1. This point has been made several times, beginning in 2015. See Aviva Ben-Ur, “Jewish Communities,” in The Princeton Companion to Atlantic History, ed. Joseph C. Miller (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 263–67; “Een joods dorp in een slavenmaatsc happij: Jodensavanne in de Nederlandse kolonie Suriname,” in Joden in de Cariben, ed. Julie-Marthe Cohen (Amsterdam: Joods Historisch Museum, 2015), 131–54; “Atlantic Jewish History: A Conceptual Reorientation,” in Constellations of Atlantic Jewish History, 1555–1890: The Arnold and Deanne Kaplan Collection of Early American Judaica, ed. Arthur Kiron (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 25–46; and Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society: Suriname in the Atlantic World, 1651–1825 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), 23–24. Some scholars who have recognized the ahistoricity of the term continue to employ it. See, for example, Sina Rauschenbach and Jonathan Schorsch, “Postcolonial Approaches to the Early Modern Sephardic Atlantic,” in The Sephardic Atlantic: Colonial Histories and Postcolonial Perspectives, ed. Sina Rauschenbach and Jonathan Schorsch (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 2: they called themselves “mostly Spanish and Portuguese Jews, Portuguese Jews, Portuguese or simply A Nação (The Nation).” This ahistorical terminology has ramifications, as we discuss below.

2. Aviva Ben-Ur, “The Absorption of Outsiders in London’s Portuguese Jewish Community,” in From Catalonia to the Caribbean: The Sephardic Orbit from Medieval to Modern Times. Essays in Honor of Jane S. Gerber, ed. Federica Francesconi, Stanley Mirvis, and Brian Smollett (Leiden: Brill, 2018), 255–78.

1. This comment pertains to almost all publications on American Jewish history published after the mid-twentieth century. See, for example, articles from the last half century or so published in American Jewish History, the field’s leading journal; Hasia R. Diner, A Time for Gathering: The Second Migration, 1820–1880 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992) and A New Promised Land: A History of Jews in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Gerald Sorin, Tradition Transformed: The Jewish Experience in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); William Pencak, Jews and Gentiles in Early America, 1654–1800 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005); and Jonathan D. Sarna, American Judaism: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004; 2nd ed., 2019). Neither the first nor second edition of the latter title makes any mention of Atlantic history, nor its Jewish inflection, though the “Colonial Beginnings” chapter does pay attention to the metropole and the Caribbean.

2. For the treatment of Jews and crypto-Jews by scholars working outside the field of Jewish history, see, for example, Jonathan Israel, Empires and Entrepôts: The Dutch, the Spanish Monarchy, and the Jews, 1585–1713 (London: Hambledon Press, 1990) and Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World of Maritime Empires (1540–1740) (Leiden: Brill, 2002); Stephen Alexander Fortune, Merchants and Jews: The Struggle for British West Indian Commerce, 1650–1750 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1984); and Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

3. See, among his many publications, Walter J. Fischel, Ha-Yehudim be-Hodu (Jerusalem: Machon Ben Zvi, 1960), “The Activities of a Jewish Merchant House in Bengal (1786–1798): A Contribution to the Economic History of London Jews in India,” Revue des études juives 123, nos. 3–4 (1964): 433–98, and “The Indian Archives: A Source for the History of the Jews of Asia (from the Sixteenth Century On),” in “The Seventy-Fifth Anniversary Volume,” Jewish Quarterly Review 57 (1967): 192–209; and Gedalia Yogev, Diamonds and Coral: Anglo-Dutch Jews and Eighteenth-Century Trade (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1978).

4. Christopher Ebert, Between Empires: Brazilian Sugar in the Early Atlantic Economy, 1550–1630 (Leiden: Brill, 2008).

5. See, for example, Pencak, Jews and Gentiles in Early America, 209–11; Mark Abbott Stern, David Franks: Colonial Merchant (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010), x, xix–xx, chap. 2; and Allan M. Amanik, “Common Fortunes: Social and Financial Gains of Jewish and Christian Partnerships in Eighteenth-Century Transatlantic Trade,” in Doing Business in America: A Jewish History, ed. Steve J. Ross, Hasia R. Diner, and Lisa Ansell (Ashland: Purdue University Press, 2018), 25–47.

6. Holly Snyder, “‘Customs of an Unruly Race’: The Political Context of Jamaican Jewry, 1670–1831,” and Kay Dian Kriz, “Belisario’s ‘Kingston Cries’ and the Refinement of Jewish Identity in the Late 1830s,” both in Art and Emancipation in Jamaica: Isaac Mendes Belisario and His Worlds, ed. Tim Barringer, Gillian Forrester, and Barbaro Martinez-Ruiz (New Haven: Yale Center for British Art in association with Yale University Press, 2007), 151–62, 163–78.

7. Isaac Leeser, Discourses on the Jewish Religion (Philadelphia: Sherman & Co., 1867–68), 10:127, 271; Isaac Leeser, Discourses, Argumentative and Devotional, on the Subject of the Jewish Religion (Philadelphia: C. Sherman, 1840–41), 3:vii; Gershwind-Bennett Isaac Leeser Digital Repository, University of Pennsylvania Libraries, accessed September 1, 2021, http://leeser.library.upenn.edu/ilproject.php.

8. On central European immigration to the United States, see Sarna, American Judaism, 66.

9. Bernard Bailyn, “Introduction: Reflections on Some Major Themes,” in Soundings in Atlantic History: Latent Structures and Intellectual Currents, 1500–1830, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Patricia L. Denault (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 1–43.

