–17; William M. Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 95.

25. Chicago Defender, “Overstepping the Bounds,” August 4, 1917, 12; Ben Baker, “A Few Do and Don’ts,” Chicago Defender, July 13, 1918, 16.

26. August Wilson, The Piano Lesson (New York: Dutton, 1990), 4.

27. E. Franklin Frazier, “Chicago: A Cross Section of Negro Life,” Opportunity, March 1929, 70–73.

28. “Houses,” 4, Illinois Writers Project: “Negro in Illinois” Papers (IWP), Box 37, Folder 3, Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection of Afro-American History and Literature, Carter G. Woodson Regional Library; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (Harper & Brothers, 1944), 652; Robert Roberts, “Negro-White Marriages in Chicago,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1939, 19; W. Lloyd Warner, Buford H. Junker, and Walter A. Adams, Color and Human Nature: Negro Personality Development in a Northern City (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1941), 149.

29. Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967); Thomas Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle-Class Reform in Chicago, 1880–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).

30. Inter-Ocean, “Landlords Seek to Eject Woman,” September 28, 1894, 1; Chicago Record, “Race War Campaign Planned,” May 5, 1897; Inter-Ocean, “Woodlawn Wages War on Negroes,” February 12, 1902, 2; Inter-Ocean, “Would Bar Colored Family,” July 25, 1902, 1; Inter-Ocean, “Refuse Negro Club Home,” December 15, 1904, 1; Chicago Herald, “Neighbors Bar Door against Negro Owner,” May 2, 1915; clippings in IWP, Box 37, Folder 12; Broad Ax, “The White Residents of Kenwood, Hyde Park and Woodlawn Are Up in Arms,” August 28, 1909, 1; Broad Ax, “Negroes and Property Values,” September 18, 1909, 2; Chicago Tribune, “Oak Park Negro, Home Set Afire, Sees White Man,” March 8, 1916, 15; M. M. Cummings, “History of Woodlawn,” Paper for Sociology 234, 1932, Ernest W. Burgess Papers (EWB), Box 159, Folder 2, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago.

31. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1945), 74–75.

32. Chicago Whip quoted in Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 124; Warner, Junker, and Adams, Color and Human Nature, 85.

33. Scott, Negro Migration during the War, 13.

34. St. Clair Drake, “Churches and Voluntary Associations in the Chicago Negro Community: Report of the Official Project 465-54-386 conducted under the auspices of the Work Projects Administration,” (Chicago: Work Projects Administration, 1940), 214.

35. Carter Woodson, Free Negro Heads of Families in the United States in 1830 (Washington, DC: The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History), xxxvi. Carole Marks estimates that skilled blacks outnumbered skilled whites in the South at the end of the Civil War by a five to one margin. Carole Marks, “The Social and Economic Life of Southern Blacks during the Migration,” in Black Exodus: The Great Migration from the American South, Alferdteen Harrison, ed. (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), 38–41.

36. Merah Stuart, An Economic Detour: A History of Insurance in the Lives of American Negroes (New York: Wendell Malliet & Co., 1940), 321–22.

37. Davis Joseph, “That Dixie Monster,” Half-Century Magazine, January 1919, 13.

38. Marks, “The Social and Economic Life of Southern Blacks during the Migration,” 38–41; Emmett J. Scott, “Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916–1918,” Journal of Negro History 4 (July 1919): 293, 295, 298–302, 309–11, 329, 332, 334–37; Emmett J. Scott, “Additional Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916–1918,” Journal of Negro History 4 (October 1919): 416, 422, 427, 433, 436, 441, 445, 448; Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks’ Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916–30 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 98.

39. Walter White, A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White (New York: The Viking Press, 1948), 42–43.

40. Paul A. Gilje, Rioting in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 104.

41. Half-Century Magazine, “Going North,” September 1919, 2; “The Migrants Keep Coming,” IWP, Box 33, Folder 1; H. A. Phelps, “Negro Life in Chicago,” Half-Century Magazine, May 1919, 12–13; Scott, “Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916–1918,” 308; Chicago Defender, “Northern Drive to Start,” February 10, 1917, 3; Carter G. Woodson, The Negro Professional Man and the Community (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969 [1934]), 117; Grossman, Land of Hope, 94–96; Scott, Negro Migration during the War, 24–25.

42. According to the 1940 census, 22 percent of black out-migrants had a high school degree as opposed to only 6 percent who stayed in the South. James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 30–31.

43. Carl Sandburg, The Chicago Race Riots (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1919), 10.

44. Roi Ottley, The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1955), 6–7, 77–78.

45. Davis, Livin’ the Blues, 103.

46. Grossman, 3, 36.

47. Charles S. Johnson, The Negro in American Civilization (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1930), 297–98; John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900–1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 35, 143; Suzanne W. Model, “Work and Family: Blacks and Immigrants from South and East Europe,” in Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics, Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 134; John J. Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me: A History of the Polish-Americans (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 12–13, 32.

48. Scott, “Letters of Negro Migrants of 1916–1918,” 301.

49. E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), 130; “The Exodus Train,” IWP, Box 33, Folder 1; George Arthur, “The Young Men’s Christian Association Movement among Negroes,” Opportunity, March 1923, 16–18; Scott, “Additional Letters,” 432–38; Warner, Junker, and Adams, 94; John H. Johnson with Lerone Bennett Jr., Succeeding against the Odds (New York: Warner Books, 1989), 22; Alden Bland, Behold a Cry (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1947), 104.

50. Grossman, 246–49; A. Albertine Wetter, “A Glimpse into an Unusual Night School,” Chicago Schools Journal, June 1921, 132–34.

51. Letitia Merrill, “Children’s Choice of Occupation,” Chicago Schools Journal, December 1922, 156.

52. Charles Johnson, The Negro College Graduate (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1938), 185–86.

53. Langston Hughes, “Mother to Son,” Vintage Hughes (New York: Vintage, 2004), 7–8.

54. Half-Century Magazine, “A Monument to Negro Thrift and Industry: The Overton Building,” January–February, 1923, 13; Reed, Rise of Chicago’s Black Metropolis, 87.

55. Johnson, Succeeding against the Odds, 63.

56. Chicago Defender, “What the Defender Has Done,” February 2, 1918, 11; Tuttle, Race Riot, 91.

57. Harold F. Gosnell, Negro Politicians: The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935), 339; Sterling D. Spero and Abram L. Harris, The Black Worker: The Negro and the Labor Movement, (New York: Atheneum, 1968 [1931]), xv, 398.

58. Saunders quoted in Neal Samors and Michael Williams, Chicago in the Fifties: Remembering Life in the Loop and the Neighborhoods (Chicago: Chicago’s Neighborhoods, Inc., 2005), 9; Travis quoted in Neal Samors and Michael Williams, The Old Chicago Neighborhood: Remembering Life in the 1940s (Chicago’s Neighborhoods, Inc., 2003), 110.

59. Abram Harris, The Negro as Capitalist: A Study of Banking and Business among American Negroes (Philadelphia: The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1936), ix–x; Juliet E. K. Walker, The History of Black Business in America: Capitalism, Race, Entrepreneurship, 2nd ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 183; Jonathan Scott Holloway, Confronting the Veil: Abram Harris Jr., E. Franklin Frazier, and Ralph Bunche, 1919–1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 72–73.

60. William L. Evans, “The Negro in Chicago Industries,” Opportunity, February 1923, 15–16; Junius Wood, “Southerners Soon Readjusted,” Chicago Daily News, April 7, 1917; Henry M. Hyde, “Half a Million Darkies from Dixie Swarm the North to Better Themselves,” Chicago Tribune, July 8, 1917, 8.

61. Half-Century Magazine, “Money Bleaches,” July–August 1922, 3.

62. L. L. Davis, “That Thorn in the Flesh,” Half-Century Magazine, January–February 1925.

63. Chicago Daily News, “Time and Security Needed: Negro to Solve Own Housing Problems, Slum Parley Told,” February 5, 1954; Oscar Handlin, The Newcomers: Negroes and Puerto Ricans in a Changing Metropolis (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959), 120–21. Handlin concluded that these migrants “followed the general outline of the experience of earlier immigrants.” Neoconservatives such as Nathan Glazer and Irving Kristol stubbornly held to this belief even though many black “newcomers” called the city home for many years and were still mired at the bottom socioeconomically. See Nathan Glazer, “Blacks and Ethnic Groups: The Difference, and the Political Difference It Makes,” in Key Issues in the Afro-American Experience, vol. 2, Nathan Huggins, Martin Kilson, and Daniel Fox, eds. (Chicago: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1971), 193–211; Irving Kristol, “The Negro Today Is Like the Immigrant of Yesterday,” New York Times Magazine, September 11, 1966, 51–52, 124–42.

64. Scott, Negro Migration during the War, 114.

65. For the creation of the segmented labor market, see David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformations of Labor in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), ix–x, 3, 174.

66. Scott, Negro Migration during the War, 113–14; Myra Hill Colson, “Home Work among Negro Women in Chicago,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1928, 66; “The Migrants Keep Coming,” 10, IWP, Box 32, Folder 1; “Negro Migration in 1916–17,” 5, IWP, Box 33, Folder 4; Woodson, Negro Professional Man and the Community, 330; N. C. Jenkins, “What Chance Has the Trained Student?” Washington Intercollegiate Club, The Negro in Chicago, vol. 2, 193; Warner, Junker, and Adams, 180, 242.

67. Irene McCoy Gaines fundraising letter for the YWCA, Jan. 27, 1922, IMG, Box 1, Folder 6.; Jenkins, “What Chance Has the Trained Student?” 89; Walter Reckless, Vice in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933), 25, 29.

68. Warner, Junker, and Adams, 100.

69. Carroll Binder, Chicago and the New Negro: How the City Absorbed the Huge Post-war Migration from the South, and What Economic, Social and Civic Changes Were Wrought Thereby (Chicago: Chicago Daily News, 1927), 8–10.

70. Rick Halpern, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago’s Packinghouses, 1904–1954 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 40, 94; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 165–67; Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way, 99–100.

71. Oscar Douglas Hutton, “The Negro Worker and the Labor Unions,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1939, 90.

72. Alma Herbst, The Negro in the Slaughtering and Meat-Packing Industry in Chicago (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1932), 5–6; 61–62, 70; Scott, Negro Migration during the War, 117; Hutton, “The Negro Worker and the Labor Unions,” 13–15; Colson, “Home Work among Negro Women in Chicago,” 67.

73. William Broonzy, as told to Yannick Bruynoghe, Big Bill Blues (London: Cassell & Company, Ltd., 1955), 59.

74. Weems, Black Business in the Black Metropolis, 93; Hylan Garnet Lewis, “Social Differentiation in the Negro Community,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1936, 97.

75. William L. Evans, “The Negro in Chicago Industries,” Opportunity, February 1923, 15–16; Claude Barnett, “We Win a Place in Industry,” Opportunity, March 1929, 82–86. For the limited clerical and business opportunities open to college-educated blacks, see David King Cherry, “Vocational Activities of Educated Negroes,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1931, 25–27; Hutton, 8.

76. Claude Barnett, “We Win a Place in Industry,” Opportunity, March 1929, 82–86; Chicago Commission on Race Relations (CCRR), The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 229–30; Jenkins, “What Chance Has the Trained Student?” 89, 201; Letter from Council for Job Equality on State Street, Gerald Bullock, Chair, to Irene McCoy Gaines, Dec. 19, 1947, IMG, Box 2, Folder 6; “Negro Employees in Chain Stores,” IWP, Box 35, Folder 10; Stephen Breszka, “And Lo! It Worked,” Opportunity, November 1933, 342.

77. Chicago Whip, February 18, 1939, “Don’t Spend Your Money Where You Can’t Work,” IWP, Box 41, Folder 7.

78. Grossman, 258. As late as 1959, the incomes of white male college graduates exceeded that of nonwhite college graduates by 81 percent, whereas whites with grade school educations had an advantage of 46 percent over their nonwhite peers. Richard B. Freeman, Black Elite: The New Market for Highly Educated Black Americans (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), xix.

79. Shaw quoted in Southside Community Committee, Bright Shadows in Bronzetown: The Story of the Southside Community Committee (Chicago: 1949), 8–9.

80. Larry Tye, Rising from the Rails: Pullman Porters and the Making of the Black Middle Class (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2004), 80; Chicago Whip, “Under the Lash of the Whip,” July 22, 1922, 8.

81. Letitia Merrill, “Children’s Choice of Occupation,” Chicago Schools Journal, December 1922, 157.

82. Letter from Stanley B. Norvell to Victor Lawson, August 22, 1919, 4, 7, Julius Rosenwald Papers (JRP), Box 6, Folder 3, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago.

83. Lewis A. H. Caldwell, “The Policy Game in Chicago,” Unpublished MA Thesis, Northwestern University, 1940, 29.

84. J. Winston Harrington, “Let ’em, Policy,” Chicago Defender, November 25, 1939, 13; “Effect of the Depression on Insurance Business,” 1934–1935, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; Caldwell, “Policy Game in Chicago,” 58–59.

85. Gosnell, Negro Politicians, 115; “Effect of the Depression on Insurance Business,” 1934–1935, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; Chicago Defender, “Chicago’s Underworld Shaken by Vice Probe: Gambling on South Side under Fire,” August 25, 1928, 1; Caldwell, “Policy Game in Chicago,” 3, 48, 87–88; J. Winston Harrington, “Let ’em, Policy,” Chicago Defender, November 25, 1939, 13.

86. Chicago Defender, “Arrest Minister’s Sons as Policy Racketeers: Mayor Issues Order in Clean-Up of All Policy Racket Dens,” September 26, 1931, 1; Harold Gosnell, “The Negro Vote in Northern Cities,” National Municipal Review 30, no. 5 (May 1941), 4.

87. Humbert S. Nelli, Italians in Chicago, 1880–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 138–39; Chicago Whip, “Find Vice Den near YWCA Home for Girls,” August 5, 1922, 1. For a scathing critique of policy, see David Camelon, “The Number Racket,” Negro Digest (March 1950), 46–49.

88. “Policy: Negro Business,” 15–17, IWP, Box 35, Folder 11; J. Winston Harrington, “Let ’em, Policy,” Chicago Defender, November 25, 1939, 13.

89. Bricktop with James Haskins, Bricktop (New York: Atheneum, 1983), 29; Katherine Dunham, A Touch of Innocence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1959), 178; Roi Ottley, New World a-Coming (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943), 159; Enoch P. Waters, American Diary: A Personal History of the Black Press (Chicago: Path Press, 1987), 74–77.

90. Hyde Park–Kenwood Voices, “Gangs: Their Evolution and Essence” [1969?], Leon Despres Papers, Box 94, Folder 7, Chicago History Museum.

91. Sandburg, Chicago Race Riots, 59–61; Caldwell, “Policy Game in Chicago,” 53; “Interview with Harris B. Gaines,” Aug. 1, 1938, IWP, Box 43, Folder 17; Waters, American Diary, 74–77, Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 487; Chicago Defender, “‘Policy’ Sam Rites Held Friday,” May 29, 1937, 5; J. Winston Harrington, “Let ’em, Policy,” Chicago Defender, November 25, 1939, 13; Orville Dwyer, “Policy Racket Pays Million in Protection,” Chicago Defender, May 14, 1946, 1.

92. Ruth Evans Pardee, “A Study of the Functions of Associations in a Small Negro Community in Chicago,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1937, 24.

93. “Policy” [1932?], EWB, Box 37, Folder 5; Julius J. Adams, “Policy, Once a Big Industry, Hits Skids: Defender Reporter Spills the ‘Inside’ Dope on Rise and Fall of Numbers,” Chicago Defender, April 22, 1933, 11; Mark Haller, “Policy, Gambling, Entertainment, and the Emergence of Black Politics: Chicago from 1900 to 1940,” Journal of Social History 24, no. 4 (1991): 733.

94. Letter from Stanley B. Norvell to Victor Lawson, Aug. 22, 1919, 4, JRP, Box 6, Folder 3; Davis, 128.

95. Herbert Morrisohn Smith, “Three Negro Preachers in Chicago: A Study in Religious Leadership,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1935, 42; Samuel Strong, “Social Types in the Negro Community of Chicago: An Example of the Social Type Method,” Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1940, 118–19.

96. South Side Community Committee, “Are These Our Children?” [1942?] and Untitled Journal, South Side Community Committee, May 13, 1942, Chicago Area Project Papers, Box 98, Folder 1, Chicago History Museum; Chicago Defender, “James Knight Rites Saturday,” January 6, 1962, 3.

97. Chicago Defender, “Pick ‘Miss Bronze America’ and Bronzeville Mayor on Sept. 22,” September 22, 1934, 21. The four candidates were James Knight, Ily Kelly, Levirt Kelly, and Ed Jones.

98. “Policy: Negro Business,” 2, 11–12, 15–17, IWP, Box 35, Folder 11; Weems, Black Business in the Black Metropolis, xii.

99. Caldwell, “Policy Game in Chicago,” 60.

100. “Policy: Negro Business,” 15–17, IWP, Box 35, Folder 11.

101. Cornelia Tilford, “Report of Mrs. Cornelia Tilford, work relief employee assigned through the Urban League, 1934–1935,” 15, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; Colson, 93; Gareth Canaan, “‘Part of the Loaf’: Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class during the 1920’s,” Journal of Social History 35, no. 1 (2001): 157–58.

102. Chicago Defender, “Chicago’s Underworld Shaken by Vice Probe: Gambling on South Side under Fire,” August 25, 1928, 1; Caldwell, “Policy Game in Chicago,” 27–29; Claude McKay, Harlem: Negro Metropolis (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1940), 112–13.

103. A. J. Jaffe, “Policy” [1932?], EWB, Box 132, Folder 6.

104. Caldwell, “Policy Game in Chicago,” 32–33; J. Saunders Redding, “Playing the Numbers,” The North American Review 238, no. 6 (December 1934): 536.

105. A. J. Jaffe, “The Negro as Customer” [1932?], EWB, Box 132, Folder 6; Cornelia Tilford, “Report of Mrs. Cornelia Tilford, work relief employee assigned through the Urban League, 1934–1935,” 15, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; J. Saunders Redding, “Playing the Numbers,” The North American Review 238, no. 6 (December 1934): 535.

106. Rufus Schatzberg and Robert J. Kelly, African-American Organized Crime: A Social History (New York: Garland Publishing, 1996), xvii; Victoria W. Wolcott, “The Culture of the Informal Economy: Numbers Runners in Inter-War Black Detroit,” Radical History Review 69 (Fall 1997): 46–75; Khalil Gibran Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 10, 193, 208.

107. Richard Wright, “The Shame of Chicago,” c. 1949, Richard Wright Papers, Box 6, Folder 140, Beinecke Library, Yale University.

108. Will Cooley, “Jim Crow Organized Crime: Black Chicago’s Underground Economy in the Twentieth Century,” in Building the Black Metropolis: African-American Entrepreneurship in Chicago, Robert Weems and Jason Chambers, eds. (University of Illinois Press, 2017), 147–70.

109. Drake, “Churches and Voluntary Associations in the Chicago Negro Community,” 142; Harriet Choice, “The Good News of Gospel,” Chicago Tribune, January 22, 1978, H40.

110. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1903), 190.

111. Melvin Van Peebles, Bear for the FBI (New York: Trident Press, 1968), 16.

112. “And Churches,” 7, IWP, Box 45, Folder 1; Vattel Elbert Daniel, “Ritual in Chicago’s South Side Churches of Negroes,” Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1940, 13, 93–94, 125–26; Wallace D. Best, Passionately Human, No Less Divine: Religion and Culture in Black Chicago, 1915–1952 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 55–59; Arna Botemps and Jack Conroy, Anyplace but Here (New York: Hill and Wang, 1966), 173.

113. Ethel R. Harris, “A Study of Voluntary Social Activity among the Professional Negroes in Chicago,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1937, 58–59; Strong, “Social Types in the Negro Community of Chicago,” 204–5.

114. Ira De Augustine Reid, “Let Us Prey!” Opportunity, September 1926, 277–78.

115. Interview with Rev. J. Langston Poole, St. Paul AME, Jan. 19, 1934, and interview with Rev. S. A. Bryant, New Hope Baptist Church, Feb. 2, 1934, EWB, Box 89, Folder 5; Strong, 219.

116. Laura B. Richardson, “Essay on African-American Conflict and Self-Organization in the Early Twentieth Century,” IWP, Box 32, Folder 4; Estelle Hill Scott, Occupational Changes among Negroes in Chicago (Chicago: Work Projects Administration, 1939), 218; Drake and Cayton, 629–32.

117. Johnson, Negro College Graduate, 263.

118. Daniel, “Ritual in Chicago’s South Side Churches of Negroes,” 37–39, 58–59, 69–72; Drake, “Churches and Voluntary Associations in the Chicago Negro Community,” 190.

119. R. F. C. Tonelle, “Effect of the Depression on Spiritualism,” 1934–1935, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; A. J. Jaffe, “Negro Music” [1932?], EWB, Box 132, Folder 6; David W. Kellum, “First Church of Deliverance Largest of Its Kind in U.S: Rev. Clarence H. Cobbs Closes Ninth Anniversary Celebration at the Noted Institution,” Chicago Defender, June 4, 1938, 23; “Spirituals of Today,” 2, 17–19, IWP, Box 49, Folder 24; Laurraine Goreau, Just Mahalia, Baby (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1975), 55–56, 119.

120. Ira De Augustine Reid, “Let Us Prey!” Opportunity, September 1926, 275; Laura B. Richardson, “Essay on African-American Conflict and Self-Organization in the Early Twentieth Century,” IWP, Box 32, Folder 4.

121. Best, Passionately Human, No Less Divine, 40–43; “And Churches,” 7, IWP, Box 45, Folder 1.

122. Smith, “Three Negro Preachers in Chicago,” 18.

123. Daniel, 11, 44–45.

124. “A Brief History of Provident Baptist Church,” June 18, 1941, IWP, Box 5, Folder 17; “And Churches,” 16–17, IWP, Box 45, Folder 1; “The History of Good Shepherd Congregational Church,” June 18, 1941, IWP, Box 5, Folder 18.

125. Interview with Rev. S. A. Bryant, New Hope Baptist Church, Feb. 2, 1934, and interview with Rev. E. Harris, Assistant Pastor of Union MB Church, Jan. 18, 1934, EWB, Box 89, Folder 5; Drake, “Churches and Voluntary Associations in the Chicago Negro Community,” 198–201.

126. David W. Kellum, “First Church of Deliverance Largest of Its Kind in U.S: Rev. Clarence H. Cobbs Closes Ninth Anniversary Celebration at the Noted Institution,” Chicago Defender, June 4, 1938, 23; R. F. C. Tonelle, “Effect of the Depression on Spiritualism,” 1934–1935, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1.

127. Chicago Defender, “And Speaking of Folks Going Places . . . and Doing Things,” May 21, 1938, 13; Chicago Defender, “Local Leaders to Head Lobby Fight Committee,” June 14, 1941, 2; Chicago Tribune, “NAACP Unit Installs Its New Officers,” January 4, 1958, 12; Ted Coleman, “Clerics Meet Wilson on Wabash Shakeup,” Chicago Defender, May 4, 1963, 2; Chicago Urban League Papers (CUL), Series II, Box 241, Folder 2406, CUL memo from Idarae Jackson and Lauretta Travis to Task Force Directors, Aug. 4, 1970, Daley Library, University of Illinois at Chicago.

128. Cayton, Long Old Road, 243.

129. Best, 4–5.

130. Spear, Black Chicago, 112; Lewis, “Social Differentiation in the Negro Community,” 82–83; Chicago Tribune, “C. S. Funk Sued for $50,000,” May 6, 1914, 3; H. A. Phelps, “Negro Life in Chicago,” Half-Century Magazine, May 1919, 12–13.

131. Gosnell, Negro Politicians, 169, 177; Chicago Defender, “Banker Binga in Jail Hospital: Held for $300,000 Embezzlement,” March 14, 1931, 2; Carl Osthaus, “The Rise and Fall of Jesse Binga, Black Financier,” Journal of Negro History 58 (1973): 42.

132. Binder, Chicago and the New Negro, 6; Waters E. Turpin, O Canaan! (New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1939), 43.

133. Alice Quan Rood, “Study of Social Conditions among the Negroes on Federal Street between Forty-Fifth Street and Fifty-Third Street,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1924, 33–36; Rev. Harold Kingsley, Minutes of Interracial Committee Meeting of Women’s City Club, Nov. 23, 1931, and National Committee on Negro Housing, “The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing,” July 1931, IMG, Box 1, Folder 10; “Effect of Depression on Religion,” 1934–1935, interview with Rev. J. B. Redmond, St. Mark’s Methodist Episcopalian, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; The Crisis, “Iron Ring of Housing,” July 1940, 205, 210.

134. Gwendolyn Brooks, “kitchenette building,” in Blacks (Chicago: The David Company, 1987), 20; Richard Wright, 12 Million Black Voices: A Folk History of the Negro in the United States (New York: Arno Press, 1969 [1941]), 106.

135. Elwood Fife, “High Rent on the Throne,” Half-Century Magazine, June 1919, 17; Edith Abbott, The Tenements of Chicago, 1908–1935 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1936), 124, fn 55.

136. Chicago Whip, “We Live Like Dogs and Pay Like Princes,” January 28, 1939.

137. Chicago Defender, “Hansberry Is Plaintiff in $50,000 Suit,” January 7, 1939, 6; The Crisis, “Iron Ring of Housing,” July 1940, 205, 210; The Crisis, “The Hansberrys of Chicago: They Join Business Acumen with Social Vision,” April 1941, 106–7; Truman Gibson, Knocking Down Barriers: My Fight for Black America (Evanston, IL: Northwestern Press, 2005), 44–48.

138. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 217; T. J. Woofter Jr., Negro Problems in Cities (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1928), 132–33. See also National Committee on Negro Housing, “The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing,” July 1931, IMG, Box 1, Folder 10. Among the many prominent blacks who invested in real estate as landlords were Carl Hansberry, Harris Gaines, Clarence Cobbs, and Mahalia Jackson. See Gladys Priddy, “Flock Will Aid Me Stay Out of Jail,” Chicago Tribune, May 6, 1951, S6; Letter from Harris Gaines to Alderman Claude Holman, Mar. 21, 1963, IMG, Box 6, Folder 6; Mahalia Jackson with Evan McLeod Wylie, Movin’ On Up (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1966), 119–22.

139. Interview with Grace Garnett, July 30, 1941, IWP, Box 37, Folder 25.

140. Leonard Pearson interview with William Neighbors, secretary of the Negro Chamber of Commerce, Sept. 30, 1937, IWP, Box 25, Folder 15; Gosnell, Negro Politicians, 347; Christopher Robert Reed, The Chicago NAACP and the Rise of Black Professional Leadership, 1910–1966 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 85.

141. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948), 52–57.

142. Drake and Cayton, 83.

143. Cohen, Making a New Deal, 205–6, 242.

144. Chicago Tribune, “Reds Riot; 3 Slain by Police,” August 4, 1931, 1; Dempsey J. Travis, An Autobiography of Black Politics (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1987), 89–90; Randi Storch, Red Chicago: American Communism at Its Grassroots, 1928–1935 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 99–100; Drake, “Churches and Voluntary Associations in the Chicago Negro Community,” 258.

145. James O’Donnell Bennett, “Plans, Work, Binga’s Secret for Success,” Chicago Tribune, May 8, 1927, 1; Inez V. Cantey, “Jesse Binga,” The Crisis, December 1927: 329.

146. Drake and Cayton, 64; Chicago Tribune, “Bomb No. 6 Only Annoys Binga; Hurts Neighbors,” November 24, 1920, 1; Chicago Tribune, “Binga’s Guard Tries Gun Play after Bombing: Blast Rocks Negro’s Home 7th Time,” August 26, 1921, 13.

147. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 131.

148. Chicago Tribune, “City Sues Many under Fire Laws,” April 21, 1910, 4; Chicago Tribune, “Two Bombs Smash Homes of Negroes,” March 20, 1919, 1; Chicago Tribune, “Bomb at Home of Colored Real Estate Dealer,” December 4, 1919, 19; Harris, Negro as Capitalist, 153–59; Spear, 112–13.

149. Chicago Defender, “Jesse Binga Adds New Land Mark to City’s South Side,” February 16, 1929, 2; Chicago Defender, “Demand That Stockholders Pay in Binga Bank Crash: Stockholders’ Cash to Aid Depositors in Defunct Bank,” August 12, 1933, 1; Ottley, Lonely Warrior, 259.

150. Chicago Defender, “Binga State Bank Stockholders Meet: New Interest Manifested in Banking among Our People,” April 24, 1920, 13.

151. Quoted in Osthaus, “The Rise and Fall of Jesse Binga, Black Financier,” 50.

152. Dewey R. Jones, “Chicago Claims Supremacy,” Opportunity, March 1929, 92–94.

153. Lucius C. Harper, “Binga Represented a Business Era That Was Crude, Rough, Uncultured,” Chicago Defender, June 24, 1950, 7.

154. Dewey R. Jones, “Chicago Claims Supremacy,” Opportunity, March 1929, 92–94; Opportunity, “A Negro Bank Closes Its Doors,” September 1930, 264; Spear, 197.

155. Osthaus, 50.

156. Chicago Defender, “Banker Binga in Jail Hospital: Held for $300,000 Embezzlement,” March 14, 1931, 2; Lewis, “Social Differentiation in the Negro Community,” 107–8. Binga’s downfall mirrored his white banking counterpart on the South Side, John Bain, whose chain of twelve banks collapsed in the early 1930s. Bain, like Binga, used his bank presidents as “rubber stamps, yes men, and office boys” to manipulate bank finances for personal gain before speculating with depositor funds led to his downfall. But unlike Binga, Bain’s failure was not perceived as having implications for the white race, demonstrating the extra pressure and different set of circumstances facing black businessmen. Chicago Tribune, “State Says Bain Used Presidents as Office Boys,” July 2, 1932, 7.

157. Chicago Defender, “Binga Bank Had Only 2 Accounts of Over $10,000,” October 31, 1931, 3; William Oswald Morrison, “To Whom Shall We Go?” Chicago Defender, July 25, 1931, 15.

158. Chicago Defender, “3 Chicago Banks Closed: South Side Hit Hard When Institutions Shut Doors,” August 9, 1930, 1; Chicago Defender, “Banker Binga in Jail Hospital: Held for $300,000 Embezzlement,” March 14, 1931, 2; Drake and Cayton, 465; “Interview with Harris B. Gaines, Republican former member of the Illinois House of Representatives,” Aug. 1, 1938, IWP, Box 43, Folder 17.

159. Davis, 293; Chicago Defender, “Jim Crow in Chicago,” November 11, 1939, 15; Kathleene Simmons, “Negroes Exploit Own Workers,” Chicago Defender, February 26, 1944, 12.

160. Letter from Irene McCoy Gaines to Lewis Caldwell, July 6, 1937, IMG, Box 1, Folder 12.

161. Earl Richard Moses, “Community Factors in Negro Delinquency,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1932, 16–17.

162. Quoted in Caldwell, “Policy Game in Chicago,” 58–59.

163. Leon Forrest, The Furious Voice for Freedom: Essays on Life (Wakefield, RI: Asphodel Press, 1994), 52.

164. Our World, “Chicago: Money Capital of Negro America,” September 1951, 15–16.

165. Turpin, O Canaan! 127–28. See also Frank London Brown, The Myth Maker (Chicago: Path Press, 1969), 110–11; Gwendolyn Brooks, “Maud Martha” in Blacks (Chicago: The David Company, 1987), 309–10.

166. Gosnell, Negro Politicians, 169.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

1. Gwendolyn Brooks, The World of Gwendolyn Brooks (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 360–62.

2. Chicago Defender, “What ‘Oak Leaves’ Said. Attempted Murder: Fiends Set Fire to Citizen’s Home—Block Front and Back Door—Arrests to Be Made,” April 25, 1914, 7; Chicago Tribune, “Women Called to Explain Fire: Oak Park ‘Gossipers’ Will Be Summoned before State Marshal Tomorrow,” April 22, 1914, 10; Chicago Tribune, “Women Would Tar Negro,” April 24, 1914, 8.

3. Chicago Defender, “Oak Park in Disgrace,” April 25, 1914, 8; Chicago Defender, “Oak Park Needs Missionaries: Oak Park Incendiaries Attempt to Burn Jefferson Family Alive,” April 25, 1914, 1.

4. Chicago Tribune, “Suspect Oak Park Women of Arson: State Fire Marshal to Investigate Burning of Negro’s House,” April 19, 1914, 1.

5. Chicago Defender, “Oak Park Needs Missionaries: Oak Park Incendiaries Attempt to Burn Jefferson Family Alive,” April 25, 1914, 1; Jon C. Teaford, City and Suburb: The Political Fragmentation of Metropolitan America, 1850–1970 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), 22–23.

6. Daily Jewish Courier, “Due to Prejudice,” April 22, 1914.

7. Chicago Defender, “Oak Park Needs Missionaries: Oak Park Incendiaries Attempt to Burn Jefferson Family Alive,” April 25, 1914, 1.

8. Chicago Tribune, “Oak Park Negro, Home Set Afire, Sees White Man,” March 8, 1916, 15.

9. For examples of race relations and neighborhood racial change mainly from the vantage point of whites, see Eileen M. McMahon, What Parish Are You From? A Chicago Irish Community and Race Relations (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995); Thomas Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); Gerald Gamm, Urban Exodus: Why the Jews Left Boston and the Catholics Stayed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Stephen Grant Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighborhoods (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2000); Amanda Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); David M. P. Freund, Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007). For one of the few studies that depicts the entire process of neighborhood change, see Rachel A. Woldoff, White Flight/Black Flight: The Dynamics of Racial Change in an American Neighborhood (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011).

10. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 7, 49–61.

11. See, for example, Richard Lacayo, “Between Two Worlds,” Time, March 13, 1989, 58–64; Dawn Turner Trice, “Community’s Woes May Not Be a Matter of Class,” Chicago Tribune, July 17, 2006; Leon Dash, Rosa Lee: A Mother and Her Family in Urban America (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 252–56.

12. Terri Schultz, “Suburban Negroes Probe Ways, Means to Build toward Significant Integration,” Chicago Tribune, January 30, 1969, S1; Dempsey J. Travis, I Refuse to Learn to Fail: The Autobiography of Dempsey J. Travis (Chicago: Urban Research Press, 1992), 2–3, 14; Timuel D. Black Jr., Bridges of Memory: Chicago’s First Wave of Black Migration (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2003), 117. For a refutation of the “golden age” thesis, see Norman Fainstein and Susan Nesbitt, “Did the Black Ghetto Have a Golden Age? Class Structure and Class Segregation in New York City, 1949–1970, with Initial Evidence for 1990,” Journal of Urban History 23 (November 1996): 3–28; Michelle R. Boyd, Jim Crow Nostalgia: Reconstructing Race in Bronzeville (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), xii, 79–80.

13. Earl Richard Moses, “Community Factors in Negro Delinquency,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1932, 109–10; Mary Pattillo-McCoy, Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 23.

14. Portions of this chapter previously appeared in Will Cooley, “Moving On Out: Black Pioneering in Chicago, 1915–1950,” Journal of Urban History 36, no. 4 (July 2010): 485–506.

15. Franc Lewis McCluer, “Living Conditions among Wage-Earning Families in Forty-One Blocks in Chicago,” Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1928, 71.

16. Chicago Defender, “‘Black Belts’ Cause Chicago’s Bank Failures,” August 23, 1930, 13; Roi Ottley, New World a-Coming (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943), 84; Alden Bland, Behold a Cry (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1947), 124. The Dillingham Commission found that one in three blacks reported home employment, usually taking in laundry, a trend that continued as discrimination confined black women to domestic work. See The United States Joint Immigration Commission, Immigrants in Cities, vol. 26 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1911), 94.

17. Edith Abbott, The Tenements of Chicago, 1908–1935 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1936), 121; John T. Clark, “When the Negro Resident Organizes,” Opportunity, June 1934, 168.

18. Katherine Johnson, “Can the Southside Be Cleaned Up for the World’s Fair?” Washington Intercollegiate Club, The Negro in Chicago, vol. 2, 60–61; Carroll Binder, Chicago and the New Negro: How the City Absorbed the Huge Post-war Migration from the South, and What Economic, Social and Civic Changes Were Wrought Thereby (Chicago: Chicago Daily News, 1927), 24.

19. H. L. Harris Jr., “Negro Mortality Rates in Chicago,” Social Science Review 1 (March 1927): 58–60; William M. Tuttle Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 164.

20. Roi Ottley, The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1955), 295–97.

21. David McBride, From TB to AIDS: Epidemics among Urban Blacks since 1900 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991), 36–37.

22. L. B. Anderson, “Facts to Show We Came Here First and Are Here to Stay,” Chicago Defender, February 7, 1920, 20.

23. Ottley, Lonely Warrior, 295–97. In 1921 the death rate for blacks in Illinois was 18.1 per 1,000; by contrast, black mortality rates in Mississippi and Louisiana were 13.5 and 13.9. McBride, From TB to AIDS, 36.

24. Langston Hughes, The Big Sea (New York: Knopf, 1945), 33.

25. Walter Reckless, Vice in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933), 3–5; Chicago Commission on Human Relations (CCRR), The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 343.

26. Chicago Defender, “To Indict in Vice Probe: Special Jury Quiz to Hit South Side: Find Politicians Got Huge Sum,” September 15, 1928, 1; Carl Sandburg, The Chicago Race Riots (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1919), 59–61; Joseph Spillane, “The Making of an Underground Market: Drug Selling in Chicago, 1900–1940,” Journal of Social History (Fall 1998): 27–28.

27. Sophonisba Breckinridge, “The Color Line in the Housing Problem,” Survey, February 1, 1913, 575–76.

28. Ottley, New World a-Coming, 158.

29. Bricktop with James Haskins, Bricktop (New York: Atheneum, 1983), 8.

30. Bricktop, Bricktop, 57.

31. Sylvester Russell, “Mayor Thompson’s Reform Policy: The Mayor’s Actions in Dealing with Vice Seems to Be Wrought with Astounding Inconsistency,” Indianapolis Freeman, April 1, 1916, 1; Ben Hecht, A Child of the Century (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954), 181.

