NOTES
Prologue
1. Divie Bethune McCartee to Franklin Knight, Ningpo, Nov. 30, 1858. MFP, Folder 4.
2. Divie Bethune McCartee to Franklin Knight, Ningpo, China, July 13, 1860. MFP, Folder 4.
3. Haddad, America’s First Adventure in China, ch. 8.
4. Divie Bethune McCartee to Franklin Knight, Ningpo, China, July 13, 1860. MFP, Folder 4.
5. No. 10 C. K. Stribling, Shanghai, May 28, 1861. MFP, Folder 3.
6. Anson Burlingame to D. B. McCartee, Peking, Feb. 20, 1865. Copy enclosed with No. 100 Anson Burlingame to William H. Seward, Legation of the United States, Peking, March 7, 1865. MFP, Folder 3.
7. McCartee, “Dr. McCartee’s Reminiscences,” 403.
8. Speer, A Missionary Pioneer in the Far East, 96.
9. Josephy Leidy, “Report of the Curators for 1850,” Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 5 (1850–1851), 130–131; “Aug. 26,” Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 8 (1856), 152, 154; “Sept. 8, 1857,” Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 9 (1857), 179.
10. Walter Hough, “Thumb Marks,” Science 8, no. 185 (Aug. 20, 1886): 166–167.
11. On the American Oriental Society: Charles Folsom, “Additions to the Library and Cabinet of the American Oriental Society,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 4 (1854), vi; “From a Letter from Rev. D. B. McCartee, M.D., of Ningpo,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 5 (1855–1856), 260–262; “Proceedings at Baltimore, Oct. 29 and 30th, 1884,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 11 (1885), cciv. On the American Geographical Society: “Additions to the Library and Map-Room, 1884,” Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York 16 (1884), li.
12. Divie Bethune McCartee to Franklin Knight, Ningpo, April 21, 1854. MFP, Folder 4.
13. Divie Bethune McCartee to Henry Rankin, New York, Nov. 29, 1880. MFP, Folder 5. “Mixed Court,” The North-China Herald and Supreme Court and Consular Gazette (May 26, 1877), 526; “Mixed Court,” The North-China Herald and Supreme Court and Consular Gazette (June 23, 1877), 623; “Mixed Court,” The North-China Herald and Supreme Court and Consular Gazette (July 14, 1877), 43.
14. Divie Bethune McCartee to Henry Rankin, New York, July 18, 1883; New York, Sept. 2, 1883; Divie Bethune McCartee to Samuel Wells Williams, New York, Oct. 13, 1883. MFP, Folder 5.
15. Divie Bethune McCartee to Henry Rankin, Washington, June 15, 1885. MFP, Folder 5.
16. Divie Bethune McCartee to Henry Rankin New York, June 21, 1884. MFP, Folder 5.
17. Divie Bethune McCartee to Henry Rankin, Tokyo, Feb. 23, 1897. MFP, Folder 5.
18. Divie Bethune McCartee to Henry W Rankin, San Francisco, Jan. 19, 1900. MFP, Folder 5
19. David Murray, “Divie Bethune McCartee MD: Pioneer Missionary in China and Japan,” NY Observer and Chronicle (July 17, 1902), 73–74; Henry W. Rankin to Dr. David Murray, E. Northfield, Mass. Nov. 12, 1901, RFP, Box 1, Folder 22.
20. Henry W. Rankin to Dr. David Murray, E. Northfield, Mass. Nov. 12, 1901. RFP, Box 1, Folder 22.
21. Henry W. Rankin to Peter McCartee, Esq, E. Northfield, Mass., Dec. 16, 1901. RFP, Box 1, Folder 22.
22. For examples of work that focuses on this turn-of-the-century period as foundational, see for example Hollinger, Protestants Abroad; Preston, Sword of the Spirit; Curtis, Holy Humanitarians.
Part I
1. Matthew 28:19, King James Version.
1. Politicians
1. John Quincy Adams (JQA) Diary, Vol. 50 (February 28 and March 4, 1827); “American Missionaries at the Sandwich Islands,” North American Review (January 1, 1828), 59–111.
2. Stewart, Private Journal. By 1839, the US printing was in a fifth, enlarged, edition.
3. JQA Diary, Vol. 50 (4 March 1827).
4. JQA Diary, Vol. 37 (22 March 1828; 28 March 1828).
5. Jonas King, quoted in Haines, Jonas King, 188.
6. JQA Diary, Vol. 37 (6 April 1828).
7. Matthew 13:38.
8. January 6, 1839, in Adams, ed. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, 90–91.
9. Edel, Nation Builder.
10. Georgini, Household Gods, 47.
11. See, for example, JQA Diary, Vol. 35 (7 February 1824); and JQA Diary, Vol. 50 (8 March 1827).
12. JQA Diary, Vol. 31 (28 June 1819 and 8 October 1819).
13. JQA Diary, Vol. 36i (12 January 1829).
14. JQA Diary, Vol. 37 (28 May 1827).
15. JQA Diary, Vol. 37 (18 March 1828).
16. House of Representatives, 27th Congress, 3rd Session, Rep. No. 93, 2–3 (January 24, 1843).
17. Shoemaker, Pursuing Respect in the Cannibal Isles; Saunt, West of the Revolution, 209.
18. Lazich, “American Missionaries and the Opium Trade.”
19. Whipple, Relation of the American Board of Commissioners, 20–21.
20. Adams, ed. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 10 (entry dated January 9, 1840), 188.
21. On information sources for American media coverage of the Opium Wars, see Norwood, Trading Freedom, ch. 4.
22. Quoted in Batson, “American Diplomats in Southeast Asia,” 39–112.
23. Gulick, Peter Parker, ch. 3; Haddad, America’s First Adventure in China.
24. Gulick, Peter Parker, ch. 6.
25. Gulick, Peter Parker, 98–99.
26. Adams, ed. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 10 (entry dated March 15, 1841), 444–445.
27. Gulick, Peter Parker, ch. 7.
28. Adams, ed. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 11 (entry dated June 2, 1842), 166–167.
29. Lazich, E. C. Bridgman, ch. 5.
30. Gulick, Peter Parker, 98–99.
31. Gulick, Peter Parker, ch. 8.
32. Rufus Anderson, quoted in Lazich, E. C. Bridgman, 222.
33. Haddad, America’s First Adventure in China, 151–152: Lazich, E. C. Bridgman, ch. 5.
34. Gulick, Peter Parker, Ch. 8.
35. Quoted in Lazich, E. C. Bridgman, 10.
36. Adams, ed. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 12, 227.
37. John Quincy Adams, “Speech to the U.S. House of Representatives on Foreign Policy” (July 4, 1821), https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/july-4-1821-speech-us-house-representatives-foreign-policy.
38. Fitz, Our Sister Republics.
39. Walther, Sacred Interests, ch. 1; Santelli, The Greek Fire.
40. On the Islamophobia in US discussions of Greece, see Walther, Sacred Interests, ch. 1.
41. Treaty of Peace and Friendship, Signed at Tripoli, November 4, 1796, https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/bar1796t.asp.
42. Edel, Nation Builder.
43. On the early missions in the Ottoman Empire, see Heyrman, American Apostles; Walther, Sacred Interests, ch. 1.
44. Jonas King quoted in Haines, Jonas King, 188.
45. Haines, Jonas King, ch. 13.
46. “Greece: The President of Greece to Mr. Evarts,” Missionary Herald (Feb. 1830), 41–47; “Letters from the Government,” Missionary Herald (September 1831), 277–278.
47. Repousis, “The Trojan Women,” 445–476; Boonshoft, Aristocratic Education; Kelley, Learning to Stand and Speak; Neem, Democracy’s Schools.
48. “Missionary Intelligence: Greece,” Episcopal Recorder (March 30, 1833), 207.
49. “Missionary Intelligence: Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society,” Episcopal Recorder (July 28, 1832), 67.
50. Adams, ed. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 8 (entry dated March 28, 1830), 209–210. Adams records the preacher as Rev. Robinson, but this seems likely to be an error on his part.
51. JQA Diary, Vol. 31 (24 February 1819).
52. Daggar, Cultivating Empire.
53. On missionaries and the Cherokee, see, for example, McLoughlin, Cherokees and Missionaries; McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence; Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, ch. 5. On US Indian policy in this era, see Satz, American Indian Policy.
54. On McCoy, see Mills, The World Colonization Made, ch. 3; Snyder, Great Crossings, 126–127.
55. JQA Diary, Vol. 37 (23 January 1828).
56. JQA Diary, Vol. 50 (8 March 1827). On Adams and US Indian policy, see Parsons, “A Perpetual Harrow Upon My Feelings.”
57. Evarts, Cherokee Removal; Portnoy, Their Right to Speak; Hershberger, “Mobilizing Women.”
58. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 5 Pet. 1 1 (1831); Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 6 Pet. 515 515 (1832).
59. Adams, ed. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 8, 491–492. Entry dated March 11, 1832.
60. On slavery and expansion, see Greenberg, A Wicked War; Karp, This Vast Southern Empire.
61. Adams, ed. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 12 (entry dated July 7, 1845), 201–202.
62. Quoted in Pinheiro, Missionaries of Republicanism, 131.
63. “America,” Missionary Herald (February 1841), 80.
64. “Baptist Home Missionary Society,” Missionary Herald (June 1845), 208; “Methodist Episcopal Missionary Society,” Missionary Herald (July 1845), 245. The Methodists reported significant growth in Texas: only three missionaries had been in the region in 1842. In 1845, they counted more than sixty-five preachers and more than fifty missionaries serving churches with 5,085 white and 1,005 “colored” members.
65. See, for example, “American Bible Society,” Missionary Herald (June 1845), 210; “American Bible Society,” Missionary Herald (June 1844), 209; “American Bible Society,” Missionary Herald (July 1848), 242; “American Tract Society,” Missionary Herald (July 1848, 242); “American Indian Mission Association,” Missionary Herald (September, 1851), 314. In 1848, the ABS sent four thousand Bibles to Mexico. Fea, The Bible Cause, 70–71; 120–130.
2. Experts
1. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, Prologue. For more on Williams’s writing of The Middle Kingdom, see Haddad, The Romance of China, ch. 6.
2. Translation of Title Page, Williams, The Middle Kingdom, xi.
3. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, xiii; 334.
4. Cayton in Reeves-Ellington et al., Competing Kingdoms, 69–93; Moreshead, “Beyond All Ambitious Motives.”
5. Laurie, The Ely Volume, Appendix.
6. Carl Ritter, quoted in Laurie, The Ely Volume, 3.
7. David Greene to Mrs. Lydia Pratt, Boston, Sept. [1838], ABC 1.1, v.10.
8. On knowledge production empire, see Chidester, Empire of Religion, ch. 1; Susan Thorne, “Religion and Empire at Home,” in Hall and Rose, At Home with the Empire, 143–165.
9. “Missionary Concert,” Boston Recorder, Aug. 24, 1821; “Monthly Concert,” Boston Recorder, Sept. 1, 1821; “Monthly Concert,” Boston Recorder, Sept. 29, 1821. These articles were responding to a letter from December 16, 1820.
10. On the false binary between secularism and religion, see, for example, Janet R. Jakobsen and Ann Pellegrini, “Times Like These,” in Jakobsen and Pellegrini, Secularisms, 1–38. For a discussion of similar dynamics in the publications of the American Tract Society, see Modern, Secularism in Antebellum America, ch. 1.
11. Malcolm, “The Chinese Repository,” 165–178; Rubinstein, “The Wars They Wanted,” 271–82.
12. Rouleau, With Sails Whitening Every Sea, ch. 4.
13. Haddad, The Romance of China, ch. 6; Malcolm, “The Chinese Repository,” 165–178; Rubinstein, “The Wars They Wanted,” 271–82.
14. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, xvi.
15. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, xiv–xv.
16. Imprints of the fourth edition can be found from 1859, 1861, 1871, and 1876, with a “revised edition” appearing in the market in 1883. This revised edition saw reprintings in 1883, 1904, 1907, 1945, and beyond.
17. Williams and Williams, A History of China.
18. Hayford, “China by the Book,” 288; Haddad, Romance of China, ch. 6.
19. “The Middle Kingdom,” The United States Magazine and Democratic Review (April 1848), 319–334.
20. W. J. Eustis, “The Middle Kingdom,” New Englander (May 1849), 215–229.
21. “Williams’ Middle Kingdom,” The Friend, a Religious and Literary Journal (Feb. 10, 1849), 166–167; “The Middle Kingdom, by S. Wells Williams,” Holden’s Dollar Magazine of Criticisms, Biographies, Sketches, Essays, Tales, Reviews, Poetry, etc. (Feb. 1848), 121.
