Introduction. A Principle Both Moral and Commercial

1. Free Produce Society of Pennsylvania, Constitution of the Free Produce Society of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: D. & S. Neall, 1827); Judith Wellman, The Road to Seneca Falls: Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the First Woman’s Rights Convention (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 74, 93, 109. “Boycott” is a late nineteenth-century term, referring to the anticolonial protest of Irish peasants against British landlords. The word “boycott” is derived from the name of British land agent, Captain Charles Boycott, and was popularized in the nineteenth century by Scottish-born American journalist, James Redpath. In 1880, when Boycott attempted to evict tenants from his employer’s land, local residents protested Boycott’s action by refusing to work his fields or to trade with him. Ostracized and isolated, Boycott and his family were forced to work the fields themselves. In the United States, reporting on the protest, Redpath coined the word “boycott,” claiming the word more effectively described the tactic of ostracism. As historian Lawrence Glickman argues, Redpath “invented the word ‘boycott’ because it was short and catchy, more likely to be adopted by both the press and the protestors.” See Lawrence Glickman, Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 121–127; Monroe Friedman, Consumer Boycotts: Effecting Change through the Marketplace and the Media (New York: Routledge, 1999). Since 1880, the word “boycott” has been applied to an array of consumer protests at the local, national, and international levels. For the modern reader and consumer, “boycott” is more descriptive than the less familiar phrase “free produce,” which was used most regularly by antislavery activists, though both “boycott” and “free produce,” as well as “abstention,” refer to forms of consumer activism.

2. William Lloyd Garrison to Richard P. Hunt, May 1, 1840, in The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, ed. Walter M. Merrill and Louis Ruchames (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971–1981), 2:594–596; William Lloyd Garrison to Thomas McClintock, May 1, 1840, McClintock-Neeley Collection, Women’s Rights National Park Historic Park, Seneca Falls, New York.

3. Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 30, 1829; Wendell Phillips Garrison and Francis Jackson Garrison, William Lloyd Garrison, 1805–1879: The Story of His Life Told by His Children, 4 vols. (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1894), 1:152, 264. Ruth Ketring Nuermberger claims Garrison was responsible for the inclusion of a free-produce resolution in the American Anti-Slavery Society’s “Declaration of Sentiments” in 1833, a view Carol Faulkner challenges noting the presence at the convention of free-produce supporters Lucretia Mott, Sidney Ann Lewis, and Lydia White. See Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (New York: AMS Press, 1942), 21; Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 390–391.

4. Liberator, June 18, 1836; March 5, 1847; March 1, 1850; Glickman, Buying Power, 83–84, 332n33.

5. Florence Kelley, “My Philadelphia,” Survey 57 (October 1, 1926): 54; A Memorial to Sarah Pugh: A Tribute of Respect from Her Cousins (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1888), 14, 23, 33–34; Minutes of the American Free Produce Association, October 15, 1839, reel 31, Pennsylvania Abolition Society, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (hereafter cited as AFPA, HSP).

6. Liberator, July 18, 1835; Angelina Grimké Weld to Elizabeth Pease, August 14, 1839, in British and American Abolitionists: An Episode in Transatlantic Understanding, ed. Clare Taylor (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1974), 79; Liberator, March 1, 1850.

7. Liberator, March 5, 1847; June 18, 1847; Non-Slaveholder, April 1847.

8. Liberator, March 1, 1850.

9. Wendell Phillips Garrison, “Free Produce among the Quakers,” Atlantic Monthly, October 1868, 493.

10. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 59, 113.

11. For American abstention and free produce, see Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil”; Glickman, Buying Power, 61–89; Stacey Robertson, Hearts Beating for Liberty: Women Abolitionists in the Old Northwest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 67–90; Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Abolitionist Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 20–22; Beth Salerno, Sister Societies: Women’s Antislavery Organizations in Antebellum America (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2005), 17–19. For the British movement, see Charlotte Sussman, Consuming Anxieties: Consumer Protest, Gender, and British Slavery, 1713–1833 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000), 110–29; Clare Midgley, Women against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London: Routledge, 1992); Clare Midgley, Feminism and Empire: Women Activists in Imperial Britain (London: Routledge, 2007); Elizabeth Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects: Women, Shopping, and Business in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 37–51; Anna Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement and British Anti-Slavery Campaigns: The Free Labour Cotton Depot in Street, 1852–1858” (doctoral thesis, University of Brighton, 2012). To date, no full history of the British free-produce movement has been written.

12. Glickman, Buying Power, 35–36, 322n9. See also E. P. Thompson, “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century,” Past and Present 50 (February 1971): 79; Barbara Clark Smith, “Food Rioters and the American Revolution,” William and Mary Quarterly 51 (January 1994): 11; Phyllis Whitman Hunter, Purchasing Identity in the Atlantic World: Massachusetts Merchants, 1670–1780 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001), 104. The food riots described by Thompson, Smith, and Hunter were attempts by the working poor to restore what they perceived as their right to a supply of food at a reasonable price.

13. Mimi Sheller, “Bleeding Humanity and Gendered Embodiments: From Antislavery Sugar Boycotts to Ethical Consumers,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 2 (Summer 2011): 188.

14. The fair-trade movement is just one example of modern consumer activism. See Keith R. Brown, Buying into Fair Trade: Culture, Morality, and Consumption (New York: New York University Press, 2013).

15. British and American abolitionists who supported the immediate and unconditional abolition of slavery used the word “immediatism” to define their style of activism. See John Stauffer, “Immediatism,” in The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, ed. Junius P. Rodriguez (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 1997), 1:364.

16. Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil,” 392; Proceedings of the Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women, Philadelphia, May 15, 16, 17, and 18, 1838 (Philadelphia, 1838), 7.

17. Roger Bruns, “Benjamin Lay: The Exploits of an Ardent Abolitionist,” American History Illustrated 14 (May 1979): 14–22; David Waldstreicher, “Benjamin Franklin, Religion, and Early Antislavery,” in The Problem of Evil: Slavery, Freedom, and the Ambiguities of American Reform, ed. Steven Mintz and John Stauffer (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), 168–169. “Guerilla theater” is from Waldstreicher.

18. John Woolman, A Plea for the Poor; or, A Word of Remembrance and Caution to the Rich, repr., John Woolman, The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman, ed. Phillips P. Moulton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 238.

19. Kirsten Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil: Strategic Deceptions in Eighteenth-Century Antislavery,” Journal of American History 97 (2010): 324–325; Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 406–424.

20. Barbara Welter, “The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820–1860,” American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151–174. An extensive literature examines the concept of “separate spheres.” For two of the most helpful, see Linda Kerber, “Separate Worlds, Female Worlds, Woman’s Place: The Rhetoric of Women’s History,” Journal of American History 75 (1988): 9–39; Amanda Vickery, “Golden Age to Separate Spheres? A Review of the Categories and Chronology of English Women’s History,” Historical Journal 36 (1993): 383–414.

21. The historiography of the consumer revolution is quite extensive. For the most useful works, see Neil McKendrick, John Brewer, and J. H. Plumb, The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth Century England (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982); John Brewer and Roy Porter, eds., Consumption and the World of Goods (New York: Routledge, 1993); Grant McCracken, Culture and Consumption: New Approaches to the Symbolic Character of Consumer Goods and Activities (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988); T. H. Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); Ann Smart Martin, Buying into the World of Goods: Consumers in Backcountry Virginia (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008); Ann Smart Martin, “Makers, Buyers, and Users: Consumerism as a Material Culture Framework,” Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 141–157; Cary Carson, “The Consumer Revolution in Colonial British America: Why Demand?” in Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, ed. Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1994), 483–697.

22. Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects, 5.

23. See S. Bradley Shaw, “The Pliable Rhetoric of Domesticity,” in The Stowe Debate: Rhetorical Strategies in Uncle Tom’s Cabin, ed. Mason I. Lowance, Ellen E. Westbrook, and R. D. DeProspo (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 73–98.

24. Richard S. Newman, “ ‘A Chosen Generation’: Black Founders and Early America,” in Prophets of Protest: Reconsidering the History of American Abolitionism, ed. Timothy Patrick McCarthy and John Stauffer (New York: New Press, 2006), 63, 67.

25. Freedom’s Journal, November 2, 1827.

26. See Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720–1840 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 5. Nash argues that free blacks in Philadelphia “pursued their goal of a dignified and secure existence.… Recognizing the obstacles they faced, and maneuvering within boundaries that most of them had only limited resources to redefine, they tested, contested, sometimes transcended, and sometimes succumbed to the power of white Philadelphians above, among, and around them” (5).

27. Seymour Drescher, Capitalism and Antislavery: British Mobilization in Comparative Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), x.

28. Elihu Burritt, Twenty Reasons for Total Abstinence from Slave-Labour Produce (Bucklersbury, UK: J. Unwin, n.d.).

29. Geoffrey Plank, John Woolman’s Path to the Peaceable Kingdom: A Quaker in the British Empire (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 83.

30. See, e.g., Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 83–99.

31. Samuel J. May to John Estlin, May 2, 1848, Samuel J. May Papers, Boston Public Library, Boston (hereafter cited as May Papers, BPL).

32. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 89–91; Carol Lasser, “Immediatism, Dissent, and Gender: Women, and the Sentimentalization of Transatlantic Anti-Slavery Appeals,” in Women, Dissent, and Anti-Slavery in Britain and America, 1790–1865, ed. Elizabeth J. Clapp and Julie Roy Jeffrey (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 111–112.

33. See Ellen Hartigan-O’Connor, “ ‘She Said She Did Not Know Money’: Urban Women and Atlantic Markets in the Revolutionary Era,” Early American Studies 4 (2006): 323.

34. Liberator, March 5, 1847.

35. Elizur Wright Jr., “On Abstinence from the Products of Slave Labor,” Quarterly Anti-Slavery Magazine 1 (1836): 395.

36. William Goodell to Lewis C. Gunn, August 29, 1838, repr., Minutes of the Requited Labor Convention, Philadelphia, May 17 and 18, 1838; September 5 and 6, 1838 (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838), 16.

37. Edward E. Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 2014), 321–322. For the connection between slavery and economic growth, see also Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014); Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013); Joshua Rothman, Flush Times and Fever Dreams: A Story of Capitalism and Slavery in the Age of Jackson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012); Craig Steven Wilder, Ebony and Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of America’s Universities (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013). For a broader geographic and temporal perspective, see Joseph Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

38. Seth Rockman, “Slavery and Capitalism,” Journal of the Civil War Era, http://journalofthecivilwarera.org/forum-the-future-of-civil-war-era-studies/the-future-of-civil-war-era-studies-slavery-and-capitalism.

39. Elihu Burritt to George W. Taylor, September 29, 1846, Taylor Family Papers, Coll. No. 1179, Quaker Collection, Haverford College, Haverford, Penn. (hereafter cited as QC, HC).

40. Sarah Pugh, Diary Entry, January 1846, in A Memorial to Sarah Pugh, 35–36.

41. Ibid., August 1844, 33–34.

1. Prize Goods

1. Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (New York: AMS Press, 1942), 4–5. See also Ryan P. Jordan, Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 36; Geoffrey Plank, John Woolman’s Path to the Peaceable Kingdom: A Quaker in the British Empire (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 152; Thomas P. Slaughter, The Beautiful Soul of John Woolman: Apostle of Abolition (New York: Hill and Wang, 2008); David Waldstreicher, “Benjamin Franklin, Religion, and Early Antislavery,” in The Problem of Evil: Slavery, Freedom, and the Ambiguities of American Reform, ed. Steven Mintz and John Stauffer (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), 168–169.

2. There is some debate about the length of Lay’s residency in Barbados with estimates ranging from one to thirteen years. See Roberts Vaux, Memoirs of the Lives of Benjamin Lay and Ralph Sandiford: Two of the Earliest Public Advocates for the Emancipation of the Enslaved Africans (Philadelphia: Solomon W. Conrad, 1815), 17–20; C. Brightwen Rowntree, “Benjamin Lay,” Journal of the Friends’ Historical Society 33 (1936): 3–13. For the debate, see David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), 322n59.

3. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 4; Waldstreicher, “Benjamin Franklin,” 168; Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 100–101; Brycchan Carey, From Peace to Freedom: Quaker Rhetoric and the Birth of American Antislavery, 1657–1761 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2012), 164–172. See also Vaux, Memoirs.

4. Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 101, 102–104, 105–106; Geoffrey Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature: John Woolman, His Clothes, and His Journal,” Slavery and Abolition (March 2009): 70–71; John Woolman, The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman, ed. Phillips P. Moulton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 36–38, 119; Jean R. Soderlund, Quakers and Slavery: A Divided Spirit (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985), 15–17.

5. Ross Martinie Eiler, “Luxury, Capitalism, and the Quaker Reformation, 1737–1798,” Quaker History 97 (Spring 2008): 14–18.

6. James Walvin, “Slavery, the Slave Trade and the Churches,” Quaker Studies 12 (March 2008): 190, 191. Walvin cites the examples of George Whitefield and John Newton: “George Whitefield, an evangelist in America, did not approve of slavery—but he nonetheless owned slaves. The young slave captain, John Newton, saw nothing odd as he put rebellious Africans in the thumbscrews before settling down to pray for a safe and profitable passage to the Americas.… Throughout [this period], whatever unease or discomfort, there was no sense that slave ownership was irreligious; it was a matter of rendering unto Caesar” (190). Until recently, scholars have dismissed early Quaker antislavery as being of little consequence. Historians, according to Brycchan Carey, recognize the intimate connection between the early history of Quakerism and the early history of abolitionism; yet, those same historians generally dismiss these early efforts, dated between 1650 and 1750, as having “little impact” on the eventual development of abolitionism. As Carey argues, historians “have paid more attention to results and outcomes than to process.” Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 2–3. Geoffrey Plank makes a similar argument in his biography of John Woolman, noting the presence of an older strand of abolitionist historiography that dismisses early abolitionism as of little consequence. More recent work has adopted what Plank describes as a “deeper chronological perspective, which allows us to assess the full contribution of the Quakers.” Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 239n18. In addition to Carey’s and Plank’s work, see also Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Maurice Jackson, Let This Voice Be Heard: Anthony Benezet, Father of Atlantic Abolitionism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009).

7. Pink Dandelion, The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 2–8. In his longer examination of Quaker theology, Dandelion claims, “this intimacy with Christ, this relationship of direct revelation, is alone foundational and definitional of the movement. It does not describe any period or branch of Quaker theology sufficiently … [rather] Quakerism has had its identity constructed around this experience and insight.” Pink Dandelion, An Introduction to Quakerism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 22. See also Hugh Barbour, The Quakers in Puritan England (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1964); H. Larry Ingle, First among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

8. Dandelion, Introduction to Quakerism, 13–24.

9. Thomas D. Hamm, The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 7–8; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 30–31; A. Glenn Crothers, Quakers Living in the Lion’s Mouth: The Society of Friends in Northern Virginia, 1730–1865 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2012), 20–21.

10. Crothers, Quakers Living in the Lion’s Mouth; Dandelion, Quakers, 22, 37–43; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 28–30. See also Barry Levy, Quakers and the American Family: British Settlement in the Delaware Valley (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). In the 1660s, as Friends were formalizing their meeting structure, separate men’s and women’s business meetings were recommended at all levels, each with their own areas of responsibility. George Fox believed this was necessary for women to have their own voice. The first women’s yearly meeting was not established until 1784, more than one hundred years after Fox’s call for such meetings. See Dandelion, Quakers, 22.

11. Dandelion, Quakers, 23; Crothers, Quakers Living in the Lion’s Mouth, 20–21.

12. See, e.g., Deuteronomy 24:7: “If a man be found stealing any of his brethren of the children of Israel, and maketh merchandise of him, or selleth him; then that thief shall die; and thou shalt put evil away from among you.”

13. “Germantown Friends’ Protest against Slavery,” in The Quaker Origins of Antislavery, ed. J. William Frost (Norwood, Penn.: Norwood Editions, 1980), 69. Frost’s version is based on a nineteenth-century transcription. See also Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 71–86. Carey reproduces the original manuscript, recovering the original orthography.

14. Thomas E. Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), 11–14; Soderlund, Quakers and Slavery, 18; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 83–85.

15. Travis Glasson, Mastering Christianity: Missionary Anglicanism and Slavery in the Atlantic World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 52–53; Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America, 14–15; Carla Gardina Pestana, Protestant Empire: Religion and the Making of the British Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 111. See also Ethyn Williams Kirby, George Keith, 1693–1716 (New York: American Historical Association, 1942); J. William Frost, The Keithian Controversy in Early Pennsylvania (Norwood, Penn.: Norwood Editions, 1980); Jon Butler, “ ‘Gospel Order Improved’: The Keithian Schism and the Exercise of Quaker Ministerial Authority in Pennsylvania,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 31 (July 1974): 431–452.

16. William Bradford and George H. Moore, “The First Printed Protest against Slavery in America,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 13 (October 1889): 265–270; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 91–92. For the fruits of the Spirit, see Galatians 5:22–23.

17. “Robert Piles,” in Frost, Quaker Origins of Antislavery, 71–72; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 101.

18. See Maxine Berg, “Luxury, the Luxury Trades, and the Roots of Industrial Growth: A Global Perspective,” in The History of Consumption, ed. Frank Trentmann (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 173–191; Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985).

19. John Hepburn, The American Defence of the Christian Golden Rule; or, An Essay to Prove the Unlawfulness of Making Slaves of Men. By Him who Loves the Freedom of the Souls and the Bodies of All Men (New York, 1715), 82–122; Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America, 34–35; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 123–142; Davis, Problem of Slavery in Western Culture, 317.