32. For examples of African Americans using the cultural sphere of Chicago for self-expression, including vice spots, see Davarian L. Baldwin, Chicago’s New Negroes: Modernity, the Great Migration, and Black Urban Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 115, 165.

33. Broad Ax, “Begins New Vice War,” September 11, 1909, 2; G. W. Lambert of the Property Owners Improvement Association letter to the Chicago Chief of Police, June 25, 1935, quoted in Lewis A. H. Caldwell, “The Policy Game in Chicago,” Unpublished MA Thesis, Northwestern University, 1940, 73, 79.

34. Chicago Whip, “Under the Lash of the Whip,” August 5, 1922, 8.

35. Indianapolis Freeman, “The ‘Red Light’ Rumor: Chicago Colored Citizens Alarmed over the Social Evil Coming into Their Residence District,” March 11, 1916, 1; Chicago Whip, “Find ‘Buffet Flats’ Near Best Homes,” August 26, 1922, 1; Johnson, “Can the Southside Be Cleaned Up for the World’s Fair?” 65; W. Lloyd Warner, Buford H. Junker, and Walter A. Adams, Color and Human Nature: Negro Personality Development in a Northern City (Washington, DC: American Council on Education, 1941), 45, 110–11.

36. The Vice Commission of Chicago, The Social Evil in Chicago: A Study of Existing Conditions (Chicago: Gunthorp-Warren Printing, 1911), 38–39, 239; Reckless, Vice in Chicago, 86–87.

37. Paul G. Cressey, The Taxi-Dance Hall: A Sociological Study in Commercialized Recreation and City Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), 44; Richard R. Wright Jr., 87 Years behind the Black Curtain: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: Rare Book Company, 1965), 104–5; Chicago Tribune, “Black and Tan Vice,” December 1, 1921, 8; Edward E. Wilson, “The Responsibility for Crime,” Opportunity, March 1929, 95–97; Reckless, 25–29.

38. Chicago Tribune, “Black and Tan Vice Wide Open in Old Levee: South Side Police Captains Face Investigation Following Raids,” August 25, 1917, 13.

39. Chicago Defender, “Chicago’s Underworld Shaken by Vice Probe” August 25, 1928, 1.

40. Chicago Defender, “Uplifters Use Smoked Glasses to View Vice: Thrasher and the So-Called ‘Clean-Up’ Committee Still Show Rank Prejudice,” June 10, 1922, 2; Kevin J. Mumford, Interzones: Black/White Sex Districts in Chicago and New York in the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 180.

41. Chicago Whip, “Under the Lash of the Whip,” December 3, 1921, 8; Chicago Whip, “Nab ‘Black and Tan’ Lovers,” December 24, 1921, 1; Chicago Whip, “Under the Lash of the Whip,” July 8, 1922, 8; Chicago Whip, “Underworld Color Line Laid Bare,” December 2, 1922, 1; Chicago Whip, “Under the Lash of the Whip,” July 8, 1922, 8.

42. Chicago Whip, “Vice May Cause More Riots,” December 23, 1922, 1; Chicago Defender, “Chicago’s Underworld Shaken by Vice Probe,” August 25, 1928, 1.

43. Abbott, Tenements of Chicago, 325; Johnson, “Can the Southside Be Cleaned Up for the World’s Fair?” 61; Clarence Cunningham and Bertram Moss, “Commission on Intercommunity Relationship and Hyde Park–Kenwood Council of Churches and Synagogues,” 21–22, January 24, 1940, Metropolitan Housing and Planning Commission Papers (MHPC), Accession 74-20, Box 16 (supplement II), Folder 184, Daley Library, University of Illinois at Chicago; Binder, Chicago and the New Negro, 16–17.

44. Chicago Whip, “Church of God next to Vice Den,” July 22, 1922, 1; Chicago Whip, “Find Vice Den near YWCA Home for Girls,” August 5, 1922, 1; Chicago Whip, “Vice Is a Menace to Morals of Children,” December 2, 1922, 1; Chicago Whip, “Orientals Easy Prey to Ropers,” August 12, 1922, 1; William Hall Thomas, “Prostitutes Operate on Indiana Ave.,” Chicago Whip, July 29, 1922, 3; Raymond Lee Gibbs, “The Life Cycle of Oakland Community,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1937, 179–83; Robert Taylor, “Effect of the Depression on Tenants of Michigan Blvd. Garden Apartments,” 1935, EWB, Box 134, Folder 1; Raymond De Orro, “Why Not Clean Up This Vice?” Chicago Defender, October 12, 1935, 16.

45. Ethel R. Harris, “A Study of Voluntary Social Activity among the Professional Negroes in Chicago,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1937, 13–14; Warner, Junker, and Adams, Color and Human Nature, 121; St. Clair Drake, “Churches and Voluntary Associations in the Chicago Negro Community: Report of the Official Project 465-54-386 conducted under the auspices of the Work Projects Administration,” (Chicago: Work Projects Administration, 1940), 190, 207.

46. “Sermon of S. E. J. Watson, Pilgrim Baptist Church,” Mar. 12, 1922, Robert E. Park Papers (REP), Box 2, Folder 5, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago; Vattel Elbert Daniel, “Ritual in Chicago’s South Side Churches of Negroes,” Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1940, 80.

47. Chicago Defender, “Worthless People,” July 10, 1915, 8; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 158, 164–65; St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1945), 658; Southside Community Committee, Bright Shadows in Bronzetown: The Story of the Southside Community Committee (Chicago: 1949), 31–32; Warner, Junker, and Adams, 145, 199–200. Strong’s research on pimps found a gender divide, as only one of thirty-eight women interviewed deemed the figure as a credit to the race, while twelve of thirty-nine men believed it was a credible occupation. Samuel Strong, “Social Types in the Negro Community of Chicago: An Example of the Social Type Method,” Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1940, 250–51.

48. Dempsey J. Travis, An Autobiography of Black Chicago (Chicago, Urban Research Institute, 1987), 43–44; Enoch P. Waters, American Diary: A Personal History of the Black Press (Chicago: Path Press, 1987), 166–67. For other examples of visible prostitution in residential areas of the Black Belt, see E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), 100–101; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 656–57.

49. Harold F. Gosnell, Negro Politicians: The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935), 115, 119; Reckless, 192. Chicago Bee quoted in Binder, 16–17.

50. Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 189.

51. Hylan Garnet Lewis, “Social Differentiation in the Negro Community,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1936, 131.

52. Warner, Junker, and Adams, 34; Waters, American Diary, 71; Drake and Cayton, 516; Daniel, “Ritual in Chicago’s South Side Churches of Negroes,” 99–100; Lewis, “Social Differentiation in the Negro Community,” 77; Carter G. Woodson, The Negro Professional Man and the Community (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969 [1934]), xi; Harris, “A Study of Voluntary Social Activity among the Professional Negroes in Chicago,” 7, 17–18, 21–22; “The History of Good Shepherd Congregational Church, Chicago,” June 18, 1941, IWP, Box 5, Folder 18.

53. Fannie Barrier Williams, “Social Bonds in the ‘Black Belt’ of Chicago,” in The New Woman of Color: The Collected Writings of Fannie Barrier Williams, 1893–1918, Mary Jo Deegan, ed. (DeKalb: Northern Illinois Press, 2002), 118.

54. Touré F. Reed, Not Alms but Opportunity: The Urban League and the Politics of Racial Uplift (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 31.

55. Warner, Junker, and Adams, 168.

56. Southside Community Committee, Bright Shadows in Bronzetown, 29; Harold Gibbard, “The Status Factor in Residential Succession,” American Journal of Sociology 46, no. 6 (May 1941): 838; Charles S. Johnson, The Negro in American Civilization (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1930), 199.

57. Frank Marshall Davis, Livin’ the Blues: Memoirs of a Black Journalist and Poet (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 133.

58. Broad Ax, “Afro-Americans, Including Many Members of the Sporting Element,” September 4, 1909, 1; Chicago Defender, “East of State Street,” May 30, 1914, 8.

59. Walter Farmer, “An Open Letter to a Republican Municipal Judge,” Broad Ax, September 18, 1909, 2; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 173–74.

60. “Houses,” IWP, Box 37, Folder 3; T. J. Woofter Jr., Negro Problems in Cities (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1928), 107–8, 163; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 138; Washington Intercollegiate Club of Chicago, The Negro in Chicago, vol. 1 (Chicago: 1927), 229. Frazier reported that in 1920 there were 1,912 black homeowners in Chicago, 7.4 percent of the black population. Frazier, Negro Family in Chicago, 73.

61. Evelyn M. Kitagawa and Karl E. Taeuber, eds., Local Community Fact Book: Chicago Metropolitan Area, 1960 (Chicago: City of Chicago, 1963), 164.

62. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 107, 137–38; “Morgan Park and Its Changes,” IWP, Box 37, Folder 24; The Chicago Plan Commission, Forty-Four Cities in the City of Chicago, (Chicago: 1942), 76–77.

63. Chicago Tribune, “Police to Guard Flats; Rented to Negroes?” July 20, 1917, 1; Chicago Tribune, “Negroes Help Morgan Park to Calm Itself,” July 21, 1917, 13; Chicago Tribune, “City Takes Hand In Morgan Park ‘Negro Invasion,’” July 22, 1917, 13; Chicago Tribune, “Negro Owner of Flat House to ‘War’ Back,” July 27, 1917, 3; Chicago Tribune, “Court Blocks Morgan Park Negro Invasion: Injunction to Halt Move until Improvements Are Put In,” August 2, 1917, 9; Davis, Livin’ the Blues, 114–15. Resakes was identified as a “Greek” by both the Tribune and the Defender.

64. Chicago Defender, “Mrs. Ray Proves Traitor in Morgan Park Trouble,” July 28, 1917, 5.

65. Following the Chicago School’s theory of radial expansion, Frazier divided the Black Belt into seven zones with varying class compositions. Frazier, Negro Family in Chicago, 100–107. See also CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 155; Drake and Cayton, 382, 604–5.

66. National Committee on Negro Housing, “The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing,” July 1931, IMG, Box 1, Folder 10.

67. Chicago Defender, “East of State Street,” May 30, 1914, 8; Broad Ax, “Afro-Americans, Including Many Members of the Sporting Element,” September 4, 1909, 1.

68. Frazier, Negro Family in Chicago, 111–12; Drake, “Churches and Voluntary Associations in the Chicago Negro Community,” 276.

69. Christopher Van Buren, “Interview with Hattie E. Lawrence,” July 27, 1937, IWP, Box 32, Folder 2; Mahalia Jackson with Evan McLeod Wylie, Movin’ On Up, (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1966), 47; National Committee on Negro Housing, “The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing,” July 1931, IMG, Box 1, Folder 10; “Notes on the Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments, from Rosenwald annual reports, 1935, 1937,” Nov. 14, 1940, to Dec. 6, 1940, IWP, Box 37, Folder 27.

70. Broad Ax, “Some Afro-Americans Residing in the 37th Street Block on Forest Avenue,” September 18, 1909, 1; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 19, 186–88; Mrs. M. W. Newman, “Trouble Makers,” Half-Century Magazine, June 1920, 17; Southside Community Committee, 65.

71. Chicago Daily News, “How Some Blocks Keep Blight Away,” July 13, 1953.

72. Chicago Defender, “Defender to Give Prizes for Best Kept Lawns,” June 4, 1921, 8; Mrs. George H. Graham, “Editor’s Mail,” Chicago Defender, May 14, 1921, 16; Half-Century Magazine, “Here and There,” September–October 1924, 6; Rebecca Stiles Taylor, “Federated Clubs: Block Organizations Are Becoming Popular,” Chicago Defender, June 5, 1948, 7.

73. Chicago Defender, “Defender to Give Prizes for Best Kept Lawns,” June 4, 1921, 8; Chicago Defender, “Neighborhood Improvement,” January 17, 1920, 12.

74. Arthur Evans, “Housing Still Chief Problem of Negro Here: Little Done to Meet Rise in Population,” Chicago Tribune, August 25, 1924, 3; Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 197–98, 206–9.

75. Chicago Defender, “Neighborhood Pride,” September 29, 1923, 12; Drake and Cayton, 663–64.

76. Chicago Defender, “Citizens Head World in Business,” May 3, 1930, 10; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 155, 158, 164–65; National Committee on Negro Housing, “The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing,” July 1931, IMG, Box 1, Folder 10. In 1920, 29.8 percent of blacks in Woodlawn and 25 percent of blacks in Englewood owned their homes, compared to zero homeowners in the northernmost zone of the Black Belt. Frazier, Negro Family in Chicago, 127, 135, fn1.

77. Half-Century Magazine, “Stagnation,” November–December 1923, 6; Alice Quan Rood, “Study of Social Conditions among the Negroes on Federal Street between Forty-Fifth Street and Fifty-Third Street,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1924, 50; Abbott, 118; Chicago Defender, “The Negro in Chicago,” July 24, 1943, 14; George Nesbitt, “Break Up the Black Ghetto?” The Crisis, February 1949, 48; Oscar DePriest, “Today’s Negroes Have No Guts,” Negro Digest, March 1950, 87.

78. Inter-Ocean, “Landlords Seek to Eject Woman,” September 28, 1894, 1; Chicago Record, “Race War Campaign Planned,” May 5, 1897; Inter-Ocean, “Woodlawn Wages War on Negroes,” February 12, 1902, 2; Inter-Ocean, “Would Bar Colored Family,” July 25, 1902, 1; Inter-Ocean, “Refuse Negro Club Home,” December 15, 1904, 1.

79. J. Saunders Redding, No Day of Triumph (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1942), 17.

80. Gibbard, “The Status Factor in Residential Succession,” 837–38; Chicago Defender, “‘Black Belts’ Cause Chicago’s Bank Failures,” August 23, 1930, 13; National Committee on Negro Housing, “The Physical Aspect of Negro Housing,” July 1931, IMG, Box 1, Folder 10.

81. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 124; Rose Helper, Racial Policies and Practices of Real Estate Brokers (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1969), 78, 156.

82. Chicago Defender, “Bomb Wrecks Nurses’ Home: Assassin Plants Dynamite in Doorway while Girls Sleep,” April 30, 1921, 1.

83. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 126.

84. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 122–27; Half-Century Magazine, “That Bombing Crusade against Colored People,” May 1919, 1, 16; Chicago Defender, “27 Bombings Hit Chicago Negro Homes: Local Police Flayed for Failure to Act in Reign of Terror,” July 6, 1946, 1, 6; “Community Forum Meeting on Trumbull Park,” May 23, 1954, IMG, Box 4, Folder 1; Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 69–72; Lawrence Rieser, “An Analysis of the Reporting of Racial Incidents in Chicago, 1945 to 1950,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1951, 48–51, 64, 77; Chicago Council Against Racial and Religious Discrimination, “Attacks on the Person and Property of Negroes Moving into So-Called ‘White’ Communities in Chicago during 1948,” IMG, Box 2, Folder 8.

85. Irene McCoy Gaines note, [1931?], IMG, Box 1, Folder 10.

86. Broad Ax, “Object to Race Segregation,” September 25, 1909, 2; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 3, 34; Chicago Tribune, “Two Bombs Smash Homes of Negroes,” March 20, 1919, 1; Chicago Defender, “Bomb Wrecks Nurses’ Home: Assassin Plants Dynamite in Doorway while Girls Sleep,” April 30, 1921, 1; Binder, 3; DePriest quoted in Gosnell, Negro Politicians, 177, 193.

87. L. B. Anderson, “Facts to Show We Came Here First and Are Here to Stay,” Chicago Defender, February 7, 1920, 20.

88. Mary McDowell, “Hovels or Homes,” Opportunity, March 1929, 74–77, 100.

89. J. S. Brookins, “Voice of the People: Negro Reaction to Evanstonian Objection,” Chicago Tribune, March 1, 1923, 8.

90. Chicago Defender, “Meet to Halt Evils of Kenwood Rebels,” January 31, 1920, 16; Harris Gaines state senate campaign brochure, 1922, IMG, Box 1, Folder 6; Warner, Junker, and Adams, 199–200; Otis Dudley Duncan and Beverly Duncan, The Negro Population of Chicago: A Study of Residential Succession (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), 106; Chicago Defender, “Launch Drive to Halt Segregation: Thousands to Gather at 8th Armory and Formulate Plans of Operation,” February 7, 1920, 1; Woofter, Negro Problems in Cities, 73; Charles Duke, The Housing Situation and the Colored People of Chicago (Chicago, 1919), 16.

91. Interview with A. L. Scott of Lincoln Memorial Congregational Church [1929?], EWB, Box 135, Folder 1.

92. Robert J. Blakely with Marcus Shepard, Earl B. Dickerson: A Voice for Freedom and Equality (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 104; Clement E. Vose, Caucasians Only: The Supreme Court, the NAACP, and the Restrictive Covenant Cases (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959), 55.

93. Chicago Defender, “Race Mobilizes to Fight for Its Rights,” January 17, 1920, 13; Chicago Defender, “Protective Circle on Path of Hyde Parkers,” March 6, 1920, 17.

94. Jane Jones, “Links in the Chain,” Half-Century Magazine, July–August 1923, 4.

95. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Challenge of Detroit,” The Crisis, November 1925, 7–10; The Crisis, “The Hansberrys of Chicago: They Join Business Acumen with Social Vision,” April 1941, 106–7; Oscar DePriest, “Today’s Negroes Have No Guts,” Negro Digest, March 1950, 84–88.

96. David Lilienthal, “Has the Negro the Right to Self-Defense?” The Nation, December 23, 1925, 724–25; Lenore Mummy and Dorothy Phillips, “A Dream Come True,” Negro Digest, May 1944, 55.

97. Egbert Schietinger, “Real Estate Transfers during Negro Invasion: A Case Study,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1948, 27–29.

98. Rudolph Fisher, The Walls of Jericho (New York: Knopf, 1928), 37, 41.

99. Chicago Tribune, “Lawyer Warns Negroes Here to Arm Selves: Former Prosecutor Sees Danger of Riots in Chicago,” July 4, 1917, 2; Sundiata Cha-Jua, “‘A Warlike Demonstration’: Legalism, Violent Self-help and Electoral Politics, in Decatur, Illinois, 1894–1898,” Journal of Urban History 26 (July 2000): 591–629; Mark Robert Schneider, “We Return Fighting”: The Civil Rights Movement in the Jazz Age (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2002), 7, 27–28; Sterling D. Spero and Abram L. Harris, The Black Worker: The Negro and the Labor Movement, (New York: Atheneum, 1968 [1931]), 386.

100. Chicago Defender, “Robey Street Mob Slays Innocent Man: Charles Jackson Meets Death at Hands of White Hoodlums,” July 5, 1919, 1.

101. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 46–47.

102. Half-Century Magazine, “Race Riots in Chicago,” September 1919, 18; Joseph Dalton, “Drowning Those Returning South,” G. T., “Giving a Punch for a Punch,” and Ethan Jackson, “Thrilling the South,” Half-Century Magazine, October 1919, 21.