22. Haddad, Romance of China, ch. 6.
23. In Philadelphia, this could be seen in the creation of Nathan Dunn’s Chinese Museum. See Haddad, Romance of China, ch. 6.
24. Essex Institute, Books on China in the Library of Essex Institute.
25. To contrast the holdings of the Athenaeum to that of the Public Library, see Catalogue of the Library of the Boston Athenaeum and Boston Public Library, List of Books. At the time the catalog was completed, the BPL held some 4,400 books in its total collection.
26. “The Book Trade: A Residence of Eight Years in Persia, among the Nestorian Christians,” The Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review (June 1, 1843), 577; “A Residence of Eight Years in Persia,” Graham’s Magazine of Literature and Art (April 1843), 261.
27. Rev. Rhea to President Andrew Johnson, Oroomiah, Persia, June 3, 1854. National Archives, RG 59 M179, Reel 226.
28. Perkins, A Residence of Eight Years in Persia, vi–viii.
29. “The Nestorian Christians,” North American Review 57 (July 1843), 184.
30. Perkins, Life of Justin Perkins, 7.
31. “The Nestorian Christians,” North American Review 57 (July 1843), 171.
32. “The Nestorian Christians,” North American Review 57 (July 1843), 157.
33. “The Nestorian Christians,” North American Review 57 (July 1843), 171. Smith and Dwight, Researches.
34. “The Nestorian Christians,” North American Review 57 January 1843), 156–184.
35. “The Nestorian Christians,” North American Review 57 (January 1843), 156–184.
36. “The Nestorian Christians,” North American Review 57 (July 1843), 171–172.
37. “The Middle Kingdom,” North American Review 67 (October 1848), 265–292; “The Nestorian Christians,” North American Review 57 (July 1843), 171–184.
38. “The Middle Kingdom,” North American Review 67 (October 1848), 266.
39. Circulation in 1830 was 3,200; by 1880 it would be 7,500 and by 1891, 76,000. Mott, A History of American Magazines, 218–261, quote on 232. See also Julius H. Ward, “The North American Review,” North American Review 201 (Jan. 1915), 123–134; Taketani, “The ‘North American Review,’” 111–127; Werner, “Bringing Down Holy Science,” 27–42; Spann, “New England and Early Conservationism,” 192–207.
40. “The Middle Kingdom,” North American Review 67 (Oct. 1848), 266.
41. Religious topics would become more important within the North American Review beginning in the late-1870s. Mott, A History of American Magazines, 252–253.
42. “Brazil and the Brazilians,” North American Review 85 (Oct. 1857), 533–549.
43. “Voyage of His Majesty’s Ship Blonde to the Sandwich Islands . . . Narrative of a Tour through Hawaii . . . Review . . . The Rev. C.S. Stewart’s Letters on the Sandwich Islands,” North American Review 26 (Jan. 1828), 59–112. Ellis’s narrative had been reviewed independently two years earlier. “Journal of a Tour Around Hawaii,” North American Review 22 (Apr. 1826), 334–365.
44. Memoir of Keopuolani.
45. “Journal of a Tour around Hawaii, the Largest of the Sandwich Islands,” North American Review 22 (Apr. 1826), 334–365.
46. “Stewart’s Voyage to the South Sea,” North American Review 33 (Oct. 1831), 484–507; “Anderson’s Observations in Greece,” North American Review 34 (Jan. 1832), 1–23; “Kay’s Travels in Caffraria,” North American Review 39 (Oct. 1834), 371–395; “India, Ancient and Modern,” North American Review 82 (April 1856), 404–444; “Five Years in Damascus,” North American Review 83 (July 1856), 30–53; “Grout’s Zulu Land,” North American Review 101 (July 1865), 274–276.
47. “Life of G.D. Boardman,” North American Review 40 (April 1835), 376–410; “The Life and Letters of Mrs. Emily C. Judson,” North American Review 92 (Jan. 1861), 269–270; “A Memoir of the Life and Labors of the Rev. Adoniram Judson, DD,” North American Review 78 (Jan. 1854), 21–67; “Memoir of Rev. David Tappan Stoddard, Missionary to the Nestorians,” North American Review 87 (Jan. 1859), 228–244.
48. “The Koran,” North American Review 63 (Oct. 1846), 496–514.
49. “India, Ancient and Modern,” North American Review 82 (Apr. 1856), 404–444.
50. Allen, India, Ancient and Modern, vii.
51. “The Crescent and the Cross,” North American Review 65 (July 1847), 56–85.
52. “Ten Years on the Euphrates,” North American Review 107 (Oct. 1868), 648–51.
53. Heyrman, American Apostles.
54. “Article III. Voyage of His Majesty’s Ship Blonde to the Sandwich Islands. . . Narrative of a Tour through Hawaii. . . Review. . . The Rev. C.S. Stewart’s Letters on the Sandwich Islands,” North American Review 26 (Jan. 1828), 59–60.
55. W. J. Eustis, “The Middle Kingdom,” New Englander (May 1849), 215.
56. “The Middle Kingdom,” North American Review 67 (Oct. 1848), 266.
57. Williams, Chinese Immigration; Williams, Our Relations with the Chinese Empire.
58. W. L. Marcy, Dept. of State, to Hon. Nathaniel P. Banks, Jr., Washington, March 8, 1856, in House of Representatives “Interpreter to the Mission to China,” 34th Congress, 1st Session. Ex. Doc. No. 49.
Part II
1. New York Times (July 4, 1862), 1.
2. J. G. Kerr, on behalf of US Missionaries at Canton, to Hon. W. H. Seward, Canton, China. July 8, 1862, National Archives, RG 59, M179, Reel 191. Emphasis in original.
3. Rev. Stephen Mattoon, “An Address Delivered at Bangkok on the 4th of July, 1865. The 89th Anniversary of American Independence” (Bangkok: American Missionary Association, Published by request of American Residents, 1865). RG 275.2.7, Presbyterian Historical Society.
4. “Letter from Mr. Smith, Dated Mount Lebanon, September 27, 1834,” Missionary Herald (Apr. 1835), 136–137.
3. Citizens
1. “An Account of the Visit of the French Frigate L’Artemise,” North American Review 51 (Oct. 1840), 503–513.
2. Laplace’s letters to the American consul and his “manifesto” to Hawai‘i were printed in several tracts including [Jones], Suppliment [sic] to the Sandwich Island Mirror, 49–50.
3. “Citizenship of Missionaries,” Christian Observer (Oct. 1, 1841), 160.
4. “An Account of the Visit of the French Frigate L’Artemise,” 505.
5. “An Account of the Visit of the French Frigate L’Artemise,” 507.
6. “An Account of the Visit of the French Frigate L’Artemise,” 509.
7. “An Account of the Visit of the French Frigate L’Artemise,” 511.
8. On the negotiated definitions of American citizenship in the early republic and antebellum maritime world, see Herzog and Román, Revoking Citizenship, ch. 2; Hyde, Civic Longing, especially Introduction and ch. 1; Scully, Bargaining with the State, ch. 1; Perl-Rosenthal, Citizen Sailors, ch. 8; Rouleau, With Sails Whitening Every Sea, especially 98–99; Raffety, Republic Afloat, Part III.
9. On Hawaiian foreign relations in these years, see Arista, The Kingdom and the Republic; Thigpen, Island Queens and Mission Wives.
10. For an anti-mission perspective that went into great detail about violent attacks on Catholics, see [Jones], Suppliment. For a missionary account that admits to the existence of Catholic persecution, see Dibble, History of the Sandwich Islands, ch. 11.
11. Anderson, A Heathen Nation Evangelized, ch. 20.
12. The king to US Consul P. A. Brinsmade, Kauwila House, Oct. 28, 1839, in Castle, An Account of the Visit of the French Frigate l’Artemise, 4–6.
13. Dibble, History, 387.
14. [Jones], Suppliment.
15. [Jones], Suppliment.
16. [Jones], Suppliment, 20.
17. [Jones], Suppliment, 22. Emphasis in original.
18. [Jones], Suppliment, 18. Emphasis in original.
19. Dibble, History, 386.
20. [Jones], Suppliment, 31–32.
21. Dibble, History, 387.
22. The publication included a signed circular, a reprint of Samuel Northup Castle’s article from the Hawai‘ian Spectator, and the correspondence between missionaries, Read, the US consul, and the king. See Castle, An Account of the Visit of the French Frigate.
23. Rufus Anderson, “Citizenship of Missionaries and Their Children,” in ABCFM Annual Report (1841), 36–38.
24. On the rights of merchants and mariners, see Rouleau, With Sails Whitening Every Sea, esp. ch. 4.
25. “Citizenship of Missionaries,” Christian Observer (Oct. 1, 1841), 160.
26. Williams, “Report from Committee of Chief Justice Williams of Connecticut, Rev. Dr. Tucker, Thomas Bradford, Esq., Rev. T. T. Waterman, Rev. Lyman Strong,” in ABCFM Annual Report (1841), 38–39.
27. Anderson and Williams, quoted in ABCFM Annual Report (1841), 36–39.
28. Daniel Webster to David Porter, Department of State, Washington, Feb. 2, 1842, in Shewmaker, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 1, 280.
29. Anderson, Memorial Volume, 201.
30. Samuel Turell Armstrong had made a donation in Webster’s honor to the American Board as thanks. Webster was “obliged and honored” by this gift, which he accepted “with pleasure.” Daniel Webster to Samuel Turell Armstrong, Washington, Feb. 14, 1842, in Shewmaker, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 1, 281.
31. David Porter to Jasper Chasseaud, US Legation, St Steffano, Oct. 14, 1841, in Shewmaker, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 1, 279.
32. Eli Smith, William McClure Thomson, Samuel Wolcott, Nathaniel Abbot Keyes, and Leander Thompson to Jasper Chasseaud, Beyrout, July 20, 1841, in Shewmaker, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 1, 274–277; for a discussion of the Druze and Maronite relationships with American missionaries in these years, see Makdisi, Artillery of Heaven, especially chs. 4–6.
33. Eli Smith, William McClure Thomson, Samuel Wolcott, Nathaniel Abbot Keyes, and Leander Thompson to Jasper Chasseaud, Beyrout, July 20, 1841, in Shewmaker, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 1, 274–277.
34. Samuel Turell Armstrong to Daniel Webster, Washington, Jan. 31, 1842, in Shewmaker, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 1, 279.
35. David Porter to Daniel Webster, US Legation, St Steffano, July 16, 1842, in Shewmaker, ed., The Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 1, 282.
36. “West Africa. Letter from Mr. Wilson, July 25, 1845,” The Missionary Herald (Jan. 1846), 25–31; Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, ch. 6.
37. “West Africa. Letter from Mr. Wilson, July 25, 1845,” The Missionary Herald (Jan. 1846), 25–31.
38. Juvenis, “Rights of Missionaries,” New York Evangelist (June 22, 1848), 1.
39. On King’s early career, see Heyrman, American Apostles, ch. 8; and Makdisi, Artillery of Heaven, ch. 4. See also Walther, Sacred Interests, 54–55.
40. On the Greek revolution, see Walther, Sacred Interests ch. 1; and Santelli, The Greek Fire, especially chs. 2 and 3.
41. George Marsh to Daniel Webster, Athens, Aug. 21, 1852 in 33rd Congress, 1st Session, Ex Doc 67, 44.
42. ABCFM, Manual for Missionary Candidates, 21–22.
43. For King’s own telling of these events, see Haines, Jonas King, 311–314.
44. Haines, Jonas King, 311–314.
45. Anderson, History of the Missions, Vol. 1, 279.
46. Haines, Jonas King, 197.
47. Haines, Jonas King, 248.
48. Haines, Jonas King, 117.
49. Haines, Jonas King, 299
50. Haines, Jonas King, ch. 20.
51. John Henry Hill to Abbot Lawrence, Athens, Apr. 7, 1852 in Shew-maker, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 2, 198–200.
52. Shewmaker, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 1, 272–282.
53. Marsh to Webster, Gleichenberg, Oct. 9, 1852—enclosing a report written Athens, Aug. 21, 1852, Ex Doc 67, 47.
54. Daniel Webster to George Perkins Marsh, Department of State, Washington, Apr. 29, 1852, in Shewmaker, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 2, 202–206.
55. Thomas Scott Williams, quoted in Shewmaker, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 2, 204.
56. George P. Marsh to Daniel Webster, Athens, Aug. 21, 1852, in Shewmaker, ed., Papers of Daniel Webster, Vol. 2, 206–209.