20. Hepburn, American Defence of the Golden Rule, 82–122, esp. 90–91, 118. See also Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America, 34–35; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 123–142; Davis, Problem of Slavery in Western Culture, 317.

21. Robert Bruns, ed., Am I Not a Man and a Brother: The Antislavery Crusade of Revolutionary America, 1688–1788 (New York: Chelsea House, 1977), 16; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 127.

22. As quoted in Oliver Pickering, “ ‘The Quakers Tea Table Overturned’: An Eighteenth-Century Moral Satire,” Quaker Studies 17 (March 2013): 252.

23. Society of Friends, London Yearly Meeting: Extracts from the Minutes and Advices of the Yearly Meeting of Friends Held in London, from its First Institution (London: James Phillips, 1783), 186.

24. As quoted in Pickering, “ ‘Quakers Tea Table,’ ” 252.

25. Ralph Sandiford, The Mystery of the Iniquity: In a Brief Examination of the Practice of the Times, by the Foregoing and Present Dispensation (Philadelphia, 1730), 5; Ralph Sandiford, A Brief Examination of the Practice of the Times, by the Foregoing and the Present Dispensation (Philadelphia, 1729).

26. J. William Frost, “Quaker Antislavery: From Dissidence to Sense of the Meeting,” Quaker History 101 (Spring 2012): 18. As Frost argues, “Unlike Hepburn … the Quaker belief in authoritative personal revelation and his knowledge that there were many who agreed with him gave Sandiford the confidence to disagree with the weighty Friends who dominated the meeting.” See also Davis, Problem of Slavery in Western Culture, 320. Davis claims Sandiford had more in common with his successor Benjamin Lay than with his predecessor Hepburn. Unlike Hepburn, Sandiford and Lay “were ready to be ostracized or even to die for the cause; and their works drip with blood and smell of the smoke and ash of hell.” Brycchan Carey describes Sandiford’s book as “an amalgam of the previous half-century’s writing on slavery, embedded within a particularly dense piece of religious rhetoric.” It was, as Carey notes, “a strategic intervention in the political debate” about the slave trade. “Its rhetoric, while certainly thundering forth from the pulpit … also betrays moments of conciliation and even of political shrewdness.” Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 131, 147.

27. Sandiford, “Dedication,” in Brief Examination, n.p. See also Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 150.

28. Sandiford, “Dedication,” in Brief Examination; Sandiford, Mystery of the Iniquity, 107.

29. Sandiford, Mystery of the Iniquity, 7. See also Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 159.

30. Vaux, Memoirs, 39–43.

31. Alexander X. Byrd, Captives and Voyagers: Black Migrants across the Eighteenth-Century British Atlantic World (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008), 6; Michelle Craig McDonald, “Transatlantic Consumption,” in The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption, ed. Frank Trentmann (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 115–119. See also Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972); Richard B. Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 (Barbados: Caribbean Universities Press, 1973); Daniel Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981); Judith A. Carney, Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Allan Kulikoff, Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986). In his discussion of the Anglican Church’s involvement in slavery and the slave trade, James Walvin notes that the church was not alone: “Slavery ensnared each and every institution in Britain, from Parliament itself, to the humblest of manufacturers and workers laboring in slave-related industries.” Walvin, “Slavery, the Slave Trade and the Churches,” 195.

32. Grant McCracken, Culture and Consumption: New Approaches to the Symbolic Character of Consumer Goods and Activities (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 22, 19.

33. T. H. Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 304.

34. K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 1660–1760 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 385.

35. Elizabeth Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects: Women, Shopping, and Business in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 22; Francis S. Drake, ed., Tea Leaves: Being a Collection of Letters and Documents Relating to the Shipment of Tea to the American Colonies in the Year 1773, by the East India Company (Boston: A. O. Crane, 1884), 200; Breen, Marketplace of Revolution, 304.

36. Beth Carver Wees, English, Irish, and Scottish Silver at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute (New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1997), 267–269; Andrew White, “A ‘Consuming’ Oppression: Sugar, Cannibalism and John Woolman’s 1770 Slave Dream,” Quaker History 96 (Fall 2007): 14–15; Jennifer Anderson, Mahogany: The Costs of Luxury in Early America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012); Clare Midgley, Feminism and Empire: Women Activists in Imperial Britain (London: Routledge, 2007), 46; Breen, Marketplace of Revolution, 304.

37. Chaudhuri, Trading World of Asia, 385; Wendy Woloson, Refined Tastes: Sugar, Confectionery, and Consumers in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 22–23. See also Mintz, Sweetness and Power.

38. Charlotte Sussman, Consuming Anxieties: Consumer Protest, Gender, and British Slavery, 1713–1833 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000), 29–30.

39. Mintz, Sweetness and Power, 21–22, 46–47, 53; White, “A ‘Consuming’ Oppression,” 8–9.

40. Russell R. Menard, Sweet Negotiations: Sugar, Slavery, and Plantation Agriculture in Early Barbados (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006), 83–84.

41. John G. Stedman, Narrative, of a Five Years’ Expedition: Against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam, in Guiana, on the Wild Coast of South America, from the Year 1772 to 1777 (London: J. Johnson and J. Edwards, 1796), 1:315–316.

42. B. W. Higman, Slave Population and Economy in Jamaica, 1807–1834 (Kingston, Jamaica: University of West Indies Press, 1995), 121–123. Sugar plantations experienced the highest rates of mortality among the enslaved. Mortality rates declined slightly in the coffee, livestock, and pimento (allspice) industries. Mortality rates declined significantly on plantations where the cultivation of minor staples, such as pimento, was combined with coffee growing or livestock raising. See Vincent Brown, The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008), 51–52.

43. As quoted in Robert L. Paquette, Sugar Is Made with Blood: The Conspiracy of La Escalera and the Conflict between Empires over Slavery in Cuba (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 56.

44. Peter Motteux, A Poem upon Tea, repr., Literary Representations of Tea and the Tea-Table, vol. 1 of Tea and the Tea-Table in Eighteenth-Century England, ed. Markman Ellis (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2010), 38–48.

45. The Tea-Drinking Wife, and Drunken Husband, repr. Literary Representations of Tea and the Tea-Table, 163–171.

46. Jonas Hanway, A Journal of Eight Days Journey from Portsmouth to Kingston upon Thames … To Which Is Added, An Essay on Tea … (London: H. Woodfall, 1756); Sussman, Consuming Anxieties, 25–28; Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects, 21–23.

47. John Wesley, A Letter to a Friend, Concerning Tea (London, 1825); Sussman, Consuming Anxieties, 35–36.

48. As quoted in Pickering, “ ‘Quakers Tea Table,’ ” 254.

49. “Joshua Evans’s Journal,” in Friends’ Miscellany 10 (1837): 25–26. See also Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 83.

50. Jackson, Let This Voice Be Heard, 55.

51. Soderlund, Quakers and Slavery, 32–53; Carey, From Peace to Freedom, 177–182.

52. Frost, “Quaker Antislavery,” 27; Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 105–106; Phillips P. Moulton, “Woolman Chronology,” in Woolman, Journal, 17–20. For a discussion of the circumstances surrounding the publication of Woolman’s journal, including the differences between the British and the American editions, see Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 76–79.

53. John Woolman, Considerations on Pure Wisdom, and Human Policy; on Labour; on Schools; and on the Right Use of the Lord’s Outward Gifts (Philadelphia: D. Hall and W. Sellers, 1768), 4.

54. John Woolman, Considerations on Keeping Negroes: Recommended to the Professors of Christianity, of Every Denomination, Part Second (Philadelphia: B. Franklin and D. Hall, 1762), 26–27; Woolman, Considerations on Pure Wisdom, 12–17.

55. John Woolman, Considerations on the True Harmony of Mankind; and How It Is to Be Maintained (Philadelphia: Joseph Crukshank, 1770), 13–14.

56. Woolman, Considerations on Pure Wisdom, 12–17, 23; John Woolman, A Plea for the Poor; or, A Word of Remembrance and Caution to the Rich, repr., Woolman, Journal, 240.

57. Woolman, Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes, repr., Woolman, Journal, 208.

58. Woolman, Considerations on Pure Wisdom, 12–17, 23; Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 85–86.

59. Woolman, Considerations on Pure Wisdom, 13, 15; Woolman, A Plea for the Poor, 247.

60. Woolman, Considerations on Keeping Negroes, Part Second, , 43–44.

61. Woolman, Journal, 36–38; Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 67–68, 114–115.

62. Woolman, Journal, 59; Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 111.

63. Woolman, Journal, 28; Woolman, Considerations on the True Harmony of Mankind, 13.

64. Woolman, Journal, 59. See also Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 69–70; Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 111–115.

65. Woolman, Journal, 60.

66. See Isaiah 33:15: “He that walketh righteously, and speaketh uprightly; he that despiseth the gain of oppressions, that shaketh his hands from holding of bribes, that stoppeth his ears from hearing of blood, and shutteth his eyes from seeing evil.”

67. Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 120; Andrew White, “ ‘Keeping Clear from the Gain of Oppression’: ‘Public Friends’ and the De-Mastering of Quaker Race Relations in Late Colonial America” (PhD diss., University of Washington, 2003), 148–153.

68. Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 69.

69. Woolman, Journal, 65.

70. Woolman, Considerations on Keeping Negroes, Part Second, 24, 31–32; Woolman, A Plea for the Poor, 250, 259, 266; Woolman, Journal, 65, 66.

71. Woolman, Journal, 161.

72. Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 70.

73. As quoted in Henry J. Cadbury, John Woolman in England: A Documentary Supplement (Philadelphia: Friends’ Historical Society, 1971), 95, 97.

74. Woolman, Journal, 190.

75. Woolman, A Plea for the Poor, 250, 259. For a full discussion of Woolman’s clothes, see Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 67–91.

76. Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 79.

77. Vaux, Memoirs, 23–24, 67.

78. Kenneth Carroll, Joseph Nichols and the Nicholites: A Look at the “New Quakers” of Maryland, Delaware, North and South Carolina (Easton, Md.: Easton Publishing, 1962), 42–43.

79. Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 80.

80. “Joshua Evans Journal,” 21–24, 32.

81. Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 79–80; “Some Account of the Religious People Called ‘Nicholites,’ ” in Friends Miscellany 4 (1833): 245; Carroll, Joseph Nichols, 18, 20, 26.

82. DeFoe as quoted in Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 24. For more about Woolman and DeFoe, see Thomas L. Haskell, “Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility, pt. 2,” in The Antislavery Debate: Capitalism and Abolitionism as a Problem in Historical Interpretation, ed. Thomas Bender (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 158–160; John Ashworth, “The Relationship between Capitalism and Humanitarianism,” in Bender, Antislavery Debate, 186.

83. Woolman, Journal, 161.

84. White, “A ‘Consuming’ Oppression,” 1–27.

85. Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 79.

86. Joseph Woods, Thoughts on the Slavery of Negroes (London: James Phillips, 1784), 7, 18–19.

2. Blood-Stained Sugar

1. Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985), 67; Beth Carver Wees, English, Irish, and Scottish Silver at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute (New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1997), 267, 269; Clare Midgley, Feminism and Empire: Women Activists in Imperial Britain (London: Routledge, 2007), 46; Rodris Roth, Tea-Drinking in Eighteenth-Century America, repr., Material Life in America, 1600–1860, ed. Robert Blair St. George (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988); Mary Douglas and Baron Isherwood, The World of Goods: Towards an Anthropology of Consumption (New York: Routledge, 2002). See also Martin, Buying into the World of Goods, 8, 173–193. In her analysis of retail trade in eighteenth-century Virginia, Ann Smart Martin notes that slaves made up a significant portion of merchant John Hook’s business: “The number of slaves who made purchases had grown so large and their activity so regular that by the turn of the century, Hook’s storekeeper at Hale’s Ford began keeping a separate account book for their purchases.”

2. Ellen Hartigan-O’Connor, The Ties That Buy: Women and Commerce in Revolutionary America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 192.

3. Ferdinand M. Bayard, Travels of a Frenchman in Maryland and Virginia with a Description of Philadelphia and Baltimore in 1791 … , trans. Ben C. McCary (Williamsburg, Va.: Edwards Brothers, 1950), 35, 47. Bayard noted his frustration with his lack of familiarity with the coded placement of the spoon: “When the cup is sent back, care is taken to place the spoon in such a manner that it indicates whether you wish another cup, or whether you have had enough. A Frenchman who did not speak any English, and not being acquainted with this sign language, and very distressed to see the sixteenth cup arrive, hit upon the idea after having emptied it, of keeping it in his pocket until they had finished serving.”

4. Ibid., 130, 73. For more about Bayard’s American tour, see Warren R. Hofstra, The Planting of New Virginia: Settlement and Landscape in the Shenandoah Valley (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 336–337. See also Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 282, 284.

5. Elizabeth Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects: Women, Shopping, and Business in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 5; Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 95.

6. See Thomas L. Haskell, “Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility, Part 1,” and “Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility, Part 2,” in The Antislavery Debate: Capitalism and Abolitionism as a Problem in Historical Interpretation, ed. Thomas Bender (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 107–135, 136–160; John Ashworth, “The Relationship between Capitalism and Humanitarianism,” in Bender, Antislavery Debate, 180–199; Clare Midgley, “Slave Sugar Boycotts, Female Activism and the Domestic Base of British Antislavery Culture,” Slavery and Abolition 17 (1996): 150–152. Midgley, building on the arguments of Haskell and Ashworth, suggests that the rise of consumer society with its concomitant emphasis on individual choice was necessary for the development of the abstention campaign.

7. Judith Jennings, “Joseph Woods, ‘Merchant and Philosopher’: The Making of the British Anti-Slave Trade Ethic,” Slavery and Abolition 14 (December 1993): 163–164; Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 412–433; Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972), 32, 39–40; Kirsten Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil: Strategic Deceptions in Eighteenth-Century Antislavery,” Journal of American History 97 (2010): 336–337; Judith Jennings, The Business of Abolishing the Slave Trade, 1783–1807 (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 5–16, 22–23; Judith Jennings, Gender, Religion, and Radicalism in the Long Eighteenth Century: The “Ingenious Quaker” and Her Connections (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2006), 41.

8. Jennings, “Joseph Woods,” 163–164; Jennings, Business of Abolishing the Slave Trade, 23–25; Brown, Moral Capital, 424–433; Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil,” 336–337.

9. Joseph Woods, Thoughts on the Slavery of Negroes (London: James Phillips, 1784), 7, 15, 18–19, 29; Jennings, “Joseph Woods,” 165–167.

10. Jennings, “Joseph Woods,” 163–164; Brown, Moral Capital, 412–433; Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 32, 39–40; Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil,” 336–337; J. R. Oldfield, Popular Politics and British Anti-Slavery: The Mobilization of Public Opinion against the Slave Trade, 1787–1807 (Portland, Ore.: Frank Cass, 1998), 42–46.

11. Brown, Moral Capital, 430–431. See also Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil,” 316–318, 336–337.

12. Brown, Moral Capital, 433–450, 457; Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil,” 318.

13. Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 44–60; Jennings, Business of Abolishing the British Slave Trade, 34–62; Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil,” 335. See also C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1989).

14. Jennings, “Joseph Woods,” 171–172.

15. For an analysis of Fox’s identity, see Timothy Whelan, “William Fox, Martha Gurney, and Radical Discourse of the 1790s,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 42, no. 3 (2009): 404–408. See also Thomas Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade by the British Parliament (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme, 1808), 2:348.

16. See, e.g., Richard Hillier, A Vindication of the Address to the People of Great Britain on the Use of West India Produce, with Some Observations and Facts Relative to the Situation of the Slaves (London: M. Gurney, 1791); Andrew Burn, A Second Address to the People of Great Britain Containing a New, and Most Powerful Argument to Abstain from the Use of West India Sugar (London: M. Gurney, 1792); William Allen, The Duty of Abstaining from the Use of West India Produce: A Speech Delivered at Coach-maker’s Hall, January 12, 1792 (London: M. Gurney, 1792).

17. Whelan, “William Fox, Martha Gurney, and Radical Discourse,” 398–401, 403. See also Ian Maxted, The London Book Trades, 1775–1800: A Preliminary Checklist of Members (Kent, U.K.: Dawson, 1977), 84, 97.

18. Clarkson, History, 2:349–350. Methodist Samuel Bradburn estimated that more than 400,000 people participated in the boycott. Samuel Bradburn, An Address to the People Called Methodists Concerning the Evil of Encouraging the Slave Trade (Manchester: T. Harper, Smithy-Door, 1792).

19. As quoted in Earl Leslie Griggs, Thomas Clarkson: The Friend of Slaves (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1938), 69; Oldfield, Popular Politics, 58. In this same letter, Clarkson noted that sugar revenue was down £200,000. In reply, Wedgwood proposed printing 2,000 copies and adding a woodcut of the seal of the kneeling slave. Wedgwood also offered to pay the cost of preparing the print.

20. Strictures on an Address to the People of Great Britain, on the Propriety of Abstaining from West-India Sugar and Rum (London: T. Boosey, 1792), 3.

21. Whelan, “William Fox, Martha Gurney, and Radical Discourse,” 397, 402. See also Charlotte Sussman, “Women and the Politics of Sugar, 1792,” Representations 48 (Autumn 1994): 51; Clarkson, History, 1:571.

22. E.g., see Peter C. Hogg, The African Slave Trade and Its Suppression: A Classified and Annotated Bibliography of Books, Pamphlets, and Periodical Articles (London: Frank Cass, 1973), 169–175. Hogg includes four editions of Fox’s Address, but fails to note the change in title that occurred with the seventh edition. See also Whelan, “William Fox, Martha Gurney, and Radical Discourse,” 403; John H. Y. Briggs, “Baptists and the Campaign to Abolish the Slave Trade,” Baptist Quarterly 42, no. 3 (2007): 279. According to Briggs, Fox’s tract “spawned more than twenty responses, both in support and opposition, from Dissenters and Anglicans, male and female, between the summer of 1791 and the spring of 1792.” Given the transient character of these pamphlets, many more may have been printed.

