Index
abbreviations used in notetaking, 93–94, 93n21
Achilles, 144n119, 148, 150, 153, 155–57, 159
Adrian’s Introduction to the Sacred Scriptures: An Antiochene Handbook for Textual Interpretation, 218–19
Aedesia, 228
Aedesius, 103
Aeschylus, 39
Agamemnon, 128, 147, 153, 155–57, 159
Albinus of Smyrna, 62; Introduction to Plato’s Dialogues, 62; Sketch of Platonic Doctrines, 20n12, 62
Alcibiades, 32n65, 53, 162, 228, 232–44
Alexander (sophist), 71
Alexander of Aphrodisias, 58–59, 134n70, 135
Alexandria: catechetical school in, 212–13, 223; classroom configuration in, 233–34, 233n24; Didymus’s school in, 161, 204, 205–6; history of school of philosophy in, 228–29; Kom el-Dikka classrooms, 98n36, 99, 206, 233; Olympiodorus (fifth century) teacher in, 92; Olympiodorus (sixth century) teacher in, 135, 228; Origen’s school in, 213; philosophers and scholars in, 65, 164–66, 169; Plotinus attending school in, 65; teaching of rhetoric in, 211
allegories, Homer’s works treated as, 146–47
alphabetical order, 22
Alypius, 63
Ammon, 32
Ammonius, 20, 59, 65, 176, 221, 228–29, 231
Amphilochius of Iconium, 204
Andocides, 74n26
annotations. See notes and annotations (notae)
Anonymous Londiniensis, 33
Antioch: Christian schools in, 219; Libanius’s school in, 98n30, 99, 99n41, 99n45, 104, 118n1, 134n73, 188n55, 205, 207, 211
Antiphanes, 26n42
Antony’s encounter with Didymus, 206, 206n24
Aphthonius, 235
Apollonides, 184
Apollonius of Perga, 94
Apollonius of Rhodes: Argonautica, 169
Apollonius of Tyana, 60–61, 71
Archimedes, 94
Aristophanes, 111, 168; Acharnians, 242; Clouds, 85n17, 102n61
Aristotelian school, 47–57; teachers lecturing from their notes, 68
Aristotle, 10, 47–57; addressing mature students who possessed phronesis, 53; commentaries on, 176, 227; compared with works of late antiquity’s Platonists and Aristotelians, 59; Didymus teaching from, 217, 220; editing and revising earlier lectures, 54–55; free classes given by, 48n4; inconsistencies in works of, 59; lectures of, 4; mistakes in works of, 52–53, 57, 240; Olympiodorus and, 59, 234; paradeigmata (examples) used in philosophy by, 143; personal notes of, 49–50; personal voice difficult to identify in commentaries on, 5; Plato using logic of, 62; speed of speaking, 51–52; students recording treatises of, 2, 48–50, 53; works divided into exoteric and esoteric, 48; writing style of, 52. See also School of Aristotle
Aristotle, works of: Athenaion Politeia, 243; Eudemian Ethics, 50; Metaphysics, 48, 49, 54; Nicomachean Ethics, 50–51; Problems, 55–57; Protrepticus, 51; Rhetoric, 143
Arns, Paulo Evaristo, 73n17
Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus): abbreviations used when notetaking, 93–94; Attic as language of works of, 90, 96; classroom of Epictetus described by, 121–23, 159, 209, 247–49; compared to Didymus, 224; dissemination of texts without assent, 94–95, 174; Epictetus’ character revealed through, 159; Epictetus’ curriculum not fully revealed in notes of, 134; Homer references in work of, 237; life of, 87; memory and, 28; stenographers, use of, 11, 92; stenography, use of, 11, 74, 89; as student of philosophy, 2, 87, 129. See also Discourses (Epictetus) for work created from his student notes
ascetism, 206
Asclepiades, 40
askesis (spiritual exercises), 5, 140–42
Athanasius, 206, 212; Vita Antoni, 202
Athens: Epicurean school in, 171–72, 175, 180, 184; Zeno’s school in, 175–76
athletes, imagery of, 85, 133, 141–43, 160
Aubenque, Pierre, 54
Augustan Age, commentaries written during, 166
Augustine: marginalia of, 8, 18, 73n18; stenographers and scribes, use of, 36, 73, 77n40; works circulating without approval of, 94
Augustine, works of: Adnotationes in Iob, 37; Explanation of the Epistle of James, 37; On the Trinity, 73; Retractationes, 36–37
Avenarius, Gert, 26n40
Basil of Caesarea, 71, 73; Address to Young Men on Greek Literature, 38
Bayliss, Grant, 222
Bénatouïl, Thomas, 141
Bible, commentaries on, 78, 163, 164, 169, 176, 203, 206–9, 217, 222, 225. See also Didymus the Blind for commentaries on Ecclesiastes and Psalms
Bienert, Wolfgang, 222
Blank, David, 175
Blumell, Lincoln H., 222
Boethus, 72
Bonhöffer, Adolf, 82
books and texts: circulating prematurely or without authors’ approval, 94–95, 95n26, 174, 229, 231, 244; cost of, 135; Epictetus finding inferior to viva vox teaching, 129–36, 138; in late antiquity becoming of prime importance, 161; notes as basis of, 29, 58–59, 64, 68; strategies for writing from notes, 23–27; what constitutes, 13. See also commentaries; specific authors
Borges, Cassandra, and C. Michael Sampson, 39n7
Bowersock, Glen Warren, 124n27
Brakke, David, 202n6
Bromius (Zeno’s student), 172
Caesarea Maritima, Origen’s school in, 213
Carneades, 61
Cassius Severus, 44
chalinos (tongue-twister exercise), 39
Christians and early Christianity: accepting Olympians in literary context, 203; Adrian’s exegesis of Christian texts, 218–19; ascetism and, 206; Didymus’s commentaries and teaching of, 204–9, 212; educational development of, 201–2; Homer used as exegesis model, 219; illiteracy of charismatic figures, 202; Julian’s ostracizing, 203–4; levels of teaching, 208–13; on moral conscience, 197; Origen’s teaching of, 212–13; similarities to Greek grammarians and rhetors, 218; stenographers at Christological conferences, 74, 77; syncretism of beliefs, 203–4