57. Repousis, “The Devil’s Apostle,” 807–837.
58. Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism, ch. 1. The financial agents in India for the board’s early missionaries were all British. The United States had tried to send official consuls to India prior to this period, but when Benjamin Joy, the first American Consul to India, arrived in 1792, he was not recognized by the British government. It was not until the 1860s that the United States had a more reliable consulate in the country.
59. See, for example, Chancellor Woolworth; Hon. Charles Marsh; Walter Hubbell, Esq.; Rev. John W. Ellingwood; Rev. Lewis Bond, in ABCFM Annual Report (1840), 35.
4. Consuls
1. On Thayer’s meeting with the viceroy, see Mr. Thayer to Mr. Seward, Alexandria, Aug. 26, 1861, Religious Toleration in Egypt, 5.
2. Religious Toleration in Egypt, 3–6. On the American mission in Egypt during these years, see Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt, ch. 2.
3. Religious Toleration in Egypt, 5, 13.
4. Abraham Lincoln to Viceroy Mohammed Said Pacha of Egypt, Washington, Oct. 11, 1861, National Archives, RG 59, Series: Letters to Foreign Sovereigns and Heads of State, 1829–1877, File Unit: Communications to Foreign Sovereigns and States, Vol. 3.
5. Department of State, “List of Ministers, Consuls, and other Diplomatic and Commercial Agents of U.S.,” in Diplomatic and Consular Service of US (1828, 1830, 1833, 1835, 1839, 1853, 1859).
6. General Instructions to the Consuls and Commercial Agents of the United States, 9–12.
7. “American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions: Recent Intelligence,” Missionary Herald (May 1840), 187.
8. “Fuh-Chau: Letter from Mr. Peet, March 24, 1856,” Missionary Herald (Sept. 1856), 277.
9. Burnet, The Jerusalem Mission, 164, 167, 170.
10. Burnet, The Jerusalem Mission, 180.
11. Kark, American Consuls in the Holy Land, 105; Dr. Barclay, quoted in Burnet, The Jerusalem Mission, 146. On Barclay’s mission, see Blowers, “Living in a Land of Prophets.”
12. On the consular system in general, see Nicole Phelps, “One Service, Three Systems, Many Empires: The US Consular Service and the Growth of US Global Power, 1789–1924,” in Hoganson and Sexton, Crossing Empires, 135–158.
13. Rouleau, With Sails Whitening Every Sea, ch. 4.
14. Caleb Cushing to John C. Calhoun, Sept. 29, 1841 in Seward, The United States Consulates in China, 17–18.
15. “Letter from Mr. Maynard, July 4, 1849: The Teacher of the Missionaries,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1849), 403–404.
16. “Letter from Mr. Wright, July 4, 1856,” Missionary Herald (Oct. 1856), 300–303.
17. Seward, The United States Consulates in China, 8.
18. Kark, American Consuls in the Holy Land, 101–102.
19. See, for example, Rufus Anderson to Lewis Cass, Missionary House, Boston, Mar. 1, 1860, M179, Reel 174; ABCFM Annual Report (1859), 111–115.
20. “Items of Intelligence,” Missionary Herald (Jan. 1864), 13–14.
21. Batson, “American Diplomats in Southeast Asia in the Nineteenth Century,” 39–112.
22. Batson, “American Diplomats in Southeast Asia in the Nineteenth Century,” 39–112.
23. Quoted in Batson, “American Diplomats in Southeast Asia in the Nineteenth Century,” 50
24. Lord, “Missionaries, Thai, and Diplomats,” 413–431.
25. Harris, quoted in Batson, “American Diplomats in Southeast Asia,” 51.
26. Margaret Landon to Miss Thomas, Washington DC, August 18, 1945, Mattoon Family Papers.
27. Lord, “Missionaries, Thai, and Diplomats,” 413–431.
28. Quoted in Batson, “American Diplomats in Southeast Asia,” 66.
29. “Japan: Historical Sketch. Recent Changes,” Missionary Herald (Feb. 1864), 38. On Japan and religious freedom in the late-nineteenth century, see Thomas, Faking Liberties, ch. 1.
30. “Good News from Japan,” The Missionary Magazine (Feb. 1859), 60–61.
31. “Japan: Historical Sketch. Recent Changes,” Missionary Herald (Feb. 1864), 38.
32. “Recent Intelligence,” Missionary Herald (Jan. 1859), 28.
33. “Japan—No. 2,” Missionary Herald (Mar. 1864), 65–70.
34. This was Episcopal John Liggins, previously of the China mission, then sent to Nagasaki in 1859. “Japan—No. 2,” Missionary Herald (Mar. 1864), 65–70.
35. “Japan—No. 2,” Missionary Herald (Mar. 1864), 65–70
36. Paul Bagley to President Johnson, Balto, May 30, 1867. National Archives, RG 59, M179, Reel 258.
37. Quotes from “Missions of the Board: Mission to Japan,” Missionary Herald (July 1871), 205–208; On missionary responses to Japan, see Nishioka, “Civilizing Okinawa,” ch. 2.
38. See, for example: “Extraterritoriality in China,” The Continental Monthly: Devoted to Literature and National Policy (Nov. 1863), 556–567.
39. Kark, American Consuls in the Holy Land, 99–102.
40. “Letter from Mr. Smith, Dated Mount Lebanon, Sept. 27, 1834,” Missionary Herald (Apr. 1835), 136–137.
41. “Syria. Letter from Mr. Whiting, October 10, 1845,” Missionary Herald (Feb. 1846), 37–39.
42. Rufus Anderson to Edward Everett, Dec. 1, 1852. Missionary House, Boston, National Archives, RG 59, M179 Roll 134.
43. ABCFM Nov. 11, 1859, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 58.
44. American Board of F. Missions, July 30, 1860, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 59.
45. Kark, American Consuls in the Holy Land, ch. 3.
46. “Syria. Mr. Smith’s Account of the Rise of Protestantism in Hasbeiya,” Missionary Herald (Jan. 1845), 14–21.
47. Gulick, Peter Parker and the Opening of China, 113.
48. Gulick, Peter Parker and the Opening of China, 139–141.
49. On Anderson’s broader influences on the mission movement, see Harris, Nothing but Christ; and Hutchison, Errand to the World, 77–90.
50. See Gulick, Peter Parker and the Opening of China, ch. 9.
51. Quoted in Batson, “American Diplomats in Southeast Asia,” 52.
52. Kark, American Consuls in the Holy Land, 124–126; Evelyn Edson, “An American Missionary’s Maps of Jerusalem: Past, Present, and Future,” in Kühnel, Noga-Banai, and Vorholt, Visual Constructs of Jerusalem, 285–295.
53. H G, “Missionaries and Their Consuls,” The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal (June 1, 1869), 11–13.
54. Peter Parker to Mr. Marcy, Macao, June 14, 1856 in Seward, The United States Consulates in China, 23. Emphasis in original.
55. Seward, The United States Consulates in China, 4.
56. Williams to Seward, Peking, October 24, 1865 in Seward, The United States Consulates in China, 50–51.
57. Seward, The United States Consulates in China, 4–14.
5. Victims
1. “Perils of Missionaries,” New York Evangelist (July 24, 1862), 7; see also “Missionaries Driven from Tanna,” Missionary Herald (July 1862), 227.
2. “The Murdered Missionary,” New York Times (Apr. 27, 1874), 5.
3. “Latest News by Cable. Mexico,” New York Times (Mar. 17, 1874), 1; “The Murdered Missionary,” New York Times (Apr. 27, 1874), 5.
4. “The Murdered Missionary,” New York Times (Apr. 27, 1874), 5.
5. “The Murdered Missionary,” New York Times (Apr. 27, 1874), 5.
6. John Foster to Hamilton Fish, Mexico, Mar. 7, 1834, FRUS 1874, 734–735.
7. N. G. Clark to Hamilton Fish, Boston, May 19, 1874, FRUS 1874, 751.
8. American Board for Foreign Missions, Apr. 29 1874; American Board of Foreign Missions, Oct. 3, 1874; American Board of Foreign Missions, Nov. 6, 1875, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 62; The ABCFM published this letter. “Assassins Executed,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1875), 393.
9. “Western Mexico: Effects of Mr. Stephens’ Assassination,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1874), 393–396.
10. “Western Mexico: Last Months of Mr. Stephens’ Work,” Missionary Herald (Oct. 1874), 303.
11. “Western Mexico: Effects of Mr. Stephens’ Assassination,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1874), 393–396.
12. “The Mexican Tragedy—Who is Responsible?” New York Evangelist (Mar. 26, 1874), 4.
13. “Miscellany. A Mexican Paper on the Murder of Stephens,” Missionary Herald (June 1874), 192–193; “Murder of Missionary Stephens in Mexico,” New York Evangelist (Apr. 30, 1874), 1.
14. Missionary Society of the Wesleyan Episcopal Church, June 26, 1883, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 64; ABCFM, Jan. 27, 1885, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 64; ABCFM, Aug. 12, 1885, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 64; ABCFM, June 15, 1886, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, June 28, 1882, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 64; Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, July 24, 1882, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 64; ABCFM, Sept. 11, 1885, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65. Scott, “The Government of the United States and American Foreign Missionaries,” 81.
15. Morris to Seward, Constantinople, Nov. 27, 1862, in FRUS 1863, Part II, 1176.
16. “Rev. Jackson Coffing,” Missionary Herald (June 1862), 196.
17. “Another Missionary Murdered. Rev. William W. Meriam,” Missionary Herald (Sept. 1862), 266–268.
18. ABCFM, Aug. 15, 1862, Aug. 25, 1862, and Jan. 30, 1863, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 59.
19. ABCFM, April 18, 1863, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 59.
20. “Murder of an American Missionary in Turkey,” The [Baltimore] Sun (May 12, 1862), 2.
21. Morris to William Seward, Constantinople, Oct. 16, 1862, in FRUS 1862, 791.
22. William H. Seward to E. Joy Morris, Washington, Sept. 19, 1862, in FRUS 1862, 784–785.
23. Morris to Seward, Constantinople, Nov. 11, 1862, in FRUS 1863, 1175.
24. Morris to Seward, Constantinople, April 30, 1863, in FRUS 2863, 1185.
25. G. H. Heap to William Evarts, Constantinople, March 26, 1880, in FRUS 1880, 975–976.
26. The issue was significant enough that President Arthur included a mention in his annual message to Congress. Chester A. Arthur, “Annual Message of the President of the United States,” in FRUS 1881, v. For the diplomatic correspondence on the issue, see FRUS 1880, 983–987.
27. “Particulars of the Murder of the American Missionary,” Daily American (Aug. 8, 1880), 1; For more coverage of the case, see “Murder of a Missionary,” Chicago Daily Tribune (Aug. 26, 1880), 3; “The Murder of the American Missionary by Circassians,” The [Baltimore] Sun (Aug. 24, 1880), 4; “The Murder of Dr. Parsons,” New York Times (Aug. 8, 1880), 7; “The Murder of Missionary Parsons,” New York Evangelist (Aug. 26, 1880), 4.
28. Clark, NY. Aug. 14, 1880 and May 27, 1881, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 64.
29. “The Murdered American Missionary,” Chicago Daily Tribune (Sept. 10, 1880), 4. Henry Dwight, “The Murdered Missionary,” New-York Tribune (Sept. 7, 1880), 2.
30. “The State Department at Washington,” Missionary Herald (Oct. 1880), 380.
31. See, for example, George Heap to William Evarts, Constantinople, Nov. 8, 1880, in FRUS 1881, 1174.
32. William Evarts to Heap, Washington, Oct. 15, 1880, in FRUS 1880, 992. On Jeremiah Evarts, see Andrew, From Revivals to Removal.
33. William Evarts to Heap, Washington, Aug. 21, 1880, in FRUS 1880, 986–987.
34. G. Heap to William Evarts, Constantinople, Oct. 11, 1880, in FRUS 1880, 991.
35. Pierce to G. Heap, Baghchejik, May 3, 1881, in FRUS 1881, 1178.
36. Blaine to Wallace, Washington, June 29, 1881, in FRUS 1881, 1184–1186; Wallace to Assi Pacha, Constantinople, Oct. 22, 1881, in FRUS 1881, 1190.
37. Mr. Heap to Mr. Blaine, Constantinople, May 14, 1881, in FRUS 1881, 1180–1181.
38. Anna Melton to Mr. Grant, Amadia Turkey, June 19, 1893, FRUS 1893, 659.
39. A. W. Terrell to Mr. Gresham, Constantinople, July 20, 1893, FRUS 1893, 642–647.
40. The Grand Vizier to the Governor-General of Mosul, July 3d-15th, 1893, FRUS 1893, 648; A W. Terrell to Mr. Gresham, Constantinople, July 20, 1893, FRUS 1893, 642.