10. Harald E. Braun and Lisa Vollendorf, “Introduction. The Atlantic Turn: Rethinking the Ibero-American Atlantic,” in Theorising the Ibero-American Atlantic, ed. Harald E. Braun and Lisa Vollendorf (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 7.

11. David M. Friedenreich, “Jews, Pagans, and Heretics in Early Medieval Canon Law,” in Jews in Early Christian Law: Byzantium and the Latin West, 6th–11th Centuries, ed. John Tolan, Nicholas de Lange, Laurence Foschia, and Capucine Nemo-Pekelman (Turnhout: Brepols, 2014), 76 (Council of Elvira, ca. 306); epitaph of Salomonula, Adra, Spain, third century, in Emil Hübner, Inscriptiones Hispaniæ Latinæ (Berlin: Reimer, 1869), 268.

12. Jonathan Israel, “The Jews of Spanish North Africa, 1600–1669,” Transactions & Miscellanies (Jewish Historical Society of England) 26 (1974–76): 86n106; Mohamed A. H. Ahmed, “A North African Judeo-Arabic Letter from the Prize Papers Collection,” Astarté: Estudios del Oriente Próximo y el Mediterráneo 2 (2019): 121–30, and “18th-Century Judeo-Arabic Documents from the Prize Papers Collection,” Journal of Jewish Languages 8 (2020): 1–23; Yigal S. Nizri, “Judeo-Moroccan Traditions and the Age of European Expansion in North Africa,” in The Sephardic Atlantic: Colonial Histories and Postcolonial Perspectives, ed. Sina Rauschenbach and Jonathan Schorsch (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 333–60.

13. See for one approach to Atlantic Jewish history, Wim Klooster, “Jews in the Early Modern Caribbean and the Atlantic World,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 7, The Early Modern Period, 1500–1815, ed. Jonathan Karp and Adam Sutcliffe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 972–96. The 1820s seem to make the most sense as the end point of Atlantic Jewish history, but sound arguments can be made for a later decade, depending on regional focus. Arthur Kiron argues for an Atlantic Jewish history that ends in 1890 because even after the expansion of U.S. Jewish communities toward the Pacific, the flow of goods, services, culture, institutions, and ideas continued to radiate from the east. Arthur Kiron, “Introduction: Constellations of Atlantic Jewish History, 1555–1890,” in Constellations of Atlantic Jewish History, 1555–1890: The Arnold and Deanne Kaplan Collection of Early American Judaica, ed. Arthur Kiron (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 20–21.

14. Aviva Ben-Ur, “Atlantic Jewish History: A Conceptual Reorientation,” in Kiron, Constellations of Atlantic Jewish History, 25–46; “Jewish Savannah in Atlantic Perspective: A Reconsideration of the First Intentional Jewish Community of North America,” in Rauschenbach and Schorsch, The Sephardic Atlantic, 183–213; Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society: Suriname in the Atlantic World, 1651–1825 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), 12; and “The Atlantic World,” in Oxford Handbook of American Jewish History, ed. Michael R. Cohen and Shari Rabin (forthcoming).

15. Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, eds., The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001). For an assessment of the volume as Atlantic history, see Sina Rauschenbach and Jonathan Schorsch, “Postcolonial Approaches to the Early Modern Sephardic Atlantic,” in Rauschenbach and Schorsch, The Sephardic Atlantic, 6. The “port Jew” concept as developed by Lois Dubin and David Sorkin attempts to transport the idea from the Mediterranean to the Americas and is therefore not Atlantic per se.

16. Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan, editors’ preface, in Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500–1800, ed. Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), xvii.

17. Rauschenbach and Schorsch, The Sephardic Atlantic.

18. For “Vast Early America,” see Karin Wulf, “Vast Early America: Three Simple Words for a Complex Reality,” Humanities 40, no. 1 (Winter 2019): 26–31, 46–47, online at https://www.neh.gov/article/vast-early-america; Eliga Gould and Rosemarie Zagarri, “Situating the United States in Vast Early America: Introduction,” William and Mary Quarterly 78, no. 2 (2021): 189–200. The field of Jewish studies adopts a regional understanding, preferring the terms “Americas,” “early America,” “Western Sephardi,” and “Caribbean.” See, for example, Katalin Franciska Rac and Lenny A. Ureña Valerio, eds., Jewish Experiences across the Americas: Local Histories through Global Lenses (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2022); Laura Arnold Leibman, The Art of the Jewish Family: A History of Women in Early New York in Five Objects (New York: Bard Graduate Center, 2020) and Messianism, Secrecy and Mysticism: A New Interpretation of Early American Jewish Life (Portland, OR: Vallentine Mitchell, 2012); Michael Hoberman, Laura Arnold Leibman, and Hilit Surowitz-Israel, eds., Jews in the Americas, 1776–1826 (New York: Routledge, 2018); Jane S. Gerber, ed., The Jews in the Caribbean (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2014), and chap. 6 of her Cities of Splendour in the Shaping of Sephardi History (London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2020); Sarah Phillips Casteel, Calypso Jews: Jewishness in the Caribbean Literary Imagination (New York: Columbia University Press, [2016]); Julie-Marthe Cohen, ed., Joden in de Cariben (Amsterdam: Joods Historisch Museum, 2015); and the various works of Yosef Kaplan, including his edited volume Religious Changes and Cultural Transformations in the Early Modern Western Sephardic Communities (Leiden: Brill, 2019). The recently launched website AmericanJewishExperience.org, hosted by the Grant Center for the American Jewish Experience at Tulane University, describes itself as the “online home of scholarship addressing Jewishness in the U.S. and across the Americas.” Laura Arnold Leibman’s most recent book foregrounds race as an organizing principle but is implicitly Atlantic: Once We Were Slaves: The Extraordinary Journey of a Multiracial Jewish Family (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021). An important local study sensitive to transnationalism, but minimally concerned with people of African descent, is Judah M. Cohen, Through the Sands of Time: A History of the Jewish Community of St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 2004).