23. William Fox, An Address to the People of Great Britain on the Propriety of Abstaining from West India Sugar and Rum, 24th ed. (London: M. Gurney, 1792), 10, 2–3.

24. Ibid., 12. Antisugar literature often used statistics such as these to support their claims. E.g., see New York Journal and Patriotic Register, April 25, 1792. The newspaper reporter noted claims that if 37,000 British families would abstain from sugar, slavery would be abolished!

25. Fox, An Address to the People of Great Britain, 2–3.

26. See Seymour Drescher, Capitalism and Antislavery: British Mobilization in Comparative Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 78–79; Clare Midgley, Women against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London: Routledge, 1992), 35. As Drescher argues, abstention “brought women and children directly into the orbit of the campaign.” Although abstention did bring women into the eighteenth-century abstention movement, activists such as William Fox did not specifically seek women’s support, at least in the early weeks of the campaign.

27. Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects, 22.

28. Motteux, Poem in Praise of Tea, 7.

29. William Cowper, “The Task, Book IV,” in Cowper: Verse and Letters, ed. Brian Spiller (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), 464, 466.

30. Eliza Haywood, The Female Spectator (London: A. Millar, W. Law, and R. Cater, 1775), 2:80.

31. Joseph Addison, “The Lover,” in The Miscellaneous Works, in Verse and Prose, of the Right Honourable Joseph Addison (London: J. and R. Tonson, 1765), 2:348.

32. Charles Jenner, Town Eclogues, 2nd ed. (London: T. Caddell, 1773), 11.

33. The Tea Drinking Wife, and Drunken Husband (NewCastle upon Tyne: n.p., 1749), in Literary Representations of Tea and the Tea-Table, ed. Markman Ellis, vol. 1 of Tea and the Tea-Table in Eighteenth-Century England, ed. Markman Ellis (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2010), 165.

34. Karen Harvey, “Barbarity in a Teacup? Punch, Domesticity, and Gender in the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of Design History 22, no. 3 (2008): 211; Jenner, Town Eclogues, 11.

35. Amanda Vickery, The Gentleman’s Daughter: Women’s Lives in Georgian England (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), 206–208.

36. John Galt, The Annals of the Parish and the Ayrshire Legatees, with a Memoir of the Author (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1841), 11; Alexander Warrack, comp., A Scot’s Dialect Dictionary, Comprising the Words in Use From the Latter Part of the Seventeenth Century to the Present Day (London: W. R. Chambers, 1911), 341. See also Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects, 34–36. Kowaleski-Wallace argues that the tea table conversation of working class women is a form of resistance of “patriarchal hierarchy as well as male economic and sexual control. Even though her rebellion operates only within her circle, it nonetheless suggests the subversive power of women’s speech across class lines: women’s voice retains the power to subvert discipline, to speak audibly of needs and desires.”

37. Hanway, A Journal of Eight Days Journey, 244–245, 263; Charlotte Sussman, Consuming Anxieties: Consumer Protest, Gender, and British Slavery, 1713–1833 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000), 25–31; Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects, 19–37.

38. As quoted in Elizabeth Kowaleski-Wallace, “Tea, Gender, and Domesticity in Eighteenth-Century England,” Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 23 (1994): 132; Eliza Haywood, The Tea-Table; or, A Conversation Between Some Polite Persons of Both Sexes, at a Lady’s Visiting Day … (London: J. Roberts, 1725), 1.

39. Haywood, Tea-Table, 1; The Tea Drinking Wife, and Drunken Husband, 165; Edward Young and Eliza Haywood, quoted in Kowaleski-Wallace, Consuming Subjects, 30.

40. Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, in The Vindications: The Rights of Men, The Rights of Woman, ed. D. L. Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf (Orchard Park, N.Y.: Broadview Literary Texts, 1997), 282.

41. Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 282, 286, 287, 335. See also Sussman, Consuming Anxieties, 125–126; Moira Ferguson, Subject to Others: British Women Writers and Colonial Slavery, 1670–1834 (New York: Routledge, 1992), 186–189.

42. For a discussion of economy in this period, see Karen Harvey, “Men Making Home: Masculinity and Domesticity in Eighteenth-Century Britain,” Gender and History 21 (November 2009): 532–536.

43. Cruikshank referenced a contemporary case involving Captain John Kimber, who was tried for his part in the murder of an African woman who refused to dance naked for him on the deck of his ship. A week before Cruikshank published “The Gradual Abolition of the Slave Trade,” he published a caricature of the Kimber case, “The Abolition of the Slave Trade.” For a discussion of Kimber and of the Cruikshank satire, see Brycchan Carey, British Abolitionism and the Rhetoric of Sensibility: Writing, Sentiment, and Slavery, 1760–1807 (New York: Palgrave, 2005), 179–185; Oldfield, Popular Politics, 175.

44. Allen, Duty of Abstaining, 23; An Address to Her Royal Highness the Dutchess of York, against the Use of Sugar (London, 1792), 10. In the fall of 1791, Princess Frederica of Prussia wed Prince Frederick, Duke of York. See H. M. Stephens, “Frederick, Prince, duke of York and Albany (1763–1827),” rev. John Van der Kiste, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).

45. Mary Birkett, A Poem on the African Slave Trade, Addressed to Her Own Sex, Part I (Dublin: J. Jones, 1792), 13–15.

46. Carey, British Abolitionism and the Rhetoric of Sensibility, 7–8; G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 37.

47. Kate Davies, “A Moral Purchase: Femininity, Commerce, and Abolition,” in Women and the Public Sphere: Writing and Representation, 1700–1830, ed. Elizabeth Eger, Charlotte Grant, Cliona O’Gallchoir, and Penny Warburton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 133–159.

48. Manchester Mercury, December 7, 1787.

49. Gentleman’s Magazine, July 1788.

50. Hester Thrale, Thraliana: The Diary of Mrs. Hester Lynch Thrale (Later Mrs. Piozzi), 1776–1809, ed. Katherine C. Balderston (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951), 2:714.

51. Gentleman’s Magazine, July 1788.

52. Hannah More, Slavery, a Poem (London: T. Cadell, 1788); Carey, British Abolitionism and the Rhetoric of Sensibility, 38–39.

53. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Lecture on the Slave Trade,” in Lectures 1795: On Politics and Religion, ed. Lewis Patton and Peter Mann (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971), 249.

54. Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 282. See also Sussman, Consuming Anxieties, 125–126; Ferguson, Subject to Others, 186–189.

55. Gentleman’s Magazine, April 1789; Carey, British Abolitionism and the Rhetoric of Sensibility, 90.

56. Strictures on an Address, 4.

57. European Magazine and London Review, March 1792.

58. Monthly Review, October 1791.

59. Carey, British Abolitionism and the Rhetoric of Sensibility, 88.

60. House of Commons, Select Committee Appointed to Take the Examination of Witnesses Respecting the African Slave Trade, An Abstract of the Evidence Delivered before a Select Committee of the House of Commons in the Years 1790 and 1791; On the Part of the Petitioners for the Abolition of the Slave Trade (Edinburgh, 1791), 70–72. See also Deidre Coleman, “Conspicuous Consumption: White Abolitionism and English Women’s Protest Writing in the 1790s,” ELH [English Literary History] 61 (Summer 1994): 356. Coleman argues that “women’s cruelty was not random and indiscriminate”; rather, women’s punishment of their slaves was “for sexual reasons.” She continues, “The slave-master husband who has right of sexual access to his wife also has right of access to his slaves; thus it comes about that oppressed white women victimize their even more oppressed women slaves.”

61. Mary Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the Rights of Men, in The Vindications, 79.

62. Benjamin Flower, The French Constitution … , 2nd ed. (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1792), 452–453.

63. Coleman, “Conspicuous Consumption,” 355–356.

64. Anna Letitia Barbauld, Epistle to William Wilberforce, Esq.: On the Rejection of the Bill for Abolishing the Slave Trade (London: T. Johnson, 1791).

65. Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 282. See also Sussman, Consuming Anxieties, 125–126; Ferguson, Subject to Others, 186–189.

66. Clarkson, History, 2:190–191.

67. See, e.g., Rachel Hope Cleves, The Reign of Terror in America: Visions of Violence from Anti-Jacobinism to Antislavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

68. “The Slaves: An Elegy,” Scot’s Magazine, April 1788.

69. Ian Haywood, “Bloody Vignettes,” in Bloody Romanticism: Spectacular Violence and the Politics of Representation, 1773–1832 (New York: Palgrave, 2006), 11.

70. Thomas Tryon, Friendly Advice to the Gentleman Planters of the East and West Indies: In Three Parts (London: Andrew Sowle, 1684), 96.

71. Ralph Sandiford, dedication, to A Brief Examination of the Practice of the Times, by the Foregoing and the Present Dispensation (Philadelphia, 1729); Fox, Address to the People of Great Britain, 4.

72. Thomas Cooper, Letters on the Slave Trade: First Published in Wheeler’s Manchester Chronicle; and Since Re-Printed with Additions and Alterations (Manchester: C. Wheeler, 1787), 25.

73. Coleridge, “Lecture on the Slave Trade,” 248.

74. Burn, Second Address, 1–12.

75. Clarkson, History, 2:269; Oldfield, Popular Politics, 174–175. Oldfield suggests that by embellishing Francis’s testimony before the House of Commons, Gillray “cast doubt on the authenticity of the story and the reliability of the source.” Francis’s testimony was reported in the United States. See “Observations upon Negro Slavery,” Universal Asylum and Columbian Magazine, November 1790.

76. European Magazine and London Review, March 1792.

77. Although Hillier’s pamphlet is included in Hogg’s substantial bibliography of the slave trade debate, the female apologist’s tract is not. See Hogg, African Slave Trade, 169–175.

78. An Answer to a Pamphlet Intituled [sic] An Address to the People of England against the Use of West India Produce (Whitechapel: W. Moon, 1791), 4–7.

79. Carey, British Abolitionism and the Rhetoric of Sensibility, 124, 127, 130.

80. Hillier, Vindication of an Address to the People of Great Britain, 18.

81. Ibid., 3; Midgley, Women against Slavery, 26.

82. Answer to a Pamphlet, 3: “The Writer of this little piece, considering that God made of one blood all the nations which dwell on the face of the earth, has no more partiality to the colour of the skin than the Author of the Pamphlet can have; nor is she so devoid of the feelings of humanity or of Christian principles, as to wish slavery and oppression to any individual of the human race.” This is the only reference to the author’s gender.

83. Susan Staves, “ ‘The Abuse of Title Pages’: Men Writing as Women,” in A Concise Companion to the Restoration and the Eighteenth Century, ed. Cynthia Wall (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2005), 162–182; John Mullan, Anonymity: A Secret History of the English Language (London: Faber and Faber, 2007), 128–129.

84. Richard Hillier, A Vindication of the Address to the People of Great-Britain on the Use of West India Produce with Some Observations and Facts Relative to the Situation of the Slaves. In Answer to a Female Apologist for Slavery. The Second Edition, with Strictures on Her Reply to a Reply (London: M. Gurney, 1791), 24.

85. Srividhya Swaminathan, Debating the Slave Trade Rhetoric of British National Identity, 1759–1815 (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2009).

86. Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire’s Slaves (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 226–234.

87. Ibid., 235–236. The Times as quoted in Hochschild.

88. William Fox, Thoughts on the Death of the King of France (London: J. Ridgway, W. Richardson, T. Whieldon and Butterworth, M. Gurney, 1793), 16. See John Barrell, Imagining the King’s Death: Figurative Treason, Fantasies of Regicide, 1793–1796 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 1, 81.

89. Barrell, Imagining the King’s Death, 82, 86.

90. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 193; Midgley, Women against Slavery, 38–40; Drescher, Capitalism and Slavery, 79, 216–217n47; Seymour Drescher, Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition, 2nd ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 116–117; Coleman, “Conspicuous Consumption,” 342; Oldfield, Popular Politics, 185–187.

3. Striking at the Root of Corruption

1. Dunlap’s Daily American Advertiser, May 11, 1792; May 14, 1792; New-York Journal and Patriotic Register, May 19, 1792; New York Magazine, or Literary Repository, March 1793. Daily American Advertiser May 11, 1792; May 14, 1792, quoted in David N. Gellman, Emancipating New York: The Politics of Slavery and Freedom, 1777–1827 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 92.

2. New-York Journal and Patriotic Register, March 14, 1792; New Jersey Journal, March 14, 1792.

3. Kirsten Sword, “Remembering Dinah Nevil: Strategic Deceptions in Eighteenth-Century Antislavery,” Journal of American History 97 (2010): 317.

4. Geoffrey Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature: John Woolman, His Clothes, and His Journal,” Slavery and Abolition (March 2009): 79.

5. See Plank’s discussion of the important differences between the British and American editions of Woolman’s journal; Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 76–79.

6. Geoffrey Plank, John Woolman’s Path to the Peaceable Kingdom: A Quaker in the British Empire (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 208–210.

7. John Woolman, Considerations on Keeping Negroes: Recommended to the Professors of Christianity, of Every Denomination, Part Second (Philadelphia: B. Franklin and D. Hall, 1762), 232–233; Maurice Jackson, Let This Voice Be Heard: Anthony Benezet, Father of Atlantic Abolitionism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 72–80.

8. Joshua Evans, Journal Transcription, 1731–1798, Joshua Evans Papers, RG 5/190, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College, 190–191, 194, 216.

9. Benjamin Franklin, Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, &c. (Boston: S. Kneeland, 1755), 5–6, 8; Benjamin Rush, An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements, on the Slavery of Negroes (Philadelphia: John Dunlap, 1773), 6–7; Eva Sheppard Wolf, “Early Free-Labor Thought and the Contest over Slavery in the Early Republic,” in Contesting Slavery: The Politics of Bondage and Freedom in the New American Nation, ed. John Craig Hammond and Matthew Mason (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2011), 32–37.

10. Wolf, “Early Free-Labor Thought,” 32–34, 37–38; “Rusticus,” quoted by Wolf, 38.

11. Alan Taylor, William Cooper’s Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 30–34; Gellman, Emancipating New York, 92.

12. David W. Maxey, “The Union Farm: Henry Drinker’s Experiment in Deriving Profit from Virtue,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 107 (October 1983): 614; Taylor, William Cooper’s Town, 115–117, 119–126. See also David W. Maxey, “Of Castles in Stockport and Other Strictures: Samuel Preston’s Contentious Agency for Henry Drinker,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 110 (July 1986): 413–446.

13. Maxey, “The Union Farm,” 612–613, 618; Taylor, William Cooper’s Town, 115–126; Henry Drinker, quoted in Maxey, 612.

14. Remarks on the Manufacturing of Maple Sugar: With Directions for Its Further Improvement; Collected by a Society of Gentlemen, in Philadelphia, and Published for the General Information and Benefit of the Citizens of the United States (Philadelphia: James and Johnson, 1790).

15. Remarks on the Manufacturing of Maple Sugar: With Directions for Its Further Improvement; Collected by a Society of Gentlemen, in Philadelphia, and Published for the General Information and Benefit of the Citizens of the United States (London: James Phillips, 1791); New-York Literary Magazine, or Literary Repository, January 1791, 34–37; February 1791, 69–72.

16. Benjamin Rush, An Account of the Sugar-Maple Tree of the United States, and of the Methods of Obtaining Sugar from It, Together with Observations upon the Advantages Both Public and Private of This Sugar: In a Letter to Thomas Jefferson, Esq. Secretary of State of the United States, and One of the Vice-Presidents of the American Philosophical Society (London: James Phillips, 1792). See also David N. Gellman, “Pirates, Sugar, Debtors, and Slaves: Political Economy and the Case for Gradual Emancipation in New York,” Slavery and Abolition 22 (August 2001): 56.

17. Jacques Brissot de Warville, New Travels in the United States of America: Including the Commerce of America with Europe; Particularly France and Great Britain, 2 vols. (London: J. S. Jordan, 1794), 1: 255–260; New York Magazine, or Literary Repository, August 1792; David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1975), 94–95.

18. Albany Journal, November 3, 1788.

19. Supporters of maple sugar production, quoted in Gellman, Emancipating New York, 93.

20. Editors of the Daily Advertiser, quoted in Wolf, “Early Free-Labor,” 38.

21. New Jersey Journal, May 19, 1792; March 14, 1792.

22. New York Journal and Patriotic Register, March 14, 1792; May 19, 1792.

23. Gellman, Emancipating New York, 93.

24. Wendy Woloson, Refined Tastes: Sugar, Confectionery, and Consumers in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 29.

25. Anna Davis Hallowell, James and Lucretia Mott: Life and Letters (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1884), 88.

26. Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720–1840 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 43–44, 92–94, 103–109. See also Beverly C. Tomek, Colonization and Its Discontents: Emancipation, Emigration, and Antislavery in Antebellum Pennsylvania (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 1–8, 27–34.

27. Edward E. Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 2014), 8–11.

28. “Supply of Sugar,” Federal Republican (Elizabethtown, NJ), November 28, 1803; Wolf,; Alan Magruder, quoted in Wolf, “Early Free-Labor Thought,” 40.

29. Gellman, Emancipating New York, 93.

30. Ellen Ross, “ ‘Liberation Is Coming Soon’: The Radical Reformation of Joshua Evans (1731–1798),” in Quakers and Abolition, ed. Brycchan Carey and Geoffrey Plank (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014), 25–26.