41. A. W. Terrell to Mr. Gresham, Constantinople, Aug. 1, 1893, FRUS 1893, 652–656.
42. W. Q. Gresham to A. W. Terrell, Washington, Aug. 3, 1893, FRUS 1893, 656–665.
43. A. W. Terrell to Mr. Gresham, Constantinople, Sept. 23, 1893, FRUS 1893, 683; A. W. Terrell to Mr. Gresham, Constantinople, Oct. 11, 1893, FRUS 1893, 689–691.
44. A. W. Terrell to Mr. Gresham, Constantinople, Oct. 27, 1893, FRUS 1893, 695.
45. Edward McDowell to A.W. Terrell, Mosul, Oct. 2, 1893, FRUS 1893, 696.
46. Hamilton Fish to Frederick F. Low, Department of State, Washington, Dec. 3, 1869, in FRUS 1870, 303.
47. Mr. Hamilton Fish to Frederick F. Low, Department of State, Washington, Dec. 3, 1869, in FRUS 1870, 303.
48. Sir Rutherford, quoted in FRUS 1870, 350.
49. George F. Seward to Mr. Fish, Washington, Apr. 22, 1870, FRUS 1870, 339–355.
50. Proclamation of the Prefect of Tientsin, in FRUS 1870, 383.
51. Report of Tsang-Kwoh-Fan respecting the Tientsin Riot and its Causes, in FRUS 1870, 370–371.
52. Frederick F. Low to Mr. Fish, Legation of the United States, Pekin, June 27, 1870, in FRUS 1870, 358.
53. For a celebratory account of Low’s handling of the Tientsin massacre, see Clyde, “Frederick F. Low and the Tientsin Massacre,” 100–108.
54. Jonathan Lees and William N. Hall to W. H. Lay, in FRUS 1870, 376.
55. A. Stanley to Commander Taylor, Tientsin, Aug. 12, 1870, in FRUS 1870, 375.
56. Rev. C. W. Matteer to Mr. Holwill, Tungchow, Aug. 30, 1870, in FRUS 1870, 389; Frederick Low to His Imperial Highness Prince Kung, Pekin, Sept. 13, 1870, in FRUS 1870, 393.
57. Frederick Low to Rev. Edward P. Capp, Peking, Sept. 14, 1870, in FRUS 1870, 389.
58. On Seward’s writings from this trip, see Sexton, “William H. Seward in the World,” 398–430.
59. Seward, ed., William H. Seward’s Travels, 110.
60. Seward, ed., Seward’s Travels, 146.
61. Seward, ed., Seward’s Travels, 114.
62. Seward, ed., Seward’s Travels, 221.
63. Seward, ed., Seward’s Travels, 221.
64. Low to Fish, Peking, Jan. 10, 1871, in FRUS 1871, 84.
65. Seward, ed., Seward’s Travels, 212–213.
66. Extracts from British Blue Book, “China, No. 3, 1871,” in FRUS 1871, 161.
67. Davis to Low, Washington, Oct. 19, 1871, in FRUS 1871, 155.
68. Rev. Rhea to Pres. Andrew Johnson, Oroomiah, Persia, June 3, 1865, National Archives, RG 59, M179, Reel 226.
69. Protection of American Citizens in Persia. Message from the President of the United States, Accompanied by a Communication from the Secretary of State, In Response to a Resolution in the House of Representatives, Touching the Protection of American Citizens in Persia and the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations with that Country Ex. Doc. No. 151, 47th Cong., 1st Sess. (1882).
70. Ghazvinian, America and Iran, 34–37.
71. Miss A. D. Van Duzse to Miss Holliday, Salmas, May 17, 1890, in FRUS 1890, 660–661; Mr. Wright to Mr. Pratt, Oola, Salmas, May 22, 1890, in FRUS 1890, 662–664.
72. Mr. Wright to Mr. Pratt, Oola, Salmas, May 22, 1890, in FRUS 1890, 662–664.
73. Mr. Wright to Mr. Pratt, Oola, Salmas, May 22, 1890, in FRUS 1890, 662–664.
74. Testimony of Dr. Mary Bradford, FRUS 1890, 682.
75. E. Spencer Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran (Tehran), June 12, 1890, FRUS 1890, 666–668.
76. William Wharton to Mr. Pratt, Washington, Sept. 19, 1890, FRUS 1890, 691.
77. E. Spencer Pratt to Col. Stewart, Teheran, June 30, 1890, FRUS 1890, 673.
78. E. Spencer Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, July 26, 1890, FRUS 1890, 684.
79. John Gillespie to Mr. Blaine, New York, Sept. 16, 1890, FRUS 1890, 692.
80. On Col. Stewart’s activities on behalf of the Americans, see enclosures in the following: Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, June 12, 1890, FRUS 1890, 666–669; Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, June 18, 1890, FRUS 1890, 669–670; Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, June 25, 1890, 670–674; Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, June 30, 1890, FRUS 1890, 672–673; Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, July 5, 1890, FRUS 1890 673–674; Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, July 15, 1890, FRUS 1890, 674–683; Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, Aug. 8, 1890, FRUS 1890, 685–688; Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, Aug. 9, 1890, FRUS 1890, 689–690.
81. Mr. Pratt to Mr. Blaine, Teheran, Aug. 8, 1890, FRUS 1890, 685–686.
82. William Wharton to Mr. Pratt, Washington, Sept. 19, 1890, FRUS 1890, 691–692.
83. S. O. Wylie (Board of Missions for the Reformed Presbyterian Church) to Hamilton Fish, Philadelphia, Dec. 5, 1874, National Archives, RG 59, M179, Reel 428; Presbyterian Board of Missions, Dec. 7, 1874, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 62.
6. Troublemakers
1. Seward, The United States Consulates in China, 6, 41, 50.
2. George F. Seward, quoted in Scott, “The Government of the United States and American Foreign Missionaries,” 82–85.
3. George F. Seward, quoted in Scott, “The Government of the United States and American Foreign Missionaries,” 84.
4. Edward Lord to Mr. Low, Ningpo, Sept. 21, 1872, in FRUS 1873, 120–122.
5. George F. Seward to Mr. Fish, Washington, Apr. 22, 1870, in FRUS 1870, 343.
6. Edward Lord to Mr. Low, Ningpo, Sept. 21, 1872, in FRUS 1873, 120–122.
7. Samuel Wells Williams to Mr. Fish, Peking, Jan. 23, 1874, in FRUS 1874, 232.
8. Mr. Benjamin Avery to Mr. Fish, Peking, Dec. 22, 1874, in 1875, 243–244.
9. Mr. Benjamin Avery to Mr. Fish, Peking, July 18, 1875, in FRUS 1875, 383–384.
10. The Taotai to W. A. Cornabé, Feb. 7, 1874, in FRUS 1874, 278–279.
11. The Taotai to W. A. Cornabé, Feb. 7, 1874, FRUS 1874, 278–279.
12. Eli Sheppard to Samuel Wells Williams, Tien-tsin, June 25, 1874, in FRUS 1874, 281.
13. Eli Sheppard to Samuel Wells Williams, Tien-tsin, June 25, 1874, in FRUS 1874, 281–287.
14. Hamilton Fish to Mr. Low, Washington, Dec. 31, 1872, in FRUS 1873, 138.
15. Rev. John MacIntyre to Mr. Cornabé, Che-foo, Oct. 15, 1874, in FRUS 1875, 237.
16. Benjamin Avery to Johnson, Peking, June 1, 1875, in FRUS 1875, 339.
17. Benjamin Avery to Hamilton Fish, Peking, July 18, 1875, in FRUS 1875, 386.
18. Benjamin Avery to Mr. De Lano, Peking, Dec. 28, 1874, in FRUS 1875, 335.
19. Benjamin Avery to Johnson, Peking, June 1, 1875, in FRUS 1875, 339. See also Benjamin Avery to Hamilton Fish, Peking, July 18, 1875, in FRUS 1875, 384.
20. Benjamin Avery to Hamilton Fish, Peking, June 1, 1875, in FRUS 1875, 333.
21. Benjamin Avery to Hamilton Fish, Peking, June 1, 1875, in FRUS 1875, 333.
22. Matthew 10:16 “Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves; be ye therefore wise as serpents and harmless as doves” (KJV).
23. George F. Seward, quoted in Scott, “The Government of the United States and American Foreign Missionaries,” 84.
24. George F. Seward, quoted in Scott, “The Government of the United States and American Foreign Missionaries,” 82–85.
25. George Seward to Hamilton Fish, Peking, June 19, 1876, in FRUS 1876, 53–55.
26. George Seward to Hamilton Fish, Peking, June 19, 1876, in FRUS 1876, 53–55.
27. George Seward to Hamilton Fish, Peking, June 19, 1876, in FRUS 1876, 53–55.
28. George Seward to Hamilton Fish, Peking, June 19, 1876, in FRUS 1876, 53–55.
29. E. Joy Morris to Mr. William Seward, Constantinople, Mar. 29, 1865, in FRUS 1866, 280.
30. Ali Pacha to M. Musurus, Sublime Porte, Nov. 30, 1865, FRUS 1866, 281–283.
31. Horace Maynard to Mr. Fish, Constantinople, June 30, 1875, FRUS 1875, 1298.
32. They suffered from the association of their work with that of the British missionaries who, the Americans claimed, did smuggle banned books for distribution. “Protest of American Citizens” in FRUS 1875, 1300.
33. American Bible Society, June 8, 1881, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 64; American Bible Society, July 6, 1882, National Archives, M17, Reel 64; American Bible Society, Jan. 25, 1883 National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 64.
34. American Bible Society, July 11, 1884, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65.
35. N. G Clark to Frederick Frelinghuysen, Boston, June 29, 1882, National Archives, RG 59, M-179, Reel 612.
36. American Bible Society, Dec. 5, 1884, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Dec. 22, 1884, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; American Bible Society, Feb. 24, 1885, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65. On the Bible Society’s work in the region, see Fea, The Bible Cause, ch. 10.
37. E. Doane, “For Young People: The Fourth of July in Micronesia,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1886), 521–524. On children’s missionary literature more generally, see Emily Conroy-Krutz, “For Young People: Protestant Missions, Geography, and American Youth at the End of the Nineteenth Century,” in Nichols and Milne, Ideology in U.S. Foreign Relations, 211–230.
38. ABCFM, Aug. 6, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Sept. 3, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Sept. 5, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Sept. 5, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Sept. 29, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Oct. 13, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Oct. 20, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Dec. 1, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Dec. 23, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65.
39. ABCFM, Aug. 6, 1887, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Sept. 3, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Sept. 5, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Sept.5, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Sept. 29, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Oct. 13, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Oct. 20, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Dec. 1, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Dec. 23, 1887, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Feb. 7, 1888, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65; ABCFM, Feb. 11, 1888, National Archives, RG 59, M17, Reel 65. Liggins, The Great Value and Success of Foreign Missions, 132–134.
40. Liggins, The Great Value and Success of Foreign Missions, 132–134; also quoted in “The Case of Rev. Mr. Doane and the Spanish Government,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1887), 432.
41. Voight, quoted in “The Case of Rev. Mr. Doane,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1887), 431.
42. “The Case of Rev. Mr. Doane,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1887), 431.
43. Miss Fletcher, quoted in Liggins, The Great Value and Success of Foreign Missions, 133.
44. Bayard to Curry, Washington, Dec. 23, 1887, in FRUS 1892, 413–414.
45. Judson Smith to Mr. Blaine, Boston, Nov. 13, 1889, in FRUS 1892, 426.
46. Judson Smith to Mr. Blaine, Boston, Nov. 13, 1889, in FRUS 1892, 426.
47. Judson Smith to Bayard, Boston, Aug. 30, 1887, in FRUS 1892, 396–397.
48. Judson Smith to Mr. Bayard, Boston, Sept. 24, 1888, in FRUS 1892, 422.
49. Mr. Wharton to Mr. Newberry, Washington, Oct. 6, 1891, in FRUS 1892, 442–485.
50. Mr. Judson Smith to Mr. Bayard, ABCFM, Congregational House, Boston, Oct. 15, 1887, in FRUS 1892, 407–408.
51. Miss Palmer’s Statement, Roukiti, Ponape, Oct. 29, 1890, in FRUS 1892, 464–466.
52. Mrs. Lucy M. Cole to Mrs. Cooke, Ponape, July 14, 1890, in FRUS 1892, 437.
53. Mr. Wharton to Mr. Newberry, Washington, Oct. 6, 1891, in FRUS 1892, 442–485.
54. James G. Blaine to Mr. Newberry, Washington, Nov. 4, 1890, in FRUS 1892, 435–436.
55. Commander H. C. Taylor to Rear-Admiral Belknap, USS Alliance, Ponape Islands, Jamestown Harbor, Oct. 31, 1890, in FRUS 1892, 450.