19. Peter Mark and José da Silva Horta, The Forgotten Diaspora: Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Making of the Atlantic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Ben-Ur, Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society; Stanley Mirvis, The Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica: A Testamentary History of a Diaspora in Transition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2020).

20. Barry Stiefel, Jewish Sanctuary in the Atlantic World: A Social and Architectural History (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2014). See also some of the titles in note 18 above.

21. Kate Freedman, “A Tangled Web: Quakers and the Atlantic Slave System 1625–1770” (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2018); Katharine Gerbner, Christian Slavery: Conversion and Race in the Protestant Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018); Ida Altman and David Wheat, eds., The Spanish Caribbean and the Atlantic World in the Long Sixteenth Century (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2019); D. L. Noorlander, Heaven’s Wrath: The Protestant Reformation and the Dutch West India Company in the Atlantic World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2019); Robynne Rogers Healey, ed., Quakerism in the Atlantic World, 1690–1830 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2021).

22. Rauschenbach and Schorsch, “Postcolonial Approaches,” 6; Caspar Battegay, “The Jewish Atlantic: Diaspora and Pop Music,” in Connected Jews: Expressions of Community in Analogue and Digital Culture, ed. Simon J. Bonner and Caspar Battegay (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2018), 109–30; Cecilia Enjuto-Rangel, Sebastiaan Faber, Pedro Garcia-Caro, and Robert Patrick Newcomb, eds., Transatlantic Studies: Latin America, Iberia, and Africa (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2019).

23. The goal of these Nation of Islam publications has been “to name the enemy.” Jonathan Schorsch, Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 1.

24. Rauschenbach and Schorsch, “Postcolonial Approaches,” 7.

25. Eli Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 6–8; Winthrop D. Jordan, “Slavery and the Jews: A Review of The Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews: Volume One,” The Atlantic, September 1995, 109–14; David Brion Davis, “Constructing Race: A Reflection,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 54, no. 1 (1997): 11 (critiquing Jordan for his “negative but legitimating review” of The Secret Relationship); Jonathan Schorsch, “American Jewish Historians, Colonial Jews and Blacks, and the Limits of Wissenschaft: A Critical Review,” Jewish Social Studies, n.s., 6, no. 2 (2000): 121 (“the pseudo-academic work put out by the Historical Research Department of the Nation of Islam”), 121, 131 (“the Nation of Islam’s pseudo-scholarly work”); Nathaniel Deutsch, “The Proximate Other: The Nation of Islam and Judaism,” in Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism, ed. Yvonne Chireau and Nathaniel Deutsch (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 109 (“a spurious history”); Robert Fitzgerald Reid-Pharr, “Speaking through Anti-Semitism: The Nation of Islam and the Poetics of Black (Counter) Modernity,” Social Text 49 (Winter 1996): 141 (“limited as a piece of scholarship”); Harold Brackman, Ministry of Lies: The Truth Behind the Nation of Islam’s “The Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews” (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1994); Marc Caplan, Jew-Hatred as History: An Analysis of the Nation of Islam’s “The Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews” (New York: Anti-Defamation League, 1993).

26. “Viewpoints: AHA Council Issues Policy Resolution about Jews and the Slave Trade,” Perspectives on History, March 1, 1995, https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/march-1995/aha-council-issues-policy-resolution-about-jews-and-the-slave-trade; Davis, “Constructing Race,” 11 (quote).

27. Caplan’s book, Jew-Hatred as History, was indeed published by the ADL, but unfortunately engaged in historiographical analysis.

28. See, for example, Esther Webman, The Global Impact of “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion”: A Century-Old Myth (London: Routledge, 2011).

29. Judeo-Arabic letters produced by Algerian Jewish merchants with business in Amsterdam, which may reveal the extent to which they were looped into the Atlantic world, have yet to be mined historically. Transcription, linguistic study, and translation of these sources has recently commenced. See Ahmed, “A North African Judeo-Arabic Letter from the Prize Papers Collection” and “18th-Century Judeo-Arabic Documents from the Prize Papers Collection.” Innovative work relying on Hebrew, Arabic, and Judeo-Arabic (Nizri, “Judeo-Moroccan Traditions”) suggests that the orientation of early modern Moroccan Jews was Maghrebi, rather than Atlantic. The mining of rabbinical literature for its potential relevance has been carried out by Schorsch, Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World, 2, and Nathan Perl-Rosenthal, “Napoleon’s Sanhedrin and the Colonization of Atlantic World Jewry,” unpublished paper, “Atlantic Jewish Worlds, 1500–1900” conference, University of Pennsylvania, April 7–8, 2021.

30. The literature is vast. Leading this school of thought are Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi and Yosef Kaplan. For a recent historiographical assessment, see Anne Oravetz Albert, “Return by Any Other Name: Religious Change among Amsterdam’s New Jews,” in Bastards and Believers: Jewish Converts and Conversion from the Bible to the Present, ed. Theodor Dunkelgrün and Paweł Maciejko (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), 134–55; and Juan Ignacio Pulido Serrano, “Plural Identities: The Portuguese New Christians,” Jewish History 25, no. 2 (2011): 129–51.