31. John Woolman, The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman, ed. Phillips P. Moulton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 190; Geoffrey Plank, “ ‘The Flame of Life Was Kindled in All Animal and Sensitive Creatures’: One Quaker Colonist’s Views of Animal Life,” Church History 76 (September 2007), 569–590; Plank, “The First Person in Antislavery Literature,” 67–91.

32. Evans, Journal Transcription, 26–27; Ross, “ ‘Liberation Is Coming Soon,’ ” 20–23; Jack D. Marietta, The Reformation of American Quakerism, 1748–1783 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984), 110.

33. Evans, Journal Transcription, 238; Ross, “ ‘Liberation Is Coming Soon,’ ” 24–25.

34. David Cooper, Diary, Journals, Diaries, Etc., 1683–ongoing, Ms. Coll. 975-C, p. 50, QC, HC.

35. Warner Mifflin, The Defence of Warner Mifflin Cast against Him on Account of His Endeavors to Promote Righteousness, Mercy and Peace among Mankind (Philadelphia, 1796); Thomas E. Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), 75–76, 93, 95, 107–108; Davis, Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 100–101, Smith quote on 101.

36. Bliss Forbush, Elias Hicks: Quaker Liberal (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 31, 52, 54, 90.

37. Forbush, Elias Hicks, 90, 144–145.

38. Elias Hicks, Observations on the Slavery of the Africans and Their Descendants, and on the Use of the Produce of Their Labour (New York: Samuel Wood, 1811), 7, 13–14, 15; Forbush, Elias Hicks, 144–149; Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 116; Ross, “ ‘Liberation Is Coming Soon,’ ” 25.

39. Ross, “Liberation Is Coming Soon,” 25; Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 389.

40. Elijah E. Hoss, Elihu Embree, Abolitionist (Nashville, Tenn.: University Press Company, 1897), 6–7; Matilda Wildman Evans, “Elihu Embree, Quaker Abolitionist, and Some of His Co-Workers,” Bulletin of Friends’ Historical Association 21 (Spring 1932): 5–17; Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (New York: AMS Press, 1942), 100–101; Merton Dillon, Benjamin Lundy and the Struggle for Negro Freedom (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1966), 5, 34–42; Joseph J. Lewis, Memoir of Enoch Lewis (West Chester, Penn.: F. S. Hickman, 1882).

41. Emancipator, July 31, 1820; August 31, 1820; repr., Emancipator (Complete), 1820 (Nashville, Tenn.: B. H. Murphy, 1932); Lawrence B. Goodheart, “Tennessee’s Antislavery Movement Reconsidered: The Example of Elihu Embree,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 41 (Fall 1982): 224–238; Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 127–128.

42. Dillon, Benjamin Lundy, 5, 34–42; Genius of Universal Emancipation, July 4, 1823.

43. Genius of Universal Emancipation, June 19, 1823.

44. Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 1824; June1825; September 1825; October 8, 1825; January 21, 1826; August 5, 1826; November 25, 1826; March 31, 1827; September 29, 1827; October 14, 1827; April 26, 1827; May 3, 1828; Crothers, Quakers Living in the Lion’s Mouth, 125, 128; Dillon, Benjamin Lundy, 88–102; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 119; James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton, In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Community, and Protest Among Northern Free Blacks, 1700–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 194.

45. H. G. Ward, Mexico in 1827, 2 vols. (London: Henry Colburn, 1828), 1:21–22, 40–90.

46. Dillon, Benjamin Lundy, 179–220. See also Benjamin Lundy, The Life, Travels, and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy, including His Journeys to Texas and Mexico (Philadelphia: W. D. Parrish, 1847).

47. Friends’ Review, February 9, 1856; October 26, 1850; Lewis, Memoir of Enoch Lewis, 83; Paul W. Grasek, “Quaker, Teacher, Abolitionist: The Life of Educator-Reformer Enoch Lewis, 1776–1856,” (PhD diss., University of Connecticut, 1996), 143–144.

48. Enoch Lewis, “Redemption of Slaves by Purchase,” Non-Slaveholder, November 1853; Lewis, Memoir of Enoch Lewis, 52; Grasek, “Quaker, Teacher, Abolitionist,” 143–144.

49. Friends’ Review, March 5, 1853.

50. African Observer, July 1827; August 1827; repr., The African Observer, 1827–1828 (Westport, Conn.: Negro Universities Press, 1970), 108–111, 141–145.

51. American Convention for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and Improving the Condition of the African Race, Minutes of the Proceedings of the Third Convention of Delegates from the Abolition Societies Established in Different Parts of the United States, Assembled at Philadelphia … (1796), 28; American Convention, Minutes (1816), 4; American Convention, Minutes (1823), 24; American Convention, Minutes (1825), 22; repr., The American Convention for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and Improving the Condition of the African Race: Minutes Constitution, Addresses, Memorials, Resolutions, Reports, Committees and Anti-Slavery Tracts, 3 vols. (New York: Bergman, 1969); Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 11–12.

52. Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States (New York: Citadel Press, 1951), 5–12, 14–16.

53. Joanna Brooks, “The Early American Public Sphere and the Emergence of a Black Print Counterpublic,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 62 (June 2005): 68.

54. Richard S. Newman, “Prince Hall, Richard Allen, and Daniel Coker: Revolutionary Black Founders, Revolutionary Black Communities,” in Revolutionary Founders: Rebels, Radicals, and Reformers in the Making of the Nation, ed. Alfred F. Young, Gary B. Nash, and Ray Raphael (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), 306.

55. Richard S. Newman, “ ‘A Chosen Generation’: Black Founders and Early America,” in Prophets of Protest: Reconsidering the History of American Abolitionism, ed. Timothy Patrick McCarthy and John Stauffer (New York: New Press, 2006), 61–62.

56. Aptheker, Documentary History, 17.

57. Newman, “Prince Hall,” 312–316.

58. Tomek, Colonization and Its Discontents, 43–62; Dillon, Benjamin Lundy, 23–28. See also Eric Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution: A History of the American Colonization Society (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2008).

59. Aptheker, Documentary History, 71.

60. Adam Carman, An Oration Delivered on the Fourth Anniversary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (New York: John C. Totten, 1811), 11, 13.

61. J. William Frost, “Years of Crisis and Separation: Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, 1790–1860,” in Friends in the Delaware Valley: Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, 1681–1981, ed. John M. Moore (Haverford, Penn.: Friends Historical Association, 1981), 65.

62. H. Larry Ingle, Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation (Wallingford, Penn.: Pendle Hill, 1998), 13.

63. Thomas D. Hamm, The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 11.

64. Ingle, Quakers in Conflict, 68, 77–78; Elbert Russell, The History of Quakerism (New York: Macmillan, 1942), 296–297.

65. Philadelphia and Baltimore Yearly Meetings Discipline (1806), quoted in Bliss Forbush, Elias Hicks: Quaker Liberal (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), 195.

66. Ingle, Quakers in Conflict, 68.

67. New York Yearly Meeting Discipline (1783), quoted in Forbush, Elias Hicks, 120.

68. New York Yearly Meeting Discipline, in The Old Discipline: Nineteenth-Century Friends’ Disciplines in America (Farmington, Maine: Quaker Heritage Press, 1999), 400.

69. Carol Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 48–49; Hugh Barbour Thomas Bassett, Christopher Densmore, H. Larry Ingle, Alson D. Van Wagner, “The Orthodox-Hicksite Separation,” in Hugh Barbour, Christopher Densmore, Elizabeth H. Moger, Nancy C. Sorel, Alson D. Van Wagner, and Arthur J. Worrall, eds., Quaker Crosscurrents: Three Hundred Years of Friends in the New York Yearly Meetings (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1995), 121.

70. Elias Hicks, Letters of Elias Hicks, Including Also a Few Short Essays Written on Several Occasions, Mostly Illustrative of His Doctrinal Views (New York: Isaac Hopper, 1834), 181.

71. Stephen Grellet, quoted in Edwin Bronner, “The Other Branch”: London Yearly Meeting and the Hicksites, 1827–1912 (London: Friends Historical Society, 1975), 4.

72. Elias Hicks, The Letters of Elias Hicks (Philadelphia, 1861), 44, 45, 40, 63; Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy, 44–45; Forbush, Elias Hicks, 182–184; Ingle, Quakers in Conflict, 81–83.

73. Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 5–6; Bruce Allen Dorsey, “Friends Becoming Enemies: Philadelphia Benevolence and the Neglected Era of American Quaker History,” Journal of the Early American Republic 18 (Autumn 1998): 395–428.

74. William Bacon Evans, Jonathan Evans and His Time, 1759–1839 (Boston: Christopher Publishing House, 1959), 42.

75. Ingle, Quakers in Conflict, 17–21; Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy, 45.

76. Evans, Jonathan Evans, 42.

77. Jeremiah H. Foster, An Authentic Report of the Testimony in a Cause at Issue in the Court of Chancery of the State of New Jersey, between Thomas L. Shotwell, Complainant, and Joseph Hendrickson and Stacy Decow, Defendants (Philadelphia: J. Harding, 1831), 2:39.

78. Foster, Authentic Report, 1:354, 2:39–40; Elias Hicks to Valentine Hicks, October 28, 1819, Elias Hicks Papers, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Penn.; Forbush, Elias Hicks, 190. See also Ingle, Quakers in Conflict, 84–85.

79. Ingle, Quakers in Conflict, 85; Forbush, Elias Hicks, 189.

80. Evans, Jonathan Evans, 42.

81. Lydia Maria Child, Isaac T. Hopper: A True Life (Boston: J. P. Jewett, 1853), 276.

82. Philanthropist, August 21, 1819; Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 117.

83. Miscellaneous Repository 1 (1828): 346.

84. George W. Taylor, Autobiography and Writings of George W. Taylor (Philadelphia, 1891), 22; George W. Taylor to Jacob Taylor, January 10, 1828, Taylor Family Papers, Coll. No. 1233, QC, HC.

85. Journal of the Life and Religious Labours of John Comly, Late of Byberry, Pennsylvania: Published by His Children (Philadelphia: T. Ellwood Chapman, 1853), 38–39. See also Samuel M. Janney, History of the Religious Society of Friends: From Its Rise to the Year 1828, 4 vols. (Philadelphia: T. Ellwood Zell, 1867), 4:213.

86. Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972), 74, 80–124.

4. I Am a Man, Your Brother

1. Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972), 168–177; Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire’s Slaves (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 309–311; 322–324; David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 237; Emilia Viotti da Costa, Crowns of Glory, Tears of Blood: The Demerara Slave Rebellion of 1823 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 177–178. For Buxton’s speech as well as the full debate of May 15, 1823, see Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, new ser., 9 (May 15, 1823): 257–360.

2. Da Costa, Crowns of Glory, 197–202, 219–220, 222–227, 242–244; Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 217–218.

3. Elizabeth Heyrick, Immediate, Not Gradual Abolition; or, An Inquiry into the Shortest, Safest, and Most Effectual Means of Getting Rid of West Indian Slavery (London: Hatchard and Son, 1824), 3, 4, 7; Carol Lasser, “Immediatism, Dissent, and Gender: Women, and the Sentimentalization of Transatlantic Anti-Slavery Appeals,” in Women, Dissent, and Anti-Slavery in Britain and America, 1790–1865, ed. Elizabeth J. Clapp and Julie Roy Jeffrey (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 112.

4. Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 380–381. The “provocative image” featured on the cover of the first British edition was not reprinted on subsequent American editions.

5. Clare Midgley, Women against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London: Routledge, 1992), 62.

6. Clare Midgley, “The Dissenting Voice of Elizabeth Heyrick: An Exploration of the Links between Gender, Religious Dissent, and Anti-Slavery Radicalism,” in Clapp and Jeffrey, Women, Dissent, and Anti-Slavery in Britain and America, 94–95, 100; Shirley Aucott, Elizabeth Heyrick, 1769 to 1831: The Leicester Quaker Who Demanded the Immediate Emancipation of the Slaves in the British Colonies (Leicester, U.K.: Gartree Press, 2007), 5–15; J. R. Oldfield, Popular Politics and British Anti-Slavery: The Mobilization of Public Opinion against the Slave Trade, 1787–1807 (Portland, Ore.: Frank Cass, 1998), 140.

7. Midgley, “Dissenting Voice of Elizabeth Heyrick,” 100; Kenneth Corfield, “Elizabeth Heyrick: Radical Quaker,” in Religion in the Lives of English Women, 1760–1930, ed. Gail Malmgreen (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 52–59; Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 325.

8. Midgley, “Dissenting Voice of Elizabeth Heyrick,” 91–101; Lasser, “Immediatism, Dissent, and Gender,” 112–114. See also Jennifer Rycenga, “A Greater Awakening: Women’s Intellect as a Factor in Early Abolitionist Movements, 1824–1834,” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 21 (Fall 2005): 31–59.

9. William Felkin, A History of the Machine-Wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures (London: Longmans, Green, 1867), 441–442; Corfield, “Elizabeth Heyrick,” 56.

10. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 320; Robert Poole, “ ‘By Law or By Sword’: Peterloo Revisited,” History 91 (April 2006): 254–276; Donald Read, Peterloo: The “Massacre” and its Background (Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1958).

11. Elizabeth Heyrick, Exposition of One Principal Cause of the National Distress: Particularly in Manufacturing Districts; with Some Suggestions for Its Removal (London, 1817), 3.

12. Heyrick, Exposition, 21, 22, 29, 34–36; Clare Midgley, Feminism and Empire: Women Activists in Imperial Britain (London: Routledge, 2007), 59.

13. Brycchan Carey, British Abolitionism and the Rhetoric of Sensibility: Writing, Sentiment, and Slavery, 1760–1807 (New York: Palgrave, 2005), 124–130; Seymour Drescher, “Cart Whip and Billy Roller: Antislavery and Reform Symbolism in Industrializing Britain,” Journal of Social History 15 (1981): 12.

14. The spinners of Stockport, quoted in Drescher, “Cart Whip and Billy Roller,” 8, 16.

15. Christian Observer 8 (August 1824): 479–487.

16. Heyrick, Exposition, 20.

17. Midgley, Feminism and Empire, 59–60.

18. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 318–320; da Costa, Crowns of Glory, 197–202, 219–220, 222–227, 242–244; Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 217–218.

19. Edward Rugemer, The Problem of Emancipation: The Caribbean Roots of the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008), 53–65.

20. Da Costa, Crowns of Glory, 252–292; Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 215–218; Rugemer, Problem of Emancipation, 65, 86–91. See also David Brion Davis, “Review: The Role of Ideology in the Anglo-American Connection,” Reviews in American History 1 (September 1973): 386.

21. Heyrick, Immediate, Not Gradual Abolition, 12, 22; Heyrick, An Enquiry Which of the Two Parties Is Best Entitled to Freedom? The Slave or the Slave-Holder? An Impartial Examination of the Conduct of Each Party, at the Bar of Public Justice (London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, 1824), 5, 10, 16–190; Gelien Matthews, Caribbean Slave Revolts and the British Abolitionist Movement (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 82; Midgley, Feminism and Empire, 58.

22. Heyrick, Immediate, Not Gradual Abolition, 5, 6, 11–12, 23; Elizabeth Heyrick, Apology for Ladies’ Anti-Slavery Associations (London: J. Hatchard and Sons, 1828), 12; Lasser, “Immediatism, Dissent, and Gender,” 112–115.

23. Elizabeth Heyrick, “Address to the Ladies of Great Britain,” in The Hummingbird; or, Morsels of Information on the Subject of Slaver; with Various Miscellaneous Articles (Leicester, U.K.: A. Cockshaw, 1825), 198.

24. The First Report of the Female Society for Birmingham, West Bromwich, Wednesbury, Walsall and Their Respective Neighbourhoods for the Relief of British Negro Slaves (Birmingham, U.K.: Benjamin Hudson, 1826), 14–17.

25. For example, Benjamin Lundy reprinted numerous articles about the Birmingham group in the pages of the Genius of Universal Emancipation. The society’s first report was reprinted in its entirety in the September 8 and 15, 1827, issues of the Genius.

26. Midgley, Women against Slavery, 47, 218n24; The Third Report of the Female Society for Birmingham, West Bromwich, Wednesbury, Walsall and Their Respective Neighbourhoods for the Relief of British Negro Slaves (Birmingham, U.K.: Benjamin Hudson, 1828), 18.

27. The Second Report of the Female Society for Birmingham West Bromwich, Wednesbury, Walsall and Their Respective Neighbourhoods for the Relief of British Negro Slaves (Birmingham, U.K.: Benjamin Hudson, 1827), 17; Third Report of the Female Society for Birmingham, 17; Minutes, November 26, 1829, Birmingham Ladies’ Society for the Relief of Negro Slaves, Minute Book, Records Relating to the Birmingham Ladies’ Society for the Relief of Negro Slaves, 1825–1919, reel 2, Birmingham Reference Library, Birmingham, U.K. (hereafter cited as BLS, BRL); Catherine Hutton Beale, Catherine Hutton and Her Friends (Birmingham, U.K.: Cornish Brothers, 1895), 206; Report of the Sheffield Female Antislavery Society (Sheffield: J. Blackwell, 1827), 3; Midgley, Women against Slavery, 58–59; Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 326.

28. What Does Your Sugar Cost? A Cottage Conversation on the Subject of British Negro Slavery (Birmingham, 1828); Midgley, Women against Slavery, 61.

29. Reasons for Substituting East India Sugar for West India Sugar, Chiefly Selected from a Recent Publication, on the Subject of Emancipation (Birmingham, U.K.: Benjamin Hudson, 1826).