56. Rear-Admiral Belknap to Commander Taylor, Flagship Omaha, Yokohama, Japan, Sept. 22, 1890, in FRUS 1892, 450.
57. Commander Taylor to Rear-Admiral Belknap, USS Alliance, At Sea, Dec. 3, 1890, in FRUS 1892, 454.
58. Commander Taylor to Rear-Admiral Belknap, USS Alliance, At Sea, Dec. 3, 1890, in FRUS 1892, 457.
59. Judson Smith to Mr. Blaine, Boston, Nov. 3, 1890, in FRUS 1892, 436.
60. Judson Smith to Mr. Blaine, Boston, Jan. 8, 1891, in FRUS 1892, 478.
61. Mr. Wharton to Mr. Newberry, Washington, Oct. 6, 1891, in FRUS 1892, 445.
62. Mr. Wharton to Mr. Newberry, Washington, Oct. 6, 1891, in FRUS 1892, 448.
63. John W. Foster to Mr. Snowden, Washington, Nov. 3, 1892, in FRUS 1892, 504–513.
64. Mr. Snowden to the Marquis de Vega de Armijo, Madrid, Jan. 8, 1893, in FRUS 1894, 560–562.
65. Mr. John W. Foster to Mr. Snowden, Washington, Nov. 29, 1892, in FRUS 1892, 513–517; Mr. Snowden to Mr. Gresham, Legation of the United States, Madrid, May 28, 1893, in FRUS 1894, 582–583.
66. John W. Foster to Mr. Snowden, Washington, Nov. 3, 1892, in FRUS 1892, 506.
7. Workers
1. Hamlin, My Life and Times, 417.
2. Hutchison, Errand to the World, 91.
3. Hamlin, In Memoriam, 5, 7.
4. Hamlin, Life and Times, 472–474.
5. Hamlin, Life and Times, 434.
6. American College for Girls, President’s Report, 2–3.
7. On republican motherhood and women’s education, see Reeves-Ellington, Domestic Frontiers; Porterfield, Mary Lyon and the Mount Holyoke Missionaries, ch. 1.
8. The American was Mr. MacNutt, in the absence of Mr. Hirsch. Other speakers included the director of the Armenian High School in Scutari, Rev. C. H. Brooks, and a representative of the Bulgarian Exarch.
9. Hamlin, Life and Times, 255.
10. Hamlin, Life and Times, 256.
11. “The Sassoun Massacre,” New York Times (Aug. 23, 1895), 12.
12. Hamlin, In Memoriam, 18.
13. Hutchison, Errand to the World, ch. 3; Harris, Nothing but Christ.
14. Hamlin, Life and Times, 295.
15. Cemal Yetinker, “At the Center of the Debate: Bebek Seminary and the Educational Policy of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1840–1860),” in Dogan and Sharkey, American Missionaries in the Middle East, 63–83.
16. Wanless, The Medical Mission, 18.
17. Ahn, Awakening the Hermit Kingdom, 247–303.
18. Seat, “Providence Has Freed Our Hands,” 68.
19. Seat, “Providence Has Freed Our Hands,” ch. 4.
20. “Missions of the Board: Mission to Japan,” Missionary Herald (July 1871), 205–208.
21. Russel, quoted in Seat, “Providence Has Freed Our Hand,” 81.
22. Rev. C. S. Eby, “Christians in Japan,” enclosed in Richard Hubbard to Mr. Bayard, Tokio, October 25, 1888, FRUS 1888, 1078–1079.
23. Seat, “Providence Has Freed Our Hands,” 90.
24. Seat, “Providence Has Freed Our Hands,” 102.
25. Seat, “Providence Has Freed Our Hands,” 102–112.
26. Chang, “Whose ‘Barbarism?’” 1331–1365.
27. Chester Holcombe, ABC 77.1, Box 34, Folder 29:8.
28. Ryu, “An Odd Relationship,” 261–287; Cohen, East Asia at the Center, 287–291. See also Duus, The Abacus and the Sword.
29. “Political Movements in Korea,” Foreign Missionary (Oct. 1885), 229.
30. Ryu, “An Odd Relationship,” 263–264.
31. “Japan and Korea,” Foreign Missionary (Sept. 1885), 153; see J. R. Wolfe, “A Visit to Korea,” Foreign Missionary (Sept. 1885), 161–163; Williams, In Four Continents, 120; Henry Loomis, “Changes in Korea,” Foreign Missionary (June 1885), 34.
32. Williams, In Four Continents, 123.
33. “A General Survey of Our Fields,” Foreign Missionary (Jan. 1886), 338–339; “The Value of Missions. Testimony from the American Consul General at Seoul. Korea,” Christian Observer (Dec. 29, 1909), 2.
34. “Medical Work in Korea,” Foreign Missionary (Oct. 1886), 215–217.
35. Ryu, “An Odd Relationship,” 275. Interestingly, as Dae Young Ryu notes, there was some editing of the diplomatic correspondence about missionaries in the preparation of FRUS. Editors toned down critical language against the missionaries, perhaps to appeal to a pro-missionary US public (277).
36. Ryu, “Treaties,” 174–203.
37. “Medical Work in Korea,” Foreign Missionary (Oct. 1886), 215–217.
38. Lucius H. Foote to Mr. Frelinghuysen, Legation of the United States, Seoul, Corea, Sept. 1, 1884, FRUS 1884, 127–128.
39. See, for example, George Foulk to Frelinghuysen, Seoul, Mar. 5, 1885, FRUS 1885, 346.
40. George C. Foulk to Bayard, Seoul, May 30, 1885, FRUS 1885, 347–348.
41. “Medical Work in Korea,” Foreign Missionary (Oct. 1886), 215–217.
42. See, for example, J. R. Wolfe, “A Visit to Korea,” Foreign Missionary (Sept. 1885), 161–163.
43. Dr. H. N. Allen, “Korea: Only a Square Inch of Royalty,” Foreign Missionary (Sept. 1885), 176.
44. Chung, “Her Name Was Lillias Horton Underwood,” 56–71.
45. Lillias Underwood, Fifteen Years Among the Top-Knots, 18–19.
46. Mr. Dun to Mr. Olney, Tokyo, Oct. 14, 1895, FRUS 1895, 975.
47. “King of Corea: Scheme to Remove Him from the Palace,” The Nashville American (Dec. 25, 1895), 3; “A Korean Sensation: Americans Accused of Violence,” Los Angeles Times (Dec. 25, 1895), 3; Mr. Olney to Mr. Sill, Washington, Nov. 11, 1895, FRUS 1895, 975.
48. John M. B. Sill to Olney, Seoul, Jan. 20, 1896, FRUS 1895, 977–978.
49. Olney to Sill, Washington, Jan. 11, 1896, FRUS 1895, 975–976.
50. “Americans in Korea: The King Said to be Acting Entirely Under Their Influence,” Baltimore Sun (Dec. 1, 1896), 1.
51. Ryu, “Religion Meets Politics,” 113–133; Underwood, Fifteen Years Among the Top-Knots, 155.
52. Ryu, “Religion Meets Politics,” 113–133; Underwood, Fifteen Years Among the Top-Knots, 156.
53. Ryu, “Religion Meets Politics,” 113–133; Underwood, Fifteen Years Among the Top-Knots, 159–164.
54. Ryu, “An Odd Relationship,” 282.
55. Dr. H. N. Allen, “Korea: Only a Square Inch of Royalty,” Foreign Missionary (Sept. 1885), 176.
56. On these dimensions more broadly, see Gleeson, “The Stethoscope and the Gospel,” 127–138.
57. Quoted in Ryu, “An Odd Relationship,” 287.
58. Underwood, Fifteen Years Among the Top-Knots, 15–17. See also: Chung, “Her Name Was Lillias Horton Underwood,” 59.
59. Mary Barnum, Nov. 25, 1895, William Goodell Papers, Box 1, Folder “Mary and Emma Barnum.”
60. On the Ottoman and Armenian context for the Hamidian massacres, see Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, esp. chs. 1–4. On American responses to the Hamidian massacres, see Walther, Sacred Interests, ch. 7; Laderman, Sharing the Burden, ch. 1.
61. Unsigned letter to “My dear little Auntie,” Nov. 26, 1895 William Goodell Papers, Box 1, Folder “Mary and Emma Barnum,” Library of Congress.
62. “Killed Because Christians,” Boston Daily Globe (Apr. 29, 1895), 9.
63. “The Armenian Crisis in Turkey,” The Woman’s Journal (Apr. 6, 1895), 1. This was not the only coverage of the crisis in The Woman’s Journal. They continued reporting throughout the year. See “An Armenian Mother,” The Woman’s Journal (May 25, 1895), 162.
64. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 21.
65. “Our Flag Respected in Turkey,” Washington Post (Nov. 29, 1896), 12.
66. Cyrus Hamlin, “America’s Duty to Americans in Turkey. An Open Letter to the Hon. John Sherman, United States Senator from Ohio,” North American Review 163 (Sept. 1896), 276–281.
67. On racialized Islamophobia in the American response to the Armenian massacres, see Walther, Sacred Interests, 254–259.
68. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 12.
69. Dwight, quoted in Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 31.
70. Frances Willard quoted in Tyrrell, Reforming the World, 104.
71. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 22.
72. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 29.
73. Curtis, Holy Humanitarians, 74–77; Irwin, Making the World Safe, 26; Tyrrell, Reforming the World, 111.
74. Quoted in Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 2.
75. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 46.
Part III
1. Carpenter, The Miss Stone Affair, 15.
2. For a history of the Macedonian revolutionary movement and its connection to Stone’s case, see Sherman, Fires on the Mountain.
3. Carpenter, The Miss Stone Affair; Sherman, Fires on the Mountain.
4. Roosevelt, quoted in Carpenter, The Miss Stone Affair, 30–31.
5. Adee quoted in Carpenter, The Miss Stone Affair, 33
6. Charles M. Dickinson to Miss Stone, Diplomatic Agency of the US, Sofia, Bulgaria, Oct. 26, 1901, Charles Monroe Dickinson Papers, Box 1, Folder Oct. 16–Oct. 31, 1901.
7. Charles Monroe Dickinson Papers, Box 1, Folder Oct. 16–Oct. 31, 1901.
8. Ellen Stone, quoted in Carpenter, The Miss Stone Affair, 185.
9. Stone, quoted in Roberta Wollons, “Writing Home to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions: Missionary Women Abroad Narrate Their Precarious Worlds, 1869–1915,” in Mayer and Arredondo, Women, Power Relations, and Education, 114.
10. Equity, “Missionaries as Hostiles,” New York Times (Feb. 17, 1898), 6.
11. ADF Hamlin, “American Missionaries in Turkey,” New York Times (Feb. 21, 1898), 5.
12. ADF Hamlin, “American Missionaries in Turkey,” New York Times (Feb. 21, 1898), 5.
13. James L. Barton [“Truth and Equity”] to the Editor of the New York Times, Feb. 23, 1898. ABC 11.4, Box 1, Folder 3.
14. Cyrus Hamlin, “America’s Duty to Americans in Turkey,” North American Review (September 1896), 276–281.
15. “Annual Union Meeting, Woman’s Boards of Foreign Missions,” New York Evangelist (June 2, 1898), 20.
16. Judson Smith and James L. Barton, “Annual Survey of the Work of the American Board,” Missionary Herald (November 1898), 439–454.
17. Hutchison, Modernist Impulse, 164–174.
8. Imperialists
1. Brown, Memoirs of a Centenarian.
2. Brown, Memoirs of a Centenarian, 26–27.
3. Theodore Roosevelt to Arthur Brown, White House, Oct. 15, 1904, Arthur Judson Brown Papers, Box 2, Folder 76: Theodore Roosevelt.
4. Brown, Report of a Visitation, 87–89.
5. Fitz, Our Sister Republics.
6. McCartney, “Religion, the Spanish-American War, and the Idea of American Mission,” 267.
7. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, ch. 2.
8. Quoted in Curtis, Holy Humanitarians, 82.
9. Charles Ghiselin, “Our Mission in Cuba. Shall We Resume It?” Christian Observer (May 18, 1898), 467.
10. “Mission Boards Interested,” Boston Daily Globe (Apr. 1, 1898), 7.
11. Curtis, Holy Humanitarians, ch. 3.
12. Quoted in Curtis, Holy Humanitarians, 89.
13. W.S. Rainsford, quoted in McCartney, “Religion, the Spanish-American War, and the Idea of American Mission,” 268.
14. Quoted in McCartney, “Religion, the Spanish-American War, and the Idea of American Mission,” 270.
15. William McKinley, “Message to the Congress of the United States” [war message], US Department of State, Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs (Washington), 1898, 750–760, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1898/ch83.