Chroust, Anton, 47
Chrysippus: depiction of, 107, 115n133; Epictetus on, 137–38; on Homer, 147; purpose of philosophical instruction for, 4, 5–6; students, relationship with, 108, 115; on syllogisms, 217; texts ascribed to, 134
Cicero, 20, 45, 76n33, 188n55, 210; In Pisonem, 170
classical education (paideia), 200–204; change from argumentation to authoritative texts, 4; city as location of advanced learning, 210; as easy pray for Christian Church, 201; endurance and spread of, 200–201; in late antiquity, 201; limited group of texts used in, 138, 200; models used for writing and style, 221; Olympiodorus’s teaching of, 3, 210, 237; Philodemus’s knowledge of, 196–97; in philosophy, 3, 210, 245; shortcomings of, 200; sophists on, 140; students of philosophy having prior education in, 129–30, 132, 137–38, 144, 158, 232. See also students; specific teachers and their schools
Cleanthes, 134
Clement of Alexandria, 19–20; Stromateis, 19
Codex Theodosianus, 203
Colardeau, Théodore, 90, 100n48, 114, 122n20
comedies, 154
commentaries, 163–69; grammatical, 164–66; hypomnematikon as title of, 176; name of commentator concealed, 167; popularity of, 138; purpose of writing, 166; textual, 166–67; use of term, 20–21, 22, 208n30. See also specific authors
Conference of Carthage (411), 74
Constantius II (Roman emperor), 77
Cooper, John M., 5n6
Costa, Cosimo, 124n26
Crouzel, Henri, 212
Cynics and Cynic philosophy: Epictetus’s Discourses associated with, 81, 126–28; Homer and, 148n138; parrhesia connected with, 180; Problemata in works of, 55; theater metaphors, use of, 153; unkempt appearance and, 85n16
Damascius, 63n57
Demandt, Alexander: History of the Empire published from Mommsen’s notes, 1–2, 4, 246
Desideri, Paolo, 35n81
dialogues: as art of daily instruction, 4; Epictetus’s use of, 11, 122–24, 159; Musonius rarely using, 121–22; philosophers’ use of, 4
Dicaearchus, 98
Dickey, Eleanor, 166
dictation, 3, 35–36, 65, 71–73, 158, 240. See also stenographers
Didymus Chalcenterus, 166
Didymus the Blind: appropriation of traditional education by, 201, 202; Aristotle as influence on, 217, 220; background of, 204–5; Bible commentaries by, 163, 164, 169, 176, 203, 206–9, 216–17, 222, 225, 233; catechetical role of, 212; as Christian intellectual, 204–7; classes structured like Greek philosophical schools, 208–9, 208n28; class size, 212; compared to Adria, 219; compared to Arrian, 224; compared to Epictetus, 216, 220, 226; compared to Olympiodorus, 233, 243; curriculum of, 216–17; Ecclesiastes commentary, 78, 206–9, 222–25, 233; as grammarian, 214–17; memory of students of, 28; notes and notetakers of, 3, 10, 51, 64, 162, 230, 248–49; Origen and, 205; Psalms commentary, 78, 206–9, 216, 222–24, 225, 233; school of, as Christian group meeting, 206; spaces in work suggesting students as writers, 225; stenographers and, 70, 222–26; teaching style of, 221–22; texts as conglomeration of notes, 219–22; Tura papyri and, 161
Didymus the Blind, works of: Against Celsus, 206; On First Principles, 206
Diels, Hermann, 33
diminutives, use of, 119, 127, 136, 139–40, 157n169, 158, 216
Dio Chrysostom: antithesis form of argument used by, 125; as champion of rhetoric, 119, 123; on dictation, 73n16; Homer and, 139, 148; Musonius as teacher of, 91, 91n13, 119n2; on mythological themes in theater, 154; notes, use of, 35n81; Oration11 (The Trojan Discourse), 139, 154, 229, 238n39; on schools of philosophy, 98
Diocletian (Roman emperor): Edict of Maximum Prices, 76
Diodorus Siculus, 94
Diogenes Laertius (Diogenes the Cynic): on Antisthenes and loss of notes, 29; citing older doxographical texts, 9; Epictetus and, 113, 124, 126–28, 216, 220, 226; impersonation of, 128; Pamphila references in, 31; on School of Aristotle, 47; on Socrates as prolific writer, 136; Stoics and, 81n3; on Theophrastus’s students, 53; on Timon’s writing habits, 26–27, 26n42; on Zeno’s interpretation of Homer, 147
Dionysius of Halicarnassus: Opuscula, 8
Dionysius of Miletus, students of, 41
Discourses (Epictetus): ancient deities in, 202; Arian’s notes used for, 3, 5, 11, 51, 80, 86, 87–93, 95, 97, 99, 108, 123, 134, 157–60, 219, 247; Arrian’s lack of interest in student questions evident in, 209, 226, 243, 247–48; Arrian’s letter to Lucius Gellius as preface to, 88–89, 91, 94–97, 158, 159, 180, 195; Arrian’s use of abbreviations when notetaking, 93–94; athletes, imagery of, 85, 133, 141–43, 160; behavioral guidance offered by, 82–84; on books as inferior to live teaching, 129–36, 138; on Chrysippus, 137–38; classroom depiction in, 121–23, 159, 209, 247–49; compared to Didymus, 216, 220, 226; compared to Libanius, 207; compared to Musonius, 91, 96, 122; on the Cynic, 81, 126–28; dialogues used in, 11, 122–24, 159; as diatribai, 81; diminutives, use of, 119, 127, 136, 139–40, 157n169, 158, 216; on ethics, 81, 83, 105, 116, 132, 138, 147, 159, 201; excerpts from, 79–80; on father-son relations, 102–4; on faulty judgment as cause of mistakes, 143; on Homer, 111–12, 125n33, 128, 147–51, 155, 157, 158, 237–38; humor in, 85, 100, 111, 116n139, 140, 142, 157; on “impressions” from history and myth, 142–46, 