30. East India Sugar (Sheffield, U.K.: J. Blackwell, n.d.); Midgley, Women against Slavery, 61; Louis Billington and Rosamund Billington, “ ‘A Burning Zeal for Righteousness’: Women in the British Anti-Slavery Movement, 1820–1860,” in Equal or Different: Women’s Politics, 1800–1914, ed. Jane Rendall (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987), 87–88; Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 326.

31. As quoted in Midgley, Women against Slavery, 57.

32. Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 20, 1827.

33. First Report of the Female Society for Birmingham, 7; Second Report of the Female Society for Birmingham, 10; Minutes, April 8, 1828, April 12, 1831, BLS, BRL; Midgley, Women against Slavery, 57; The Second Report of the Ladies’ Association for Calne, Melksham, Devizes and Their Respective Neighbourhoods in Aid of the Cause of Negro Emancipation (1827), 14.

34. Midgley, Women against Slavery, 61–62.

35. Lasser, “Immediatism, Dissent, and Gender,” 112–115.

36. David Brion Davis, Slavery and Human Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 183–184.

37. Hochschild, Bury the Chains, 327; Midgley, Feminism and Empire, 61.

38. Report of the Sheffield Female Anti-Slavery Society (Sheffield, U.K.: J. Blackwell, 1827), 10–11.

39. Minutes, April 8, 1830, Birmingham Ladies’ Society for the Relief of Negro Slaves, Minute Book, BLS, BRL; Account of the Receipts and Disbursements of the Anti-Slavery Society, for the Years 1829 and 1830; with a List of Subscribers (London: S. Bagster, Jr., 1830); Midgley, Women against Slavery, 115.

40. Heyrick, Immediate, Not Gradual Abolition, 24.

41. First Report of the Ladies’ Association of Liverpool, 7–8.

42. Davis, Slavery and Human Progress, 181, 183; Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 162–164.

43. James Cropper, Letters Addressed to William Wilberforce, M.P.: Recommending the Encouragement of the Cultivation of Sugar in Our Dominions in the East Indies as the Natural and Certain Measures of Effecting the Total and General Abolition of the Slave-Trade (London: Longman, Hurst, 1822); Davis, Slavery and Human Progress, 181; David Brion Davis, “James Cropper and the British Antislavery Movement, 1821–1823,” Journal of Negro History 45 (October 1960): 246.

44. Zachary Macaulay, East and West India Sugar; or, A Refutation of the Claims of the West India Colonists to a Protecting Duty on East India Sugar (London: Lupton Relfe and Hatchard and Son, 1823), 63–65; Anti-Slavery Monthly Reporter, October 1826, 247–248; Matthews, Caribbean Slave Revolts, 152.

45. Anti-Slavery Monthly Reporter, February 1830, 175–181.

46. Macaulay, East and West Indian Sugar, 63.

47. Anti-Slavery Monthly Reporter, October 1826, 248.

48. Davis, Slavery and Human Progress, 179–191.

49. Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 186–187.

50. David Brion Davis, “James Cropper and the British Antislavery Movement, 1823–1833,” Journal of Negro History 46 (April 1961): 173. See also Davis, “James Cropper and the British Antislavery Movement, 1821–1823,” 241–258.

51. Davis, Slavery and Human Progress, 180.

52. To the Consumers of Sugar [A Reply to the Arguments Recommending the Purchase of East Indian Sugar …] (1825), 2.

53. Heyrick, Immediate, Not Gradual Abolition, 23, 11, 39; Lasser, “Immediatism, Dissent, and Gender,” 114.

54. Anthropos, The Rights of Man (Not Paines), but the Rights of Man, in the West Indies (London: Knight and Lacey, 1824), 35, 36.

55. Andrea Major, “ ‘The Slavery of East and West’: Abolitionists and ‘Unfree’ Labour in India, 1820–1830,” Slavery and Abolition 31 (December 2010): 503–506; Andrea Major, Slavery, Abolitionism, and Empire in India, 1772–1843 (Liverpool, U.K.: Liverpool University Press, 2012), 293–320.

56. Liverpool Mercury, August 17, 1821, in Major, Slavery, Abolitionism, and Empire, 309; To the Consumers of Sugar, 3–8.

57. Major, “ ‘The Slavery of East and West,’ ” 515–519.

58. Midgley, Women against Slavery, 62.

5. Woman’s Heart

1. Elizabeth Heyrick, Immediate, Not Gradual Abolition; or, An Inquiry into the Shortest, Safest, and Most Effectual Means of Getting Rid of West Indian Slavery (repr., Philadelphia: Joseph Rakestraw, 1824); Elizabeth Heyrick, Immediate, Not Gradual Abolition; or, An Inquiry into the Shortest, Safest, and Most Effectual Means of Getting Rid of West Indian Slavery (repr., New York: James V. Seaman, 1825); Genius of Universal Emancipation, November 26, 1825; December 10, 17, 24, and 31, 1825.

2. See Genius of Universal Emancipation, February 4, 1826; The Casket, February 1826. “The Slave Ship” was later reprinted in the Liberator, March 31, 1832. See also Benjamin Lundy, ed. The Poetical Works of Elizabeth Margaret Chandler: With a Memoir of Her Life and Character (Philadelphia: Lemuel Howell, 1836), 12.

3. Beth A. Salerno, Sister Societies: Women’s Antislavery Organizations in Antebellum America (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2005), 21; Merton Dillon, Benjamin Lundy and the Struggle for Negro Freedom (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1966), 143.

4. “Think of Our Country’s Glory,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, May 1830; Liberator, January 8, 1831.

5. See, e.g., Angelina Grimké, Appeal to the Christian Women of the South (New York: s.n., 1836); Frederick Douglass, “American Prejudice against Color: An Address Delivered in Cork, Ireland, October 23, 1845,” Cork Examiner, October 27, 1845, in The Frederick Douglass Papers, ser. 1, Speeches, Debates, and Interviews (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979), 1:59; William Lloyd Garrison, “To the Abolitionists of Massachusetts,” Liberator, July 19, 1839 in The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, ed. Walter M. Merrill and Louis Ruchames (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971–1981), 2:497–517.

6. Edwin F. Hatfield, comp., Freedom’s Lyre: or, Psalms, Hymns, and Sacred Songs for the Slave and His Friends (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1840), 101. Chandler’s poetry was included in other hymnals, including two compiled by the minister George W. Clark. Clark’s The Liberty Minstrel was first published in 1844 and reprinted seven times. Clark also published The Free Soil Minstrel, which was The Liberty Minstrel adapted for the Free Soil Party. A Selection of Anti-Slavery Hymns, for the Use of Friends of Emancipation, compiled by William Lloyd Garrison, and Songs of the Free and Hymns of Christian Freedom, compiled by Maria Weston Chapman, also included Chandler’s poems.

7. True Wesleyan, August 10, 1844.

8. Carol Lasser, “Immediatism, Dissent, and Gender: Women, and the Sentimentalization of Transatlantic Anti-Slavery Appeals,” in Women, Dissent, and Anti-Slavery in Britain and America, 1790–1865, ed. Elizabeth J. Clapp and Julie Roy Jeffrey (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 121.

9. For the connection between women and religion and abolitionism, see Stacey Robertson, “ ‘On the Side of Righteousness’: Women, the Church and Abolition,” in Clapp and Jeffrey, Women, Dissent, and Anti-Slavery in Britain and America, 155–174.

10. Lasser, “Immediatism, Dissent, and Gender,” 122.

11. Wade Hinshaw Index to Quaker Meeting Records, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Penn. See also Jane Howell to Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, June 3, 1832, in Remember the Distance That Divides Us: The Family Letters of Philadelphia Quaker Abolitionist and Michigan Pioneer Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, 1830–1842, ed. Marcia J. Heringa (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004), 119.

12. Holly M. Kent, “All Reform Depends upon You: Femininity, Authority, and the Politics of Authorship in Women’s Antislavery Fiction, 1821–1861” (PhD diss., Lehigh University, 2010), 36, 39.

13. “Address,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, September 2, 1829.

14. The parable of the widow’s mite may be found in Mark 12:41–44 and Luke 21:1–4. In the parable, the widow donates two mites (the least valuable coins at the time), which is all she owns. Although the wealthy men of the parable donate much more, it is only a small proportion of their wealth. The widow’s simple offering provides a striking contrast to the pride and pretentiousness of the wealthy men. Jesus explains to the disciples that the widow’s humble and heartfelt offering means more to God than the offering made by the wealth men.

15. “If and But,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, May 1831; “Letters to Isabel,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 30, 1829; November 6, 13, 27, 1829; December 4, 18, 1829; January 15, 1830; March 5, 1830; “The New Year,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 1, 1830; “Slave Luxuries,” Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, Essays, Philantrhopic and Moral, by Elizabeth Margaret Chandler: Principally Relating to the Abolition of Slavery, ed. Benjamin Lundy (Philadelphia: Lemuel Howell, 1836), 87–88; “Appeal to the Ladies of the United States,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, September 16, 1829; “Opposition to Slavery,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 1, 1830; “Associations,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 22, 1830. The last installment of “Letters to Isabel” was incorrectly listed as “No. 7” in the Genius. It was correctly listed as “No. 8” in Lundy’s later compilation. See Chandler, Essays, 53–64.

16. Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1938–1968), 1:340–343; Patricia Okker, Our Sister Editors: Sarah J. Hale and the Tradition of Nineteenth-Century American Women Editors (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995), 9; Janet Gray, Race and Time: Women’s Poetics from Antislavery to Racial Modernity (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2004), 64–65; Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968), 8–9; Jacqueline Bacon, “The Liberator’s ‘Ladies’ Department,’ 1832–1837: Freedom or Fetters?” in Sexual Rhetoric: Media Perspectives on Sexuality, Gender, and Identity, ed. Meta G. Carstarphen and Susan C. Zavoina (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999), 5.

17. Genius of Universal Emancipation, September 16, 1829. For a discussion of republican motherhood, see Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986).

18. [Sarah J. Hale], “Introduction to ‘An Appeal to the Ladies of the United States,’ ” Ladies Magazine, November 11, 1829; [Sarah J. Hale], “Review of Letters on Female Character,” Ladies Magazine, June 1829; “Female Education,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, September 2, 1829; “Indifference,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 30, 1829. According to Hale, “The domestic station is woman’s appropriate sphere, and it will be honorable if she but adorn it with the graces, dignify it by intelligence, and hallow it by sentiment, tenderness, and piety. An ignorant woman cannot do this.” See also Benjamin Lundy, “Memoir,” in Lundy, ed., Poetical Works, 21. Lundy claimed that shortly after the publication of “Appeal,” Chandler “found herself engaged in a great controversy with a lady of great celebrity, an author, residing in New England.” Though neither Lundy nor Chandler identified Hale as Chandler’s critic, the timing of Hale’s reprint and its introduction suggest that the “lady of great celebrity” was most likely Hale.

19. Lundy, “Memoir,” 21.

20. “Opinions,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, December 11, 1829. For a discussion of “female politicians,” see Rosemarie Zaggari, Revolutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), 75–81.

21. S. Bradley Shaw, “The Pliable Rhetoric of Domesticity,” in The Stowe Debate: Rhetorical Strategies in Uncle Tom’s Cabin, ed. Mason Lowance Jr. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 91; Gray, Race and Time, 64.

22. “Slave Produce,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, July 1, 1831.

23. “The Grave of the Unfortunate,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, August 1, 1830.

24. “Slavery,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, November 1, 1830.

25. “Opposition to Slavery,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 1, 1830.

26. “Mental Metempsychosis,” in Chandler, Essays, 117–118.

27. “Opposition to Slavery,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 1, 1830; “Associations,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 22, 1830.

28. American Convention for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and Improving the Condition of the African Race, Minutes of the Proceedings of the Twenty-First Biennial American Convention for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, and Improving the Condition of the African Race Convened at the City of Washington … (Philadelphia, 1829), 57–60; African Repository and Colonial Journal, October 1829. For Chandler’s involvement, see Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, “To the Ladies Free Produce Society,” in Lundy, Poetical Works, 175. The poem was not published in the Genius. Most likely the poem was composed between 1830 and 1833. Chandler moved to Michigan in 1830, and the women’s free-produce group dissolved in 1833. For more about the Female Association, see Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery, 16–18. See also Carol Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 55.

29. Genius of Universal Emancipation, July 1, 1826; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 19.

30. Genius of Universal Emancipation, February, May, August 1831; Liberator, April 5, 1834. See also Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 18–19; Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 74–75; Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy, 55; Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 390.

31. Teresa Michals, “Experiments before Breakfast: Toys, Education and Middle-Class Childhood,” in The Nineteenth-Century Child and Consumer Culture, ed. Dennis Denisoff (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2008), 29–42.

32. See, e.g., “Juvenile Anti-Slavery Agent,” Slave’s Friend 2, no. 8 (1837): 2. Note this article is published on the second page of the cover. The editor of the Slave’s Friend lauded the appointment of Henry C. Wright as the American Anti-Slavery Society’s agent appointed to work with children: “Woe to slavery … when the present race of juveniles are grown up.” See also Henry C. Wright, “Juvenile Anti-Slavery Societies,” Liberator, January 14, 1837. Wright noted that at that time there were four juvenile antislavery societies in New York averaging about one hundred members each and that two or three societies were in the process of organizing.

33. Liberator, January 22, 1831. See also Mary Lystad, From Dr. Mather to Dr. Seuss: 200 Years of American Books for Children (Boston: G. K. Halle, 1980), 50. Lystad notes that in this period 60 percent of books written for children “focused on moral instruction,” and 38 percent provided “instruction in social behavior.”

34. Pennsylvania Freeman, August 24, 1837. Children, according to Wright, were essential to the future of abolitionism: “I hope you, and all engaged in this holy struggle in behalf of our afflicted fellow citizens in chains, will never forget that our duty is but half done by struggling ourselves; we must also raise up and discipline a generation to carry this work to complete triumph after we are laid aside from our labors.”

35. Deborah De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 1830–1865 (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 2003), 1. According to De Rosa, women took advantage of the developing market for children’s literature and the cult of domesticity to discuss political issues such as slavery. In turn, women and children were politicized: “Through their publications, these authors politicize women and children, transcend the ideology of separate spheres, and enter into the public discourse about slavery to which they had limited access.”

36. Moira Ferguson, Subject to Others: British Women Writers and Colonial Slavery, 1670–1834 (New York: Routledge, 1992), 133–134; J. R. Oldfield, Popular Politics and British Anti-Slavery: The Mobilization of Public Opinion against the Slave Trade, 1787–1807 (Portland, Ore.: Frank Cass, 1998), 142–148.

37. Priscilla Wakefield, Mental Improvement, ed. Ann B. Shteir (East Lansing, Mich.: Colleagues Press, 1995), 73–82; Margaret Hope Bacon, Valiant Friend: The Life of Lucretia Mott (New York: Walker, 1980), 13. As a child, Lucretia Mott memorized passages from Mental Improvement. See also Priscilla Wakefield, Mental Improvement; or, The Beauties and Wonders of Nature and Art (New Bedford, Mass.: Abraham Shearman, 1799).

38. Moira Ferguson dates the original publication of “The Negro Boy’s Tale” to 1795. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), dates the poem to 1802, when it was included in Opie’s book. See Amelia Opie, Poems (London: Longman and Rees, 1802). See Ferguson, Subject to Others, 361n17; Gary Kelly, “Opie, Amelia (1769–1853),” in Matthew and Harrison, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/20799/. Deborah De Rosa notes only the 1824 reprint. De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 14.

39. See, e.g., African Observer, July 1827, 126–128.

40. Amelia Opie, The Warrior’s Return / The Black Man’s Lament, ed. Donald H. Reiman (New York: Garland, 1978), 3–4.

41. See, e.g., Maria Edgeworth, The Grateful Negro (1804). As Karen Sands-O’Connor argues, Edgeworth argued only for the humane treatment of slaves rather than treating slaves as humans. Karen Sands-O’Connor, Soon Come Home to This Island: West Indians in British Children’s Literature (New York: Routledge, 2008), 30–32.

42. Sands-O’Connor, Soon Come Home to This Island, 36.

43. De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 79–81, 96–97.

44. “What Is a Slave, Mother?” in Juvenile Poems for the Use of Free American Children of Every Complexion, ed. William Lloyd Garrison (Boston: Garrison and Knapp, 1835), 13–14. “What Is a Slave, Mother?” was also printed in Lundy, Poetical Works, 70–71. See also De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 96.

45. “Looking at the Soldiers,” in Garrison, Juvenile Poems, 47–48. See Nina Baym, American Women Writers and the Work of History, 1790–1860 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 76; De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 97.

46. “Oh Press Me Not to Taste Again” and “The Sugar-Plums,” in Garrison, Juvenile Poems, 68–69, 19.

47. Colored American, April 8, 1837. An earlier article in the Episcopal Recorder made similar links between confectionary shops and brothels. See “Where Are Your Children?” Episcopal Recorder, December 20, 1834.

48. Thomas Teetotal, “Henry Haycroft: A Story for Youth,” Temperance Advocate and Cold Water Magazine 1 (1843): 38–40.

49. Patricia Crain, The Story of A: The Alphabetization of America from The New England Primer to The Scarlet Letter (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000), 218, 4, 103–140.

50. See Martha Sledge, “ ‘A is an Abolitionist’: The Anti-Slavery Alphabet and the Politics of Literacy,” in Enterprising Youth: Social Values and Acculturation in Nineteenth-Century American Children’s Literature, ed. Monika Elbert (New York: Routledge, 2008), 69–82. Shirley Samuels connects The Anti-Slavery Alphabet to the pedagogical concerns of the Slave’s Friend. Shirley Samuels, “The Identity of Slavery,” in The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender, and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America, ed. Shirley Samuels (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 157–171. Elizabeth Margaret Chandler’s poem, “The Sugar-Plums” was reprinted in the Slave’s Friend in 1836.