31. Benzion Netanyahu, The Origins of the Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain (New York: Random House, 1995); Robert Rowland, “New Christian, Marrano, Jew,” in Bernardini and Fiering, Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 138 (“fábrica de judeus”); António José Saraiva, Inquisição e Cristãos-novos (Porto: Editorial Inova, 1969).

32. David L. Graizbord, Souls in Dispute: Converso Identities in Iberia and the Jewish Diaspora, 1580–1700 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004).

33. Rowland, “New Christian, Marrano, Jew,” 133, 135–36.

34. Bruno Feitler, “Four Chapters in the History of Crypto-Judaism in Brazil: The Case of the Northeastern New Christians (17th–21st Centuries),” Jewish History 25, no. 2 (2011): 209; Pulido Serrano, “Plural Identities,” 136–37.

35. Feitler, “Four Chapters,” 209.

36. Pulido Serrano, “Plural Identities.”

37. James Nelson Novoa, “A Family of the Nação from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean and Beyond (1497–1640),” in Kaplan, Religious Changes and Cultural Transformations, 38.

38. Norman Roth, Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002), 375.

39. Richard Bulliet, Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 114–27; Thomas F. Glick, From Muslim Fortress to Christian Castle: Social and Cultural Change in Medieval Spain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), 52, and Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages, 23, 33–35. The dynamics of the innovation-adoption curve Bulliet delineated, and hence his population estimates, remain persuasive. See Glick, From Muslim Fortress to Christian Castle, 60.

40. Robert I. Burns, “Muslims in the Thirteenth-Century Realms of Aragon: Interaction and Reaction,” in Muslims under Latin Rule, 1100–1300, ed. James M. Powell (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 94.

41. Matthew Carr, Blood and Faith: The Purging of Muslim Spain (London: Hurst & Co., 2009), ix (quote); Bernard Vincent, “The Geography of the Morisco Expulsion: A Quantitative Study,” in The Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain: A Mediterranean Diaspora, ed. Mercedes García-Arenal and Gerard Wiegers (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 19. Carr indicates (35), without attribution, that 100,000–150,000 Jews chose exile over conversion to Christianity in 1492. For a discussion of estimates, which range from 150,000 to double that, see Peggy K. Liss, Isabel the Queen: Life and Times (1992; repr. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 309, 450n10, 451n23.

42. James B. Tueller, “The Moriscos Who Stayed Behind or Returned Post-1609,” in García-Arenal and Wiegers, The Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain, 197; Christine H. Lee, The Anxiety of Sameness in Early Modern Spain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016), 165–77.

43. Kevin Ingram, “Diego Velázquez’ Secret History: The Family Background the Painter was at Pains to Hide in His Application for Entry into the Military Order of Santiago,” Boletín del Museo del Prado 17 (1999): 69–71.

44. Kevin Ingram, Converso Non-Conformism in Early Modern Spain: Bad Blood and Faith from Alonso de Cartagena to Diego Velázquez (Cham: Springer International, 2018), 183; Edgar Samuel, “The Jewish Ancestry of Velasquez,” Jewish Historical Studies 35 (1996–98): 27–32.

45. Samuel, “The Jewish Ancestry of Velasquez,” 32, 30 (“there is no reason to doubt that Velasquez and his father were of Jewish origin”); Kevin Ingram, “Secret Lives, Public Lies: The Conversos and Socio-Religious Non-Conformism in the Spanish Golden Age” (PhD diss., University of California, San Diego, 2006), 4n2 (“Diego Velázquez is, in my opinion, a converso”); Gilbert Stanley Marks, Encyclopedia of Jewish Food (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2010), 169. Julián Gállego, who is more concerned with Velázquez’s nonnoble lineage, is inconclusive about any possible Jewish ancestry (“Yo no digo que Diego Rodríguez de Silva fuera ‘marrano’, pero tampoco puede asegurarse que no lo fuera”). Julián Gállego, Velázquez en Sevilla (Sevilla: Diputación Provincial de Sevilla, 1974; 2nd ed., 1994), 21.

46. Ingram, “Diego Velázquez’ Secret History,” 73.

47. Ingram, “Diego Velázquez’ Secret History,” 75.

48. Samuel, “The Jewish Ancestry of Velasquez,” 28–29.

49. Ingram, Converso Non-Conformism, 180; Ingram, “Diego Velázquez’ Secret History,” 82; Samuel, “The Jewish Ancestry of Velasquez,” 30.

50. Ingram, “Secret Lives, Public Lies,” 4n2.

51. Jane S. Gerber, “Pride and Pedigree: The Development of the Myth of Sephardic Aristocratic Lineage,” in Reappraisals and New Studies of the Modern Jewish Experience: Essays in Honor of Robert M. Seltzer, ed. Brian Smollett and Christian Wiese (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 85–103. Iberian society was “a crucible of many peoples, including Tartessians, Turdetans, Celts, Basques, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Jews, Suevi, Alans, Vandals, and Visigoths, while the Islamic conquest brought with it elements of Arab, Greco-Byzantine, Jewish, Persian, Kurdish, Egyptian, and Berber cultures. . . . In 711, Spaniard did not meet Arab; rather, two complex conglomerate civilizations came into contact.” Dwight Reynolds, “The Music of Al-Andalus: Meeting Place of Three Cultures,” in A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations: From the Origins to the Present Day, ed. Abdelwahab Meddeb and Benjamin Stora (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), 973.