153; on logic, 136–37; Marcus Aurelius on, 20; on moral conscience, 197, 201; myths, use of, 146–52, 158; onoma, change in meaning of, 140; on parrhesia, 88–89, 180; questions in class, 209, 243, 247–48; on reason as guide, 146; refutation by, 139–42; on rhetoric and rhetorical schools, 118–29, 131; scholars debating authorship of, 90–91, 97; shipwreck, imagery of, 143; spiritual progress as goal of lectures, 5, 81, 83; Stoics and, 11, 80–82, 108, 116, 123, 129, 197, 216, 238; student-philosopher relationship, 193; students at Epictetus’s school, 99–101, 104–17, 144, 216, 232; on teaching responsibilities, 105–7; on theater, 152–57; titles of essays in, 95–97, 95n29; To One of Those Whom He Did Not Consider Worthy (book 2, section 24), 111–12; volumes surviving from original eight, 80; on wars, 150; Xenophon as influence on, 90. See also Arrian for notes used to write
Dobbin, Robert F., 91, 123n23, 127n41, 130n52
Dodds, Eric Robertson, 239
Donatus, Aelius: Life of Vergil, 34
Donini, Pierluigi, 59
doxography, 9
early Christianity. See Christians and early Christianity
Ecclesiastes, 78, 206–9, 222–25, 233
Eddy, Matthew, 68
Edwards, Michael, 66n70
Egypt: Dakhla Oasis’s Greek school, 203, 211–12; private teachers (kathegetai), 211–12; Tura papyri, 161, 207–9, 215, 219–20, 222. See also Alexandria
encomium, writing of, 235
Ennius, 210
Epaphroditus, 80
Epictetus: analogy of medicine with philosophy, 109, 194–95; books lacking in intrinsic value for, 138; choosing to lecture and not to write, 63–64; class structure of, 208n28; compared to Libanius, 207; compared to Olympiodorus, 97, 243; compared to Seneca the Elder, 109; compared to Socrates, 85, 109, 114; Didymus and, 113, 124, 126–28, 216, 220, 226; on ethics, theology, and freedom, 83; frankness of, 86, 89, 114, 180; God’s importance for, 112, 202, 203n9; histories held in low regard by, 130, 165; Koine as language of works of, 90, 96; life of, 80; on moral conscience, 197, 201; Musonius as teacher of, 91, 110, 111, 114n124, 136; no writings extant of, 86; Olympiodorus citing, 238–39; overlooked among the Stoics, 97–98; overview of, 82–86; Philodemus echoing, 191; philosophical instruction’s purpose for, 5n5, 51, 83, 85, 132, 136, 141, 182, 193; Plato and, 124, 129, 137, 151; practicality of, 83; Problemata and, 55; promoting philosophical training, 98; reputation and popularity of, 82, 85; at School of Aristotle, 47; self-deprecation of, 79, 83, 109; Socrates and, 83, 85, 109, 114, 124, 139, 143n115, 151; stenographers vs. students as recorders of, 10–11; on study of philosophy, 51, 193; teaching responsibilities of, 105–7; Theosebius as scholar on, 64. See also Arrian; Discourses; Epirus, Epicetus’s school in
Epictetus, works of: Categories, 20; Encheiridion (Handbook), 80, 146, 238; On Freedom, 126. See also Discourses
Epicureans and Epicureanism: consulting other schools of philosophy not allowed by, 196; flattery condemned by, 194; isolation of Epicurean community, 188; moral conscience as focus of, 179, 183; moral education devised by, 182; parrhesia as unique to, 196; school in Athens, 171–72, 175, 180, 184; school in Naples, 161, 171, 180, 184; on sickness of the soul, 192–99. See also Philodemus of Gadara
Epicurus, 171, 181, 183–84, 193, 197; Philodemus and, 172, 198–99
epideixeis, 10, 45, 46, 124, 175
Epiphanius of Salamis, 36
Epirus, Epicetus’s school in, 11, 80, 87–117; books possibly used in classes, 134; choice of location, 98; classroom interaction with students, 123n25, 124–25; curriculum of, 134; distinguished from schools teaching rhetoric, 118–19; students, relationship with, 11, 66, 80, 99–101, 104–5, 108–17, 188; students residing in Epirus for rest of their lives, 205; teaching divided into two daily portions, 49n10
Eros (Vergil’s secretary), 34
Erotapokriseis, 55
Essler, Holger, 174
ethics: in Christian education, 201; in educational curriculum of Greek philosophers, 201; Epictetus and, 81, 83, 105, 116, 132, 138, 147, 159, 201; Philodemus’s works on, 171, 172, 182; Stoics on, 5, 132n62; works on
Eudemus of Rhodes, 50
Eumenius, 66
Eunapius of Sardis, 20, 44n26, 63, 103
Euripides, 40, 168, 238; works of: Atreus, 153; Hippolytus, 153, 238, 239; Hypsipyle, 169; Medea, 153; Orestes, 238
Eusebius of Caesarea, 24n28, 66n70, 212–13, 224n89
Eustathius of Thessalonica, 148
Eustochius, 66
Evagrius, 205
father-son relations, 102–4, 104n72, 111, 111n115
Favorinus of Arles, 32, 153; Memorabilia, 32; Notebooks, 32
Foat, F. G. W., 93
food compared to culture and vomiting of knowledge, 54, 106, 133–34, 185n46
Foucault, Michel, 7
frank criticism. See parrhesia
French scholarship, notes as focus in, 18
Galen: Albinus of Smyrna as teacher of, 62; on Aristotle, 51–52; on Carneades’s students, 61–62; on Hippocrates, 21, 22n17, 174; Homer and, 148n135; hypographai, used for set of notes, 20n12, 21; hypomnema, used for monograph, 21; language choice of, 90n8; lectures and scientific demonstrations of, 4, 59; marginalia by, 8, 18, 36; opposed to publications circulating without his approval, 4, 94, 95n26; stenographers and, 72
Galen, works of: On Fallacies, 51; Peri alypesias, 146
Gallus, 27
Gellius, Aulus, 19, 30–32, 68, 120, 164, 236; Noctes Atticae, 30
Gellius, Lucius, 88–89, 88n3, 91, 94–97, 158, 159, 180