16. McKinley war message.
17. McKinley war message.
18. Charles Ghiselin, “Our Mission in Cuba. Shall We Resume It?” Christian Observer (May 18, 1898), 467.
19. On race and colonial governance in the Philippines, see Kramer, Blood of Government, ch. 1–2.
20. Department of War, Reports of the Taft Commission.
21. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 220.
22. Bryan, quoted in Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 223.
23. According to a July 1900 poll, “Protestant clergy were the most ardent supporters of imperialism.” Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 223.
24. Brown, Report of a Visitation, 1.
25. “Annual Survey of the Work of the American Board, 1897–1898,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1898), 445.
26. Quoted in Apilado, Revolutionary Spirituality, 56.
27. Quoted in Apilado, Revolutionary Spirituality, 66.
28. “The Missionary Problem in the Philippines,” The Independent (June 16, 1898), 12.
29. “Philippines a Good Field,” Washington Post (Oct. 29, 1989), 3; “They Would Keep Them,” Boston Daily Globe (Oct. 29, 1898), 3.
30. “Cooperation in the Philippines,” New York Observer and Chronicle (June 30, 1898), 916.
31. “To Redeem the Philippines,” Boston Daily Globe (Sept. 12, 1898), 4.
32. McKinley, quoted in General James Rusling, “Interview with President William McKinley,” Christian Advocate (Jan. 22, 1903), 17.
33. Wallace Gum to Brent, Florence, CO Oct. 23, 1901 in Charles H. Brent Papers, Box 5, Folder Oct. 1901.
34. This was a period of what historian Matthew McCullough has called “messianic interventionism,” in which American Christians across denomination and region understood their nation’s role in the world to be active engagement. McCullough, The Cross of War.
35. Clymer, Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 5–7.
36. “Annual Survey of the Work of the American Board, 1897–1898,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1898), 445.
37. Brent to Bishop W. A. Leonard, Oct. 26, 1901. Brent Papers, Box 5, Folder Oct. 1901.
38. On US relations with Indigenous nations as empire, see essays in The Early Imperial Republic, ed. Blaakman, Conroy-Krutz, and Arista.
39. Apilado, Revolutionary Spirituality, 76–77.
40. Brown, Memoirs of a Centenarian, 79–80.
41. Brown, Memoirs of a Centenarian, 80.
42. Brown, Report of a Visitation of the Philippine Mission, Introduction.
43. Brown, Report of a Visitation of the Philippine Mission, 46–63.
44. Brown, Report of a Visitation of the Philippine Mission, 54. See also 44–52.
45. William Jessup, in Arthur Judson Brown Papers, Box 4, Folder “New Era in the Philippines.”
46. Tyrrell, Reforming the World, ch. 6; Paul A. Kramer, “The Darkness that Enters the Home: The Politics of Prostitution during the Philippine-American War,” in Stoler, Haunted by Empire, 366–404.
47. “Talk on the Philippines,” New York Times (Oct. 15, 1899), 3.
48. “Missions in Philippines,” The Sun (Oct. 23, 1902), 2; See similar coverage in “Changes Discussed by P. E. Missionary Council,” Detroit Free Press (Oct. 23, 1902), 2.
49. Brown, Memoirs of a Centenarian, 28.
50. Taft, The Church and Our Government in the Philippines, 17–20.
51. Wenger, Religious Freedom, ch. 1.
52. Quoted in Apilado, Revolutionary Spirituality, 56.
53. On the use of “religious freedom talk” by Protestant missionaries, Catholic leaders, Muslim Moros, and the US government, see Wenger, Religious Freedom, ch. 1–2.
54. Brown, Report of a Visitation of the Philippine Mission, 69–90.
55. John Ireland, “The Religious Conditions in Our New Island Territory,” Outlook (Aug. 26, 1899), 933–934.
56. James B. Rodgers, “Religion in the Philippines: A Missionary’s View,” Outlook (Feb. 17, 1900), 404.
57. Moran, The Imperial Church, chs. 5–6.
58. Taft, The Church and Our Government in the Philippines.
59. Reuter, “William Howard Taft and the Separation of Church and State in the Philippines,” 114–115.
60. Brown, Report of a Visitation of the Philippine Mission, 247.
61. Brown, Report of a Visitation of the Philippine Mission, 51–52.
62. Walther, Sacred Interests, ch. 6. On superstition, see Wheatley, “US Colonial Governance of Superstition and Fanaticism in the Philippines,” 21–36.
63. Walther, Sacred Interests, 167.
64. Walther, Sacred Interests, 165.
65. Walther, Sacred Interests, ch. 5–6.
66. Brown, Memoirs of a Centenarian, 27–28.
67. “Taft Lauds Missionaries,” Washington Post (Apr. 21, 1908), 2; see also “Missionaries: Lauded by Taft in Address in New York,” Courier-Journal (Apr. 21, 1908), 2. The affection was mutual—an October 1908 article in the New York Tribune explained that Rev. Homer Stuntz, assistant secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, as well as Arthur Brown and John Mott, were all planning to vote for Taft in the 1908 election. “Missionaries Praise Judge Taft,” New-York Tribune (Oct. 22, 1908), 3.
68. “Taft Talks to Bishops,” Baltimore Sun (Oct. 28, 1910), 2.
69. On reception of his work, see Johnson, “The Legacy of Arthur Judson Brown,” 71–75.
9. Boxers
1. Rankin Family Papers, Box 2, Vol. 3, Folder 8, pages 73–74.
2. Henry William Rankin, “Divie Bethune McCartee MD—Pioneer Missionary: A Sketch of His Career,” New York Evangelist (May 22, 1902), 604.
3. Rankin Family Papers, Box 2, Vol. 3, Folder 8, pages 73–74.
4. Rankin, “Political Values of the American Missionary,” 145–182.
5. Rankin, “The Hour of China and the United States,” 561–578.
6. Rankin, “The Hour of China and the United States,” 566, 570.
7. Rankin, “The Hour of China and the United States,” 575.
8. Henry W. Rankin to Peter McCartee, Esq (of NY), E. Northfield, Mass., Dec. 16, 1901. Rankin Family Papers, Box 1, Folder 22.
9. On the question of secret societies vs. militias, see Papageorge, The United States Diplomats’ Response to Rising Chinese Nationalism, 42–43.
10. Luella Miner, quoted in Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 36.
11. Cohen, History in Three Keys, 51.
12. In other words, the Catholic Church in China had become “an imperium in imperio.” Quoted in Esherick, The Origins of the Boxer Uprising, 83–85.
13. Cohen, History in Three Keys, 30.
14. Clive Bingham quoted in Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 36.
15. Conger to Hay, Pekin, Mar. 13, 1900, in FRUS 1900, 109; Conger to Hay, Pekin, May 8, 1900, in FRUS 1900, 122.
16. Conger to Hay, Pekin, April 12, 1900, in FRUS 1900, 113–114.
17. John Hay to Judson Smith, Washington, March 27, 1900, in FRUS 1900, 113.
18. Conger to Hay, Pekin, May 8, 1900, in FRUS 1900, 123–125.
19. Conger to the Tsungli Yamen, Pekin, May 30, 1900, in FRUS 1900, 137.
20. Conger to Hay, June 4–10, FRUS 1900, 139–150.
21. Upham, quoted in Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 60.
22. Preston, Besieged in Peking, 60–61.
23. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 111–112.
24. Preston, Sword of the Spirit, 1.
25. Cohen, History in Three Keys, 44.
26. “Boxer Rebellion is Spreading; American Lives in Great Danger,” Chicago Daily Tribune (June 10, 1900), 1.
27. Cohen, History in Three Keys, 26.
28. E. H. Conger to Mr. Hay, Peking, Oct. 30, in FRUS 1901 Appendix: Affairs in China, 42.
29. John A. Kasson, “Report on Questions relating to Chinese Taxation, indemnity, and proposed conventional provisions” in FRUS 1901 Appendix: Affairs in China, 208–211.
30. Conger to Hay, Pekin, Mar. 9, 1900 in FRUS 1900, 102.
31. E. H. Conger to the Tsungli Yamen, Pekin, China, Jan. 27, 1900, in FRUS 1900, 96.
32. E. H. Conger to Mr. Hay, Pekin, China, Feb. 26, 1900, in FRUS 1900, 101.
33. See, for example, “China Indemnity on a Silver Basis,” Austin Statesman (Jan. 1, 1903), 1.
34. Johnson was joined in this analysis by Consuls McWade and Wilcox. Anson Burlingame Johnson to David J. Hill, Amoy, China, Aug. 24, 1900, Consular Despatches, US Consulate, Amoy, RG 59, M100, Reel 14, https://catalog.archives.gov/id/210914886.
35. “The Missionaries and Their Critics,” Detroit Free Press (Feb. 13, 1901), 4. For the mission board’s defense of the missionaries, see “Looting by Missionaries,” Missionary Herald (Feb. 1901), 46; “The Collection of Indemnities in China,” Missionary Herald (Aug. 1901), 312.
36. Mark Twain, “To the Person Sitting in Darkness,” North American Review 81 (Feb. 1901), 161–176.
37. Brown, The Foreign Missionary, 7.
38. Brown, The Foreign Missionary, 13–25.
39. Brown, The Foreign Missionary, 323–324.
40. Brown, The Foreign Missionary, 326–328.
41. Brown, The Foreign Missionary, 326. Brown argues against this point more fully in his New Forces in Old China, 356–357.
42. Brown, The Foreign Missionary, 328–332; also Brown, New Forces in Old China, chapter 21.
43. “The Diplomatists Concerning Missionaries in China,” Missionary Herald (Oct. 1900), 395–398.
44. John Barrett, “Some Truths About the Missionaries,” The Outlook (20 Oct. 1900), 462–465.
45. John Barrett, “Some Truths About the Missionaries,” The Outlook (20 Oct. 1900), 462–465.
46. John Barrett (Late United States Minister to Siam), “Some Truths About the Missionaries,” The Outlook (20 Oct. 1900), 462–465.
47. Rankin, “Political Values,” 172.
48. Rankin, “Political Values,” 165.
49. Rankin, “Political Values,” 164–165.
50. Rankin, “Political Values,” 151.
51. Rankin, “Political Values,” 152–153.
52. Rankin, “Political Values,” 167.
53. Rankin, “Political Values,” 151.
54. Rankin, “Political Values,” 182.
55. Rankin, “Political Values,” 170–171.
10. Witnesses
1. Síocháin and O’Sullivan, eds., The Eyes of Another Race, 22.
2. Síocháin and O’Sullivan, eds., The Eyes of Another Race, 13–14.
3. Quoted in Ewans, European Atrocity, African Catastrophe, 195. For Casement’s report, see Síocháin and O’Sullivan, eds., The Eyes of Another Race, 49–117.
4. On the establishment of this relationship, see Joseph Choate to John Hay, London, June 21, 1901, FRUS 1901, 205–206.
5. On the Anglo-American dimensions of the Congo Reform Movement, see Clay, “Transatlantic Dimensions,” 18–28.
6. Ida B. Wells’s investigations, undertaken in the same years that early reports of Congo atrocities were first appearing in US papers, identified hundreds of Black Americans lynched in the 1890s. Wells, A Red Record, 12–17. The NAACP estimates that nearly five thousand men and women were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968. NAACP, “History of Lynching in America,” https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/history-lynching-america.
7. Frederick Frelinghuysen to Mr. W. P. Tisdel, Washington, Sept. 8, 1884, FRUS 1885, 285–286, 295. On Stanley’s work helping to establish the Congo Free State, see Newman, Imperial Footprints, ch. 6. On the African American efforts to evangelize the Congo and Africa in general, see Killingray, “The Black Atlantic Missionary Movement,” 3–31; Jacobs, ed. Black Americans and the Missionary Movement in Africa.
8. Van Reybrouck, Congo, 59–90. On Africans serving as colonial soldiers, see Moyd, Violent Intermediaries.
9. On Leopold’s use of religious freedom, see Kenny and Wenger, “Church, State, and ‘Native Liberty’ in the Belgian Congo,” 161–163.
10. Jones, In Search of Brightest Africa, 16–21; 57–62.
11. John O. Means, “Some Reasons for Evangelizing Central Africa,” Parts I and II, Missionary Herald (May 1880), 167–170; John O. Means, “Some Reasons for Evangelizing Central Africa,” Part III, Missionary Herald (June 1880), 212–217; John O. Means, “Some Reasons for Evangelizing Central Africa,” Part IV, Missionary Herald (July 1880), 251–253; John O. Means, “Some Reasons for Evangelizing Central Africa,” Part V, Missionary Herald (Aug. 1880), 298–302; John O. Means, “Some Reasons for Evangelizing Central Africa,” Part VI, Missionary Herald (September 1880), 335–338; John O. Means, “Some Reasons for Evangelizing Central Africa,” Part VII, Missionary Herald (Oct. 1880), 379–383.