103. Chicago Tribune, “Angry Negroes Blast Harmony in Housing Plan: Bolt Meeting at Realty Board with Threats of ‘Fight,’” April 17, 1917, 12; Chicago Daily News, “Turns Away Protestors,” June 4, 1919, 2; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 130; Chicago Tribune, “Hyde Parkers Meet Negroes on Home Plan: Parley Holds Hope of Settling the Trouble,” October 25, 1919, 1.

104. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 481.

105. Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2004), 25–26.

106. Katherine Dunham, A Touch of Innocence (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1959), 15–16.

107. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 127–28.

108. Lorraine Hansberry, To Be Young, Gifted, and Black (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), 20–21.

109. Leon Forrest, The Furious Voice for Freedom: Essays on Life (Wakefield, RI: Asphodel Press, 1994), 55–60, 115, Arnold Shankman, Ambivalent Friends: Afro-Americans View the Immigrant (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 50; Louise Venable Kennedy, The Negro Peasant Turns Cityward (New York: Columbia University Press, 1930), 218–19; Alden Bland, Behold a Cry, 185.

110. Drake and Cayton, 57; Chicago Defender, “No Niggers Live in This Section,” May 29, 1926, A2.

111. Raymond Jenkins, “Would Urge Education,” Half-Century Magazine, December 1920, 17. For other examples of this sentiment, see Half-Century Magazine, “Here and There,” July–August 1924, 6; Harriette Hall, “Says Negroes’ Problem Is Economic Not Social,” Chicago Defender, November 17, 1945, 14.

112. L. Hollingsworth Wood, “Some Happy Results of Race Contacts,” Opportunity, June 1924, 185–86. See also letter from Stanley B. Norvell to Victor Lawson, Aug. 22, 1919, 4, JRP, Box 6, Folder 3; Raymond Jenkins, “Would Urge Education,” Half-Century Magazine, December 1920, 17; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 495–97.

113. CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 127–28. For more evidence of middle-class whites hiring “thugs” to enforce the color line when more “polite” methods failed, see Chicago Tribune, “Race War Fades—Flares Up Again,” May 4, 1915; Chicago Defender, “Hunt for DePriest Bombers,” April 9, 1921, 1.

114. Broad Ax, “The Hyde Park Improvement Protective Club at Its Annual Meeting,” September 18, 1909, 1; Chicago Defender, “Bomb Goes Off after Whites Meet,” October 16, 1920, 12; CCRR, Negro in Chicago, 116–22; Chicago Defender, “Launch Drive to Halt Segregation: Thousands to Gather at 8th Armory and Formulate Plans of Operation,” February 7, 1920, 1; Postcard dated July 6, 1944, from Hyde Park–Kenwood Association to Irene McCoy Gaines, IMG, Box 2, Folder 3.

115. Broad Ax, “The White Residents of Kenwood, Hyde Park and Woodlawn Are Up in Arms,” August 28, 1909, 1; Chicago Defender, “Bomb Goes Off after Whites Meet,” October 16, 1920, 12. For more on the rhetorical strategy of publicly questioning white “civilization,” see Gail Bederman, Manliness & Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), ch. 2.

116. Chicago Defender, “Battle of the Ghettos,” August 4, 1945, 12.

117. Waters, American Diary, 27; Seligman, Block by Block, 79–82; Irving Cutler, The Jews of Chicago: From Shtetl to Suburb (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 231–33. As Gerald Gamm shows, Jews in the urban North fled black incursions earlier, faster, and more thoroughly than white Catholics, but did not attack their black neighbors. Gamm, Urban Exodus, 8–13.

118. Lawrence Ward, “America’s Leading Soya Bean Expert,” Opportunity, March 1941, 68–71; Time, “The New Neighbor,” December 4, 1950, 18–19.

119. Drake and Cayton, 738–39, 763; Christopher Robert Reed, The Chicago NAACP and the Rise of Black Professional Leadership, 1910–1966 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 146; Letter from United States delegation to the United Nations to the Chicago Council of Negro Organizations, June 7, 1945, IMG, Box 2, Folder 4; Travis, An Autobiography of Black Politics, 303–5.

120. Robert Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948), 78–81.

121. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Freund, Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America; Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); Kevin Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); Josh Sides, L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Jason Sokol, All Eyes Are upon Us: Race and Politics from Boston to Brooklyn (New York: Basic Books, 2014).

122. Weaver, Negro Ghetto, 87; Hirsch, 4–5; Chicago Daily News, “Growing Negro Districts Need Housing,” February 1, 1949.

123. Chicago Council Against Racial and Religious Discrimination, “Against Discrimination,” 3, no. 1 (August 3, 1946), MHPC, Accession 74-20, Box 16 (supp. II), Folder 185.

124. Hirsch, 54–55, 74–75; Homer Jack, “Chicago’s Violent Armistice,” The Nation (December 10, 1949), 571–72.

125. Chicago Defender, “Julians Overcome Hostile Neighbors,” October 21, 1950, 1; Chicago Tribune, “Vandals Fail in Plot to Burn Dr. Julian Home,” November 23, 1950, 7; Chicago Defender, “Guard Dr. Julian’s Home: Chicagoan of the Year's House Target of Vandals,” December 2, 1950, 1; New York Times, “Arson Fails at Home of a Negro Scientist,” November 23, 1950, 29. For the demographic composition of postwar riots in Chicago, see Hirsch, 84–85.

126. New York Times, “Negro’s Suburban Home Bombed,” June 14, 1951, 20; Chicago Defender, “Dr. Julian Target of New Attack,” June 23, 1951, 4; Chicago Defender, “Say FBI May Probe Threat against Julian,” July 7, 1951, 12.

127. Chicago Defender, “Guard Dr. Julian’s Home: Chicagoan of the Year's House Target of Vandals,” December 2, 1950, 1.

128. Time, “The New Neighbor,” December 4, 1950, 18–19; Felicia Lee, “Reclaiming a Black Research Scientist’s Forgotten Legacy,” New York Times, February 6, 2007, E1; Carl Rowan, “Why Negroes Move to White Neighborhoods,” Ebony, August 1958, 17–22.

129. Confidential Memo from James Cassels, August 5, 1952, American Friends Service Committee Papers (AFSC), Box 88, Folder 9, Daley Library, University of Illinois at Chicago.

130. Ernestine Cofield, “Oak Park Fought Battle for Percy Julian Family,” Chicago Defender, October 8, 1962, 9.

131. Confidential Memo from James Cassels, August 7, 1952, AFSC, Box 88, Folder 9. Despite the violent incidents that marred the Julians’ and subsequent black moves into Oak Park, the suburb gradually earned a reputation as relatively tolerant. Indeed, some liberal whites expressed indignation at the violent events, and some even offered to guard the Julian home themselves. The city set up a human relations commission and labored greatly to maintain a fragile racial balance. See Betty Jane Merrill, “Oak Park Board Orders Probe in New Bus Route,” Chicago Tribune, December 3, 1950, W8; Albert Barnett, “Brotherhood—Effective Antidote to the Virus of Jim Crow,” Chicago Defender, July 14, 1951, 7; Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 240.

132. Chicago Tribune, “An Outrage,” June 14, 1951, 12.

133. Time, “Ugly Nights in Cicero,” July 23, 1951, 10–11; Charles Abrams, “The Time Bomb That Exploded in Cicero,” Commentary, November 1951, 407–14; Walter White, “This Is Cicero,” The Crisis, August–September 1951: 436; Homer Jack, “Cicero Nightmare,” The Nation, July 28, 1951, 64–65; Ernestine Cofield, “Oak Park Fought Battle for Percy Julian Family,” Chicago Defender, October 8, 1962, 9.

134. Chicago Defender, “Bar Julian from Chicago Club: Retract Bid to Union League Fete,” July 28, 1951, 11.

135. Langston Hughes, “Do Big Negroes Keep Little Negroes Down?” Negro Digest, November 1951, 79, 82; E. Franklin Frazier, “Some Aspects of Negro Business,” Opportunity, October 1924, 293–97.

136. Chicago Daily News, “Negroes Tell Race Struggle in Oak Park,” July 19, 1958; Carl Rowan, “Why Negroes Move to White Neighborhoods,” Ebony, August 1958, 17–18; James Q. Wilson, Negro Politics: The Search for Leadership (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1960), 198–99. For Percy Julian’s leadership roles in the black community, see, e.g., Chicago Defender, “Julian Hits Silence on Race Crime,” April 24, 1958, 27; Austin Wehrwein, “Biracial Unit Set Up in Chicago with 2 U.S. Judges as Members,” New York Times, July 26, 1963, 12.

137. James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 271.

138. “Significant presence” is defined here as more than one hundred black residents in the census tract. Data derived from the National Historical Geographic Information System. NHGIS.org, accessed May 16, 2013.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

1. Chicago Tribune, “Profile: Chatham,” June 7, 1998.

2. Mae Gregory, Chatham 1856–1987: A Community of Excellence (Chicago: Chicago Public Library, 1989), 26–28.

3. Chicago Tribune, “Profile: Chatham,” June 7, 1998.

4. Stephen Grant Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighborhoods (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2000); Amanda Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Eileen M. McMahon, What Parish Are You From? A Chicago Irish Community and Race Relations (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995); Gerald Gamm, Urban Exodus: Why the Jews Left Boston and the Catholics Stayed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).

5. Chicago Daily News, “A Neighborhood Can Integrate—And Peaceably: Honor Jew, Catholic, Protestant for Chatham–Avalon Pk. Work,” February 19, 1959; Chicago Tribune, “Biracial Unit Wins a Battle: Year’s Fight to Stop Blight Is Success,” October 6, 1960, 1; Chicago Daily News, “It Resisted the Irresistible and Won,” July 21, 1962; Chicago Tribune, “North Avalon Plans Model for Integration of Races,” September 22, 1963, S1. For an example of this outside of Chicago, see James E. Cebula, “Creating a Multiracial Community in Post–World War II Cincinnati,” Ohio Valley History 7, no. 3 (Fall 2007): 32–48.

6. Rev. James Walsh, address to inaugural Southeast Community Organization Congress, October 6, 1960, Thomas A. Gaudette Papers (TAG), Box 2, Folder 1, Von der Ahe Library, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles.

7. Chicago Daily News, “A Middle-Class Problem,” August 24, 1963.

8. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1954).

9. James W. Prothro and Charles W. Grigg, “Fundamental Principles of Democracy,” Journal of Politics 22 (Spring 1960): 276–94; G. H. Smith, “Liberalism and Level of Information,” Journal of Educational Psychology 39 (1948): 65–82; James G. Martin and Frank R. Westie, “The Tolerant Personality,” American Sociological Review 24 (August 1959): 521–28; Samuel Stouffer, Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties: A Cross-Section of the Nation Speaks Its Mind (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1955), 89–105.

10. Robin Williams, “Racial and Cultural Relations,” in Review of Sociology: Analysis of a Decade, Joseph B. Gittler, ed. (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1957), 434; Bruno Bettelheim and Morris Janowitz, Social Change and Prejudice, Including Dynamics of Prejudice (New York: Free Press, 1964), 198, 272; Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 371–72; Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit: Wayne University Press, 1952), 86–88; Herbert H. Hyman and Paul B. Sheatsley, “Attitudes toward Desegregation,” Scientific American, December 1956, 39; Mildred A. Schwartz, Trends in White Attitudes toward Negroes (Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, 1967), 54, 119.

11. Confidential Memo from James Cassels [1952?], AFSC, Box 88, Folder 9; Julia Abrahamson, A Neighborhood Finds Itself (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), 299–300.

12. Thomas J. Sugrue, “Jim Crow’s Last Stand: The Struggle to Integrate Levittown,” in Second Suburb: Levittown, Pennsylvania, Dianne Harris, ed. (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2010), 180.

13. Hugh Hough, “9 Years Later: A Look at Trumbull Park,” Chicago Sun-Times, September 30, 1962, 50.

14. Louis Rosen, The South Side: The Racial Transition of an American Neighborhood (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1998), 97, 99–100.

15. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1945), 281–84.

16. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 283.

17. Weaver was the leading exponent of class replacing race as an acceptable basis of community formation. Quote from Robert C. Weaver, “Class, Race and Urban Renewal,” Land Economics, August 1960, 243. See also Robert C. Weaver, “Race Restrictive Housing Covenants,” The Journal of Land & Public Utility Economics XX, no. 3 (August 1944), 183–93, and Robert C. Weaver, “Integration in Public and Private Housing,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 304 (March 1956): 86–97.

18. Selwyn James, “We Refused to Give Up Our Homes,” Redbook, December 1955; Ellsworth Rosen, “When a Negro Moves Next Door,” Saturday Evening Post, April 1959, 32–33, 139–42; Ralph Bass, “Prejudice Won’t Make Us Sell Our House!” Coronet, July 1959, 103–7.

19. Chicago Report, 1957, WBBM (Chicago, 1957), Peabody Awards Collection Archives (PAC), University of Georgia Library, Athens, GA.

20. Thomas Gaudette, “Urban Crisis: Conserving the Community,” New World, May 12, 1961, TAG, Series 1, Box 2, Folder 1. See also Statement of Saul Alinsky, Civil Rights Housing Hearing, Commission on Civil Rights, May 5, 1959, Industrial Areas Foundation Papers (IAF), Folder 34, Daley Library, University of Illinois at Chicago; Robert Colby Nelson, Christian Science Monitor, “Negro Upsurge in Decade Vies for Chicago Housing Locations,” February 18, 1960, 3.

21. Chatham–Avalon Park Community Council, “Community Future Discussed,” Hi, Neighbor, May 1956, TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 2.

22. Chatham Village as Mutual Ownership Organization, Dec. 14, 1959, John Egan Papers (CJEG), Box 24, Hesburgh Library, Notre Dame University, South Bend, IN.

23. Chicago Commission on Human Relations, “Chatham Apartment Project Tries Open Occupancy,” Human Relations News of Chicago 2:2, May 1960, AFSC, Box 94, Folder 5.

24. Sterling D. Spero and Abram L. Harris, The Black Worker: The Negro and the Labor Movement (New York: Atheneum, 1968 [1931]), 386; Herman H. Long and Charles S. Johnson, People vs. Property: Race Restrictive Covenants in Housing (Nashville, TN: Fisk University Press, 1947), 73.

25. Rose Helper, Racial Policies and Practices of Real Estate Brokers (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1969), 78.

26. United States Commission on Civil Rights, Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1959), 431.

27. Albert H. Miller, “Negro in the North,” Ave Maria, Jan. 24, 1959, 6, Daniel Cantwell Papers, Box 30, Folder 5, Chicago History Museum.

28. New York State Commission for Human Rights, In Search of Housing: A Study of Experiences of Negro Professional and Technical Personnel in New York State (New York: State of New York, 1965), 42.

29. Preston H. Smith II, Racial Democracy and the Black Metropolis: Housing Policy in Postwar Chicago (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012), 109.

30. Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 129–32.

31. Roi Ottley, “Negro’s Rise Rapid as U.S. Tax Lawyer: C. E. Lomax Now Aids Regional Counsel,” Chicago Tribune, July 30, 1960, 15; Chicago Defender, “Report Banks to Stay in Race for Alderman,” January 19, 1963, 15; Chicago Tribune, “Skyles, Soubretta Powell,” August 18, 2004; Maureen O’Donnell, “Expert on Foodborne Illness,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 16, 2012.

32. Welton Taylor with Karyn Taylor, Two Steps from Glory: A World War II Liaison Pilot Confronts Jim Crow and the Enemy in the South Pacific (Chicago: Winning Strategy Press, 2012), 87–89, 364–65.

33. Confidential Memo from James Cassels, Aug. 19, 1952, AFSC, Box 88, Folder 9; Chicago Report, 1957, WBBM (Chicago, 1957), PAC; Chicago Daily News, “Nasty Bag of Fear Tricks Used to ‘Bust Up’ Blocks,” October 16, 1959; Bulletin, “Taylor Again in Running for Chatham Council Presidency,” June 2, 1960.

34. L. K. Northwood and Ernest A. T. Barth, Urban Desegregation: Negro Pioneers and Their White Neighbors (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1965), 25–29.

35. Terry Sullivan, “How Marynook Meets the Negro,” St. Jude, January 1963, 13.

36. Carl Rowan, “Why Negroes Move to White Neighborhoods,” Ebony, August 1958, 18–19.

37. Marvin Caplan, “The Last White Family on the Block,” Atlantic Monthly, July 1960, 56.

38. Chicago Defender, “Discrimination in Private Housing,” January 13, 1958, 11.

39. Sel Yackley, “Tell Integration Success Stories,” Chicago Tribune, April 2, 1967, Q7; Sel Yackley, “Integration Progresses in Rogers Park,” Chicago Tribune, April 20, 1967, F2.

40. Arna Botemps and Jack Conroy, Anyplace but Here (New York: Hill and Wang, 1966), 326–28.

41. Herman Long and Charles Johnson date the Chatham Improvement Association to 1916, when the area was first developed. The first mention of the Chatham Fields Improvement Association in the Chicago Daily News Almanac and Year-Book came in 1926. Long and Johnson, People vs. Property, 51; Chicago Daily News Almanac and Year-Book for 1927 (Chicago, 1926), 831; Gregory, Chatham 1856–1987, 34; Chicago Defender, “Chatham Paper Blessed by Bigot Patron Saint,” April 28, 1956, 10; Chicago Defender, “Realtor Denied Cafe Service Plans to Sue,” September 13, 1958, 3; Chicago Daily News, “Charge ‘Legit’ Realtors with Scare Tactics, Too,” October 20, 1959.

42. Mahalia Jackson with Evan McLeod Wylie, Movin’ On Up, (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1966), 118.

43. Laurraine Goreau, Just Mahalia, Baby (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1975), 210–12.

44. Jackson, Movin’ On Up, 119–22.

45. Chicago Defender, “Chatham Area Homes Damaged in Race Row,” May 5, 1956, 1–2.

46. Goreau, Just Mahalia, 212.

47. Chicago Defender, “Chatham Paper Blessed by Bigot Patron Saint,” April 28, 1956, 10; Patricia Johnson, Letter to the Editor, Chicago Defender, August 13, 1957, 11; Chicago Defender, “Realtor Denied Cafe Service Plans to Sue,” September 13, 1958, 3; Chicago Defender, “Find Dixie-Style Terror in Englewood,” May 30, 1959, 1–2; Gregory, Chatham 1856–1987, 27.

48. Kermit Eby and June Greenlief, “The Furious and the Godly,” The Christian Century, February 16, 1955, 206; Gregory, Chatham 1856–1987, 27; Eduardo Camacho and Ben Joravsky, Against the Tide: The Middle Class in Chicago (Chicago: Community Renewal Society, 1989), 45–46; Decision at 83rd Street, WBBM (Chicago, 1962), PAC; Terry Sullivan, “How Marynook Meets the Negro,” St. Jude, January 1963, 10; Chicago Commission on Human Rights, “Marynook Works for Stable Interracial Area,” Human Relations News of Chicago 6, no. 4 (July–August 1964), AFSC, Box 94, Folder 5.