Genesis, commentary on, 207
Genesius, Saint, 73
genetic criticism, 7, 7n14, 54
Gera, Deborah Levine, 33n73
German students in early modernity, using Schreibechor as notetaking technique, 68
Gibson, Craig, 166
Gill, Christopher, 108n91
God: Epictetus identifying Zeus with, 202–3; favoring those who appreciate their good fortune, 100; fourth-century Egyptian school mentioning, 203; Olympiodorus on, 237; Stoics’ view of, 112; teachers of philosophy endowed by, 106; virtuous life owed to, 112–13
Goulet-Cazé, Marie-Odile, 66
grammateia (writing on wooden tablets), 21
grammatical commentaries, 164–66
Hadot, Ilsetraut, 90
Hadot, Pierre, 5n6, 6, 103, 201
hand gestures of orators, 45
handwriting: late antiquity, professional writing hands in, 73; in Philodemus’s works, 40, 176–77; Plotinus’s dysgraphia, 65, 65n66; of students, 169. See also scribes
Hellweg, Rainer, 22n18
Hensel, Paul, 2
Hensel, Sebastian, 2
Heraklas (student of Origen), 213
Hermeneumata (bilingual Greek and Latin handbooks), 76–77
Hermogenes of Tarsus, 125, 147
Hermotimus, as student in Lucian’s work, 60
Herodes Atticus, 71
Hershbell, Jackson, 97
Hesychius’s Lexicon, 39, 77n41
Hierocles’s lectures on the Gorgias, 64, 230
Hippias, 139
Hippocrates, 21, 22n17, 56, 139n95, 174
Holland, Glenn, 180
Homer: in ancient education, 138, 146–49, 237–38; Aristotle’s mistakes in citing and quoting, 52–53; Christian exegesis modeled after interpretation of, 219; Cynics and, 148n138; Dio disputing reverence of, 139; Epictetus’s references to, 111–12, 125n33, 128, 147–48, 155, 157, 158, 237–38; extracts from (P.Yale II 135), 39; first books most thoroughly studied, 239; grammatical instruction using, 165; Libanius’s students studying, 211; Lucian’s references to, 60; marginalia to, 168; medical analogy in, 193; models to teach students grammar from, 225; Olympiodorus’s references to, 237–38; Philodemus’s Peri Parrhesias references to, 198; Plato’s references to, 235, 237; standardization of, 166; Stoics’ references to, 146–48; traditional paideia on, 204
Homer, works of: Iliad, 41, 138–39, 147–50, 169, 216, 238; Odyssey, 40–41, 138–39, 147–49, 151, 238, 243
horses and horse races, analogies to, 83, 100–101, 112, 142, 186–87
Hutchinson, D. S., 51
Hyginus: Fabulae, 33
hypomnema: meaning of term, 20–21, 174; as postscripts, 21
hypomnemata, 166–67; abbreviations, use of, 93; Aristides and, 34; Aristotle and, 50; Chrysippus’s student and, 5; Euclid and, 29; Hermotimus and, 60; Lucian and, 26; meaning of term, 20–22, 25n35; Philodemus of Gadara and, 163; Plutarch and, 20, 25–26; scholia distinguished from, 167
hypomnematica, 20
hypomnematikon, 163, 174–76; intended for limited circulation, 175; Philodemus’s On Rhetoric and, 175–76; used as title for commentaries, 176
Iamblichus of Chalcis, 51, 61–63, 65, 246; Life of Pythagoras, 61
imperial period: commentaries written during, 166; education’s development in, 200; Mommsen intending to write history of, 1–2, 246–47; notetaking as common educational practice in, 68
Inwood, Brad, 58
Islamic historians, storage of annotations by, 23
Isocrates, 47
Jackson, Henry, 48
Jacobs, C. F., 56
Jaeger, Werner, 49
Jerome (of Stridon): annotating letter of Epiphanius of Salamis, 36; on Didymus and Antony encounter, 206; as Didymus’s student, 215; stenographers used by, 73, 74
Jews: conflicts with Syrians, Egyptians, and Romans, 155; as visitors to philosophical schools, 100
John Chrysostom, 154, 204, 218
Johnson, Monte Ransome, 51
Lampriskos, 113n123
late antiquity: annotation becoming common in, 167; Aristotle compared to works of Platonists and Aristotelians in, 59; classical education in, 201; fluidity of ancient education in, 161, 164; notetaking as common educational practice in, 68; Platonic school in, 64–65; professional writing hands in, 73; rarity of actual examples of notes from, 69, 230; stenographers in, 71, 76; traditional literary culture in, 202, 237
Laterculi Alexandrini, 33
Layton, Richard, 205, 220, 222
lectures: memory of, requiring notes, 63; published accounts of, 236; repeated with variations, 53–55, 64; some philosophers choosing to only lecture instead of writing, 61; students recording in notes, 61–62. See also specific philosophers and notetakers
Leonardo da Vinci’s notebooks, 9
Libanius: antithesis form of argument used by, 125; books used by students of, 135; compared to Epictetus, 207; encomium, writing of, 235; on grammatistes (or grammaticus), 214; Greek cultural heritage and Christianity of, 204; handwritten speeches by, 3n4; on Homer, 148; letters revealing school environment, 248; memorizing speeches of, 42; notes, used while declaiming, 45–46; parents of students and, 103n65, 188n55; questions during lectures by, 209; rhetoric as exclusive focus of, 211; on rhetors who vomit forth knowledge, 133–34; school in Antioch, 99, 99n41, 99n45, 118n1, 134n73, 205, 207, 211; stenography and, 72n5; on storage and retrieval of notes, 23; on student discipline and punishment, 190, 190n63; students and, 104, 106, 106n81, 110, 111, 211; students reconstructing orations from notes, 29
librarius to copy notes, 42
lists, compilation of, 32–33, 68–69
Livy, 25n32
Long, Anthony A., 82, 90, 123n23, 124, 146, 154