52. On this point see also Gállego, Velázquez en Sevilla, 18.

53. Gerber, “Pride and Pedigree.”

54. Homero Serís, “Nueva geneología de Santa Teresa,” Nueva revista de filología hispánica 10 (1956): 366.

55. Serís, “Nueva geneología,” 365.

56. James H. Sweet, Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441–1770 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Hannes Schroeder et al., “Origins and Genetic legacies of the Caribbean Taino,” Proceedings of the National Academic of Science 15, no. 10 (March 6, 2018): 2341–46.

57. María Elena Martínez, Genealogical Fictions: Limpieza de Sangre, Religion, and Gender in Colonial Mexico (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008), 269–70.

58. Martínez, Genealogical Fictions, 6, 266. Similarly, members of the Armenta merchant family in Seville were able to “prove” their status as hidalgos by having another Armenta family (of Córdoba)—which had been ennobled in the Middle Ages—testify that they were related. Rafael M. Girón Pascual, “Capital comercial, capital simbólico: El patrimonio de los cargadores de Indias judeoconversos en la Sevilla de los siglos XVI y XVII,” Mediterranea 16, no. 46 (2019): 340.

59. Tamar Herzog, Defining Nations: Immigrants and Citizens in Early Modern Spain and Spanish America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003).

60. The traditional paradigm also leaves its mark on scholarship about alleged Judaizers in Portuguese Asia. See, for example, Lucio de Sousa, “The Jewish Presence in China and Japan in the Early Modern Period: A Social Representation,” in Global History and New Polycentric Approaches: Europe, Asia and the Americas in a World Network System, ed. Manuel Perez Garcia and Lucio de Sousa (Gateway East: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 183–218, where the author treats “Jew” as synonymous with “crypto-Jew,” “New Christian,” and “Sephardic,” marginalizes or entirely ignores other accused groups, and takes accusations of Judaizing at face value. It is worthwhile to reflect that Portuguese New Christians comprised only 9 percent of the 3,800 individuals apprehended by the Goan Inquisition between 1561 and 1623. Moreover, after 1590, alleged Judaizers nearly disappear from the lists. Most of the accused were Indian converts to Catholicism and their descendants who allegedly engaged in crypto-Hinduism or, to a lesser extent, crypto-Islam. António José Saraiva, The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536–1765 (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 346–47.

61. Arny Kaplan, “Prologue: The Path from a Collector to a Collection,” in Kiron, Constellations of Atlantic Jewish History, xv (“an attempt to add to the understanding of the Jew in the New World both as Jew and as citizen”); Kiron, “Constellations of Atlantic Jewish History,” 2 (“to better understand the evolution of Jewish commercial, political social, and religious life in the transatlantic world”); Beth Wenger, “Preface,” in Kiron, Constellations of Atlantic Jewish History, xii (“scholars will be able to . . . uncover distinctive aspects of Jewish culture in the United States”); Sarna, American Judaism, xxvi (“In addition to being distinctive, the history of American Judaism is also far more complex and interesting than common wisdom would have us believe”).

62. Albert, “Return by Any Other Name,” 155.

63. Lila Corwin Berman, “Jewish History beyond the Jewish People,” AJS Review 42, no. 2 (November 2018): 274, 279. The problem of categorization at the outset has also been identified by scholars of New Christians: see Pulido Serrano, “Plural Identities,” 129.

1. For more on Fischel, see Jonathan Waxman, “Arnold Fischel: ‘Unsung Hero’ in American Israel,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly 60, no. 4 (1971): 325–43.

2. “The Death of Irving,” New York Times, December 7, 1859, 4.

3. The Historical Magazine, and Notes and Queries Concerning the Antiquities, History and Biography of America 4, no. 1 (January 1860): 11–12.

4. Arnold Fischel, “Chronological Notes of the History of the Jews in America,” The Historical Magazine 4, no. 2 (February 1860): 52–53.

5. Arthur Kiron, “Mythologizing 1654,” Jewish Quarterly Review 94, no. 4 (2004): 583–94; Beth S. Wenger, “Rites of Citizenship: Jewish Celebrations of the Nation,” in The Columbia History of Jews and Judaism in America, ed. Marc Lee Raphael (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 366–84; Aviva Ben-Ur and Julie-Marthe Cohen, “Unworthy of Their Ancestors: Representing Caribbean Jewry in 1954 and 2015,” in Caminos de leche y miel: Jubilee Volume in Honor of Michael Studemund-Halévy, vol. 1, History and Culture, ed. Harm den Boer, Anna Menny, and Carsten L. Wilke (Barcelona: Tirocinio, 2018), 52–84.

6. Robert Liberles, “Postemancipation Historiography and the Jewish Historical Societies of America and England,” in Reshaping the Past: Jewish History and the Historians, ed. Jonathan Frankel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 45–65; Hasia R. Diner, “The Study of American Jewish History: In the Academy, in the Community,” Polish American Studies 65, no. 1 (2008): 41–55; Howard B. Rock, “The Early Years of American Jewish History: Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society and the Minute Books of Congregation Shearith Israel,” American Jewish History 99, no. 2 (2015): 119–44.

7. Stephen Massil, “The Foundation of the Jewish Historical Society of England, 1893,” Jewish Historical Studies 33 (1992–94): 225–38; Mitchell B. Hart, “The Unbearable Lightness of Britain: Anglo-Jewish Historiography and the Anxiety of Success,” Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 6, no. 2 (2007): 145–65.