49. Philip A. Johnson, Call Me Neighbor, Call Me Friend: The Case History of the Integration of a Neighborhood on Chicago’s South Side (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965), 13; Vincent Giese, Revolution in the City (Notre Dame, IN: Fides Publishers, 1961), 30; Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 59, 88–91.

50. Gregory, Chatham 1856–1987, 26, 65–66; Johnson, Call Me Neighbor, 131–32; A. L. Foster, “Other People’s Business,” Chicago Defender, April 19, 1958, 4.

51. Chicago Tribune, “25 Ministers to Preach on Brotherhood,” February 21, 1954, SW4; Johnson, Call Me Neighbor, 7, 121, 126; Chicago Defender, “22 Made Brotherhood Work in City,” February 21, 1959, 1–2; Rev. Patrick T. Curran “A Report on Our Program and Our Progress in the Negro Convert-Apostolate,” The Catholic Church and the Negro in the Archdiocese of Chicago, Clergy Conference (Chicago: 1960), 9–14, Archdiocese of Chicago’s Joseph Cardinal Bernadin Archives and Records Center (AOC); Chicago Daily News, “Accept Integration, Priest Tells Flock,” November 13, 1961; Rev. Msgr. Harry Koenig, ed., A History of the Parishes of the Archdiocese of Chicago (Chicago: Archdiocese of Chicago, 1980), 259–62.

52. Anthony J. Vader, “Racial Segregation within Catholic Institutions in Chicago: A Study in Behavior and Attitudes,” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Chicago, 1962, 18; Note from Msgr. John Egan to Rev. Hugh Anwyl, July 17, 1963, CJEG, Box 24; Giese, Revolution in the City, 37–39.

53. McMahon, What Parish Are You From? 128.

54. Minutes of Housing Committee Meeting of Catholic Council on Working Life, September 26, 1957, IAF, Folder 81.

55. Chicago Defender, “22 Made Brotherhood Work in City,” February 21, 1959, 1–2.

56. The Church Federation of Greater Chicago, “Churches, Community Life and Community Organizations: A Preliminary Statement of Policy,” March 13, 1962, TAG, Box 1, Folder 1; Stephen Turner, “High on Insubordination,” in The Disobedient Generation, Alan Sica and Stephen Turner, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 288.

57. Rosen, South Side, 94.

58. For examples, see Chicago Tribune, “New ‘Y’ Branch Is Planned for 83rd-Ellis Area: Open Fund Drive Feb. 15; Goal: $82,200,” January 17, 1952, S2; Chicago Tribune, “Dedicate New Park Sunday in West Chatham: Program Ends 5 Year Community Drive,” June 11, 1953, S1; Chicago Tribune, “Inclosing Wall to Mark Design of New Church,” October 10, 1954, 6; Chicago Tribune, “Goldblatt’s to Build New Chatham Unit,” March 15, 1955, B7; South Shore Commission Newsletter, “South Shore Builds!” May 1955, IAF, Folder 388.

59. Chicago Tribune, “Plan Preview at New Jewish Youth Center,” December 12, 1954, S4.

60. Johnson, Call Me Neighbor, 129.

61. Jack E. Budd, “Security A-1 in Importance to Teenagers,” South Side Courier, November 15, 1956, Chatham–Grand Crossing Community Collection, Box 1, Folder 19, Harold Washington Library, Chicago; Peter H. Rossi, Why Families Move: A Study in the Social Psychology of Urban Residential Mobility (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1955), 22, 28.

62. Rosen, South Side, 29, 44.

63. Chicago Tribune, “New Community Group Sets 1st Public Meeting: Chatham–Avalon Pk. Unit to Aid Area,” December 7, 1952, A17; Chicago Commission on Human Relations, “Proceedings of the City-Wide Conference: Solving the Problems of Chicago’s Population Growth,” May 29, 1957, 149–50, IAF, Folder 327.

64. Chatham–Avalon Park Community Council, “What Are We Trying to Do?” Hi Neighbor, May 1956, TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 2.

65. Southeast Economist, “Fight for Civic Group Control,” May 25, 1961; South Side News-Courier, “West Avalon Community Association Election Monday,” June 8, 1961, 1–2, IAF, Folder 436.

66. Chicago Defender, “22 Made Brotherhood Work in City,” February 21, 1959, 1–2; Hillel Black, “This Is War,” Saturday Evening Post, January 25, 1964; Thomas Gaudette Oral History, May 15, 1990, TAG, Series 3, Box 1, Case 4.

67. Thomas Gaudette, Speech to Morgan Park Human Relations Group [1960?], TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 4; Thomas Gaudette Oral History, May 15, 1990, TAG, Series 3, Box 1, Case 1.

68. Gregory, Chatham 1856–1987, 26, 65–66; Johnson, Call Me Neighbor, 131–32; A. L. Foster, “Other People’s Business,” Chicago Defender, April 19, 1958, 4; A. L. Foster, “Other People’s Business,” Chicago Defender, May 17, 1958, 4; Chicago Tribune, “Salem Church Will Hail 90th Year in March,” February 27, 1958, S11; Roi Ottley, “Area Called Negro Showcase: Rate Park Manor, Chatham High,” Chicago Tribune, March 30, 1958, S9.

69. Chicago Defender, “Mahalia Jackson Home on Ed Murrow TV Show,” April 5, 1958, 18.

70. Chicago Tribune, “City Lures Back Some Suburbanites,” January 20, 1957, A9; Hugh Brodkey, “Suburban Living Too High, Family Moves Back to Area,” and Jim Cunningham, “Without Frills or Pressures,” Community Times, December 1958, TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 2.

71. Editors of Fortune, The Exploding Metropolis (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1958), 18.

72. Chicago Report, 1957, WBBM (Chicago, 1957), PAC.

73. Chicago Defender, “Tells Conference about Negroes as Neighbors,” May 4, 1960.

74. Chicago Daily News, “A Middle-Class Problem,” August 24, 1963.

75. Ronald Kotulak, “Chatham Integration Is Successful,” Chicago Tribune, May 15, 1960, SW1.

76. Chicago Daily News, “A Neighborhood Can Integrate—and Peaceably,” February 19, 1959, clipping in CJEG, Box 24; Thomas Gaudette, Address to the Fourth National Community Council Leaders Workshop, Ohio State University, 1959, TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 3; Chicago Tribune, “Urge Oak Pk. to Welcome Integration: Move Lauded by Civic Leaders,” February 20, 1960; Jersey City Journal, “Importance of Urban Renewal Outlined to Students at St. Peter’s,” September 23, 1960, TAG, Series 1, Box 2, Folder 1.

77. Chicago Daily News, “E. Chatham Aim: No Panic in ’60,” January 2, 1960.

78. Bulletin, “Taylor Again in Running for Chatham Council Presidency,” June 2, 1960.

79. “Notes and Comments on Urban League Work in Park Manor,” CUL, Series I, Folder 348; Howard Gould, “Park Manor Folk Move to Organize,” Chicago Defender, September 29, 1958.

80. Nellie Dora, “Community Problems in Chatham,” Chicago Commission on Human Relations, “The Management of Neighborhood Change,” City-Wide Workshop, April 10–12, 1959, 8–10, AFSC, Box 94, Folder 5.

81. Stanley Carson Stevens, “The Urban Racial Border: Chicago, 1960,” Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1972, 110–14; Chicago Daily News, “The Big ‘Change’ in Chatham-Avalon: Middle Class South Side Area Battles for Orderly Integration,” May 8, 1959; Chicago Tribune, “Neighborhood Votes to Join Local Council,” September 25, 1958, S13.

82. Chicago Daily News, “500 Taste Victory in Zoning Fight,” August 21, 1958; “Neighborhood Residents Win Zoning Case,” August 27, 1958, clipping in TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 2; Bulletin, May 10, 1962, clipping in CJEG, Box 38, Folder Park Manor Neighbors; Bulletin, “Attacks Building Attempt,” October 25, 1962, clipping in CJEG, Box 24.

83. Roi Ottley, “Community Group Sparks Drive to Shutter Taverns,” Chicago Tribune, November 2, 1958, SW18; Robert Colby Nelson, “Negro Upsurge in Decade Vies for Chicago Housing Locations,” Christian Science Monitor, February 18, 1960, 3.

84. Nellie Dora, “Community Problems in Chatham,” Chicago Commission on Human Relations, “The Management of Neighborhood Change,” City-Wide Workshop, April 10–12, 1959, 8–10, AFSC, Box 94, Folder 5; Greg Harris, “Quits Chatham Tavern Drive,” Chicago Defender, October 1958, 2; Enoch Waters, “Good Taverns Suffer for Bad as Chatham Area Votes Dry,” Chicago Defender, November 8, 1958; Thomas Gaudette, Speech to Morgan Park Human Relations Group [1960?], TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 4.

85. Editors of Fortune, The Exploding Metropolis (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1958), 98–99.

86. Viviana A. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York: Basic Books, 1985), ch. 2.

87. John L. Rury, “Race, Space and the Politics of Chicago’s Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education,” History of Education Quarterly 39 (Summer 1999): 124–25; U.S. News & World Report, “Why a Big Northern City Faces a Crisis in the Schools,” August 9, 1965, 62. Total enrollment in Chicago public schools increased by 103,609 pupils from 1959 to 1964, or 21 percent. Jan. 4, 1954, letter from Irene McCoy Gaines representing the National Association of Colored Women, writing in “appreciation for the acquisition of Dr. Benjamin Willis as superintendent of schools,” IMG, Box 4, Folder 1.

88. Robert J. Havighurst, The Public Schools of Chicago: A Survey for the Board of Education of the City of Chicago (Chicago: Chicago Board of Education, 1964), 2; The Advisory Panel on Integration of the Public Schools, Report to the Board of Education, City of Chicago (Chicago: 1964), 5.

89. Mary J. Herrick, The Chicago Schools: A Social and Political History (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1971), 305–6; Chicago Tribune, “Big Shortage of Qualified Teachers Told: Willis Puts Number at 1,852,” October 17, 1957, 14; Chicago Tribune, “City’s School Costs Mount to New High,” February 19, 1962, 1.

90. Havighurst, Public Schools of Chicago, 26.

91. John Gibbons Drew, “Why a Jim Crow School in Chicago?” Half-Century Magazine, February 1920, 17; Chicago Defender, “Woodlawn Race Haters Seek to Make District ‘White,’” July 22, 1933, 2; Michael Homel, Down from Equality: Black Chicagoans and the Public Schools, 1920–41 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 150–52, 193–94.

92. Melvin Van Peebles, Bear for the FBI (New York: Trident Press, 1968), 139–40.

93. Carl Rowan, “Why Negroes Move to White Neighborhoods,” Ebony, August 1958, 18–22; Chicago Daily News, “Parents Told: Don’t Fear Negro School: Officials Say Avalon Park Worries Are Premature,” February 15, 1962; Chicago Tribune, “Keep School Integrated, Parents Urge,” February 15, 1962, C4; Drake and Cayton, 281–84; Chicago Defender, “Board Orders Probe of School Bias: Study Will Check Claim of NAACP,” December 14, 1957, 9; Testimony of Rev. Edsel Ammons, Pastor of Ingleside-Whitfield Methodist and President of West Avalon Community Association, to Chicago Board of Education [1962?], IAF, Folder 348.

94. Jack Mabley, “Race, Religion Spark Prep Disorders,” Chicago Daily News, January 28, 1954, 37.

95. Kathryn M. Neckerman, Schools Betrayed: Roots of Failure in Inner-City Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 104.

96. Vincent Giese, Patterns for Teenagers (Notre Dame, IN: Fides Publishers, 1956), 29.

97. Jack Schneider, “Escape from Los Angeles: White Flight from Los Angeles and Its Schools, 1960–1980,” Journal of Urban History 34, no. 6 (September 2008): 1007–8.

98. Chatham–Avalon Park Community Council, Chatham Newsletter, August 20, 1960, TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 4; Terry Sullivan, “How Marynook Meets the Negro,” St. Jude, January 1963, 9; Marcia Lane Vespa, “Chicago’s Regional School Plans,” Integrated Education 1, no. 5 (October–November 1963): 25–26; Chicago Daily News, “City’s Racial Problems in Willis’ Lap,” July 6, 1962.

99. George W. Reed and Stanley Drigot, “Joint Statement on Regional High School District Presented to the Chicago Board of Education Public Hearing on October 16, 1961 by the Chatham–Avalon Park Community Council and the Marynook Homeowners Association,” IAF, Folder 348.

100. Andrew L. Wang, “Stanley Walter Drigot: Sued to Integrate City’s Public Schools,” Chicago Tribune, January 30, 2006.

101. R. J. Havighurst, “Schools and Social Goals,” Hyde Park Herald, November 22, 1961, IAF, Folder 351; The Advisory Panel on Integration of the Public Schools, Report to the Board of Education, 11–12, 29.

102. Norton E. Long, “Education and Metropolitan Change,” in Education in Urban Society, B. J. Chandler, Lindley Stiles, and John Kitsuse, eds. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1962), 85–87.

103. Bulletin, “Homeowners See Willis,” June 7, 1962; Clay Gowran, “Havighurst Cites Need of Gifted Pupils,” Chicago Tribune, November 17, 1964, 5.

104. Decision at 83rd Street, WBBM (Chicago, 1962), PAC; School Integration Newsletter, “A Study of a ‘Ghetto High School’ Part II,” April 1962, Illinois American Civil Liberties Union (IACLU) Papers, Box 14, Folder 7, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago.

105. Decision at 83rd Street, WBBM (Chicago, 1962), PAC.

106. Mary Huff, “Board Places Lid on School Transfer Bid: Marynook Parents Get ‘No’ to Test Plan,” Chicago Tribune, December 23, 1962, SW2; Time, “Cooling It in the Schools,” September 11, 1964, 77; Time, “The Education of Big Ben,” August 30, 1963, 48; Rury, “Race, Space and the Politics of Chicago’s Public Schools,” 126; J. Harvie Wilkinson III, From Brown to Bakke: The Supreme Court and School Integration, 1954–1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 172–73.

107. The Advisory Panel on Integration of the Public Schools, Report to the Board of Education, 11–12.

108. Marcia Lane Vespa, “Chicago’s Regional School Plans,” Integrated Education 1, no. 5 (October–November 1963): 24.

109. New Crusader, “Our Opinion: School Supt. Willis Vs. Negroes,” November 18, 1961, 4; Chicago Daily News, “City’s Racial Problems in Willis’ Lap,” July 6, 1962; Herrick, Chicago Schools, 333–34, 337.

110. Dorothy Shipps, School Reform, Corporate Style, 1880–2000 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006), 67.

111. Charles and Bonnie Remsberg, “Legacy of an Ice Age,” in America’s Troubles: A Casebook on Social Conflict, Howard E. Freeman and Norman R. Kurtz, eds. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), 100.

112. Chicago Tribune, “Unfair Criticism of Our Schools,” December 16, 1961, 16; Chicago American, “Emotional Confusion,” December 1961, 11; Chicago Daily News, “Pressures on the Schools,” September 30, 1961; Helen Fleming, “Cleric Chides Foes of Half-Day Class: Charges Parents View School as Educational Baby-Sitter,” Chicago Daily News, September 19, 1961; Letter from Peter R. Scalise, president of the Joint Civic Committee of Italian Americans supporting Willis and the Board of Education, Chicago Tribune, January 5, 1962, 12; Southeast Economist, “Willis Gets Support of P-T-A Group,” April 1, 1962; Chicago Defender, “Mrs. Green Supports Willis,” April 9, 1962.

113. Philip Hauser quoted in Robert B. McKersie, A Decisive Decade: An Insider’s View of the Chicago Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013), 71.

114. Chicago Sun-Times, “Integration Is Peaceful in Dallas,” September 7, 1961, 3, 6.

115. CAPCC, CORE, SNCC, “Educate Our Children Now! Our Children Are Being Shortchanged” [1959?], Cantwell Papers, Box 31, Folder 4; Dan Burley, “NAACP Misses Boat; Parents Take Over School Bias Suit,” New Crusader, September 23, 1961, 1; Southeast Economist, “Lawyer Is Retained in School Test,” September 17, 1961; Alan B. Anderson and George W. Pickering, Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in Chicago (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 80–81. The Taylor v. New Rochelle Board of Education (1960) decision ruled that de facto segregation was unconstitutional and that public schools must take affirmative steps to integrate their student bodies.

116. Bulletin, “Burnside Area Fears Crowded Classrooms; Sets Local Meeting,” December 6, 1962; Chicago Defender, “Call Mass Meeting over School Bias Deal,” December 11, 1962, 7.

117. Chicago Daily News, “Renew School Sit-In with 16 Clergymen,” January 18, 1962; Chicago Tribune, “Halt Burnside Sit-In Arrests Temporarily,” January 19, 1962, 11; Chicago Sun-Times, January 18, 1962, 30; Chicago Daily News, January 17, 1962, 1, 8; Chicago Tribune, “Free 16, Seize 10 Others in School ‘Sit-In,’” January 18, 1962, 5.

118. Chicago Defender, “Dumb School Principal” January 22, 1962; Chicago Daily News, “School Sit-In Here Is Ended,” January 23, 1962, 11.

119. Anderson and Pickering, Confronting the Color Line, 90.

120. Chicago Daily News, “How School Racial Battle Has Grown,” February 22, 1964, 9.

121. Bulletin, “Whose Government?” May 17, 1962; H. B. Law, “Summer 1963 and the Urban League,” IACLU, Box 7, Folder 7; Frank Y. Ichistita, “A Neighborhood Demonstrates,” in Learning Together: A Book on Integrated Education, Meyer Weinberg, ed. (Chicago: Integrated Education Associates, 1964), 162–66; Chicago Defender, “Parents Picket Slum School; Hold Mass Protest,” January 30, 1962.

122. Sidney Kronus, The Black Middle Class (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing, 1971), 51. See also Donald I. Warren, Black Neighborhoods: An Assessment of Community Power (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975), 99.

123. Seligman, Block by Block, 4, 41, 213–14.

124. Ronald Kotulak, “Negro Defends New Civic Organization,” Chicago Tribune, November 29, 1959; Norris Vitchek as told to Alfred Balk, “Confessions of a Block Buster,” Saturday Evening Post, July 14, 1962, 15–19; W. Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: The Edmondson Village Story (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994); Helper, Racial Policies and Practices of Real Estate Brokers, 91–92.

125. Chicago Daily News, “Hissing Zombies Jangle Nerves of Homeowners,” October 15, 1959; Chicago Daily News, “Nasty Bag of Fear Tricks Used to ‘Bust Up’ Blocks,” October 16, 1959.

126. Chicago Daily News, “The Panic Peddlers,” October 13, 1959; Chicago Daily News, “‘Amateurs’ Like Nick Cash in on Racial Change,” October 17, 1959; Chicago Daily News, “East Chatham Unprepared for Great Racial Change,” October 22, 1959.

127. Chicago Daily News, “The Panic Peddlers,” October 13, 1959.

128. Letter from Thomas Gaudette to Mr. and Mrs. Club, Temple B’Nai Yehuda, March 26, 1960, TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 4; Letter to the editor, “Hits Realty Pressures in Shifting Areas,” Chicago Daily News, February 21, 1958.