Longinus, Cassius, 62–63, 67, 231
Lucian: on Epictetus, 85–86; extending parrhesia to educated public, 180; on grammateia, 21; on hypomnema, 9, 20, 176; mocking unworthy philosophers, 60, 103; notes, use in writing of, 9, 25–26; philosophers described as charlatans, 191n64; on rhetoric, 141; stenographers and, 71–72; theater metaphors, use of, 153–54
Lucian, works of: De historia conscribenda, 26; Dialogues of the Dead, of the Courtesans, of the Gods, and of the Sea Gods, 155; Hermotimus, 60, 141; The Ignorant Book Collector, 86; Professor of Rhetoric, 21, 120n11; Toxaris, 21
Lucius (pupil of Musonius), 91, 115
Lucretius, 189
Lyceum, 47. See also school of Aristotle
Mansfeld, Jaap, 52
Marcellinus’s biography of Thucydides, 26, 26n39
Marchesi, Ilaria, 22
Marcus (Cicero’s son), 42, 42n18, 188n55, 210
Marcus Aurelius, 6n9, 20, 82, 91, 97, 100n47, 129n50, 143, 153n150, 210
marginalia: in ancient papyri, 163–64, 167–69; Augustine and, 8, 18, 73n18; on back (verso) of papyri, 169; in contemporary scholarship, 7, 8; defined, 167; Galen and, 8, 18, 36; geometrical drawings in, 242; Homer and, 168; lists in, 242; in Marcianus graecus (manuscript of lecture recorded by Olympiodorus’s student), 241–44; notes in margins of notes, 35–37, 241–44; oral sources of, 167; poetry most commonly found with, 168; prose rarely found with, 168; referring to previous commentaries, 168; school origination of, 169
Marinus of Neapolis, 63, 66, 180, 180n33; Life of Proclus, 63, 92, 229–30
Marrou, Henri-Irénée, 206n22
Martin, Jean, and Paul Petit, 46n29
Maximus of Tyre, 101, 110, 153
McNamee, Kathleen, 166n10, 168
McPhee, John, 24
medicine: doctors advertising for patients, 120n11; Epicurean doctrine on sickness of the soul, 192–99; healing imagery applied to philosophy, 109, 144, 192–95, 221; memory and exempla required for education in, 221; students recording in notes their teachers of, 68; writing in Koine, 90n8
melete, meaning of, 140–42, 146
Memmius, 190
memory: enhancement strategies for, 28–29; mnemonics and, 41; notes as aid for, 8, 19–20, 24, 28–32, 59, 63, 68, 247; Seneca the Elder and, 43–44, 43nn21–22
mistakes: in Aristotle’s works, 52–53, 57, 240; faulty hearing as cause of, 239–40; faulty judgment as cause of, 143; in Olympiodorus’s commentary to Alcibiades, 239–41; by scribes, 62; students blamed for, 64, 231, 243
Mommsen, Theodor: Demandt using notes of Mommsen’s lectures to write imperial history, 1–2, 4, 246; intending to write history of imperial period, 1–2, 246–47
moral conscience: Epictetus on, 197, 201; Epicureans’ focus on, 179, 183; Greek/Roman vs. Christian views, 197
Musonius Rufus: advising student on dealings with father, 102; choosing location of where to lecture, 98; choosing to lecture and not to write, 63; compared to Epictetus’s text, 91, 96, 122; compared to Socrates, 91; curriculum of, 132; dialogue rarely used in works of, 121–22; as Epictetus’s teacher, 91, 110, 111, 114n124, 136; on faulty judgment as cause of mistakes, 143; Homer and, 148; philosophical instruction’s purpose for, 182; on rhetors, 120–21; Stoic principles applied by, 115, 201; on study of philosophy, 51, 141
myths, use of, 33, 111, 120, 128, 130, 138–39, 143–44, 146–52, 158, 198
Naas, Valérie, 23n22
Natali, Carlo, 47–48, 48n4, 56
Neilos (student), 211
Neoplatonism and Neoplatonists, 62, 65, 167, 176, 227–29, 234n27
notes and annotations (notae): as basis of later publications, 29, 58–59, 68; categorizing types of, 9; classroom environment depicted in, 121–23, 159, 209, 221, 233–34, 233n24, 247; compilation of, 32–33, 68–69, 174; in context, 15; in margins, 35–37; as memory aid, 8, 19–20, 24, 28–32, 59, 63, 68, 247; physical storage of, 23; placement of, 18; pointing to works only partially known, 31; as record of actual teachings, 6; as record of annotations no longer extant, 18; scholarly disdain for, 17; in school anthologies, 38–39; in schools of rhetoric, 41–43; selection of, 18–19; sharing of, 27; storage and retrieval of, 22–23; strategies for writing from, 23–27, 247; taking on a life of their own, 37; terminology used for, 19–23; of travelers, 33–35, 68–69. See also marginalia; notes; stenographers; specific notetakers
notetakers: Amelius as more fervent of, 66; Didymus’s students vs. stenographers as, 222–26; females as, 31–32, 31n62; publishing in their own names, 4, 28
notetaking, 17–37; abbreviations used in, 93–94, 93n21; as aid to declaiming, 43–46; in class, 10, 29, 38–46, 58–59, 61–62, 245; contemporary methodologies for, 7, 68n75; differences in antiquity from modern era, 7–8; in Middle Ages and early modern period, 18, 68; mistakes due to faulty hearing, 239–40; orality linked to, 2; personal flavor of notetaker in, 7; routines for, 68; surfaces used for, 22–23; tablets used for, 22, 24
Numenius, 66n70
O’Connell, Mark, 7
officials: actors compared to, 152; competence of, 106n81; Epictetus talking to, about relationship with children, 82–83; Olympiodorus’s students entering careers as, 228; study of First Alcibiades well suited for, 232–33
Oldfather, W. A., 90, 112n117, 130n52
Olivieri, Alessandro, 172