51. Hannah Townsend, The Anti-Slavery Alphabet (Philadelphia: Anti-Slavery Fair/Merrihew & Thompson, 1847). See also Deborah C. De Rosa, Into the Mouths of Babes: An Anthology of Children’s Abolitionist Literature (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2005), 73–76.

52. De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 117.

53. Ibid., 113; Lois Brown, “Out of the Mouths of Babes: The Abolitionist Campaign of Susan Paul and the Juvenile Choir of Boston,” New England Quarterly 75 (March 2002): 72.

54. For a list of publications in which Chandler’s work appeared, see Mary Patricia Jones, “Elizabeth Margaret Chandler: Poet, Essayist, Abolitionist” (PhD diss., University of Toledo, 1981), 266–268. Significantly, in her history of the American free-produce movement, Nuermberger fails to note the wide distribution of Chandler’s work. Rather she dismisses Chandler as the movement’s lone poet and as an author of “highly moralistic” prose. See Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 112.

55. George W. Clark was a preacher and a teacher as well as a political abolitionist. The Liberty Minstrel was first published in 1844 and reprinted seven times. Clark also published The Free Soil Minstrel, which was The Liberty Minstrel adapted for the Free Soil Party. Chandler’s works were included in other antislavery hymnals and songbooks including A Selection of Anti-Slavery Hymns, for the Use of Friends of Emancipation, comp. William Lloyd Garrison; Songs of the Free and Hymns of Christian Freedom, comp. Maria Weston Chapman; and Freedom’s Lyre: or, Psalms, Hymns, and Sacred Songs for the Slave and His Friends, comp. Edwin F. Hatfield for the American Anti-Slavery Society.

56. See Rufus Wilmot Griswold, ed., Poets and Poetry of America (Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1842); Rufus Wilmot Griswold, ed., Gems from American Female Poets, with Brief Biographical Notes (Philadelphia: H. Hooker, 1842); Rufus Wilmot Griswold, ed., The Female Poets of America (Philadelphia: Moss, 1849); Evert A. and George L. Duyckinck, eds., Cyclopaedia of American Literature: Embracing Personal and Critical Notices of Authors, and Selections from Their Writings; from the Earliest Period to the Present Day, vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner, 1855); Sarah Josepha Hale, ed., Woman’s Record (New York: Harper and Bros., 1842); Caroline May, ed., The American Female Poets: With Biographical and Critical Notices (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1853); Thomas Buchanan Read, ed., The Female Poets of America with Portraits, Biographical Notices, and Specimens of Their Writings, 7th ed. rev. (Philadelphia: E. H. Butler, 1857).

6. An Abstinence Baptism

1. Roman J. Zorn, “The New England Anti-Slavery Society: Pioneer Abolition Organization” Journal of Negro History 42 (July 1957): 157–176; Constitution of the New-England Anti-Slavery Society: Together with its By-Laws, and a List of its Officers (Boston: Garrison and Knapp, 1832).

2. Ruth Evans to Jane Howell, October 22, 1832, in Remember the Distance That Divides Us: The Family Letters of Philadelphia Quaker Abolitionist and Michigan Pioneer Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, 1830–1842, ed. Marcia J. Heringa (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004), 147; Laura S. Haviland, A Woman’s Life Work: Labors and Experiences of Laura S. Haviland (Chicago: C. V. Waite, 1887), 32; Merton Dillon, “Elizabeth Chandler and the Spread of Antislavery Sentiment in Michigan,” Michgan History 39 (December 1955): 491; Maurice Ndukwu, “Antislavery in Michigan: A Study of Its Origin, Development, and Expression from Territorial Period to 1860” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1979), 16–17.

3. Report of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society: With a Concise Statement of Events, Previous and Subsequent to the Annual Meeting of 1835 (Boston: Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society, 1836), 79, 102–103. See also Debra Gold Hansen, Strained Sisterhood: Gender and Class in the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993).

4. Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 1837.

5. Theodore Weld to J. F. Robinson, May 1, 1836, in Letters of Theodore Dwight Weld, Angelina Grimké Weld, and Sarah Grimké, ed. Gilbert H. Barnes and Dwight L. Dumond, 2 vols. (New York: Da Capo Press, 1970), 2:296.

6. Samuel J. May to John Estlin, May 2, 1848, May Papers, BPL.

7. Carol Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 64–66; Beth A. Salerno, Sister Societies: Women’s Antislavery Organizations in Antebellum America (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2005), 26–27.

8. James Brewer Stewart, Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976), 35–59; W. Caleb McDaniel, The Problem of Democracy in the Age of Slavery: Garrisonian Abolitionists and Transatlantic Reform (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2013), 37–44; Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy, 64–66; Salerno, Sister Societies, 26–27.

9. Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, Minutes, December 14, 1833, Papers of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, reel 30, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (hereafter cited as PFASS, HSP); Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy, 66–67; Julie Winch, Philadelphia’s Black Elite: Activism, Accommodation, and the Struggle for Black Autonomy, 1787–1848 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 85–87.

10. See, e.g., Minutes, August 11, 1835, December 8, 1836, April 13, 1837, PFASS, HSP. See also Jean R. Soderlund, “Priorities and Power: The Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society,” in The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women’s Political Culture in Antebellum America, ed. Jean Fagan Yellin and John C. Van Horne (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1994), 69–71; Sarah Pennock Sellers, David Sellers, Mary Pennock Sellers (n.p., 1926), 47.

11. Shirley Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828–1860 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992), 96–97.

12. See, e.g., Minutes, August 11, 1834; March 9, August 10, 1837, PFASS, HSP.

13. Genius of Universal Emancipation, November 1832; Liberator, July 14, 1832; Salerno, Sister Societies, 24–48. For the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society, see Hansen, Strained Sisterhood; Amy Swerdlow, “Abolition’s Conservative Sisters: The Ladies’ New York City Anti-Slavery Societies, 1834–1840,” in The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women’s Political Culture in Antebellum America, ed. Jean Fagan Yellin and John C. Van Horne (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1994), 31–44.

14. Deborah Weston to Aunt Mary, November 6, 1836; June 15, 1837; Deborah Weston to Anne Weston, November 13–17, 1836; Anne Weston to Caroline Weston, August 7, 1837, all in Weston Papers, BPL. See also Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 48–49.

15. Maria Weston Chapman to Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, August 4, 1836, PFASS Incoming Correspondence, PFASS, HSP.

16. Minutes, August 11, September 8, 1836; February 9, 1837; March 9, 1837, PFASS, HSP; Maria Weston Chapman to Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, January 12, 1837, PFASS, HSP; Salerno, Sister Societies, 52–54.

17. Proceedings of the Anti-Slavery Convention of Women, New York City, May 9–12, 1837 (New York: William S. Dorr, 1837), 9, 10, 13. In the fall of 1837, the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society passed similar resolutions. See Pennsylvania Freeman, September 21, 1837.

18. Proceedings of the Anti-Slavery Convention of Women, May 15–18, 1838 (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838), 7, 8.

19. Proceedings of the Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women, Philadelphia, May 1–3, 1839 (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1839), 7; Salerno, Sister Societies, 97–99; Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 392–393.

20. Proceedings … (1837), 9, 10, 13.

21. Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina: Pioneers for Woman’s Rights and Abolition (New York: Schocken Books, 1967), 71–74, 88–91.

22. Angelina Grimké to Theodore Weld, May 6, 1838, in Barnes and Dumond, Letters … Weld, 2:665. See also Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 75; Lerner, Grimké Sisters, 239–242.

23. Boston Recorder, July 14, 1837; Lerner, Grimké Sisters, 171, 188–189. See also Salerno, Sister Societies, 68–71; Anna M. Speicher, The Religious World of Antislavery Women: Spirituality in the Lives of Five Abolitionist Lecturers (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 109–121.

24. Proceedings … (1838), 6, 8; Salerno, Sister Societies, 82–85.

25. Salerno, Sister Societies, 99.

26. Proceedings … (1838), 6, 8; Salerno, Sister Societies, 82–85.

27. Hansen, Strained Sisterhood, 144.

28. Proceedings … (1837), 9.

29. Buckingham Anti-Slavery Society to Sarah and Angelina Grimké, July 27, 1837, Sarah M. Grimké Papers, Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin.

30. Minutes, August 10, 1837, PFASS, HSP; Buckingham Female Anti-Slavery Society to Mary Grew, August 4, 1837, PFASS Incoming Correspondence, PFASS, HSP; Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 1837; Pennsylvania Freeman, August 30, 1838.

31. Freedom’s Journal, November 2, 1827; Richard S. Newman, Freedom’s Prophet: Richard Allen, the AME Church, and the Black Founding Fathers (New York: New York University, 2008), 258–259.

32. David Walker, David Walker’s Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, ed. Peter P. Hinks (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), 67.

33. William Lloyd Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston: Garrison and Knapp, 1832), 66. See also Richard S. Newman and Roy E. Finkenbine, “Forum: Black Founders in the New Republic; Introduction,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 64 (January 2007), 89.

34. Minutes of the Third Annual Convention for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour in the United States (New York: n.p., 1833), 30; Minutes of the Fifth Annual Convention for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour in the United States (Philadelphia: William P. Gibbons, 1835), 12; Quarles, Black Abolitionists, 74–76.

35. Faulkner, “Root of the Evil,” 391; Winch, Philadelphia’s Black Elite, 105–106, 111. See also Howard Holman Bell, “The American Moral Reform Society, 1836–1841,” Journal of Negro Education 27 (Winter 1958): 34–40.

36. Colored American, July 28, 1838.

37. Genius of Universal Emancipation, July 1833; Liberator, September 13, 1834.

38. William C. Patten, “The Anti-Slavery Movement in Chester County, Pennsylvania” (M.A. thesis, University of Delaware, 1963), 69–70; William C. Kashatus, Just Over the Line: Chester County and the Underground Railroad (West Chester, Penn.: Chester County Historical Society, 2002), 41.

39. Minutes of the Proceedings of the Requited Labor Convention, Philadelphia, May 17–18, September 5–6, 1838 (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838), 3–6.

40. Patten, “The Anti-Slavery Movement,” 70.

41. Liberator, June 2, 1837; June 4, June 18, July 2, 1836; Fourth Annual Report of the American Anti-Slavery Society with the Speeches Delivered at the Anniversary Meeting, New York City, May 9, 1837 (New York: William S. Dorr, 1837), 23; Fifth Annual Report of the Executive Committee of the American Anti-Slavery Society, with the Minutes of the Meetings of the Society for Business, and the Speeches Delivered at the Anniversary Meeting, May 8, 1838 (New York: William S. Dorr, 1838), 14.

42. Anthony J. Barker, Captain Charles Stuart: Anglo-American Abolitionist (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986), 126–127.

43. Liberator, July 18, 1835.

44. Ibid., July 2, 1836.

45. Angelina Grimké Weld to Elizabeth Pease, August 14, 1839, in British and American Abolitionists: An Episode in Transatlantic Understanding, ed. Clare Taylor (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1974), 79.

46. Proceedings of the American Anti-Slavery Society, at Its Second Decade, Philadelphia, December 3–5, 1853 (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1854), 162.

47. J. William Frost, “Why Quakers and Slavery? Why Not More Quakers?” 29–40; Carleton Mabee, Black Freedom: The Nonviolent Abolitionists from 1830 through the Civil War (New York: Macmillan, 1970), 189–191.

48. 12 Reg. Deb. 100 (1836), 100; Thomas E. Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), 146.

49. Speech of Mr. Wall, of New Jersey, on the Memorial of the Caln Quarterly Meeting of the Society of Friends, of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, Praying for the Abolition of Slavery and the Slave Trade in the District of Columbia, U.S. Senate, February 29, 1836 (Washington, D.C.: Blair and Rives, 1836), 3–4.

50. Cong. Globe, 24th Cong., 1st Sess., 95–99, 100 (1836); Liberator, January 30, 1836; Christian Reporter and Boston Observer, January 30, 1836; Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 146–147. See also Daniel Wirls, “ ‘The Only Mode of Avoiding Everlasting Debate’: The Overlooked Senate Gag Rule for Antislavery Petitions,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 115–138.

51. Friend, May 16, 1835; November 5, 1836. See also J. William Frost, “Years of Crisis and Separation: Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, 1790–1860,” in Friends in the Delaware Valley: Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, 1681–1981, ed. John M. Moore (Haverford, Penn.: Friends Historical Association, 1981), 95:

“The spectacular growth of the new form of antislavery attracted and repelled Friends. Garrison’s followers preached immediate emancipation but riots resulted and the hostility of the South mounted. Quaker sympathizers created new abolition groups modeled on Garrison’s principles, but Quaker opponents saw the new movement as fostering hatred for the South rather than meaningful reform and did not wish to be associated with violence. Before 1840 Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Orthodox and Hicksite Yearly Meetings in New York, Baltimore, and Philadelphia issued strong warnings against Friends joining in activities for good purposes with those who had not the proper religious sensitivities.”

52. Minutes of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Hicksite), April 14, 1837, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Penn. (hereafter cited as FHL, SC).

53. Christopher Densmore, “The Dilemma of Quaker Anti-Slavery: The Case of Farmington Quarterly Meeting, 1836–1910,” Quaker History (1993): 82.

54. Minutes of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Orthodox), Meeting for Sufferings, September 20, 1839, FHL, SC.

55. Minutes of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Hicksite), April 14, 1837, 24; Ryan P. Jordan, Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 37; Densmore, “Dilemma of Quaker Anti-Slavery.”

56. Friend, March 15, 1834.

57. Ibid., May 23, 1835.

58. Minutes of the Committee on Requited Labor, 1837–1839, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of Friends, Papers of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, reel 31 HSP. The microfilm guide and the catalog record associate the Committee on Requited Labor with the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of Friends. The minutes, however, indicate this committee was affiliated with the Association of Friends for Advocating the Cause of the Slave, and Improving the Condition of the Free People of Colour. Priscilla Hensey is also listed in the minutes as Priscilla Henszey.

59. Association of Friends for Advocating the Cause of the Slave, and Improving the Condition of Free People of Colour, An Address to the Members of the Religious Society of Friends, on the Propriety of Abstaining from the Use of the Produce of Slave Labour (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838).

60. Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (New York: AMS Press, 1942), 34–35; Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 154–155. The other pamphlets issued by the association were An Address to the Citizens of the United States, on the Subject of Slavery (Philadelphia: Neall and Shann, 1838); An Appeal to the Females of the North, on the Subject of Slavery by a Female of Vermont (Philadelphia: John Thompson, 1838).

61. Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 154–155.

62. Christopher Densmore and Thomas Bassett, “Quakers, Slavery, and the Civil War,” in Quaker Crosscurrents: Three Hundred Years of Friends in the New York Yearly Meetings, ed. Hugh Barbour, Christopher Densmore, Elizabeth H. Moger, Nancy C. Sorel, Alson D. Van Wagner, and Arthur J. Worrall (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1995), 188; Elizabeth H. Moger, “Quakers as Abolitionists: The Robinsons of Rokeby and Charles Marriott,” Quaker History 92 (Fall 2003): 54.

63. Charles Marriott, An Address to the Religious Society of Friends on the Duty of Declining the Use of the Products of Slave Labour (New York: Isaac T. Hopper, 1835), 12; Testimony of New-York Association of Friends for the Relief of Those Held in Slavery, &c. Concerning Charles Marriott, Deceased (New York, 1844), 6–7; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 23n33.

64. Moger, “Quakers as Abolitionists,” 54–55; Densmore and Bassett, “Quakers, Slavery, and the Civil War,” 185.

65. Address from the New-York Association of Friends, for the Relief of Those Held in Slavery, and the Improvement of Free People of Color, to Its members and Friends Generally (New York, 1842).

66. Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 161–162; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 31; Densmore and Bassett, “Quakers, Slavery, and the Civil War,” 188.

67. Densmore, “Dilemma of Quaker Anti-Slavery,” 82.

68. As quoted in ibid.

69. Ibid., 83; Frost, “Years of Crisis and Separation,” 91–93.

70. Deborah De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 1830–1865 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003), 108; Liberator, December 25, 1835; Quarles, Black Abolitionists, 29.

71. Slave’s Friend 2, no. 5 (1837): 2–3.

72. Minutes of the Junior Anti-Slavery Society, June 24, 1836, Papers of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, reel 31 Historical Society of Pennsylvania (hereafter cited as JASS, HSP).

73. De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 109.

74. Quarles, Black Abolitionists, 30; Colored American, November 23, 1839.

75. Minutes, January 20, 1837, JASS, HSP; National Enquirer, January 14, 1837; Minutes, January 5, 1838, JASS, HSP; Minutes, June 15, 1838, JASS, HSP.

76. As quoted in De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 113.

77. Slave’s Friend 2, no. 5 (1837): 11, 15.

78. De Rosa, Domestic Abolitionism and Juvenile Literature, 108–114.

79. Angelina Grimké to Elizabeth Pease, August 14, 1839; Theodore D. Weld to J. F. Robinson, May 1, 1836, both in Barnes and Dumond, Letters … Weld, 1:295–298, 2:781–787.

80. Liberator, October 20, 1837; Pennsylvania Freeman, October 5, 1837; Clarkson Anti-Slavery Society to Mary Grew, PFASS Incoming Correspondence, 1837, reel 31, PFASS, HSP; Liberator, March 9, April 13, 1838; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 15, 1838.