12. Thompson, Light on Darkness? 176.
13. Lambert Tree to the General Administrator of the Department of Foreign Affairs and of Justice of the Independent State of the Congo, Brussels, Dec. 23, 1887, FRUS 1888, Part I, 31.
14. Phipps, William Sheppard, 61.
15. Sheppard, Presbyterian Pioneers in Congo; Phipps, William Sheppard, 59–93. On Sheppard as a collector and ethnologist, see Carton, “From Hampton ‘Into the Heart of Africa,” 53–86; and Cureau, “William H. Sheppard,” 340–352.
16. Jones, In Search of Brightest Africa, 63–64; Ewans, European Atrocity, African Catastrophe, ch. 18; Dworkin, Congo Love Song, ch. 1.
17. Quoted in Phipps, William Sheppard, 140.
18. Van Reybrouck, Congo, 79, 86–88.
19. Thompson, Light on Darkness, 173–175.
20. Ewans, European Atrocity, African Catastrophe, 179–182.
21. On the use of cannibalism as a trope in descriptions of Africans, see Arens, The Man-Eating Myth.
22. William Sheppard, “Typed Transcription of William H. Sheppard Diary, 1899 13–14 September,” William H. Sheppard Papers, Box 1, Folder 6, https://digital.history.pcusa.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A15919?solr_nav%5Bid%5D=1679a118308917f8e477&solr_nav%5Bpage%5D=0&solr_nav%5Boffset%5D=15#page/7/mode/1up.
23. Sheppard, “Typed Transcription of William H. Sheppard Diary, 1899 13–14 September.” Dworkin, Congo Love Song, 53–55. On the severing of hands more generally, see Van Reybrouck, Congo, 90–91.
24. William Morrison, “Under What Circumstances Are We Justified in Making Public the Accounts of Atrocities and Other Forms of Injustice Done to Natives?” in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 267–274. On changing missionary perspectives on colonial violence elsewhere in Africa, see Blackler, An Imperial Homeland.
25. Thompson, Light on Darkness, 183.
26. On Leopold’s attempts to control the press, see Clay, “David vs Goliath,” 457–474.
27. Phipps, William Sheppard, 142–144.
28. Executive Committee of Foreign Missions to APCM, Jan. 9, 1900, in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 127–129.
29. Phipps, William Sheppard, 106–131.
30. “Belgium Has Monopoly,” Baltimore Sun (July 2, 1903), 2.
31. Congressional Record (Apr. 19, 1904), 5061–5076.
32. Congressional Record (Apr. 19, 1904), 5061–5076. Morrison was active in getting these documents before Congress. Phipps, William Sheppard, 152.
33. Congressional Record (Apr. 19, 1904), 5061–5076.
34. Phipps, William Sheppard, 152–153.
35. Phipps, William Sheppard, 156.
36. Root quoted in Phipps, William Sheppard, 156.
37. Morrison address to the Boston Peace Congress, “Treatment of the Native People by the Government of the Congo Independent State” in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 206–213.
38. William H. Sheppard Papers, Box 4, 835.03.18b, https://digital.history.pcusa.org/islandora/object/islandora%3A1878?solr_nav%5Bid%5D=1679a118308917f8e477&solr_nav%5Bpage%5D=0&solr_nav%5Boffset%5D=14.
39. On missionary photography, see Ho, Developing Mission. On colonial uses of photography, see Foliard, The Violence of Colonial Photography.
40. On Congo missionary photography in the United States and Britain, see Grant, A Civilised Savagery, ch. 2; Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost, 215–217; Thompson, Light on Darkness, ch. 5; Phipps, William Sheppard, 142.
41. See, for example, materials in FRUS (1905) from Belgium.
42. Congressional Record (April 12, 1906), 5112–5113.
43. Elihu Root to Edwin Denby, Washington, Feb. 20, 1906, FRUS 1906, 88–89.
44. Henry Lane Wilson to Elihu Root, Brussels, March 15, 1906, FRUS 1906, 93.
45. A. Mclean to Elihu Root, April 16, 1906, FRUS 1906, 99. On Protestant-Catholic mission relations and the relations between church and state, see for example Au, “Medical Orders,” 62–82; Kenny and Wenger, “Church, State, and ‘Native Liberty,” 156–185.
46. William H. Sheppard “From the Bakuba Country,” printed in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 281–283.
47. Summons is in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 333–335. On the trial, Dworkin, Congo Love Song, 55–61.
48. Dreypondt in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 283–285.
49. Chaltin in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 290–291.
50. Morrison in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 286–289; 292–296.
51. Morrison in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 302–309.
52. Morrison in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 336–337.
53. Chester in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 347–249.
54. “Prosecution of Congo Missionaries,” Christian Observer (Apr. 21, 1909), 2.
55. Vass in Benedetto, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa, 339–343.
56. John Daniels, “The Congo Question and the ‘Belgian Solution,” North American Review 188 (Dec. 1908): 891–902.
57. “Appeal for Missionaries,” New York Times (May 9, 1909), 2.
58. Some of these articles cover the debates within denominational bodies over whether (or how much) to appeal to the government to help the missionary cause. Though they lost the debate, some at the General Assembly had suggested that it was inappropriate for the denomination to reach out to the State Department. The Presbyterians ultimately concluded that, while church and state were—and should be—separate, the church should apply for aid in “extraordinary cases,” and this was precisely such a case. The denomination ultimately relied on the right to petition the government, finding this not inconsistent with the principle of trusting in God. “To leave all to God, and to use the means which God has placed to our hands, are not antagonistic.” “Shall the Church Appeal to Caesar?” Christian Observer (May 26, 1909), 2.
59. “The Trial of Our Congo Missionaries,” Christian Observer (July 28, 1909), 2.
60. “The Relation of the United States to the Congo Question,” Christian Observer (June 16, 1909), 3.
61. The wired article appears in multiple papers under various titles. See, for example: “Two Americans Haled [sic] Before Congo Court,” Atlanta Constitution (May 10, 1909), 3; “Trial Stirs Congo State,” Chicago Daily Tribune (May 10, 1909), 5; “Trial Involves Congo Missions,” Detroit Free Press (May 10, 1909), 2; “Missionaries in Suit,” Baltimore Sun (May 10, 1909), 2; “Belgium Attempts to Silence Ministers,” Louisville Courier-Journal (May 10, 1909), 3; “Trial of Missionaries,” New-York Tribune (May 10, 1909), 2.
62. Felix H. Hunicke, “The Congo Question,” North American Review 189 (April 1909): 604–614; John Daniels, “The Congo Question and the ‘Belgian Solution,” North American Review 188 (Dec. 1908): 891–902.
63. “Aid in Congo Cases,” Washington Post (May 22, 1909), 9; “Appeal to President,” Louisville Courier-Journal (May 22, 1909), 2; “Southern Presbyterians. Day Set for Prayers for the Deliverance of Missionaries,” Nashville American (May 22, 1909), 9; “Appeal to Taft Stands,” Baltimore Sun (May 23, 1909), 2; “King Leopold Puts Americans in Congo on Trial,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch (May 23, 1909), 4S; “Resolutions Adopted,” Nashville American (May 23, 1909), 8; “American Consul to Aid Missionaries,” Nashville Tennessean (May 26, 1909), 10; “Missionary Being Tried on Criminal Libel Charge in Africa,” Louisville Courier-Journal (May 28, 1909), 8; “Congo Libel Suits Deferred,” New York Times (June 4, 1909), 5; “Trial of Missionaries,” Nashville American (June 4, 1909), 5; “Trial Postponed,” Boston Daily Globe (June 8, 1909), 10; “To Appeal to Taft,” Boston Daily Globe (July 20, 1909), 6; “Appeals to President to Protect Americans,” Indianapolis Star (June 25, 1909), 2; “To Appeal to Taft for Missionaries,” New York Times (June 25, 1909), 4; “Swiss League to Appeal to Taft in Case of American Missionaries in Congo,” Cincinnati Enquirer (July 20, 1909), 3; “Socialist to Aid Americans,” Christian Science Monitor (Aug. 2, 1909), 9; “Americans’ Trials Postponed,” San Francisco Chronicle (Aug. 7, 1909), 3; “Put Off Missionaries’ Trial,” New York Times (Aug. 7, 1909), 4; “Missionaries’ Trial Begun,” Washington Post (Sept. 21, 1909), 5; Austin Marx, “Vandervelde, Belgium’s Socialist Leader, Champions American Congo Missionaries,” Detroit Free Press (Oct. 3, 1909), D6.
64. “Letters Made Public,” Boston Daily Globe (May 18, 1909), 9.
65. “The Trial of Morrison and Sheppard,” Christian Observer (Sept. 29, 1909), 6.
66. “Acquittal of Congo Missionaries,” Christian Observer (Oct. 1909), 2. The news soon spread through the secular press as well: “American Freed of Libel Charge in Belgian Congo,” Indianapolis Star (Oct. 6, 1909), 2; “American Freed,” Los Angeles Times (Oct. 6, 1909), I2; “American Missionary,” Cincinnati Enquirer (Oct. 6, 1909), 3; “American Missionary Free,” Baltimore Sun (Oct. 6, 1909), 5; “Americans Freed in Congo,” Chicago Daily Tribune (Oct. 6, 1909), 5; “Congo Missionary Acquitted of Libel,” New York Times (Oct. 6, 1909), 6; “Congo Missionary Cleared,” Nashville American (Oct. 6, 1909), 12; “Missionary is Acquitted,” Boston Daily Globe (Oct. 6, 1909), 9; “Missionary Shepherd Acquitted of Libel,” Detroit Free Press (Oct. 6, 1909), 4.
67. William Sheppard, “From Leopoldville to Luebo,” Christian Observer (Feb. 16, 1910), 11–12. On the ongoing work of the Presbyterian Congo mission, see Hill, A Higher Mission.
11. Humanitarians
1. James Barton, “Autobiographical Notes,” ABC 11.4, Box 12, 249–250.
2. Barton, “Autobiographical Notes,” 249–253.
3. Barton, “Autobiographical Notes,” 249–253.
4. Barton, “Autobiographical Notes,” 249–253.
5. Barton, “Autobiographical Notes,” 249–253.
6. Barton, “Autobiographical Notes,” 259.
7. On the role of religion in Wilson’s political life, see Burnidge, A Peaceful Conquest; Hankins, Woodrow Wilson; Magee, What the World Should Be.
8. Wilson, “An Address in Nashville on Behalf of the YMCA” (February 24, 1912), Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
9. “The Konia American Hospital Taken,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1914), 572.
10. “Traveling in Eastern Turkey,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1914), 573.
11. “Conditions in Harpoot,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1914), 574–575.
12. On the information coming from American consuls, see Rouben Paul Adalian, “American Diplomatic Correspondence in the Age of Mass Murder: The Armenian Genocide in the US Archives,” in Winter, America and the Armenian Genocide, 146–184. See also Lloyd E. Ambrosius, “Wilsonian Diplomacy and Armenia: The Limits of Power and Ideology,” in Winter, America and the Armenian Genocide, 113–145. On missionary information, see Suzanne E. Moranian, “The Armenian Genocide and American Missionary Relief Efforts,” in Winter, America and the Armenian Genocide, 185–213.
13. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 92.
14. Morgenthau to the Secretary of State, Constantinople, Mar. 27, 1915. FRUS 1915. Supplement, The World War, Document 1347.
15. Morgenthau to the Secretary of State, Constantinople, Sept. 4, 1915, FRUS 1915, Supplement, Document 1351.
16. Yacoub, Year of the Sword, 38–43; 123.
17. Yacoub, Year of the Sword, 121.
18. Mary Schauffler Platt, quoted in Yacoub, Year of the Sword, 44.
19. Bryan to Morgenthau, Washington, Feb. 18, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1392.
20. Morgenthau to Bryan, Constantinople, Apr. 27, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1395.
21. Sharp (French Ambassador) to Bryan, Paris, May 28, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1398.
22. Morgenthau to Bryan, July 10, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1400; Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 11, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1406.
23. Adalian, “American Diplomatic Correspondence,” 150.
24. Knapp, The Tragedy of Bitlis, 15.
25. Knapp, Tragedy of Bitlis, 30–34. McLaren’s story was briefly mentioned in “Other Stations,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1915), 536–537.