8. See Charles P. Daly, The Settlement of the Jews in North America, ed. with introduction by Max J. Kohler (New York: Philip Cowen, 1893), xiv, 31n32, 80n85; Max J. Kohler, “Beginnings of New York Jewish History,” Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society (hereafter PAJHS) 1 (1893): 41.

9. Organization of the American Jewish Historical Society—Meeting Minutes, June [6], 1892, 13–17, American Jewish Historical Society Records, I-1 (Box 109, Folder 30), Center for Jewish History, New York City; Cyrus Adler, “Address of Dr. Cyrus Adler, President of the American Jewish Historical Society,” PAJHS 17 (1909): 2. For more on Gross, see Jeffrey S. Gurock, “Introduction,” in “From Publications to American Jewish History: The Journal of the American Jewish Historical Society and the Writing of American Jewish History,” special issue, American Jewish History 81, no. 2 (1993/94): 159.

10. American Jewish Historical Society, Report of Organization: Abstract from the Minutes (Baltimore: American Jewish Historical Society, 1892), 14. See also Gurock, “Introduction,” 160.

11. Sebastian Conrad, What Is Global History? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 3.

12. Meyer Kayserling, “The Colonization of America by the Jews,” PAJHS 2 (1894): 73; Kayserling, Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the Jews in the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries (New York: Longmans, Green, 1894).

13. Oscar S. Straus, “Address of the President,” PAJHS 1 (1893): 1–4.

14. For instance, B. Felsenthal and Richard Gottheil, “Chronological Sketch of the History of the Jews in Surinam,” PAJHS 4 (1896): 1–8; Samuel Oppenheim, “An Early Jewish Colony in Western Guiana, 1658–1666, and Its Relation to the Jews in Surinam, Cayenne and Tobago,” PAJHS 16 (1907): 95–186; Abraham de Bediente, Ishak Gomez Henriquez, Abraham de Soza Mendez, and N. Darnell Davis, “Additional Notes on the History of the Jews of Barbados,” PAJHS 19 (1910): 173–76. The Jewish Quarterly Review offered another outlet for research and included Meyer Kayserling, “The Jews in Jamaica and Daniel Israel Lopez Laguna,” Jewish Quarterly Review 12, no. 4 (1900): 708–17.

15. P. A. Hilfman, “Some Further Notes on the History of the Jews in Surinam,” PAJHS 16 (1907): 7–22. For an unknown reason, Hilfman did not publish this translation.

16. Cyrus Adler, “Address of the President,” PAJHS 10 (1902): 3; Adler, “Trial of Jorge de Almeida by the Inquisition in Mexico,” PAJHS 4 (1896): 29–79. George Alexander Kohut’s sizeable article on the Inquisition in South America appeared in the same volume: George Alexander Kohut, “Jewish Martyrs of the Inquisition in South America,” PAJHS 4 (1896): 101–87.

17. Cyrus Adler, ed., and David Fergusson, trans., “Trial of Gabriel De Granada by the Inquisition in Mexico, 1642–1645,” PAJHS 7 (1899): 1–127.

18. Joseph Krauskopf, “The Jewish Pilgrim Fathers,” PAJHS 14 (1906): 121–30.

19. Max J. Kohler, “Jewish Activity in American Colonial Commerce,” PAJHS 10 (1902): 55, 56. See also Kohler, “Phases of Jewish Life in New York before 1800,” PAJHS 2 (1894): 77–100 and PAJHS 3 (1895): 73–86.

20. Oscar S. Straus, “Address of the President,” PAJHS 3 (1895): 4.

21. See Kayserling, “Colonization of America by the Jews.”

22. Cyrus Adler, quoted in Liberles, “Postemancipation Historiography,” 51.

23. See Adler’s 1911 presidential address to the nineteenth annual AJHS meeting, quoted in PAJHS 20 (1911): ix–xi; Liberles, “Postemancipation Historiography,” 52.

24. Peter Wiernik, The History of the Jews in America: From the Period of the Discovery of the New World to the Present Time (New York: Jewish Press Publishing Company, 1912).

25. Hasia R. Diner, The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 6, 74–75, 88.

26. Diner, “Study of American Jewish History,” 43–45.

27. Lewis Abraham, “Correspondence between Washington and Jewish Citizens,” PAJHS 3 (1895): 87–96; Wiernik, History of the Jews in America, 99–103.

28. Lee J. Levinger, A History of the Jews in the United States (Cincinnati: Department of Synagogue and School Extension of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 1931), 123–25; Morris A. Gutstein, The Story of the Jews of Newport: Two and a Half Centuries of Judaism, 1658–1908 (New York: Bloch Publishing, 1936), 212–13.

29. Morris A. Gutstein, To Bigotry No Sanction: A Jewish Shrine in America, 1658–1958 (New York: Bloch Publishing, 1958), 139–45.

30. Lee M. Friedman, Jewish Pioneers and Patriots (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1942), 21.

31. To Bigotry No Sanction: A Documented Analysis of Anti-Semitic Propaganda (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1944).

32. On the recognition of Touro Synagogue as a National Historic Site, see Gutstein, To Bigotry No Sanction, 145–52. On the Freedom Train, see A. S. W. Rosenbach, “Address of the President,” PAJHS 38, no. 1 (1948): 1–6; Stuart J. Little, “The Freedom Train: Citizenship and Postwar Political Culture 1946–1949,” American Studies 34, no. 1 (1993): 35–67; Wenger, “Rites of Citizenship,” 377.