81. Minutes of the Proceedings of the Requited Labor Convention Philadelphia May 17–18, September 5–6, 1838, 6; Susan H. Luther to William Lloyd Garrison, May 21, 1838, William Lloyd Garrison Papers, Boston Public Library (hereafter cited as Garrison Papers, BPL). The PFASS appointed thirty delegates to the Requited Labor Convention. See Minutes for April 12, 1838, PFASS, HSP.

82. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 23–24; Richard S. Newman, The Transformation of American Abolitionism: Fighting Slavery in the Early Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2002), 173–174.

83. Minutes of the Proceedings of the Requited Labor Convention, Philadelphia May 17–18, September 5–6, 1838, 3–8. Italics in the original. See also History of Pennsylvania Hall, Which Was Destroyed by a Mob, on the 17th of May 1838 (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838); Pennsylvania Freeman, May 7, 24, 31, 1838. On antiabolitionist mobs, see Leonard L. Richards, Gentlemen of Property and Standing: Anti-Abolition Mobs in Jacksonian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970); David Grimsted, American Mobbing, 1828–1861: Toward Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 3–82. Ira V. Brown argues that the integrated meeting of the Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women provoked public hostility and led to the destruction of Pennsylvania Hall: “Not even Pennsylvania was ready for racial integration and women’s liberation in 1838.” Ira V. Brown, “Racism and Sexism: The Case of Pennsylvania Hall,” Phylon 37 (1976): 128. Brown incorrectly identifies the Requited Labor Convention as the Recruited Labor Convention. He also overlooks the integrated membership of the Requited Labor Convention.

84. Minutes of the Proceedings of the Requited Labor Convention, Philadelphia May 17–18, September 5–6, 1838, 9–14. For Gunn’s address, see Lewis C. Gunn, Address to Abolitionists (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838).

85. Gerrit Smith to Lewis C. Gunn, August 19, 1838, Committee on Requited Labor; Minutes of the Proceedings of the Requited Labor Convention, Philadelphia May 17–18, September 5–6, 1838, 15; Daniel L. Miller Jr. to Gerrit Smith, November 3, 1838, Gerrit Smith Papers, Special Collections Research Center, Syracuse University Library (hereafter cited as Smith Papers, SUL).

86. Paul Goodman, Of One Blood: Abolitionism and the Origins of Racial Equality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 69–80; Bruce Laurie, Beyond Garrison: Antislavery and Social Reform (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 23.

87. William Goodell to Lewis C. Gunn, August 29, 1838, repr., Minutes of the Proceedings of the Requited Labor Convention, Philadelphia May 17–18, September 5–6, 1838, 16–18.

88. Salerno, Sister Societies, 158–159. Women’s antislavery societies in this period “were quite up-front about their desire to change the ways in which power was used and citizenship distributed in the United States,” according to Salerno. Women believed they had the right and the responsibility “to influence what their political representatives believed and how they voted. A small coalition of men agreed with them.” When the antislavery movement divided over the woman question, the “fusion” of the moral and the political was lost and took decades to regain.

89. Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 26, 1828.

90. Ibid., June 11, 1831.

91. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 62–63, 119.

92. Colored American, July 22, 1837; October 10, 1840.

93. Genius of Universal Emancipation, September 2, 1829; National Enquirer and Constitutional Advocate of Universal Liberty, February 5, 1836; Lawrence Glickman, Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 69–72.

94. Liberator, December 20, 1834; Stacey Robertson, Hearts Beating for Liberty: Women Abolitionists in the Old Northwest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 125.

95. Liberator, March 4, 1837.

96. Pennsylvania Freeman, September 17, 1840.

7. Yards of Cotton Cloth and Pounds of Sugar

1. Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972), 195–256, 263–264; Clare Midgley, Women against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London: Routledge, 1992), 121–122; J. Gallagher, “Fowell Buxton and the New African Policy, 1838–1842,” Cambridge Historical Journal 10 (1950): 36–58; William Howitt and Mary Howitt, eds., Howitt’s Journal of Literature and Popular Progress (London: William Lovett), 2:259; Liberator, October 11, 1839.

2. Liberator, February 9, 1838; National Enquirer and Constitutional Advocate of Universal Liberty, November 30, 1837; February 8, 15, 22, 1838; March 1, 1838; Ira V. Brown, “An Antislavery Agent: C. C. Burleigh in Pennsylvania, 1836–1837,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 105, no. 1 (1981): 84. See also Lucretia Mott to James Miller McKim, March 15, 1838 and Lucretia Mott to Edward M. Davis, June 18, 1838, both in Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 37–45; Anna Lee Marston, ed., Records of a California Family: Journals and Letters of Lewis C. Gunn and Elizabeth Le Breton Gunn (San Diego, Calif.: n.p., 1928), 4–6.

3. Lewis C. Gunn, An Address to Abolitionists (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838), 5, 6, 10.

4. Minutes of the Proceedings of the Requited Labor Convention, Philadelphia May 17–18, September 5–6, 1838 (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Gunn, 1838), 7.

5. Genius of Universal Emancipation, May 1830. White operated her store until 1846, the second-longest running of the free-labor stores in this period.

6. Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (New York: AMS Press, 1942), 81. After their move to Michigan, Elizabeth Margaret Chandler and her aunt Ruth Evans ordered goods from White’s store. See, e.g., Elizabeth Chandler to Jane Howell, December 13, 1832, Remember the Distance That Divides Us: The Family Letters of Philadelphia Quaker Abolitionist and Michigan Pioneer Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, 1830–1842, ed. Marcia J. Heringa (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004), 155.

7. See, e.g., National Reformer, October 1838.

8. Lydia White to William Lloyd Garrison, May 9, 1831; Lydia White to William Lloyd Garrison, October 19, 1831, both in Garrison Papers, BPL.

9. Samuel Philbrick to Daniel L. Miller, December 30, 1838, Incoming Correspondence, American Free Produce Association, AFPA, HSP.

10. Pennsylvania Freeman, November 8, 1838. See also Daniel L. Miller Jr. to Gerrit Smith, November 3, 1838, Smith Papers, SUL.

11. William Bassett to Daniel L. Miller, November 9, 1838, Incoming Correspondence, American Free Produce Association, AFPA, HSP.

12. Samuel Philbrick to Daniel L. Miller, December 30, 1838; Aaron L. Benedict to Daniel L. Miller, January 18, 1839, Incoming Correspondence, American Free Produce Association, AFPA, HSP.

13. Minutes, October 15, 1839, AFPA, HSP.

14. Minutes, October 20, 1840, AFPA, HSP.

15. Esther Nixon to the American Free Produce Association, February 7, March 6, May 1, 1840; Phineas Nixon to the American Free Produce Association, September 25, October 2, 1840, Incoming Correspondence, American Free Produce Association, AFPA, HSP.

16. Minutes, October 15, 1839, AFPA, HSP.

17. Andrea Major, Slavery, Abolitionism, and Empire in India, 1772–1843 (Liverpool, U.K.: Liverpool University Press, 2012), 325–326.

18. S. R. Mehrota, “The British India Society and Its Bengal Branch, 1839–1846,” Indian Economic and Social History Review 4 (Summer 1967); 131; Anne Stoddart, Elizabeth Pease Nichol (London: J. M. Dent, 1899), 72; Kenneth D. Nworah, “The Aborigines’ Protection Society, 1889–1909: A Pressure Group in Colonial Policy,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 5, no. 1 (1971): 79–81.

19. Stoddart, Elizabeth Pease Nichol, 73–79.

20. George Thompson to William Lloyd Garrison, January 5, 1839, in British and American Abolitionists: An Episode in Transatlantic Understanding, ed. Clare Taylor (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1974), 67–68. See also George Thompson to Richard D. Webb, February 15, 1839, in British and American Abolitionists, 69.

21. George Thompson to unknown, January 7, 1838, as quoted in Stoddart, Elizabeth Pease Nichol, 85.

22. Scholarship on William Adam is limited. For an early biographical study of Adam, see S. C. Sanial, “The Rev. William Adam,” Bengal Past and Present: The Journal of the Calcutta Historical Society 8 (1914): 251–272. See also Julie L. Holcomb, “ ‘The Second Fallen Adam’: William Adam and Nineteenth-Century Transatlantic Reform,” in Currents in Transatlantic History: Encounters, Commodities, Identities, ed. Steven Reinhardt (College Station, Texas: Texas A & M University Press, forthcoming 2016).

23. Born in 1772 in British-ruled Bengal, Rammohun Roy’s family belonged to the Brahman caste, the highest ranking of the four varnas, or social classes, in Hindu India. Raised within the Hindu tradition, Rammohun was exposed to the Islamic tradition at an early age. In the 1810s, he became interested in Unitarianism. Rammohun wrote and spoke confidently within each of these three religious traditions. He was fluent in English, Greek, and Hebrew, as well as Sanskrit and Persian. Rammohun published widely in Bengali, English, and Hindustani. He fought for an end to sati, or widow burning, supported education, and criticized British censorship of the Indian press and the exclusion of Indians from British juries. See Dermot Killingley, Rammohun Roy in Hindu and Christian Tradition: The Teape Lectures, 1990 (Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Grevatt and Grevatt, 1993); Lynn Zastoupil, “ ‘Notorious and Convicted Mutilators’: Rammohun Roy, Thomas Jefferson, and the Bible,” Journal of World History 20 (September 2009): 399–434; Lynn Zastoupil, Rammohun Roy and the Making of Victorian Britain (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

24. Joseph DiBona, ed., One Teacher, One School: The Adam Reports on Indigenous Education in Nineteenth-Century India (New Delhi: Biblioa Impex, 1983), 6–10.

25. Stoddart, Elizabeth Pease Nichol, 85; John Hyslop Bell, British Folks and British India Fifty Years Ago: Joseph Pease and His Contemporaries (London: John Heywood, 1891), 61; DiBona, One Teacher, One School, 11.

26. Stoddart, Elizabeth Pease Nichol, 85–86, 89–90; Bell, British Folks and British India, 58–60, 62–64; Mary Wigham to Maria Weston Chapman, April 1, 1839, in Taylor, British and American Abolitionists, 69–70; Speeches, Delivered at a Public Meeting, for the Formation of a British India Society, Freemasons’ Hall, July 6, 1839 (London: British India Society, 1839), 67.

27. Speeches, Delivered at a Public Meeting, 14.

28. Ibid., 44.

29. Elizabeth Pease to Maria Weston Chapman, July 11, 1839, in Taylor, British and American Abolitionists, 72–73.

30. Maria Weston Chapmen to Elizabeth Pease, August 20, 1839, in Taylor, British and American Abolitionists, 81–82.

31. Angelina Grimké to Elizabeth Pease, August 14, 1839, Anti-Slavery Collection, Boston Public Library, Boston, Mass. (hereafter cited as ASC, BPL).

32. Maria Weston Chapman, “The British India Society,” Liberty Bell, January 1, 1839.

33. Speeches Delivered at a Public Meeting, 68.

34. George Thompson, Six Lectures on the Condition, Resources, and Prospects of British India, and the Duties and Responsibilities of Great Britain to Do Justice to That Vast Empire (London: John W. Parker, 1842), 128.

35. George Thompson, Six Lectures on British India, Delivered in the Friends’ Meeting-House in Manchester, England, in October 1839 (Pawtucket, R.I.: William and Robert Adams, 1840); William Adam to Maria Weston Chapman, November 5, 1839, in Taylor, British and American Abolitionists, 86–87; William Adam to Maria Weston Chapman, December 5, 1839, ASC, BPL; Liberator, February 5, 15, 1840; Christian Register and Boston Observer, March 7, 1840.

36. Edward M. Davis to Elizabeth Pease, December 11, 1839, ASC, BPL.

37. Edward M. Davis to Elizabeth Pease, December 11, 1839, ASC, BPL.

38. Arthur W. Silver, Manchester Men and Indian Cotton, 1847–1872 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1966), 38–39; Frenise A. Logan, “A British East India Company Agent in the United States, 1839–1840,” Agricultural History 48 (April 1974): 267–276. See also Brian Schoen, The Fragile Fabric of the Union: Cotton, Federal Politics, and the Global Origins of the Civil War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 171.

39. Daily Picayune, August 4, 1840. See also Southern Quarterly, 1 (April 1842), 459; Niles Register, March 27, 1841.

40. Daily National Intelligencer, September 21, 1840.

41. Ibid., November 25, 1841.

42. Silver, Manchester Men, 38.

43. Isaac Watts, Cotton Supply Association (Manchester: Tubbs & Brook, 1871), 122.

44. Betty Fladeland, Abolitionists and Working-Class Problems in the Age of Industrialization (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984), 49–73; Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 258–267; Douglas H. Maynard, “The World’s Anti-Slavery Convention of 1840,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47 (December 1960): 455; Donald R. Kennon, “ ‘An Apple of Discord’: The Woman Question at the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention of 1840,” Slavery and Abolition 5 (December 1984): 250.

45. Liberator, May 8, 1840; Lewis Tappan to Theodore Weld, May 4, 1840, in Letters of Theodore Dwight Weld, Angelina Grimké Weld and Sarah Grimké, 1822–1844, ed. Gilbert H. Barnes and Dwight L. Dumond (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1965), 2:834; Kennon, “ ‘An Apple of Discord,’ ” 248–249.

46. Frederick B. Tolles, ed., Slavery and the “Woman Question”: Lucretia Mott’s Diary of Her Visit to Great Britain to Attend the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention of 1840 (Haverford, Penn.: Friends’ Historical Association, 1952), 23, 27, 28–29; Kathryn Kish Sklar, “ ‘Women Who Speak for an Entire Nation’: American and British Women at the World Anti-Slavery Convention, London, 1840,” in The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women’s Political Culture in Antebellum America, ed. Jean Fagan Yellin and John C. Van Horne (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994), 308.

47. Tolles, Slavery and the “Woman Question,” 27–31; Liberator, December 11, 1840; Maynard, “World’s Anti-Slavery Convention,” 459–460; Kennon, “ ‘An Apple of Discord,’ ” 250–251; William Lloyd Garrison to Helen Garrison, June 29, 1840, in Taylor, British and American Abolitionists, 91–93.

48. British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, Proceedings of the General Anti-Slavery Convention Called by the Committee of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, London, June 12–23, 1840 (London: British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, 1841), 77–86. See also Major, Slavery, Abolitionism, and Empire, 321–324.

49. BFASS, Proceedings of the General Anti-Slavery Convention, London June 12–23, 1840, 90.

50. Ibid., 437–447.

51. Ibid., 447–454.

52. Tolles, Slavery and “The Woman Question,” 39–40. Emphasis in the original. See also Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 393–394.

53. Sarah Pugh to Richard D. Webb, November 18, 1840, ASC, BPL; National Anti-Slavery Standard, November 12, 1840.

54. BFASS, Proceedings of the General Anti-Slavery Convention, London June 12–23, 1840, 430–432.

55. Carleton Mabee, Black Freedom: The Nonviolent Abolitionists from 1830 through the Civil War (New York: Macmillan, 1970), 190–191.

56. Tolles, Slavery and “The Woman Question,” 39–40. Emphasis in the original. See also Faulkner, “Root of the Evil,” 393–394.

57. Edward M. Davis to Elizabeth Pease, December 28, 1839, in Taylor, British and American Abolitionists, 88.

58. Edward M. Davis to Elizabeth Pease, March 30, 1840, ASC, BPL.

59. Minutes, October 20, 1840, AFPA, HSP; Sarah Pugh to Elizabeth Pease, November 16, 1840, ASC, BPL; Liberator, December 11, 1840.

60. Minutes, October 15, 1839; October 18, 1841; October 21, 1842; October 21, 1845; October 26, 1846; October 4, 1847, AFPA, HSP. The Philanthropist reprinted the letter to the Ohio Anti-Slavery Society in the June 30, 1841, issue.

61. American Free Produce Journal, October 1, 1842.

62. Minutes, October 18, 1841; October 21, 1842; October 17, 1843; October 21, 1845; October 26, 1846; October 4, 1847, AFPA, HSP.

63. Minutes, October 18, 1841, AFPA, HSP; New York Evangelist, April 28, 1842.

64. Minutes, October 21, 1842, AFPA, HSP.

65. Ibid.; National Anti-Slavery Standard, November 17, 1842; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 50–51.

66. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 117–118; Stacey Robertson, Hearts Beating for Liberty: Women Abolitionists in the Old Northwest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 76, 230n39.

67. Robertson, Hearts Beating for Liberty, 73–76.

68. National Anti-Slavery Standard, April 7, 1842; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 49–50.

69. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 50–51, 117–119. While thorough, Nuermberger’s lists of free-produce societies and stores in The Free Produce Movement are incomplete. For example, Sarah Pearson’s long-running store (1844–1858) in Hamorton, Pennsylvania, is missing from Nuermberger’s list. Given the short life span of many of these associations and stores, such omissions are not surprising. For Pearson’s store, see C. W. Heathcote, A History of Chester County, Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, Penn.: National Historical Association, 1932), 233.

70. Minutes, October 21, 1842, AFPA, HSP.

71. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 50–52.

72. Levi Coffin, Reminiscences of Levi Coffin, The Reputed President of the Underground Railroad (Cincinnati, Ohio: Robert Clarke, 1880), 223–234; Walter Edgerton, A History of the Separation in Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends; Which Took Place in the Winter of 1842 and 1843, on the Anti-Slavery Question (Cincinnati, Ohio: Achilles Pugh, 1856); Thomas E. Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), 164–165; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 48–49; Ryan P. Jordan, Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 46–58; Robertson, Hearts Beating for Liberty, 81–82; Thomas D. Hamm, David Dittmer, Chenda Fruchter, Ann Giordano, Janice Matthews, and Ellen Swain, “Moral Choices: Two Quaker Communities and the Abolitionist Movement,” Indiana Magazine of History 87 (June 1991): 117–154.

73. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 33–34; Jordan, Slavery and the Meetinghouse, 61.

74. Minutes, October 20, 1840, AFPA, HSP; Liberator, November 10, 1843.

75. Tolles, Slavery and “The Woman Question,” 57.

76. Liberator, February 19, 1847.

77. Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 1837.

78. Liberator, March 1, 1850.

79. Minutes, October 17, 1843, AFPA, HSP.

80. Liberator, March 5, 1847. The biblical reference is Matthew 23:24.

81. Elizabeth A. Pease to J. A. Collins, n.d.; Elizabeth Pease to Anne Warren Weston, June 24, 1841; Elizabeth Pease to unknown, February 24, 1842, all in Taylor, British and American Abolitionists, 140, 154, 169–170. William Bassett to Elizabeth Pease, April 25, 1842, ASC, BPL; Mehrota, “The British India Society,” 139–142; Malcolm Chase, Chartism: A New History (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), 158–160.

82. Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 172–173.

83. Anna Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement and British Anti-Slavery Campaigns: The Free Labour Cotton Depot in Street, 1852–1858,” (PhD diss., University of Brighton, 2012), 90, 107.

8. Bailing the Atlantic with a Spoon

1. Minutes, April 10, 1856, PFASS, HSP.

2. Lucretia Mott, “Diversities,” Liberty Bell, January 1844.

3. Minutes, October 8, 1846, PFASS, HSP; Carol Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 113–114. Groups such as the Philadelphia Vigilance Committee provided food, shelter, and clothing to fugitive slaves.

4. Jean R. Soderlund, “Priorities and Powers: The Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society,” in The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women’s Political Culture in Antebellum America, ed. Jean Fagan Yellin and John C. Van Horne (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994), 72–73; Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy, 114.

5. Minutes, April 10, 1856, PFASS, HSP.

6. Samuel J. May to John Estlin, May 2, 1848, May Papers, BPL.

7. Thomas D. Hamm, The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 20–35.

8. Christopher Densmore, “The Dilemma of Quaker Anti-Slavery: The Case of Farmington Quarterly Meeting, 1836–1910,” Quaker History (1993): 86–87; Christopher Densmore, “ ‘Be Ye Therefore Perfect’: Anti-Slavery and the Origins of the Yearly Meeting of Progressive Friends in Chester County, Pennsylvania,” Quaker History 93 (Fall 2000): 28–46.

9. An Address from the Farmington Quarterly Meeting of Friends, to its Members on Slavery (1836), 5, 7; Address to the Citizens of the United States of America on the Subject of Slavery (New York, 1837); Address of the Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends … to the Professors of Christianity in the United States on the Subject of Slavery (New York: James Egbert, 1852); Densmore, “ Dilemma of Quaker Anti-Slavery,” 82–84; Address of Farmington Quarterly Meeting (New York) to the Monthly Meetings Constituting It, and to the Members of the Same Generally (Managers of the Free Produce Association of Friends of Ohio Yearly Meeting, 1850).

10. A Brief Statement on the Rise and Progress of the Testimony of the Religious Society of Friends, against Slavery and the Slave Trade (Philadelphia: Joseph and William Kite, 1843); Samuel Rhoads, Considerations on the Use of the Productions of Slavery, Addressed to the Religious Society of Friends, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Merrihew and Thompson, 1845), 27; Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (New York: AMS Press, 1942), 35–36.

11. See, e.g., National Anti-Slavery Standard, May 26, 1842.

12. Thomas E. Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), 172–173; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 33.

13. William Still, The Underground Railroad: A Record of the Facts, Authentic Narrative, Letters, &c. (Philadelphia: Porter and Coates, 1871), 864–865; Josephine F. Pacheco, “Myrtilla Miner,” in Three Who Dared: Prudence Crandall, Margaret Douglass, Myrtilla Miner—Champions of Antebellum Black Education (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984), 124–126.

14. Constitution of the Free Produce Society of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: D. & S. Neal, [1827]; The Friend, May 29, 1830; April 27, 1833; and May 31, 1834; Edwin B. Bronner, Sharing the Scriptures: The Bible Association of Friends in America, 1829–1879 (Philadelphia: Bible Association of Friends, 1979); Lucretia Mott to Phebe Post Willis, September 13, 1834, in Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 28; Liberator, June 2, 1837; Sarah Pennock Sellers, David Sellers, Mary Pennock Sellers (n.p., 1926), 45–46; Alex Derkin to Abraham L. Pennock, June 18, 1845, Civil War and Slavery Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Grand Valley State University Libraries, Allendale, Michigan.

15. George W. Taylor, Autobiography and Writings of George W. Taylor (Philadelphia: n.p., 1891), 29–30, 39–43; Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement 83–84.

16. Philadelphia Free Produce Association of Friends, “To Our Fellow Members of the Religious Society of Friends,” Quaker Broadsides, QC, HC.

17. Free Produce Association of Friends of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, Minutes of the Board of Managers, April 17, 1846, Journals, Diaries, Etc. Collection, QC, HC; Non-Slaveholder, February 1846, 17, 23; May 1846, 65–69; July 1846, 97; October 1846, 153; May 1847, 97–102; October 1847, 222; April 1848, 75–79; Free Produce Association of Friends of New-York Yearly Meeting, Report of the Board of Managers, 1849, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Penn.; Free Produce Association of New York Yearly Meeting, Circular, February 2, 1848, Friends Historical Library, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Penn.; Free Produce Association of Friends of Ohio Yearly Meeting, Second Annual Report of the Board of Managers (Mount Pleasant, Ohio: Enoch Harris 1851); Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 52–56; Free Produce Association of Friends of New England Yearly Meeting, Free Produce Meeting (c. 1850), Free Produce Meeting (c. 1851), Minutes of Free Produce Meeting, June 17, 1852, all in Quaker Broadsides, QC, HC. See also Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 35–39, 41–44, 52; Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 173–174.

18. Free Produce Association of Friends of Ohio Yearly Meeting, The Plea of Necessity (1851), 2; Free Produce Association of Friends of Ohio Yearly Meeting, Considerations on Abstinence from the Use of the Products of Slave Labor (1851); Address from Farmington Quarterly Meeting.

19. Hamm, Transformation of American Quakerism, 20–35; Charles Osborn, Journal of That Faithful Servant of Christ: Charles Osborn (Cincinnati: Achilles Pugh, 1854), 344. Edgerton as quoted in Hamm, Transformation of American Quakerism, 31; Thomas D. Hamm David Dittmer, Chenda Fruchter, Ann Giordano, Janice Mathews, and Ellen Swain, “Moral Choices: Two Indiana Communities and the Abolitionist Movement,” Indiana Magazine of History 87 (June 1991): 145.

20. Bassett as quoted in Ryan P. Jordan, Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 32–33.

21. Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 159; Christopher Clark, The Communitarian Moment: The Radical Challenge of the Northampton Association (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 69–71; Jordan, Slavery and the Meetinghouse, 32–33; William Bassett, Letter to a Member of the Society of Friends: In Reply to Objections against Joining Anti-Slavery Societies (Boston: Isaac Knapp, 1837).

22. Christopher Clark, “A Mother and Her Daughters at the Northampton Community: New Evidence on Women in Utopia,” New England Quarterly 75 (December 2002): 598; William Bassett to Elizabeth Pease, July 22, 1844, ASC, BPL. See also Clark, Communitarian Moment; Christopher Clark and Kerry W. Buckley, eds., Letters from an American Utopia: The Stetson Family and the Northampton Association, 1843–1847 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004).

23. William Bassett to Elizabeth Pease, July 22, 1844, ASC, BPL; Clark, Communitarian Moment, 69–71. See also William Bassett, Proceedings of the Society of Friends in the Case of William Bassett (Worcester: Joseph S. Wall, 1840).

24. Clark, Communitarian Moment, 195.

25. Non-Slaveholder, May 1, 1850.

26. Minutes of New England Yearly Meeting, 1836–1847, June 1837, as quoted in Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 147.

27. Drake, Quakers and Slavery, 164.

28. National Anti-Slavery Standard, February 6, 1845.

29. Densmore, “ ‘Be Ye Therefore Perfect,’ ” 34–35; Margaret S. Young, The Memories and History of Ercildoun 1976, (n.p., 1976), 16.

30. Thomas D. Hamm, “George F. White and Hicksite Opposition to the Abolitionist Movement,” in Quakers and Abolition, ed. Brycchan Carey and Geoffrey Plank (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014), 43.

31. Correspondence between Oliver Johnson and George F. White, a Minister of the Society of Friends (New York: Oliver Johnson, 1841); Narrative of the Proceedings of the Monthly Meeting of New York, and Their Subsequent Confirmation by the Quarterly and Yearly Meetings, in the Case of Isaac T. Hopper (New York, 1843); National Anti-Slavery Standard, March 25, 1841; Hamm, “George F. White”; Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy, 83–85, 120–121; Jordan, Slavery and the Meetinghouse, 99.

32. Densmore, “ ‘Be Ye Therefore Perfect,’ ” 35–43; Densmore, “Dilemma of Quaker Anti-Slavery,” 86–87.

33. Born in Chester County in 1816, Thorne was educated by Enoch Lewis. Thorne was a strict vegetarian. He was active in the Chester County Anti-Slavery Society, the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, and the American Anti-Slavery Society. In the 1840s, Thorne became involved in the Underground Railroad. He spearheaded efforts to build the People’s Hall in Ercildoun. Thorne also helped organize the Society of Progressive Friends and helped build their Longwood meetinghouse. “J. Williams Thorne,” T. Chalkley Matlack Notebooks, QC, HC; Mark E. Dixon, The Hidden History of Chester County: Lost Tales from the Delaware and Brandywine Valleys (Charleston, S.C.: History Press, 2011), 80–82.

34. Free Produce Association of Friends of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, Minutes of the Board of Managers, April 17, 1846, AFPA, HSP.

35. Elihu Burritt to William Lloyd Garrison, September 8, 1846, in British and American Abolitionists: An Episode in Transatlantic Understanding, ed. Clare Taylor (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1974), 287–288.

36. Elihu Burritt to George W. Taylor, September 29, 1846; Elihu Burritt to George W. Taylor, November 11, 1846; both Taylor Family Papers, QC, HC; Betty Fladeland, Men and Brothers: Anglo-American Antislavery Cooperation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972), 368–369; Peter Tolis, Elihu Burritt: Crusade for Brotherhood (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1968), 237–238; Elizabeth A. O’Donnell, “ ‘There’s Death in the Pot!’: The British Free-Produce Movement and the Religious Society of Friends, with Particular Reference to the North-East of England,” Quaker Studies 13 (March 2009): 189; Clare Midgley, Women against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London: Routledge, 1992), 136.

37. Elihu Burritt to Gerrit Smith, October 6, 1856, in Merle Curti, The Learned Blacksmith: The Letters and Journals of Elihu Burritt (New York: Wilson-Erikson, 1937), 118, 125–126, 129–130; Tolis, Elihu Burritt, 238–244; Fladeland, Men and Brothers, 371; Louis Billington, “British Humanitarians and American Cotton, 1840–1860,” Journal of American Studies 11, no. 3 (1977): 318–332.

38. R. J. M. Blackett, Building an Antislavery Wall: Black Americans in the Atlantic Abolitionist Movement, 1830–1860 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983), 119–123, 143–145. Blackett argues, “The fact that black visitors were affiliated with one of the other wing of the movement was of little significance; what mattered was that their independent approach provided many British abolitionists with a ‘practical’ alternative.”

39. Ibid., 119–123; Joel Schor, Henry Highland Garnet: A Voice of Black Radicalism in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977), 111–122; David E. Swift, Black Prophets of Justice: Activist Clergy before the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 251–258.

40. Anti-Slavery Reporter, January 1, 1846; Anna Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement and British Anti-Slavery Campaigns: The Free Labour Cotton Depot in Street, 1852–1858” (PhD diss., University of Brighton, 2012), 85–88.

41. Benjamin Coates, Cotton Cultivation in Africa: Suggestions on the Importance of the Cultivation of Cotton in Africa, in Reference to the Abolition of Slavery in the United States, through the Organization of an African Civilization Society (Philadelphia: C. Sherman and Son, 1858); Swift, Black Prophets of Justice, 285–296; Schor, Henry Highland Garnet, 147–158; Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 399–403; Richard K. MacMaster, “Henry Highland Garnet and the African Civilization Society,” Journal of Presbyterian History 48 (1970): 95–112. See also Emma J. Lapsansky-Werner and Margaret Hope Bacon, eds. Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America, 1848–1880 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2005).

42. Weekly Anglo-African, August 5, 1859.

43. Swift, Black Prophets of Justice, 285–296; Schor, Henry Highland Garnet, 147–158; Faulkner, “Root of the Evil,” 399–403; Richard K. MacMaster, “Henry Highland Garnet and the African Civilization Society,” Journal of Presbyterian History 48 (1970): 95–112. See also Werner-Lapsansky, Back to Africa.

44. James M. Day, Jacob de Cordova: Land Merchant of Texas (Waco, Texas: Texian Press, 1962), 141–142; Natalie Ornish, “De Cordova, Jacob Raphael,” Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fde03.

45. DeBow’s Review and Industrial Resources, June 1858.

46. Saturday Review, December 11, 1858.

47. Jacob de Cordova, The Cultivation of Cotton in Texas (London: J. King, 1858), 5, 15–19, 59.

48. Day, Jacob de Cordova, 141–142; Ornish, “De Cordova.”

49. Laura Wood Roper, “Frederick Law Olmsted and the Western Texas Free-Soil Movement,” American Historical Review 56 (October 1950): 58–64; Percy W. Bidwell, “The New England Emigrant Aid Company and English Cotton Supply Associations: Letters of Frederick L. Olmsted, 1857,” American Historical Review 23 (October 1917): 114–118; Frederick Law Olmsted, A Journey through Texas: A Saddle-Trip on the Southwestern Frontier, ed. James Howard (Austin, Texas: Von Boeckmann-Jones Press, 1962).

50. Edward Atkinson, Cheap Cotton by Free Labor (Boston: A. Williams, 1861), 13–14, 24–25, 30–31.

51. Olmsted as quoted in Richard H. Abbott, Cotton and Capital: Boston Businessmen and Antislavery Reform, 1854–1868 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1991), 78.

52. John Andrew to Gustvaus Fox, November 27, 1861, in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 128 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1880–1901), ser. 1, 15:412–413.

53. Abbott, Cotton and Capital, 77–82, 150–152; Ludwell H. Johnson, Red River Campaign: Politics and Cotton in the Civil War (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1958), 7–9; Stephen Steinberg, The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 189.

54. For Nathan Thomas’s trip through the South, see Nathan Thomas to Samuel Rhoads, January 6, 1848; January 11, 1848; Nathan Thomas to George W. Taylor, January 25, 1848; February 2, 1848; February 7, 1848; March 12, 1848; March 24, 1848, all Taylor Family Papers, QC, HC.

55. Citizen of the World 1 (January 1855), 11.

56. Richard Carpenter to Richard Mott, December 5, 1850, Richard Mott Papers, QC, HC.

57. Friends’ Review 7 (May 6, 1854): 533.

58. Edward E. Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 2014), 135–143, 350.

Conclusion

1. 2 Kings 4:38–41.

2. Walter Gratzer, Terrors of the Table: The Curious History of Nutrition (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 124–127.

3. Anna Richardson, There Is Death in the Pot! (London: C. Gilpin, c. 1850).

4. Clare Midgley, Feminism and Empire: Women Activists in Imperial Britain (London: Routledge, 2007), 63; Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire’s Slaves (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 193.

5. Donna McDaniel and Venessa Julye, Fit for Freedom, Not for Friendship: Quakers, African Americans, and the Myth of Racial Justice (Philadelphia: Quaker Press of Friends General Conference, 2009), 65; Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (New York: AMS Press, 1942), 115.

6. Elihu Burritt to George W. Taylor, September 29, 1846, Taylor Family Papers, QC, HC. Taylor’s statement is penned as a note at the bottom of Burritt’s letter and is dated, by Taylor, January 1, 1884.

7. Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (2007): 396–397.

8. North Star, June 23, 1848; Henry Richardson, Revolution of the Spindles for the Overthrow of American Slavery (n.p., c. 1848).

9. “Remarks of Alexander Crummell, 21 May 1849,” in The Black Abolitionist Papers, 5 vols. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 1:149–150.

10. Nuermberger, Free Produce Movement, 114.

11. A substantial body of scholarship points to the connection between slavery and nineteenth-century capitalism. For an overview, see Seth Rockman, “Slavery and Capitalism,” Journal of the Civil War Era, http://journalofthecivilwarera.com/forum-the-future-of-civil-war-era-studies/the-future-of-civil-war-era-studies-slavery-and-capitalism. For recent scholarship, see Edward E. Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 2014); Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014); Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013); Joshua Rothman, Flush Times and Fever Dreams: A Story of Capitalism and Slavery in the Age of Jackson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012); Craig Steven Wilder, Ebony & Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of America’s Universities (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013).

12. See, e.g., Seth Rockman, A Landscape of Industry: An Industrial History of the Blackstone Valley. A Project of the Worcester Historical Museum and the John H. Chaffee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor (Lebanon, N.H.: University Press of New England, 2009), 110–131.

13. Thomas F. De Voe, The Market Assistant, Containing a Brief Description of Every Article of Human Food Sold in the Public Markets of the Cities of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Brooklyn (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1867), 321–322.

14. Rockman, “Slavery and Capitalism,” 5–6.

15. May to Estlin, May 2, 1848, May Papers, BPL.

16. Lawrence Glickman, Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 88–89.