Olympiodorus: on Aristotle’s works, 176; background of, 228; Christian elite as students of, 228; circulation of lectures by, 12; commentaries of, 176; compared to Aristotle, 59; compared to Didymus, 233, 243; compared to Epictetus, 97, 243; compared to Plotinus, 67; distinguishing between writing formal texts and from class notes, 231–35; errors of attribution by, 53; incompetent and untidy students of, 49; lists written by students of, 32; Marcianus graecus (manuscript of lecture recorded by student), 241; memory of students of, 28; mistakes in commentary to Alcibiades, 239–41; as Neoplatonist, 167–68, 228; as pagan working in Christian environment, 237; philosophical commentary by, 163, 165–66; rhetoric taught by, 232; speed of speaking, 52; students’ notes on, 2, 3, 51, 59, 61, 67, 135, 219, 244, 248; as successor of Ammonius, 228; traditional literary culture and, 201, 202, 237; urging students to take notes, 64
Olympiodorus, works of: Commentary on Gorgias, 231, 232, 241; Commentary on the First Alcibiades, 53, 228, 232–44; “Life of Plato,” 234–39; Phaedo commentary, 232, 241
Olympiodorus (of fifth-century Alexandria), 92–93
onomata (expressions), 140, 140n99
Optimus, 204
Origen, 205, 205n18, 212–13, 223; Homilies on the Psalms, 213, 214n55; schooling of, 213–14
Orpheus, 230
paideia. See classical education
Pamphila (Egyptian), 31–32, 68; Notebooks, 31
pantomimes, 154
Papias (church writer), 24n28
papyri: informal rhetorical notes on, 45; legal cases recorded on, 45; notetaking on, 23, 24; Pliny the Elder’s volumes of notes on, 22; space left for notes on, 45; students’ difficulty in obtaining, 39; verso used for schoolwork, 39–40; of Villa dei Papiri, 170–71, 173. See also Tura papyri (Egypt)
papyri fragments: P.Köln III 125 (Ptolemaic fragment), 38; P.Lit.Lond. 138, 35, 168; P.Mich. inv. 3498 and 3250a, b, and c, 39; P.Oxy. XXXIV, 169; P.Yale II 135, 39
paradeigmata (examples) used in philosophy, 143, 222
parrhesia (frank criticism), 180–97; courage and speaking freely for improvement of another, 179, 196; doubts about effectiveness of, 190–91, 197; Epictetus and, 88–89, 180; Isidorus and, 180; non-Epicurean method used in, 185; in Philodemus’s Peri Parrhesias, 177–79; public denunciation of one’s faults, 184, 187, 197; repetition when unsuccessful, 186–87; rules governing, 186, 188; students applying to each other, 189; students’ opinion of, 184, 187, 189–90, 192, 196–97; teacher’s application of, 183–84, 187–88, 191, 195, 197; unique practice of Epicurean community, 193, 196. See also Peri Parrhesias
Parthenius of Nicaea, 27
Pasicles, 49
Paul: collection of Responsorum libri XXIII, 37n89; compared to Zeno, 179
Pepys, Samuel, 72n6
Peri Parrhesias (On Frank Criticism, Philodemus), 12, 89n4, 101, 163, 171–73, 177–94; frank criticism as educational system, 177–78, 190–91, 196–97; literary references in, 198; medical analogy for philosopher-student relationship, 193–94; moral conscience as focus of, 179; pedagogical methods revealed by, 179, 194; repetition in, 178–79; rhetoric in, 178; on teacher-sages, 183; Zeno’s responses to questions, 177. See also parrhesia
Philo of Alexandria, 212
Philodemus of Gadara: on Aristotle teaching rhetoric, 47; background of, 170–72, 171n4, 197; classes of, 177, 195; commentaries by, 163; compared to Epictetus, 97; criticizing Epicureans who dissent from frank criticism, 184–85; Epicurus and, 172, 198–99; epigrams of, 40; ethical focus of, 179, 182; frank criticism and, 183; handwriting varying in, 40, 176–77; Homer and, 198; losing students to charlatans, 101, 191; notes from Zeno’s lectures and their transmission to Philodemus’s students, 3, 12, 161, 172, 177, 198; notes taken by students of, 176–77; originality of, difficulty of assessing, 198; possible personal experience of parrhesia in his education, 196; on punishment of students, 190–91; as transmitter of Epicurus’s doctrine, 199; as Zeno’s student, 172, 175, 198
Philodemus of Gadara, works of: Anthologia Palatina, 198; The Good King According to Homer, 198; On Frank Speech, 179–80; On Rhetoric, 175; On Signs, 172. See also Peri Parrhesias (On Frank Criticism)
Philoponus, 59, 92, 176, 214, 221, 228–29, 229n7, 232, 236
philosophy: benefits of young men learning, 102; Christians studying, 202; closing of pagan schools of, 228; logic vs., 136–37; melete in studies of, 140–42; memory and exempla required for education in, 221; as most important of all disciplines, 194n72; purpose of education in, 4, 5–6, 83, 85, 131, 132, 141; religious education and, 201; rivalry with rhetoric, 119; students recording in notes their teachers of, 68; teachers’ physical characteristics, 106–7, 107n87; teachers’ responsibilities, 105–6. See also specific teachers of philosophy and schools of philosophy
Philostratus, 41, 71, 120n9, 133; Life of Apollonius of Tyana, 60
Pindar, 168
Piso, Lucius Calpurnius, 170, 198
Plato: Aristotle’s logic in, 62; commentaries on, 227; dialogues of, 235; Epictetus and, 124, 129, 137, 151; Homeric references in, 235, 237; on hypomnema, 20; on knowledge as food of the soul, 133; lectures by, 4; Marinus’s commentaries on, 180; negative view of writing and preferring lectures, 65; Olympiodorus’s commentaries on, 232–34, 241; Olympiodorus’s “Life of Plato,” 234–39; Olympiodorus’s students referring to text of, 135, 239; personal voice difficult to identify in commentaries on, 5; purpose of philosophical instruction for, 4; on rhetoric, 119, 141; Socrates and, 197; tachigraphical signs in text of, 74