33. Hyman B. Grinstein, review of S. Broches, Jews in New England, William and Mary Quarterly 4, no. 4 (1947): 534–35.

34. Diner, “Study of American Jewish History,” 43–47.

35. Lee M. Friedman, “Know Thyself: A Program for American Jewish History,” PAJHS 39, no. 4 (1950): 343, 340.

36. Lee M. Friedman, “E Pluribus Unum: Unity in Diversity,” PAJHS 40, no. 3 (1951): 208. See also Friedman, “American History: The History of Immigrants,” PAJHS 46, no. 3 (1957): 194–95.

37. Abram Vossen Goodman, American Overture: Jewish Rights in Colonial Times (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1947), 11

38. Salo W. Baron, “American Jewish History: Problems and Methods,” PAJHS 39, no. 3 (1950): 209.

39. Oscar Handlin, Adventure in Freedom: Three Hundred Years of Jewish Life in America (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954), 21. See also Oscar Handlin and Mary F. Handlin, “The Acquisition of Political and Social Rights by the Jews in the United States,” American Jewish Year Book 56 (1955): 43–98.

40. Henry L. Feingold, Zion in America: The Jewish Experience from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1974), 20.

41. Jacob Rader Marcus, “The Periodization of American Jewish History,” PAJHS 47, no. 3 (1958): 125–33.

42. Jacob Rader Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1492–1776, 3 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970); Marcus, United States Jewry, 1776–1985, 4 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989–93); Marcus, The American Jew, 1585–1900: A History (Brooklyn: Carlson Publishing, 1995). See Jacob Rader Marcus, ed., The Jew in the American World: A Source Book (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). Interestingly, Marcus broke with his standard formulation of American Jewish history in his volume The American Jewish Woman, 1654–1980 (New York: KTAV Publishing House, 1981), which separated American Jewish history into a colonial period (1654–1775), early republic and age of expansion (1775–1865), and the new industrial society (1865–1980).

43. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1:xxv.

44. Marcus, The American Jew, 17–40.

45. Jacob R. Marcus and Stanley F. Chyet, eds., Simon Cohen, trans., Historical Essay on the Colony of Surinam, 1788 (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1974).

46. Jacob Rader Marcus, “The West India and South American Expedition of the American Jewish Archives,” American Jewish Archives 5, no. 1 (1953): 6–7; Ben-Ur and Cohen, “Unworthy of Their Ancestors,” 60–65.

47. Isaac S. Emmanuel and Suzanne A. Emmanuel, History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1970), 1:7.

48. Emmanuel and Emmanuel, History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, 1:151–80, 509.

49. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1:xxv.

50. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1:209–11.

51. Diner, “Study of American Jewish History,” 47–48.

52. Edmund S. Morgan, “Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox,” Journal of American History 59, no. 1 (1972): 6.

53. Moses Rischin, review of Jacob Rader Marcus, The Colonial American Jew: 1492–1776, William and Mary Quarterly 30, no. 2 (1973): 353–55. See also Rischin, “Review: Jacob Rader Marcus: Historian-Archivist of Jewish Middle America,” American Jewish History 85, no. 2 (1997): 175–81.

54. Moses Rischin, The Promised City: New York’s Jews, 1870–1914 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962).

55. Eli Faber, A Time for Planting: The First Migration, 1654–1820 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 4.

56. On Atlantic history’s emergence in this period, see David Armitage, “The Atlantic Ocean,” in Oceanic Histories, ed. David Armitage, Alison Bashford, and Sujit Sivasundaram (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 85–110.

57. Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, eds., The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001); Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500–1800 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009).

58. Jane S. Gerber, ed., The Jews in the Caribbean (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2014).

59. Sina Rauschenbach and Jonathan Schorsch, eds., The Sephardic Atlantic: Colonial Histories and Postcolonial Perspectives (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).

60. Jonathan I. Israel, Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World Maritime Empires (1540–1740) (Leiden: Brill, 2002).

61. Eli Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Seymour Drescher, “Jews and New Christians in the Atlantic Slave Trade,” in Bernardini and Fiering, Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 439–70; Jonathan Schorsch, Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Laura Arnold Leibman, Once We Were Slaves: The Extraordinary Journey of a Multiracial Jewish Family (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021).

62. On the Port Jew concept, see Lois C. Dubin, “Port Jews Revisited: Commerce and Culture in the Age of European Expansion,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 7, The Early Modern World, 1500–1815, ed. Jonathan Karp and Adam Sutcliffe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 556.

63. David Cesarani, ed., Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 (London: Frank Cass, 2002); David Cesarani and Gemma Romain, eds., Jews and Port Cities, 1590–1990: Commerce, Community and Cosmopolitanism (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006); David Cesarani, Tony Kushner, and Milton Shain, eds., Place and Displacement in Jewish History and Memory: Zakov v’Makor (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2009).

64. “Port Jews of the Atlantic,” special issue, Jewish History 20, no. 2 (2006).

65. For example, Matthias B. Lehmann, “A Livornese ‘Port Jew’ and the Sephardim of the Ottoman Empire,” Jewish Social Studies, n.s., 11, no. 2 (2005): 51–76; C. S. Monaco, “Port Jews or a People of the Diaspora? A Critique of the Port Jew Concept,” Jewish Social Studies, n.s., 15, no. 2 (2009): 137–66; Laura Leibman, “From Holy Land to New England Canaan: Rabbi Haim Carigal and Sephardic Itinerant Preaching in the Eighteenth Century,” Early American Literature 44, no. 1 (2009): 71–93.