129. Harry Swegel, “Burn ‘Blockbuster’ Signs in Chatham,” Chicago Daily News, May 11, 1960.

130. William M. Dobriner, Class in Suburbia (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963), 64–67; Chicago American, “Marynook—the Bright Side of City’s Integration,” August 22, 1965.

131. Southeast Economist, “Asks Strike in Protest over Shift,” January 28, 1962, 14.

132. S. Joseph Fauman, “Housing Discrimination, Changing Neighborhoods, and Public Schools,” Journal of Social Issues 13, no. 4 (1957): 26; The Crisis, “De Facto Segregation in the Chicago Public Schools,” February 1958, 89; John Bartlow Martin, “The Border States Relent,” Saturday Evening Post, July 13, 1957, 56–58; Time, “Civilizing the Blackboard Jungle,” November 15, 1963, 86–92. For “expert” arguments that blacks lacked the same educational capabilities as whites, see Frank J. McGurk, “A Scientist’s Report on Race Differences,” U.S. News & World Report, September 21, 1956, 92–96.

133. Abrahamson, Neighborhood Finds Itself, 281–82; Chicago Daily News, “It Resisted the Irresistible and Won: How Marynook Shattered Race Myths,” July 21, 1962; Author interview with Dr. Fred Malkinson, Jan. 15, 2007; Author interview with Herbert Fisher, Jan. 22, 2008.

134. The Advisory Panel on Integration of the Public Schools, Report to the Board of Education, 12.

135. Alvin E. Winder, “White Attitudes towards Negro-White Interaction in an Area of Changing Racial Composition,” Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1952, 155–57, 162, 167, 181, 186; Vader, “Racial Segregation within Catholic Institutions in Chicago,” 77, 121; Giese, Revolution in the City, 26–27; Marshall Sklare and Joseph Greenblum, Jewish Identity on the Suburban Frontier: A Study of Group Survival in the Open Society (New York: Basic Books, 1967), 278, 309, 317–19.

136. CAPCC and Marynook Homeowners Assn., “Corrective Plan for School and Community Instability,” 1961, CJEG, Box 24; Chicago Daily News, “‘We Can’t Keep Running,’ Chatham Residents Moan,” September 21, 1959. For the fate of clustering plans, see Tracy L. Steffes, “Managing School Integration and White Flight: The Debate over Chicago’s Future in the 1960s,” Journal of Urban History 42, no. 4 (2016): 709–32.

137. Winder, “White Attitudes towards Negro-White Interaction in an Area of Changing Racial Composition” (dissertation), 127, 136, 310; Chicago Daily News, “How Some Realty Dealers Feed on Race Fears Here,” October 13, 1959; Giese, Revolution in the City, 24.

138. Wini Breines, Young, White, and Miserable: Growing Up Female in the Fifties (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), 10–11.

139. Milton M. Gordon, “The Nature of Assimilation” in Human Nature, Class, and Ethnicity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 177.

140. Alvin E. Winder, “White Attitudes towards Negro-White Interaction in an Area of Changing Racial Composition,” Journal of Social Psychology 41 (1955): 91–93; Sklare and Greenblum, Jewish Identity on the Suburban Frontier, 317–19.

141. Herman Long, “Facts vs. Fantasies in Integrated Housing,” Social Action 24, no. 3 (November 1957): 13.

142. David Hollinger, “Amalgamation and Hypodescent: The Question of Ethnoracial Mixture in the History of the United States,” American Historical Review 108 (December 2003): 363.

143. Helper, 81.

144. Murray Friedman, “The White Liberal’s Retreat,” Atlantic Monthly, January 1963, 43; Remsberg and Remsberg, “Legacy of an Ice Age,” 106.

145. Author interview with Mike and Verna Dee Goren, Nov. 1, 2007.

146. Fauman, “Housing Discrimination, Changing Neighborhoods, and Public Schools,” 28; Wiese, Places of Their Own, 97; Eleanor Wolf, “The Baxter Area, 1960–1962: A New Trend in Neighborhood Change?” Phylon 26 (Winter 1965): 351.

147. Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 16.

148. John F. Lyons, Teachers and Reform: Chicago Public Education, 1929–1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008), 172–73.

149. Thomas Gaudette Oral History, May 15, 1990, TAG, Series 3, Box 1, Case 4.

150. Ralph Bass, “Prejudice Won’t Make Us Sell Our House!” Coronet, July 1959, 106; Goreau, 212; Albert J. Mayer, “Russell Woods: Change without Conflict, , Case Study of Neighborhood Racial Transition in Detroit,” Studies in Housing and Minority Groups, Nathan Glazer and Davis McEntire, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 219–20; Dan Cordtz, “The Negro Middle Class Is Right in the Middle,” Fortune (November 1966), 177.

151. Hoyt W. Fuller, “The Myth of ‘The White Backlash,’” Negro Digest, August 1964, 15.

152. Rosen, South Side, 144.

153. Chicago Tribune, “Hope to Add 5,000 Persons to Civic Group,” April 17, 1960, S3; Rosen, South Side, 127.

154. For similar efforts in Cleveland, see Todd M. Michney, Surrogate Suburbs: Black Upward Mobility and Neighborhood Change in Cleveland, 1900–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017).

155. Joseph Galaskiewicz, “A Study of Racially Changing Neighborhoods in the City of Chicago” [1971?], 5–6, Morris Janowitz Papers, Box 30, Folder 11, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago. See also David R. Meyer, Spatial Variation of Black Urban Households, Research Paper No. 129 (Chicago: University of Chicago Department of Geography), 105; Leo Schnore, “Social Class Segregation among Nonwhites in Metropolitan Centers,” Demography II (1965): 130.

156. Chicago Daily News, “Report Shows Gain in Older Home Renewals,” October 16, 1964, 35.

157. St. Clair Drake, “Folkways and Classways within the Black Ghetto,” in The Making of Black America: Essays in Negro Life and History, vol. 1, August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, eds. (New York: Atheneum, 1969), 448.

158. George Nesbitt, “Break Up the Black Ghetto?” The Crisis, February 1949, 52; Kerner Commission, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968), 257; Seth S. King, “No Hope in Woodlawn,” Saturday Review, August 19, 1972, 6.

159. Chicago Defender, “7200 Indiana Block Club Wins ‘Beautiful’ Prize,” January 23, 1958, 14; Chicago Defender, “Pick 8th Ward’s Best,” October 17, 1970, 4.

160. Bulletin, “Taylor Again in Running for Chatham Council Presidency,” June 2, 1960.

161. Lewis Caldwell, “Self Examination,” New Crusader, September 8, 1962.

162. ..Chicago Daily News, “A Middle-Class Problem,” August 24, 1963.

163. Chicago Defender, “Chatham Drys Planning New Vote Test,” January 31, 1959, 3; Bulletin, “Tavern, Council War Heats Up: Dry Option Showdown Near,” September 25, 1962.

164. Giese, Revolution in the City, 12; Gregory, Chatham 1856–1987, 22.

165. Decision at 83rd Street, WBBM (Chicago, 1962), PAC.

166. Letter from A. L. Foster, Chicago Urban League, to Irene McCoy Gaines, July 20, 1937; Letter from Irene McCoy Gaines to Mayor Edward Kelly, Sept. 22, 1937; Chicago & Northern District Association of Colored Women, “Findings of Conference on Taverns” in “Annual Report,” 1937–1938; Letter from Irene McCoy Gaines and Joe Jefferson, Better Conduct Program, Urban League, to pastors, Aug. 3, 1938, IMG, Box 1, Folder 12.

167. Roi Ottley, “Community Group Sparks Drive to Shutter Taverns,” Chicago Tribune, November 2, 1958, SW18, 38–40.

168. Walter Cromwell, The Tavern in Relation to Children and Youth (Chicago: The Juvenile Protection Association of Chicago, 1948), 2, 8; Chicago Crime Commission, “Report of the Emergency Crime Committee of the City Council of Chicago,” 1952, 7–10, 22–23, MHPC, Accession 75-104, Box 6; Joe Smith, Sin Corner and Joe Smith: A Story of Vice and Corruption in Chicago (New York: Exposition Press, 1963), 22.

169. Bulletin, “WACA Seeks to Bar Area Bar,” June 21, 1962, CJEG, Box 44.

170. A. L. Foster, “Other People’s Business,” Chicago Defender, November 22, 1958, 4.

171. A. L. Foster, “Other People’s Business,” Chicago Defender, October 22, 1960, 4; Chicago Tribune, “Store Front Churches Are Poll Subject,” November 5, 1959, S6; Aldo Bechman, “Mailman Asks Route around Zoning Block,” Chicago Tribune, February 14, 1960, SW4; Chicago Tribune, “Zoning Ruling Is Upheld in Circuit Court,” December 8, 1960, S10.

172. Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991), 77–78; James Q. Wilson, Negro Politics: The Search for Leadership (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1960), 128; Chicago Defender, “Cleric Admits He Ran Abortion Den: Set Up Church to Conceal ‘Hospital’ Abortion Den,” September 25, 1954, 1–2, 5.

173. Chicago Tribune, “Store Front Church Hit in City Ruling,” September 17, 1959, S6; Southeast Economist, “Community Unit Seeks Members,” June 16, 1963; Chicago Daily News, “A Middle-Class Problem: Negro Who Moves Up Often Shows Disdain for Lower Class,” August 24, 1963.

174. Thomas Gaudette Oral History, May 15, 1990, TAG, Series 3, Box 1, Case 4.

175. Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor, American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle for Chicago and the Nation (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000), 533–39.

176. Thomas Gaudette, “Report on sale of land to Nation of Islam,” CJEG, Box 24; Southeast Economist, “Rap Park Site Sale,” March 27, 1960; New York Times, “Chicago Official Found Guilty of Mail Fraud and Conspiracy,” October 10, 1974, 31.

177. Thomas Gaudette Oral History, May 15, 1990, TAG, Series 3, Box 1, Case 4.

178. Ronald Kotulak, “Park Plea Hits Temple Project on Chatham Site,” Chicago Tribune, August 14, 1960, 1.

179. Thomas Gaudette, “Report on sale of land to Nation of Islam,” CJEG, Box 24; Robert Colby Nelson, “Negro Cult Stirs Debate,” Christian Science Monitor, May 16, 1960, 10; Thomas Gaudette Oral History, May 15, 1990, TAG, Series 3, Box 1, Case 4.

180. Southeast Economist, “300 Oppose Islam Plan for Area” [1960?], clipping in CJEG, Box 24; Southeast Economist, “Rap Park Site Sale,” March 27, 1960.

181. Chicago Tribune, “Charges Bias, Enters Fight over Temple,” August 21, 1960, 1; New Crusader, “400-Bed Hospital Plan in Chatham Turned Down; Temple Vows to Fight On,” August 27, 1960.

182. New Crusader, “Negro, Catholic Fight Muhammad Hospital Program: Chatham-Avalon Group Advocates Jim-Crow Playground in Area,” August 10, 1961.

183. Barbara Moffett and Jane Weston, “News from the Chicago Scene,” January 4, 1961, AFSC, Box 86, Folder 29; Chicago Tribune, “Defer Decision in Muhammad Park Battle,” August 10, 1960, 19; Open letter from Welton Taylor to George Leighton, n.d. but c. Aug. 1960, TAG, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 4.

184. Southeast Economist, “Five Acre Tract Stirs Hot Debate,” August 11, 1960; Ronald Kotulak, “Park Plea Hits Temple Project on Chatham Site,” Chicago Tribune, August 14, 1960, 1.

185. Alfred Borcover, “Council Asks Rezoning for I.I.T. Expansion,” Chicago Tribune, June 25, 1959, S2; Chicago Tribune, “Citizens Group Asks Ban on Apartment Buildings,” September 27, 1959, S2; Charles Gaines, “Chatham Man,” Chicago Daily News, September 23, 1963; Chicago Defender, “Integrated Area Sought by ECO,” December 4, 1967, 3. For examples of black middle-class resistance against apartments and public housing in Cincinnati and Cleveland, see Cebula, “Creating a Multiracial Community in Post–World War II Cincinnati,” 36–37, 44; Leonard N. Moore, Carl B. Stokes and the Rise of Black Political Power (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 100–108.

186. D. Bradford Hunt, “What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 94 (Spring 2001): 101; Timuel D. Black Jr., Bridges of Memory: Chicago’s First Wave of Black Migration, an Oral History (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2003), 516; Moore, Carl B. Stokes and the Rise of Black Political Power, 196–97.

187. L. Alex Wilson, “Race Hate Blocks 7,300 Housing Units in Chicago,” Chicago Defender, March 11, 1950, 2; Martin Meyerson and Edward Banfield, Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest: The Case of Public Housing in Chicago (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1955), 87; D. Bradford Hunt, Blueprint for Disaster: The Unraveling of Chicago Public Housing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 87–92; Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 223–24.

188. Harold M. Baron, Building Babylon: A Case of Racial Controls in Public Housing (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Center for Urban Affairs, 1971), 68.

189. George Nesbitt, “Break Up the Black Ghetto?” The Crisis, February 1949, 49; Chicago Tribune, “Public Housing Hearings Echo Past Debates,” July 14, 1950, A13; Meyerson and Banfield, Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest, 233–35; Baron, Building Babylon, 19–20. For a subsequent example, see Mary Pattillo, Black on the Block: The Politics of Race and Class in the City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 182–84, 203–4.

190. Jeffrey Helgeson, Crucibles of Black Empowerment: Chicago’s Neighborhood Politics from the New Deal to Harold Washington (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 226; Meyerson and Banfield, 198; Emmett Curme, “Morgan Park, Beverly Hills Hit CHA Plan,” Chicago Tribune, February 6, 1955, 1; Chicago Tribune, “3 Civic Groups Fight Housing in Morgan Park,” April 3, 1955, SW8; Hunt, Blueprint for Disaster, 111.

191. Bulletin, “Group Maps Zone Fight Strategy Last Tuesday,” July 16, 1959; Susan Boie, “Oppose CHA Project for Morgan Pk,” Chicago Tribune, November 26, 1967, A1; Doris E. Saunders, “Confetti,” Chicago Defender, November 29, 1967, 14; J. S. Fuerst, When Public Housing Was Paradise: Building Community in Chicago (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 72–73.

192. Mrs. Hershep, “Favors Public Housing,” Chicago Defender, May 21, 1955, 9; Chicago Defender, “Planning Head Resigns,” October 31, 1967, 6.

193. E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie: The Rise of a New Middle Class (New York: Free Press, 1957), 228.

194. Chicago Sun-Times, “Jail Big Shot Owner of Slum Tenement,” December 8, 1948; Chicago Tribune, “Raid Tenement Housing, 450 in Fifth, Arrest 3,” December 8, 1948; Memo from Graham, Stevenson, and Krupp to the Metropolitan Housing and Planning Commission, “Housing Code Violations by the Hansberry Family,” 1960, MHPC, Box 13, Folder 143.

195. Chicago Tribune, “Neighborhood Votes to Join Local Council,” September 25, 1958, S13; Chicago Tribune, “Citizens Group Asks Ban on Apartment Buildings,” September 27, 1959, S2; Statement from John Baird, President of Metropolitan Housing and Planning Commission, Aug. 9, 1962, MHPC, Box 24, Folder 291.

196. Our People, WTTW (Chicago, 1968), PAC.

197. Moore, 105; Bruce D. Haynes, Red Lines, Black Spaces: The Politics of Race and Space in a Black Middle-Class Suburb (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), xviii.

198. Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn against Liberalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), 21, 64–68; Kenneth Durr, Behind the Backlash: White Working-Class Politics in Baltimore, 1940–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), 2, 79, 95, 113, 139; Seligman, 4, 41, 213–14; Heather Ann Thompson, “Rethinking the Politics of White Flight in the Postwar City, Detroit, 1945–1980,” Journal of Urban History 25, no. 2 (January 1999): 166–68; Self, American Babylon, 16.

199. Murray Friedman, “The White Liberal’s Retreat,” Atlantic Monthly, January 1963, 43; Harvey Luskin Molotch, Managed Integration: Dilemmas of Doing Good in the City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 7–9; Mayer, “Russell Woods,” 213; Wolf, “The Baxter Area,” 348–61.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

1. Syl Johnson, Is It Because I’m Black? © 1969 by Twinight Records.

2. Charles Harrison, A Life’s Design: The Life and Work of Industrial Designer Charles Harrison (Chicago: Ibis, 2005), 44, 49, 75; Linda Hales, “Chuck Harrison: Adding Dimension to Design,” Washington Post, October 11, 2006, C1.

3. John David Skrentny, The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 5; Paul D. Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action: Fair Employment Law and Policy in America, 1933–1972 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1997); Terry H. Anderson, The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

4. Frank Dobbin, Inventing Equal Opportunity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 2–3, 12, 42; Jennifer Delton, Racial Integration in Corporate America, 1940–1990 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 4–5, 280–82; Stacy Kinlock Sewell, “‘The Best Man for the Job’: Corporate Responsibility and Racial Integration in the Workplace, 1945–1960,” The Historian 65, no. 5 (Fall 2003): 1126; Benton Williams, “AT&T and the Private-Sector Origins of Private-Sector Affirmative Action,” Journal of Policy History 20, no. 4 (2008): 543–45.

5. Robert W. Ackerman, “How Companies Respond to Social Demands,” Harvard Business Review, July–August 1973, 91, 98.

6. E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie: The Rise of a New Middle Class (New York: Free Press, 1957), 24–25; Nathan Hare, The Black Anglo-Saxons (New York: Marzani and Munsell, 1965); Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: Historical Analysis of the Failure of Black Leadership (New York: Morrow, 1967), 90, 312, 376; Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York: Viking Press, 2011), 261.

7. Harold M. Baron and Bennett Hymer, The Negro Worker in the Chicago Labor Market: A Case Study of De Facto Segregation (Chicago: Chicago Urban League’s Studies of the Labor Market, 1965); William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996).

8. Business Week, “Economically the Negro Gains but He’s Still the Low Man,” December 18, 1954, 86; Color, “Top Jobs Negroes Haven’t Cracked,” April 1957, 28; Chicago Defender, “Pepsi-Cola Gives Jobs to Negroes,” January 30, 1943, 22; Chicago Defender, “Employs Negro on White Collar Job,” August 14, 1948, 13; Jet, “Memphis Negroes Upgraded to White Collar Jobs,” May 23, 1963, 44; Ebony, “Big Business Names a Veep,” July 1962, 25–32; John W. Work, Race, Economics and Corporate America (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1984), 40–41; Jack G. Gourlay, The Negro Salaried Worker (New York: American Management Association, 1965), 16.

9. Brian S. Moskal, “Ascent of the Black Manager,” Industry Week, October 1976, 41.

10. Jet, “White Collar Hiring Bias Drops 75% in Chicago,” January 1, 1953, 10; Ethel Payne, “Is There Job Integration on Chicago’s State Street?” Chicago Defender, July 4, 1953, 9.

11. Frederick Pollard Jr., Acting Executive Director, CCHR, “Chicago’s Human Relations Problems,” April 10–12, 1959, AFSC, Box 94, Folder 5.