Plato, works of: Cleitophon, 128; First Alcibiades, 12, 162, 232–44; Gorgias, 64, 102, 124, 230–31, 232, 240, 241; Phaedo, 64, 230, 232, 241; Protagoras, 131, 233n24; Republic, 38, 74, 74n25, 240; Theaetetus, 29, 229; Timaeus, 240
Platonic school: in late antiquity, 64–65; teachers lecturing from their notes, 68
Pliny the Elder, 22, 23n22, 24–25, 30, 34
Pliny the Younger, 22, 22n20, 24
Plotinus, 62–67; Ammonius as teacher of, 65; books “written by” likely from students’ notes and scribes’ dictation, 65; compared to Olympiodorus, 67; Enneads based on students’ recordings of lectures, 66; Longinus and, 62–63; optics as interest of, 65n65; Porphyry writing life of, 61, 63n54, 64; refraining from writing, 231; School of, 64–67; as treatise writer, 63; vision problems and dysgraphia of, 65
Plutarch: in ancient education, 237; Egyptian schools teaching texts by, 211; on hypomnema, 20, 25–26; on moral and ethical attainment, 201; notes, use in writing of, 9, 25–26; on orators using notes, 45; on philosophy as most important of all disciplines, 194n72; on practice in virtue, 141; Proclus and, 63–64, 230; on propatheia (premonitory reaction), 115; questions during classes of, 209; on rhetorical declamations as spectacles, 121; on School of Aristotle’s decline, 48; on student behavior during classes, 209; on teacher-student relations, 108–9; as teacher who urged student notetaking, 64
Plutarch, works of: How to Study Poetry, 38; On Listening to Lectures, 2, 121, 209; On the Control of Anger, 25n34; On Tranquility of Mind, 25
Polyaenus, 184
Polybius, 25n32
Porcius Latro, 44
Porphyry of Tyre, 65–67, 246; Life of Plotinus, 61, 63n54, 64
Possidius, 73n18
Praechter, Karl, 244
Prentice, William Kelly, 26n41
Priam, 130
Proaeresius, 44n26
Proclus: Ammonius as student of, 228–29; Commentary on the First Alcibiades, 228, 234; Marinus succeeding, 63n57, 92n19, 180n33; memorizing his teacher’s words, 92–93; Neoplatonism revived by, 228; Plutarch and, 63–64, 230; reticent to write a commentary, 131, 230; as student of Olympiodorus (of fifth-century Alexandria), 92–93; students of, 66; student-teacher relationship and notetaking, 230
progymnasmata (exercises in rhetoric), 126, 126n28, 138, 210
Prohaeresius, 204
propatheia (premonitory reaction), 115, 115n134
prose: marginalia rarely found with, 168; notes, use of, 26
Psalms: in Adrian’s Introduction to the Sacred Scriptures, 218; Didymus’s commentaries on, 78, 206–9, 216, 222–24, 225, 233; Origen’s Homilies on the Psalms, 213, 214n55; prevalence in Christian education, 218n69; Theodore’s commentaries on, 218
Pseudo-Longinus: On Memory, 28
Pythagoras, school of, 61
questions in philosopher’s class, 67, 124, 209, 236–37, 243, 247–48
Quintilian, 8, 28, 41–46, 73n20, 108n94, 134n73, 164–65, 201, 210, 218, 236, 248
Reydams-Schils, Gretchen, 132n62
rhetoric and oratory: annotating in schools of, 41–43; Epictetus’s views on, 118–29, 131; hand gestures, use of, 45; hard work to master, 120; melete from studies of, 140–41; memory and exempla required for education in, 221; Musonius on, 120–21; notes as aid to, 43–46; Olympiodorus as teacher of, 232; Plutarch on, 121; progymnasmata (exercises in rhetoric), 126, 126n28; rivalry with philosophy, 119; schools catering to, 211; students recording in notes their teachers of, 68; writing vs. improvisation, 45
Roman Empire: educational texts used during, 227; mimes and pantomimes as popular theatrical forms in, 155; Odysseus as popular figure in, 148; philosophy embedded in pagan and Christian culture in, 227; philosophy vs. rhetoric in, 227; teachers with small student groups replacing philosophical schools, 61
Roman Republic: shorthand used in, 72; stenographers in, 71
Ross, William David, 49
Sacks, Oliver: On the Move: A Life, 8
Saffrey, H. D., 65
scholia distinguished from hypomnemata, 167
school of Aristotle. See Aristotelian school
schools of other philosophers. See specific philosopher or location of school
schoolwork: chalinos (tongue-twister exercise), 39; grammatical commentaries, 164–66; lectures as, 232; on papyri fragments, 38–41. See also students
scribes: distinguished from stenographers, 223; earnings of, 76n37; Euripides’s Hypsipyle written by, 169; formal handwriting of, 73–74; mistakes by, 62
Second Sophistic, 11, 32, 124, 237–38
Sellars, John, 6n9
Seneca the Elder: on acceptance of misfortunes, 131; on assimilation of knowledge, 133; distinguishing between true anger and preliminary to anger, 117; Epictetus compared to, 109; Homer and, 148; on logic, 136; notetaking and, 43–44; oratory and, 46; Stoics and, 82, 97, 115; on students living with philosophical teachers, 99; on written texts, 129
Seneca the Elder, works of: Controversiae, 43; Suasoriae, 43
Seneca the Younger, 102
Servius, 164
Setaioli, Aldo, 115
Sharples, Robert, 58
shipwreck, imagery of, 143
shorthand, 72, 76–77; Commentary (stenographic signs), 75, 77
slaves: as stenographers, 42–43, 70, 72, 76n33; term “slave” used for student, 79, 110, 111, 113–14
Smith, Robert R. R., 107
Snyder, Gregory, 58–59, 86n22, 132, 134n70, 180–81