26. Knapp, Tragedy of Bitlis, 40–41.
27. Knapp, Tragedy of Bitlis, 44.
28. Knapp, Tragedy of Bitlis, 44–48.
29. Knapp, Tragedy of Bitlis, 51–56.
30. Knapp, Tragedy of Bitlis, 60–62.
31. William Chambers to Woodrow Wilson, Chatham, NJ, Dec. 10, 1915, in Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
32. Morgenthau to Bryan, July 10, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1400.
33. Morgenthau to Bryan, Aug. 11, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1406.
34. Barton to Bryan, July 14, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1401.
35. Morgenthau to Bryan, Constantinople, Sept. 3, 1915, FRUS 1915 Supplement, Document 1410.
36. Lansing to Philip, Washington, Feb. 12, 1916, FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1109; Philip to Lansing, Constantinople, Feb. 15, 1916, FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1111; Philip to Lansing, Constantinople, Mar. 28, 1916 FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1112.
37. Philip to Lansing, Constantinople, July 21, 1916, FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1118.
38. Philip to Lansing, Constantinople, Sept. 1, 1916, FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1120.
39. Philip to Lansing, Constantinople, Oct. 1, 1916, FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1121.
40. Ambassador Elkus to Lansing, Constantinople, Oct. 17, 1916 FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1122.
41. Yacoub, Year of the Sword, 95; Moranian, “The Armenian Genocide and American Missionary Relief Efforts,” 209–210; Walther, “For God and Country,” 63–79. On the range of reports that reached American and European audiences, see Yacoub, Year of the Sword, ch. 1; and Walther, Sacred Interests, ch. 8.
42. Moranian, “The Armenian Genocide and American Missionary Relief Efforts,” 206.
43. Moranian, “The Armenian Genocide and American Missionary Relief Efforts,” 193.
44. “Social Service in Turkey,” Missionary Herald (Apr. 1917), 176–178.
45. “A Relief Commission’s View of the American Board,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1915), 500.
46. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 999; Moranian, “The Armenian Genocide and American Missionary Relief Efforts,” 194–195.
47. W. Nesbitt Chambers, “Redeeming a Battlefield,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1916), 549.
48. Hoffman Philip to Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs, Constantinople, May 29, 1916, Enclosure 2 in FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1103.
49. Philip to Secretary of State, Constantinople, May 31, 1916, FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1102. This story was also told in George E. White, “The Story of the Marsovan Eviction,” Missionary Herald (Aug. 1916), 354–358.
50. “Martyred Professors of Euphrates College, Harpoot,” Missionary Herald (Jan. 1916), 22.
51. “American Interests in Turkey Violated,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1915), 498.
52. Polk to Philip, Washington, May 27, 1916, FRUS 1916 Supplement, Document 1098.
53. On Wilson’s diplomacy and the eventual decision to declare war, Ambrosius, Wilsonian Statecraft, especially 86–87.
54. Woodrow Wilson, “An Address in Nashville on Behalf of the YMCA” (1912), in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
55. Woodrow Wilson to James Barton, White House, July 25, 1913, in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
56. William Jennings Bryan to Woodrow Wilson, Washington, June 2, 1913, in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition; Cleveland Dodge to Woodrow Wilson, New York, April 1, 1913 in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
57. Woodrow Wilson, “Transcript of Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Germany (1917),” https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=61; Manela, The Wilsonian Movement.
58. Wilson quoted in Ambrosius, Wilsonian Statecraft, 98.
59. “From Portland, Oregon,” Woman’s Work (Feb. 1918), 47.
60. Woman’s Work (October 1918), 193.
61. “Bugle Calls from Mission Fields,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1916), 548–553.
62. Quoted in Nichols, Promise and Peril, 135–136.
63. “A Side Light on the War,” Missionary Herald (Jan. 1918), 6.
64. On the financial concerns that the war brought, see, for example, Rev. William P. Schell, “Reasonable Optimism,” Woman’s Work (Jan. 1918), 5–6.
65. “The Patriotic Versus the Missionary Appeal,” Missionary Herald (May 1917), 230.
66. “Think a Minute,” Woman’s Work (March 1918), 49; see also Mrs. B. A. Thaxter, “The Red Cross or the Missionary Society—Which?” Woman’s Work (July 1918), 162–164.
67. “Rising to the Emergency,” Missionary Herald (May 1917), 229.
68. James L. Barton, “Survey of the Fields, 1917–1918,” Missionary Herald (Nov. 1918), 513–514, 522–423.
69. Mrs. Dwight H. Day, “A Chat with an Officer of the Board of Foreign Missions,” Woman’s Work (Nov. 1918), 234–235.
70. “Leave Turkey and Bulgaria Out,” Missionary Herald (Jan. 1918), 3–4.
71. Walther, “For God and Country,” 63–79.
72. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 128.
73. Ambrosius, “Wilsonian Diplomacy and Armenia,” 116.
74. Lansing to Stone, Washington, Dec. 6, 1917, FRUS 1917, Supplement 2, the World War, vol. 1, Document 373.
75. Robert Lansing to Woodrow Wilson, Washington, May 8, 1918, in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition. For a similar argument from Dodge, see Cleveland H. Dodge to Woodrow Wilson, Riverdale, Dec. 2, 1917, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital. Barton expressed similar concerns in an open letter to Senator Lodge. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 128.
76. Missionary Herald (Nov. 1918), 514–515.
77. “Why Missionary Ammunition for Pastors?” in Missionary Ammunition for Pastors, No. 1, 3–4.
78. J. H. Oldham, “The Challenge of the War,” Missionary Ammunition, No. IV, 5; John R. Mott, “The Missionary Obligation in War Times,” Missionary Ammunition, No. IV, 2.
79. Missionary Ammunition, No. IV, 4.
80. Woodrow Wilson, “America’s Object in the War” and “A Work for All the Nations of the Earth,” in Missionary Ammunition, No. IV, 8–10.
81. Missionary Ammunition, No. IV, 12.
82. James Barton, “Effect of the War upon Missionary Work,” Missionary Ammunition, No. IV, 19–21.
83. “Our Greatest Missionary Call,” Missionary Herald (Feb. 1918), 53.
84. Smith, How the Battle Goes, 5–6.
85. Missionary Ammunition, No. 6, 3. Similar language is present in “A Call for Volunteers,” Missionary Herald (Jan. 1919), 25.
86. “World’s Peace Conference at New Haven,” Missionary Herald (February 1919), 48.
87. Rev. Stephen Corey, Missionary Ammunition, No. 6, 5.
88. Lucy Peabody, “Unparalleled Opportunities for Women,” Missionary Ammunition, No. 6, 25.
89. “Turkey’s Surrender,” Missionary Herald (Dec. 1918), 534.
90. Walther, Sacred Interests, 296–313; Walther, “For God and Country,” 63–79; Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 135–136.
91. Ambrosius, “Wilsonian Diplomacy and Armenia,” 121.
92. Quotes are from Woodrow Wilson, “To the United States Congress,” (May 24, 1920), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
93. Su, Exporting Freedom, ch. 2.
94. Ambrosius, Wilsonian Statecraft, 124. On the unmet hopes for self-determination that Wilson inspired in many colonized peoples at the end of the Great War, see Manela, The Wilsonian Moment.
95. Woodrow Wilson to Cleveland Dodge, The White House, Apr. 19, 1920, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition. See also Ambrosius, Wilsonian Statecraft, 122–124.
96. For Wilson’s explanation of this strategy, see Woodrow Wilson, “Remarks to Members of the Democratic National Committee” (Feb. 28, 1919), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
97. Woodrow Wilson, “An Address in Boston” (Feb. 24, 1919) The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition. John Milton Cooper Jr. points out that Wilson did not invoke Armenia as much as he might have done. John Milton Cooper Jr., “A Friend in Power? Woodrow Wilson and Armenia,” in Winter, America and the Armenian Genocide, 108–109.
98. Woodrow Wilson, “An Address in Convention Hall in Kansas City” (Sept. 6, 1919), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition. See also brief mention of Armenia in Woodrow Wilson, “An Address in Reno” (Sept. 22, 1919), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
99. Woodrow Wilson, “Remarks to Members of the Democratic National Committee” (Feb. 28, 1919), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
100. Laderman, Sharing the Burden, 137.
101. “Flashes from the Front in Turkey,” Missionary Herald (June 1919), 228; “Getting Busy in Constantinople,” Missionary Herald (June 1919), 236–237.
102. “Flashes from the Front in Turkey,” Missionary Herald (June 1919), 230.
103. “The Mission Station at Adana,” Missionary Herald (Aug. 1919), 346.
104. “America’s Duty to Armenia,” Missionary Herald (Mar. 1919), 93–94.
105. “Today in Turkey,” Missionary Herald (June 1919), 233.
106. “A Farewell Service,” Missionary Herald (July 1919), 296.
107. “Editorial Notes,” Missionary Herald (Aug. 1919), 317.
108. Emphasis in original. Wilson, “To the United States Congress” (May 24, 1920) The Papers of Woodrow Wilson Digital Edition.
109. Cooper, “A Friend in Power,” 110.
110. Moranian, “The Armenian Genocide and American Missionary Relief Efforts,” 195–196.
111. Moranian, “The Armenian Genocide and American Missionary Relief Efforts,” 208.
Epilogue
1. Caitlin McGaw, quoted in “The War Stories Their Families Never Forgot,” New York Times Magazine (Nov. 9, 2018).
2. Edward Marshall, “Yamei Kin on Japan’s Hate,” Los Angeles Times (Apr. 16, 1911), vii.
3. Mike Ives, “Overlooked No More: Yamei Kin, the Chinese Doctor Who Introduced Tofu to the West,” New York Times (Oct. 18, 2018); Shurtleff and Aoyagi, Biography of Yamei Kin.
4. Theodore Roosevelt to Yamei Kin, March 4, 1904. Theodore Roosevelt Digital Library.
5. “Little Dr. Yamei Kin Answers Socialists,” New York Times (Feb. 18, 1905), 7.
6. “Society in Washington: Interesting Lecture by Dr. Yamei Kin, of China,” [Baltimore] Sun (Mar. 25, 1904).
7. “Yamei Kin’s Mission,” New-York Tribune (Oct. 25, 1904), 5; “A Woman and War: Yamei Kin Has Ideas about Conditions in the East,” New-York Tribune (Nov. 13, 1904).
8. Edward Marshall, “Yamei Kin on Japan’s Hate,” Los Angeles Times (Apr. 16, 1911), vii.
9. The Foreign Missions Convention of the United States and Canada, “Preliminary Announcement,” (Place of publication and publisher not identified, 1924), 1. For a discussion of the planning of this event, see Barton, “Autobiographical Notes,” 321–324.
10. “Coolidge to Open Missions Meeting,” New York Times (Jan. 25, 1925), 4.
11. Ecumenical Missionary Conference, New York, 1900 (New York: American Tract Society, 1900).
12. Calvin Coolidge, “Address,” in Turner and Sanders, The Foreign Missions Convention at Washington, 4–5.
13. Coolidge, “Address,” in Turner and Sanders, The Foreign Missions Convention at Washington, 6.
14. Herbert Welch, “The Present World Situation” in Turner and Sanders, The Foreign Missions Convention at Washington, 19.
15. Brown, Memoirs of a Centenarian, 66–67.
16. Kennedy, The American Consul, 201–204.
17. Kennedy, The American Consul, 276.
18. Charles Hughes to Dr. Robert E. Speer, Department of State, Washington, Nov. 11, 1924, RARE DOC. H874cl, Presbyterian Historical Society.
19. See for example, Hollinger, Protestants Abroad, ch. 8; Sutton, Double Crossed.
20. McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders, ch. 9; Su, Exporting Freedom; Wenger, Religious Freedom; Turek, To Bring the Good News to All Nations.
21. McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders, 196.
22. J. Oliver Conroy, “The Life and Death of John Chau, the Man Who Tried to Convert His Killers,” The Guardian (Feb. 3, 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/03/john-chau-christian-missionary-death-sentinelese; Harriet Sherwood, “Andrew Brunson: The US Pastor at the Heart of an International Crisis,” The Guardian (Aug. 14, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/14/andrew-brunson-turkey-the-us-pastor-at-the-heart-of-an-international-crisis; Amanda Holpuch, “US Pastor Freed from Turkey Prays with Trump at White House,” The Guardian (Oct. 13, 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/oct/13/andrew-brunson-pastor-turkey-trump-white-house-prayer; “Remarks by President Trump in Meeting with Pastor Andrew Brunson,” White House Archives, (Oct. 13, 2018), https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-meeting-pastor-andrew-brunson/.