12. Business Week, “Chicago Starts Moving on Equal Job Question,” May 30, 1964, 22–23.

13. Ebony, “Jobs for Negroes,” June 1967, 81; Sewell, “‘The Best Man for the Job,’” 1141; Pamela Walker Laird, Pull: Networking and Success since Benjamin Franklin (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 109; George F. Doriot et al., The Management of Racial Integration in Business (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 49.

14. Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, Radicals on the Road: Internationalism, Orientalism, and Feminism during the Vietnam Era (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013), 26.

15. Wu, Radicals on the Road, 26.

16. Tony Bonaparte, “Problems of Black Managers in Business Corporations Today,” S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, January 1972, 47.

17. Albert H. Miller, “Negro in the North,” Ave Maria, Jan. 24, 1959, 6, Daniel Cantwell Papers, Box 30, Folder 5.

18. Arvarh E. Strickland, History of the Chicago Urban League (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1966), 131–32; Lewis A. H. Caldwell, “Commentary,” Chicago Defender, April 30, 1958, A8; Chicago Defender, “League Needs Money after Winning Anti-Bias Battle,” May 10, 1958, 12; Chicago Defender, “Set Deadline for Banks to Begin Fair Hiring,” May 17, 1958, 3; Doriot et al., Management of Racial Integration in Business, 30; Newsweek, “The Negro’s Search for a Better Job,” June 8, 1964, 79–83; Lillian Calhoun, “People’s Gas Chairman Tells ‘Positive Policy’ on Hiring,” Chicago Defender, August 28, 1963, 9; Mark McColloch, White Collar Workers in Transition: The Boom Years, 1940–1970 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983), 33, 137–39.

19. Chicago Defender, “NAACP Hails Bank’s Action,” January 17, 1962, 9; Chicago Defender, “Set Date for Chatham Bank to End Job Bias,” July 9, 1962, 5; Chicago Commission on Human Relations, “Nine Area Firms Record ‘Firsts’ in Negro Hiring,” Human Relations News of Chicago 5, no. 4 (June 1963), AFSC, Box 94, Folder 5; Edwin C. Berry, “Jobs, Poverty and Race,” Negro Digest, September 1964, 7, 10.

20. Richard B. Freeman, Black Elite: The New Market for Highly Educated Black Americans (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), xix.

21. Monroe Sharp, Reports by the Staff of SNCC, May 1965, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Papers, Box 1, Folder 17, Daley Library, University of Illinois at Chicago.

22. The Crisis, “PCGC’s Report,” February 1960, 89; Business Week, “The Unfinished Business of Negro Jobs,” June 12, 1965, 82.

23. Operation Breadbasket, Minutes of the Meeting of the Wives of Breadbasket, June 19, 1966, Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 148, Folder 15, Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection of Afro-American History and Literature, Carter G. Woodson Regional Library, Chicago.

24. Cyrus Colter, “The Beach Umbrella,” in The Amoralists & Other Tales: Collected Stories by Cyrus Colter (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1988), 203.

25. Frank T. Cherry, “Southern In-Migrant Negroes in North Lawndale, Chicago, 1949–1959: A Study of Internal Migration and Adjustment,” Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Chicago, 1965, 6–7.

26. Sidney Kronus, The Black Middle Class (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing, 1971), 124–25.

27. Report of the Chicago Riot Study Committee to the Hon. Richard J. Daley, August 1, 1968, 31, 73, 68, 123.

28. Amanda Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 216–20.

29. Donald Perkins, President of Jewel Companies, “Social Responsibility of Business,” National Student Assembly, YMCA/YWCA, Chicago, Dec. 30, 1966, Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 148, Folder 15; Peter Prugh, “Chicago Executives Press Campaign to Hire More Negroes,” Wall Street Journal, August 19, 1965, 10.

30. Margaret Halsey, “Dedicated to the Status Quo,” Negro Digest, March 1966, 11.

31. Percy Julian, “The ‘White Backlash’ and Common Sense,” Chicago Tribune, November 5, 1966, 10.

32. Dan Cordtz, “The Negro Middle Class Is Right in the Middle,” Fortune, November 1966, 180; Chicago Defender, “Calif. Study Claim Middle-Class Negroes’ Discontent Foments Riots,” August 5, 1967, 27; Chicago Defender, “Showing Signs of Changing,” January 18, 1968, 4.

33. John S. Morgan and Richard L. Van Dyke, White-Collar Blacks: A Breakthrough? (New York: American Management Association, 1970), 125.

34. U.S. News & World Report, “Growing Success of Negroes in the U.S.,” July 3, 1967, 57.

35. Morgan and Van Dyke, White-Collar Blacks, 162–63.

36. Rodney Alexander and Elisabeth Sapery, The Shortchanged: Women and Minorities in Banking (New York: Dunellen Publishing Co., 1972), 59–60.

37. Elizabeth St. Julian, “Insight on Riots, Causes and the Results,” Chicago Defender, August 12, 1967, 11.

38. Harold M. Baron, “Black Powerlessness in Chicago,” Trans-Action, November 1968, 28.

39. Letter to ministers from Operation Breadbasket, Nov. 19, 1966 and Operation Breadbasket, “Covenant between Operation Breadbasket and National Tea Company,” Dec. 9, 1966, Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 148, Folder 15; Chicago Seven-Up Bottling Co., “Operation Breadbasket” [1967?], Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 149, Folder 1; “A Message from Operation Breadbasket of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference: Your Ministers of Operation Breadbasket Say: Don’t Shop at A&P,” Flyer, [Aug. 1968?], Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 149, Folder 6; Operation Breadbasket, “Don’t Shop at Walgreen’s Drug Stores” [1970?], Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 149, Folder 8.

40. Business Week, “The Unfinished Business of Negro Jobs,” June 12, 1965, 87; Chicago Defender, “Schlitz to Ink PUSH Jobs Pact,” August 5, 1972, 1; Richard Ringer, “PUSH Targets Banking Industry for Aid Pledge to Black Communities,” American Banker, August 13, 1982, 3.

41. Covenant between Miller Brewing and PUSH, October 3, 1973, Abbott-Sengstacke Papers, Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection of Afro-American History and Literature, Carter G. Woodson Regional Library, Chicago, Box 190, Folder 2.

42. Sharon M. Collins, Black Corporate Executives: The Making and Breaking of a Black Middle Class (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997), 67, 129.

43. Richard P. Nathan, Jobs and Civil Rights (Washington, DC: Prepared for the United States Commission on Civil Rights by the Brookings Institution, 1969), 138; William H. Brown III, “EEOC Chairman Brown: ‘I Submit There Is More Racial Animosity in America Today Than Ever Before,’” MBA 6 (1972): 12–16, 102.

44. Business Week, “Industry Rushes for Negro Grads,” April 26, 1964, 78–81; U.S. News & World Report, “For Negroes: More and Better Jobs in Government,” March 5, 1962, 83–85.

45. Chicago Commission on Human Relations, “Chicago Tops Nation in Negro Federal Workers,” Human Relations News of Chicago 5:5, August 1963, AFSC, Box 94, Folder 5; Baron and Hymer, Negro Worker in the Chicago Labor Market, 8; Peter Prugh, “Business & Race: Chicago Executives Press Campaign to Hire More Negroes,” Wall Street Journal, August 19, 1965, 10.

46. Ebony, “Many Students Still Doubt Expanded Job Opportunities,” June 1967, 82; Ulric Haynes, “Equal Job Opportunity: The Credibility Gap,” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1968, 113; Time, “Working in the White Man’s World,” April 6, 1970.

47. Business Week, “The Unfinished Business of Negro Jobs,” June 12, 1965, 92.

48. Rev. Ed Reddick, “Research Briefs: General Foods,” April 30, 1972, Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 150, Folder 12.

49. Vance Packard, The Pyramid Climbers (New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1962), 178; Chester I. Barnard, The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968), 146, 224.

50. Frederick C. Klein, “Jews and Jobs: Religious Groups Push to Get Firms to Hire Jewish Executives,” Wall Street Journal, October 26, 1966; Frederick J. Sturdivant and Roy D. Adler, “Executive Origins: Still a Gray Flannel World?” Harvard Business Review, November–December 1976, 125–32.

51. Employee Relations Bulletin, “The Black Manager: How He Fits into the Corporation,” December 7, 1976.

52. Roland D. Zimany, “A Better Program for Employing Minorities,” Business Horizons, December 1970, 71; Business Week, “The Black Message: Business Must Do More,” January 22, 1972, 79–80; Eli Ginzberg, The Negro Challenge to the Business Community (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 98; Richard F. America and Bernard E. Anderson, “Black Managers: How They Manage Their Emotions,” Across the Board, April 1979, 8; Time, “‘Every Negro Who Discharges His Duty Faithfully Is Making a Real Contribution,’” January 3, 1964; John P. Fernandez, Black Managers in White Corporations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975), 80; David H. Bankston and Rudolph L. Kagerer, “Communication and the Minority Employee,” The Personnel Administrator, June 1974, 18.

53. Robert Townsend, Up the Organization (New York: Knopf, 1970), 161.

54. Ethel L. Payne, “The Stores Most Afraid of Customer Reaction Seem to Be the Smallest,” Chicago Defender, August 15, 1953, 12; Wall Street Journal, “‘Believability Gap’ on Campus: Companies Rush to Hire Negro Graduates,” April 3, 1968, 34; Robert P. Quinn et al., The Chosen Few: A Study of Discrimination in Executive Selection (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Institute for Social Research Survey Research Center, 1968), 19–20; National Industrial Conference Board, Company Experience with Negro Employment, vol. 2 (New York: 1966), 136, 147.

55. Richard Barrett, “Gray Areas in Black and White Testing,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 1968, 94.

56. Gourlay, Negro Salaried Worker, 54; Chicago Defender, “Weaver Finds Job Openings Outstrip Negro Training,” December 15, 1962, 9; Harold C. Fleming, “Equal Job Opportunity—Slogan or Reality?” Personnel Administration, March–April 1963, 25–28; Wall Street Journal, “‘Believability Gap’ on Campus: Companies Rush to Hire Negro Graduates,” April 3, 1968, 34; Barry Newman, “Small Strides: General Electric Co.’s Hiring of Blacks, Long Company’s Commitment, Proves Slow but Sure,” December 10, 1974, 1; Gregory S. Bell, In the Black: A History of African Americans on Wall Street (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002), 46, 74.

57. Race Relations and Industry, “GE Lays Groundwork to Combat Minority Engineering Shortages,” July 1974.

58. Business Week, “Crashing Gates to Better Jobs,” June 22, 1963, 24–25; U.S. News & World Report, “Jobs for Negroes—Is There a Real Shortage?” August 12, 1963, 28–32; Business Week, “The Negro Drive for Jobs,” August 17, 1963, 53, 67; Newsweek, “The Negro’s Search for a Better Job,” June 8, 1964, 79–83; Chicago Defender, “White Collar Jobs Open to Negroes,” December 31, 1966, 21; C. R. Winegarden, “Barriers to Black Employment in White-Collar Jobs: A Quantitative Approach,” Review of Black Political Economy 2, no. 3 (Spring 1972): 20.

59. McColloch, White Collar Workers in Transition, 177.

60. Fernandez, Black Managers in White Corporations, 86; U.S. News & World Report, “Jobs for Negroes—Is There a Real Shortage?” August 12, 1963, 28–32; Gourlay, 12; George Davis and Glegg Watson, Black Life in Corporate America: Swimming in the Mainstream (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1982), 60.

61. Jackie Robinson, “The Racial Crisis,” Sales Management, August 16, 1963, 33–37; Business Management, “What It’s Like to Be a Negro in Management, April 1966, 60–64, 69–77; R. D. Corwin, Racial Minorities in Banking: New Workers in the Banking Industry (New Haven, CT: College & University Press, 1971), 56–58, 61.

62. Wall Street Journal, “Labor Letter,” November 26, 1968, 1; Floyd Dickens Jr. and Jacqueline B. Dickens, The Black Manager: Making It in the Corporate World (New York: AMACOM, 1982), 100.

63. Ebony, “Job Consultant for Big Business,” April 1965, 115; Doriot, 47.

64. Chicago Defender, “New Firm Sets Goal Matching Blacks, Jobs,” April 2, 1970, 6; Richard Watkins and Dawn R. Jones, “Black Executive Search Firms,” Black Enterprise, May 1975, 7–20, 56.

65. National Industrial Conference Board, Company Experience with Negro Employment, vol. 1 (New York: 1966), 64.

66. WFBM, A Black Man in a White Collar, Indianapolis, IN, 1968, PAC.

67. Morgan and Van Dyke, 16–17; Harold Eugene Byrd, The Black Experience in Big Business (Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 1977), 19.

68. Mark Kogan, “McGee Ends Long Post Office Career,” Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1973, 20; Jet, “Henry W. McGee, Chicago's First Black Postmaster, Succumbs at 90,” April 10, 2000, 52; Ebony, “Speaking of People,” February 1962, 7.

69. Albert Murray, The Omni-Americans: New Perspectives on Black Experience and American Culture (New York: Outerbridge & Dienstfrey, 1970), 96.

70. Herbert R. Northrup and Richard L. Rowan, eds., The Negro and Employment Opportunity: Problems and Practices (Ann Arbor: Bureau of Industrial Relations, University of Michigan, 1965), 325.

71. Morgan and Van Dyke, 154.

72. U.S. News & World Report, “Growing Success of Negroes in the U.S.,” July 3, 1967, 56; William Pickens III, “The Interview—The Black’s Viewpoint,” Business Horizons, October 1970, 13–14; Ulric Haynes, “Equal Job Opportunity: The Credibility Gap,” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1968, 119; Edward W. Jones Jr., “Black Managers: The Dream Deferred,” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1986, 109; U.S. News & World Report, “Blacks Find That ‘Making It’ Doesn’t Solve All the Problems,” October 14, 1974, 50.

73. Morgan and Van Dyke, 84.

74. National Industrial Conference Board, Company Experience with Negro Employment, vol. 1, 98.

75. Reginald Lewis and Blair S. Walker, “Why Should White Guys Have All the Fun?” How Reginald Lewis Created a Billion-Dollar Business Empire (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995), 87–88; Thomas J. Bray, “‘Black Bosses’: More Negroes Enter Management, but Some Find Role Frustrating,” Wall Street Journal, May 22, 1969, 1; Stanley Penn, “Integrated Offices: White-Collar Negroes Move into Better Jobs,” Wall Street Journal, March 17, 1965, 1.

76. Stephanie Capparell, The Real Pepsi Challenge: The Inspirational Story of Breaking the Color Barrier in American Business (New York: Wall Street Journal Books, 2007), 4, 82; Harrison, A Life’s Design, 79–81.

77. Marilyn Mercer, “How It Feels to Be a Black Girl Now,” Glamour, May 1969, 180–81; Dennis Schatzman, “Why Corporations Are Having Trouble Retaining Competent Black Professionals,” Vital Speeches of the Day, August 15, 1979, 666.

78. Enoch P. Waters, “Were Their Faces Red!” Chicago Defender, October 1, 1955, 9; Bernard Sarachek, “Career Concerns of Black Managers,” Management Review, October 1974, 19; Richard F. America and Bernard E. Anderson, Moving Ahead: Black Managers in American Business (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978), 110; Theresa A. Hammond, A White-Collar Profession: African American Certified Public Accountants since 1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 35–36, 130; Dempsey J. Travis, Racism: American Style, A Corporate Gift (Chicago: Urban Research Press, 1991), 128; Brian S. Moskal, “Ascent of the Black Manager,” Industry Week, October 1976, 43.

79. U.S. News & World Report, “For Negroes: More and Better Jobs in Government,” March 5, 1962, 84; Arthur Shostak, “Human Problems in Improving Industrial Race Relations,” Personnel Administration, March–April 1963, 28–31; U.S. News & World Report, “Are Whites Being Discriminated Against?” June 17, 1963, 8; Wall Street Journal, “Bias in Reverse: White Workers Claim Employers Now Show Favoritism to Negroes,” August 12, 1963, 1.

80. Business Week, “The Unfinished Business of Negro Jobs,” June 12, 1965, 97.

81. Caroline Bird, “More Room at the Top,” Management Review, March 1963, 4–16; Davis and Watson, Black Life in Corporate America, 27.

82. Business Week, “The Negro Drive for Jobs,” August 17, 1963, 52–53.

83. Business Week, “Crashing Gates to Better Jobs,” June 22, 1963, 24–25; Eli Ginzberg, The Negro Challenge to the Business Community (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 23; A. L. Reynolds, “Management’s Search for the Instant Negro,” Industrial Management, July 1968, 2.

84. Wall Street Journal, “‘Believability Gap’ on Campus: Companies Rush to Hire Negro Graduates,” April 3, 1968, 34; Thomas J. Bray, “Black Bosses: More Negroes Enter Management, but Some Find Role Frustrating,” Wall Street Journal, May 22, 1969, 1.

85. America and Anderson, Moving Ahead, 66.

86. Caitlin Deinard and Raymond A. Friedman, “Black Caucus Groups at Xerox Corporation,” Harvard Business School Case 9-491-047 and 9-491-048, (Boston: Harvard Business School, 1990), 10; United States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Radiator Specialty Company, No. 78-1291, 1979; George Schermer, Employer’s Guide to Equal Opportunity (Washington, DC: The Potomac Institute, 1966), 46.

87. Chicago Tribune, “U.S. Report Finds Area Negro Work Force to Be 13.5%,” August 8, 1967, B6.

88. Ebony, “Many Students Still Doubt Expanded Job Opportunities,” June 1967, 82.

89. Jaslin U. Salmon, Black Executives in White Businesses (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979), 92.

90. Time, “Corporations: Tomorrow Becomes Yesterday,” December 8, 1967.

91. Chicago Sun-Times, “Survey Finds Discrimination in White-Collar Jobs,” January 21, 1968; Stanley C. Vance, “Black Power in the Board Room,” Business Horizons, June 1971, 81–83.

92. Jonathan Kaufman, “Rights Frontier: Black Executives Say Prejudice Still Impedes Their Path to the Top,” Wall Street Journal, July 9, 1980, 1.

93. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Work in America (Washington, DC: National Technical Information Service, 1972), 43.

94. Stuart Taylor, “The Black Executive and the Corporation—A Difficult Fit,” MBA, January 1972, 92; Fernandez, 15; David A. Thomas and John J. Gabarro, Breaking Through: The Making of Minority Executives in Corporate America (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999), 74; Morgan and Van Dyke, 21, 53, 75, 76, 78, 84, 127.

95. Letter from Darrell Parrish-Johnson to Phillip Newbold and Ray Wicklander, Continental Bank, July 18, 1978, CUL, Series II, Box 63, Folder 721.

96. Jonathan Kaufman, “Rights Frontier: Black Executives Say Prejudice Still Impedes Their Path to the Top,” Wall Street Journal, July 9, 1980, 1; Chicago Sun-Times, “Trailblazing Chicago City Comptroller Clark Burrus Dead at 86,” June 23, 2015.

97. Regina Nixon, Climbing the Corporate Ladder: Some Perceptions among Black Managers (Washington, DC: National Urban League, 1985), 27.