Socrates: on Alcibiades at ideal age to learn, 233; on books as unresponsive, 133; compared to Musonius, 91; depictions of, 107; on Didymus and Antony encounter, 206; Epictetus and, 83, 85, 109, 114, 124, 139, 143n115, 151; Euclid and, 29; modesty of, 109; in Olympiodorus’s commentary on Plato, 236–39; Plato and, 197, 229; purpose of philosophical instruction for, 4; question-and-answer format of discourses, 124; role of philosopher and, 103; as writer, 136; on written word’s inferiority to spoken, 131; Xenophon and, 11, 96
Socrates, works by: Apology, 119; Phaedrus, 131
Sopater, 31
Sorabji, Richard, 197
Soteridas of Epidaurus, 31
Sozomen, 206
Stefaniw, Blossom, 214–15, 219n72, 220n78
Stellwag, H. W. F., 91
stenographers, 10, 70–78; accuracy and credibility of, 77–78; Aristotle’s era without, 52; Arrian and, 89; Commentary (stenographic signs), 75, 77; Didymus’s students vs. stenographers as his recorders, 222–26; Epictetus and, 11, 70; Gellius and, 30; philosophers using, 70–72; Pliny the Elder and, 25; process used by, 74; religious conferences and sermons recorded by, 74, 77–78; scribes distinguished from, 223; shorthand, terms for, 72; shorthand used by, 72; slaves as, 42–43, 70, 72, 76n33; social position of, 75–78, 223; special training of, 70, 74, 75–77, 77n39; students using, 42; terms for, 71n2; texts and letters, dictation of, 35
Stobaeus, 91
Stoics and Stoicism: analogy of medicine with philosophy, 194; Arrian and, 87; consulting other schools of philosophy allowed by, 196; on death and destiny, 150–51; Diogenes Laertius and, 81n3; distinguishing between theoretical instruction and philosophy, 5; emotions defined by, 107; Epictetus and, 11, 80–82, 97–98, 108, 116, 123, 129, 197, 216, 238; ethics as field of study for, 5; on God’s existence, 112; on Homer, 146–48; little extant of, 81–82; Musonius Rufus and, 91; parrhesia connected with, 180; past learning of students and, 144; philosophical instruction’s purpose for, 182, 193; present-day popularity of, 97; Problemata in works of, 55; as system to cope with emotions, 115–16; teacher’s relationship with students, 115–17, 193; theater metaphors, use of, 153; written word deemed inferior to personal communications by, 132
Strabo, 48
students: arrogance of, 84, 112, 137, 143, 159, 183, 185, 194, 233; attachment to their teachers of philosophy, 63; behavior of, 2, 82–85, 100–101, 106, 111, 137–38, 193, 209, 236–37, 248; benefits of joining school of philosophy, 103; blamed for errors in notes, 64, 231, 243; citizens of the world, learning to become, 83, 119, 127; compiling publications from their notes, 58–59, 64, 231; confusion created as lectures revised and edited, 53–55; depictions of, 107; discipline and punishment of, 108–9, 110n109, 111, 113n123, 114–15, 190, 197; disobedience of, 178, 183, 185–87, 189; disorientation upon leaving their past lives, 144, 144n119; dull and weak like “stones,” 110, 112; father-son relations, 102–3; home lives of, 101–5; illnesses of, 104–5; incompetence and laziness of, 49, 110–12, 141; mocking of, 60–61, 106, 112, 127, 138; papyri and manuscripts used by, 3; parents’ punishment of, 108; parents’ view of paideia, 200n3; parents’ view of philosophical education, 103, 191–92, 195, 212; past education and life prior to entering school of philosophy, 118, 129–30, 132, 137–38, 144, 158, 232; as recorders of ancient philosophers, 2, 60–64; term “slave” used for, 79, 110, 111, 113–14; zelotai vs. akroatai, 66. See also specific schools and teachers
Suda lexicon, 31
Suetonius, 44
Sulpicius Severus, 94
Summers, Walter Coventry, 102n59
Swain, Simon, 90n8
syllogisms, teaching of, 217
Synesius, 23
syntagmatica, 20
Syrianus, 64
tachygraphical signs, 74–76, 75n26, 75n30
Tacitus, 44
Tarrant, Harold, 240
Tatian, 154
Taurus (philosopher), 236
Teitler, H. C., 77
Tertullian, 94
texts. See books and texts
Theaetetus, 54
Theodore of Mopsuestia, 218
Theon, 41, 166–67, 235; Progymnasmata, 41
Theophanes of Hermopolis, 34–35
Thessalos: Epidemics, 21–22, 22n17
Theuthras, 72
Third Sophistic, 121
Thucydides, 20, 26nn40–42, 29–30; History, 26, 29
Tiro (Cicero’s secretary), 42, 45, 76n33
traditional literary culture, continuous value of, 200–204; in late antiquity, 202–4
travelers’ annotations, 33–35, 68–69
Trojan War, 150, 155. See also Homer, works by: Iliad
Tsouna, Voula, 182
Tura papyri (Egypt), 161, 207–9, 215, 219–20, 222. See also Didymus the Blind
van den Hoek, Annewies, 212
Vergil, 27; Servius’s commentary to, 164
Verrycken, Koenraad, 229
Villa dei Papiri (Herculaneum), 170–71, 173
Westerink, Leendert Gerrit, 235, 237, 240–41
White, Michael, 173
written texts: dictation and orality of, 3–4; formation process of, 3, 174; philosophers choosing to only lecture instead of writing, 61, 63, 65; students, not teachers, engaging in writing, 62
Zanker, Paul, 107, 115, 115n133
Zechariah, commentary on, 207
Zeno: Athens school of, 175–76; compared to Paul, 179; criticizing Epicureans who dissent from frank criticism, 184–85; Epictetus influenced by, 124, 134; on Epicurians, 178–79; frank criticism and, 183, 196; on Homer, 146–47; moral education devised by, 182; notes taken by Bromius, 172; notes taken by Philodemus of Gadara, 3, 12, 161, 172, 177, 198; Philodemus as student of, 171, 172, 175, 198; Stoics and, 82