98. Bank of America, “Performance Report–Administrative Officer,” March 1973, E. Frederic Morrow Papers, Box 2, Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection of Afro-American History and Literature, Carter G. Woodson Regional Library, Chicago; Ron Howell, “Who Are the Blacks at the Top of Money Industry?” Ebony, November 1979, 159.

99. Edward W. Jones Jr., “Black Managers: The Dream Deferred,” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1986, 89; Ernest Holsendolph, “Black Executives in a Nearly All-White World,” Fortune, September 1972, 140; Thomas J. Bray, “Black Bosses: More Negroes Enter Management, but Some Find Role Frustrating,” Wall Street Journal, May 22, 1969, 1; Jonathan Kaufman, “Rights Frontier: Black Executives Say Prejudice Still Impedes Their Path to the Top,” Wall Street Journal, July 9, 1980, 1.

100. Ulric Haynes, “Equal Job Opportunity: The Credibility Gap,” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1968, 116.

101. Frank E. Emerson, “You Are as Successful as You Sound,” Black Enterprise, December 1979, 68; Susan Dentzer, “They Shall Overcome,” Newsweek, May 23, 1983, 60.

102. Nixon, Climbing the Corporate Ladder, 36; Regina Nixon, Black Managers in Corporate America: Alienation or Integration? (Washington, DC: National Urban League, 1985), 25.

103. Orde Coombs, Do You See My Love for You Growing? (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1972), 48–52; E. Frederic Morrow, “A Basic Plan for Bank of America to Operate Successfully in Black Communities,” April 28, 1971, E. Frederic Morrow Papers, Box 2.

104. Collins, Black Corporate Executives, 12, 16.

105. Claudia H. Deutsch, “Black Managers Say that Washington Has Abandoned Them,” New York Times, January 4, 1987, 2.

106. Gourlay, 57.

107. National Industrial Conference Board, Company Experience with Negro Employment, vol. 1, 98; America and Anderson, Moving Ahead, 170–73; Alexander and Sapery, Shortchanged, 51.

108. Robert S. Greenberger, “Up the Ladder: Many Black Managers Hope to Enter Ranks of Top Management,” Wall Street Journal, June 15, 1981, 1.

109. Ebony, “The ‘Acceptable’ Negro,” April 1966, 118.

110. National Industrial Conference Board, Company Experience with Negro Employment, vol. 2, 44.

111. Dickens Jr. and Dickens, Black Manager, 58; Davis and Watson, 3, 27.

112. Bernard Sarachek, “Career Concerns of Black Managers,” Management Review, October 1974, 21.

113. Ernest Holsendolph, “Black Executives in a Nearly All-White World,” Fortune, September 1972, 144.

114. Davis and Watson, 38.

115. Morgan and Van Dyke, 194–95.

116. Stuart Taylor, “The Black Executive and the Corporation—A Difficult Fit,” MBA, January 1972, 102.

117. Brian S. Moskal, “Ascent of the Black Manager,” Industry Week, October 1976, 42.

118. Barry Beckham, “From Campus to Corporation: The Challenge to Adjust,” Black Enterprise, February 1980, 58.

119. Bayard Rustin, “The Middle Class in the Black Struggle,” Ebony, August 1973, 144, 149.

120. Robert H. Boyle, “The Ways of Life at the Country Club,” Sports Illustrated, February 26, 1962.

121. Mark S. Granovetter, Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 22.

122. Sewell, 1130.

123. Ebony, “The Need to Produce,” June 1961, 70.

124. Robert S. Greenberger, “Up the Ladder: Many Black Managers Hope to Enter Ranks of Top Management,” Wall Street Journal, June 15, 1981, 1.

125. Gourlay, 89–90; Corwin, Racial Minorities in Banking, 90–91.

126. Jonathan Kaufman, “Rights Frontier: Black Executives Say Prejudice Still Impedes Their Path to the Top,” Wall Street Journal, July 9, 1980, 1.

127. Roger Fox and Jerry Szatan, The Current Economic Status of Chicago’s Black Community (Chicago: Chicago Urban League Research and Planning Department, 1977), 37.

128. Robert B. McKersie, A Decisive Decade: An Insider’s View of the Chicago Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013), 103.

129. Herbert R. Northrup and Richard L. Rowan, eds., The Negro and Employment Opportunity, 230; Time, “Why Companies Are Fleeing the Cities,” April 26, 1971, 92. See also Louise A. Mozingo, Pastoral Capitalism: A History of Suburban Corporate Landscapes (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 24.

130. Business Management, “What It’s Like to Be a Negro in Management,” April 1966, 60–64, 69–77; Ronald Alsop, “Minority Report: Middle-Class Blacks Worry about Slipping,” Wall Street Journal, November 3, 1980, 1; Alexander and Sapery, 147.

131. Chicago Urban League, “Marketing Careers Program for Minority Youth, Company Evaluation Form,” 1980, CUL, Series II, Box 36, Folder 476. As Michael Stoll demonstrated, spatial mismatch and job sprawl continues to beleaguer African Americans. Michael Stoll, “Job Sprawl and the Spatial Mismatch between Blacks and Jobs,” Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program, February 2005.

132. New York State Commission for Human Rights, In Search of Housing: A Study of Experiences of Negro Professional and Technical Personnel in New York State (New York: State of New York, 1965), 5, 41.

133. Travis, Racism, 51; Susan Rugh, Are We There Yet? The Golden Age of American Family Vacations (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2008), 69.

134. America and Anderson, Moving Ahead, 135; Thomas A. Johnson, “Blacks Dubious about Role in Corporations,” New York Times, October 12, 1980, 44.

135. Ernest Holsendolph, “Black Executives in a Nearly All-White World,” Fortune, September 1972, 142; Black Enterprise, “Blacks in High Finance,” October 1974, 36; The HistoryMakers Video Oral History Interview with Walter H. Clark, December 21, 2000, The HistoryMakers Collection, Chicago, Illinois; Travis, Racism, 152–57.

136. Robert W. Brown, “The Black Tax: Stresses Confronting Black Federal Executives,” Journal of Afro-American Issues 3, no. 2 (Spring 1975): 207; E. Frederic Morrow, Forty Years a Guinea Pig (New York: The Pilgrim Press, 1980), 148.

137. Herschel Johnson, “Airline Pioneer,” Ebony, November 1976, 103.

138. Marilyn Mercer, “How It Feels to Be a Black Girl Now,” Glamour, May 1969, 244.

139. Dickens Jr. and Dickens, 153.

140. Lewis and Walker, “Why Should White Guys Have All the Fun?”, 61.

141. Time, “America’s Rising Black Middle Class,” June 17, 1974.

142. Stuart Taylor, "The Black Executive and the Corporation—A Difficult Fit," MBA, January 1972, 92.

143. Stanley Penn, “Integrated Offices: White-Collar Negroes Move into Better Jobs,” Wall Street Journal, March 17, 1965, 1.

144. The Proceedings of the Executive Study Conference, “The Selection and Training of Negroes for Managerial Positions,” November 10–11, 1964, Long Island, New York, 145.

145. Barry Beckham, “From Campus to Corporation: The Challenge to Adjust,” Black Enterprise, February 1980, 60.

146. Collins, 110.

147. Vincent Butler, “Negro’s Climb on Chicago Job Ladder Cited,” Chicago Tribune, May 29, 1964, 5.

148. Milton Viorst, “The Blacks Who Work for Nixon,” New York Times, November 29, 1970, 67.

149. Ebony, “It’s Great to Be a Negro!” March 1964, 92.

150. Edward W. Jones Jr., “Black Managers: The Dream Deferred,” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1986, 91; Adam Herbert, “The Minority Administrator,” Public Administration Review 34, no. 6 (November–December 1974): 557, 561–62; Jet, “Words of the Week,” October 12, 1967, 30; Bayard Rustin, “The Militants and the Middle Class,” New York Amsterdam News, October 14, 1967, 15.

151. Monroe Anderson, “Young, Middle Class, and Very Black,” Ebony, August 1973, 123–29; Bernard Sarachek, “Career Concerns of Black Managers,” Management Review, October 1974, 20–21; Herschel Johnson, “Airline Pioneer,” Ebony, November 1976, 103.

152. George Riddick, “Operation Breadbasket as Vision, Promise, and Hope,” June 1967, 9, Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 149, Folder 2.

153. Letter from Jesse Jackson to Newton Lofton [Laughlin], Chairman of the Board, Continental Baking Company, September 29, 1967; Letter from R. Newton Laughlin to Jackson, October 4, 1967, Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 149, Folder 3.

154. Operation PUSH, “This Is Operation Push” [1975?], Addie Wyatt Papers, Box 151, Folder 9.

155. Whitney Young, “The Role of the Middle-Class Negro,” Ebony, September 1963, 67; Jean Wheeler, “Let Us All Be Black Together: A College Coed’s Plea to the Middle Class,” Ebony, January 1964, 20–21; Leroi Jones, “The Negro Middle Class’ Flight from Heritage,” Ebony, February 1964, 94; Carl Rowan, “An Answer to Youth’s Challenge,” Ebony, August 1967, 140–43; Ebony, “Responsibilities of the Black Middle Class,” August 1973, 180; Ron Howell, “Who Are the Blacks at the Top of Money Industry?” Ebony, November 1979, 162.

156. Time, “Every Negro Who Discharges His Duty Faithfully Is Making a Real Contribution,” January 3, 1964; Ebony, “Three State Store Chain Vice President,” February 1964, 36; Chicago Defender, “Worker Aids Others as She Breaks Firm’s Color Ban,” January 7, 1969, 5; Barry Rand, “Diversity in Corporate America,” in The Affirmative Action Debate, George E. Curry, ed. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1996), 65.

157. Dan Cordtz, “The Negro Middle Class Is Right in the Middle,” Fortune, November 1966, 180.

158. Gerald Lee Dillingham, “A Study of Class Differentiation in the Afro-American Community,” Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Chicago, 1976, 170.

159. Chicago Defender, “Middle-Class Negroes Are Deemed Backbone of Civil Rights Struggle,” May 20, 1967, 4; Eleanor Page, “A Who’s Who of Chicago Black Society,” Chicago Tribune, March 16, 1969, 66.

160. Ellen Boneparth, “Black Businessmen and Community Responsibility,” Phylon 37, no. 1 (1976): 38.

161. Ernest Holsendorph, “Middle Class Blacks Are Moving Off the Middle,” Fortune, December 1969, 91.

162. Morgan and Van Dyke, 204.

163. Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (New York: Free Press, 2001), 68, 77.

164. Harrison, A Life’s Design, 79–81.

165. Herman Belz, Equality Transformed: A Quarter-Century of Affirmative Action (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991), 133, 243.

166. Robert W. Goldfarb, “Black Men Are Last,” New York Times, March 14, 1980, 27; Carol Hymowitz, “Taking a Chance: Many Blacks Jump Off the Corporate Ladder to Be Entrepreneurs,” Wall Street Journal, August 2, 1984, 1; Jonathan P. Hicks, “Black Professionals Refashion Their Careers: Black Executives Leaving Big Business,” New York Times, November 29, 1985, A1.

167. Business Week, “Blacks Who Left Dead-End Jobs to Go It Alone,” February 20, 1984, 106.

168. Harold J. Logan, “Successful Blacks Walk Own Color Line,” Los Angeles Times, June 14, 1978, C3.

NOTES TO CONCLUSION

1. Michael Luo, “‘Whitening’ the Résumé,” New York Times, December 6, 2009, WK3.

2. Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, “Are Emily and Greg More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination,” American Economic Review 94, no. 4 (2004): 991–1013.

3. Michael Luo, “In Job Hunt, College Degree Can’t Close Racial Gap,” New York Times, December 1, 2009, A1.

4. Janelle Jones and John Schmitt, “A College Degree Is No Guarantee,” Center for Economic and Policy Research, May 2014, http://www.cepr.net/documents/black-coll-grads-2014-05.pdf, accessed January 9, 2015; Patricia Cohen, “Arduous Job Path for Black Grads,” New York Times, December 25, 2014, B1.

5. Louis Adamic, What’s Your Name? (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1942), 36–39, 51, 95–100.

6. Michael Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).

7. Karyn R. Lacy, Blue-Chip Black: Race, Class, and Status in the New Black Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 220.

8. William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Knopf, 1996), xiii, 29–30.

9. Adolph Reed Jr., Stirrings in the Jug: Black Politics in the Post-Segregation Era (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 127–28.

10. Marwa Eltagouri, “Chicago-Area Black Population Drops as Residents Leave for South, Suburbs,” Chicago Tribune, June 24, 2016.

11. Rachael A. Woldoff, White Flight/Black Flight: The Dynamics of Racial Change in an American Neighborhood (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 158–59.

12. Ebony, “The Black Middle Class: Where it Lives,” August 1987, 40.

13. Mary Mitchell, “Changing Chatham: Neighborhood Struggles with Class Divide,” Chicago Sun-Times, June 27, 2011. For an ethnographic study of intraracial class conflict on the South Side in the 2000s, see Mary Pattillo, Black on the Block: The Politics of Race and Class in the City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

14. Eugene Robinson, Disintegration: The Splintering of Black America (New York: Doubleday, 2010), 226–27; Melvin Oliver and Thomas Shapiro, Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality (New York: Routledge, 1997), 190–91.

15. Patrick Reardon, “Redlining Drains City, Aids Suburbs,” Chicago Tribune, August 11, 1986.

16. Oliver and Shapiro, Black Wealth/White Wealth, 12.

17. Cheryl L. Reed and Monifa Thomas, “Blacks Hurt by Gap in Home Values,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 13, 2005.

18. Mary Mitchell, “Changing Chatham: A Look Back at a Neighborhood in Transition,” Chicago Sun-Times, June 25, 2011.

19. Bart Landry, The New Black Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 3, 72, 78.

20. Vernon Jordan Jr., “The Truth about the Black Middle Class,” Newsweek, July 8, 1974, 11. For the economic parity argument, see Ben Wattenberg and Richard Scammon, “Black Progress and Liberal Rhetoric,” Commentary, April 1, 1973, 35–44.

21. Michael B. Katz, Mark J. Stern, and Jamie J. Fader, “The New African-American Inequality,” The Journal of American History 92, no. 1 (June 2005): 77.

22. Gary Orfield and Erica Frankenberg, with Jongyeon Ee and John Kuscera, Brown at 60: Great Progress, a Long Retreat and an Uncertain Future, Civil Rights Project, May 2014, 2, 10, 20, 24–25, http://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integration-and-diversity/brown-at-60-great-progress-a-long-retreat-and-an-uncertain-future/Brown-at-60-051814.pdf.

23. Jonathan Kozol, The Shame of the Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling in America (New York: Crown Publishers, 2005).

24. Jonathan Kozol, Savage Inequalities (New York: Crown Publishers, 1991).

25. Diane Ravitch, Reign of Error: The Hoax of the Privatization Movement and the Danger to America’s Public Schools (New York: Knopf, 2013).

26. Donald Tomaskovic-Devey, Kevin Stainback, Tiffany Taylor, Catherine Zimmer, Corre Robinson, and Tricia McTague, “Documenting Desegregation: Segregation in American Workplaces by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex, 1966–2003,” American Sociological Review 71, no. 4 (August 2006): 567.

27. Tomaskovic-Devey et al., “Documenting Desegregation: Segregation in American Workplaces by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex, 1966–2003,” 573, 585–86; Thomas A. Johnson, “Blacks Dubious about Role in Corporations,” New York Times, October 12, 1980, 44; Carol Hymowitz, “Taking a Chance: Many Blacks Jump Off the Corporate Ladder to Be Entrepreneurs,” Wall Street Journal, August 2, 1984, 1; Business Week, “Blacks Who Left Dead-End Jobs to Go It Alone,” February 20, 1984, 106; Jonathan P. Hicks, “Black Professionals Refashion Their Careers,” New York Times, November 29, 1985, A1.

28. Nicholas McBride, “In Business and in College, Blacks Caught in a Squeeze,” Christian Science Monitor, January 20, 1987, 3.

29. John Bound and Richard B. Freeman, “What Went Wrong? The Erosion of Relative Earnings and Employment among Young Black Men in the 1980s,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 107, no. 1 (February 1992): 208, 215.

30. Chicago Tribune, “Recession, Cutbacks Hurt Urban Blacks Most,” March 10, 1982.

31. Lynn Norment, “How to Succeed in Corporate America,” Ebony, August 1987, 51–54.

32. Robert W. Goldfarb, “Black Men Are Last,” New York Times, March 14, 1980, 27.

33. Robert S. Greenberger, “Job-Bias Alert: Firms Prod Managers to Keep Eye on Goal of Equal Employment,” Wall Street Journal, May 17, 1982, 2.

34. Joan Rigdon and Carol Hymowitz, “For Black Men, Success Resolves Few Problems,” Wall Street Journal, August 9, 1992.

35. Travis, Racism, 1–2; Russell Barta, “The Representation of Poles, Italians, Hispanics, and Blacks in the Executive Suites of Chicago’s Largest Corporations,” Institute of Urban Life, National Center for Urban Ethnic Affairs (Chicago, 1984), 3.

36. Elijah Anderson, “The Social Situation of the Black Executive: Black and White Identities in the Corporate World,” in The Cultural Territories of Race: Black and White Boundaries, Michèle Lamont, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 8.

37. Erin Kelly and Frank Dobbin, “How Affirmative Action Became Diversity Management,” American Behavorial Scientist 41, no. 7 (April 1998): 961, 967, 981.

38. Dudley Onderdonk, Donald DeMarco, and Kathy Cardona, “Integration in Housing: A Plan for Racial Diversity,” Village of Park Forest, 1977; Carole Goodwin, The Oak Park Strategy: Community Control of Racial Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).

39. Chicago Defender, “Praise Suburb’s Compliance,” January 23, 1973, 8.

40. “Why Can't We Live Together?” Dateline, NBC News, January 1, 1997.

41. Monifa Thomas, “No Guarantee of Opportunity,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 15, 2005.

42. Janita Poe, “Rapidly Changing Matteson Sets a Course to Woo Whites,” Chicago Tribune, April 17, 1995.

43. Mary Pattillo, “Black Middle-Class Neighborhoods,” Annual Review of Sociology 31 (2005): 305–29.

44. Robert Putnam, “E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century,” Scandinavian Political Studies 30, no. 2 (June 2007): 150–51.

45. Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The American Case against a Black Middle Class,” The Atlantic.com, January 22, 2013, http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/01/the-american-case-against-a-black-middle-class/267385/, accessed October 13, 2013.

46. Nancy DiTomaso, The American Non-Dilemma: Racial Inequality without Racism (New York: Russell Sage, 2013), 318–20.

47. Russell Berman, “As White Americans Give Up on the American Dream, Blacks and Hispanics Embrace It,” The Atlantic, September 4, 2015, https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/09/the-surprising-optimism-of-african-americans-and-lati-nos/401054/, accessed February 16, 2017; Tami Luhby, “Why Blacks Believe in the American Dream More than Whites,” CNNMoney, November 25, 2015, http://money.cnn.com/2015/11/24/news/economy/race-american-dream/, accessed February 3, 2017.

48. Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2005); Andrew Cherlin, “Why Are White Death Rates Rising?” New York Times, February 22, 2016.