66. Armitage, “The Atlantic Ocean,” 87, 88.

67. Armitage, “The Atlantic Ocean,” 87.

68. Adam Sutcliffe, “Jewish History in an Age of Atlanticism,” in Kagan and Morgan, Atlantic Diasporas, 20, 21, 22.

69. Holly Snyder, “Navigating the Jewish Atlantic: The State of the Field and Opportunities for New Research,” in The Atlantic World, ed. D’Maris Coffman, Adrian Leonard, and William O’Reilly (New York: Routledge, 2014), 413.

70. Armitage, “The Atlantic Ocean,” 88, which quotes Bernard Bailyn, “Hot Dreams of Liberty,” New York Review of Books 62, no. 13 (August 13, 2015): 50.

71. In asserting the World War II and Cold War origins of Atlantic history, Sutcliffe followed Bernard Bailyn, Atlantic History: Concept and Contours (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).

72. Conrad, What Is Global History?

73. Eli Faber, “The Borders of Early American Jewish History,” in Gerber, Jews in the Caribbean, 281, 282.

74. Faber, “Borders of Early American Jewish History,” 282.

75. Faber, “Borders of Early American Jewish History,” 287.

76. Snyder, “Navigating the Jewish Atlantic,” 413, 421.

77. Sanjay Subrahmanyam, “Connected Histories: Notes towards a Reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia,” Modern Asian Studies 31, no. 3 (1997): 735–62; Jürgen Kocka, “Comparison and Beyond,” History and Theory 42, no. 1 (2003): 39–44; Michael Werner and Bénédicte Zimmermann, “Beyond Comparison: Histoire Croisée and the Challenge of Reflexivity,” History and Theory 45, no. 1 (2006): 30–50; Eliga H. Gould, “Entangled Histories, Entangled Worlds: The English-Speaking Atlantic as a Spanish Periphery,” American Historical Review 112, no. 3 (2007): 764–86. For important differences between connected history, entangled history, and histoire croisée, see Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Empires between Islam and Christianity, 1500–1800 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2019), 19–23.

78. Aviva Ben-Ur, Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society: Suriname in the Atlantic World, 1651–1825 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), 12.

79. Bénédicte Zimmermann, “Histoire Croisée: A Relational Process-Based Approach,” Footprint 14, no. 1 (2020): 7–14.

1. Jonathan Israel, Empires and Entrepôts: The Dutch, the Spanish Monarchy, and the Jews, 1585–1713 (London: Hambledon Press, 1990) and Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World Maritime Empires (1540–1740) (Leiden: Brill, 2002).

2. Yosef Haim Yerushalmi, From Spanish Court to Italian Ghetto: Isaac Cardoso (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971); Yosef Kaplan, From Christianity to Judaism: The Story of Isaac Orobio de Castro, trans. Raphael Loewe (Oxford: Littman Library, 1989); Daniel Swetschinski, “The Portuguese Jewish Merchants of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam: A Social Profile” (PhD diss., Brandeis University, 1980); Miriam Bodian, Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997).

3. David Graizbord argues that the Portuguese Jewish community contained such a variety of individuals that the categories of neither “Portuguese” nor “Jewish” are sufficient to describe them fully. However, he concludes that only a cultural and anthropological study of this community can answer questions of religious and ethnic identity, minimizing the centrality of commerce to the community’s leadership: Graizbord, “Between Ethnicity, Commerce, Religion, and Race: The Elusive Definition of an Early Modern Jewish Atlantic,” in Theorising the Ibero-American Atlantic, ed. Harald E. Braun and Lisa Vollendorf (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 125–28. For the diversity and precarious position of impoverished members of the community, see Tirtsah Levie Bernfeld, Poverty and Welfare among the Portuguese Jews in Early Modern Amsterdam (Oxford: Littman Library, 2012), 61–76.

4. This position complements studies on Portuguese Jewish concepts of race rooted in their participation in European colonial projects; see Jonathan Schorsch, Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Aviva Ben-Ur, Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society: Suriname in the Atlantic World, 1651–1825 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020).

5. For Moriscos in Spanish America, see Karoline P. Cook, Forbidden Passages: Muslims and Moriscos in Colonial Spanish America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).

6. Recent scholarship has differentiated between “tolerance,” as an ideological framework, and “toleration,” as pragmatic policies or actions that grew in response to specific situations. The difference is important in considering how local actors made pragmatic decisions that did not always align with legal or ideological policies on the state or church level. Benjamin J. Kaplan, Divided by Faith: Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007); Jesse Spohnholz, The Tactics of Toleration: A Refugee Community in the Age of Religious Wars (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2011).

7. Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997).

8. Stuart B. Schwartz, All Can Be Saved: Religious Tolerance and Salvation in the Iberian Atlantic World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008).

9. Jack P. Greene, “Negotiated Authorities: The Problem of Governance in the Extended Politics of the Early Modern Atlantic World,” in Jack P. Greene, Negotiated Authorities: Essays in Colonial Political and Constitutional History (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1994), 1–24.

10. J. H. Elliott, “The Spanish Monarchy and the Kingdom of Portugal, 1580–1640,” in Conquest and Coalescence: The Shaping of the State in Early Modern Europe, ed. Mark Greengrass (New York: E. Arnold, 1991), 50, 54.

11. Pedro Cardim, Tamar Herzog, José Javier Ruiz Ibáñez, and Gaetano Sabatini, eds., Polycentric Monarchies: How Did Early Modern Spain and Portugal Achieve and Maintain a Global Hegemony? (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2012).

12. James C. Boyajian, Portuguese Bankers at the Court of Spain, 1626–1650 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1983), 18–41, and appendices A-1 to A-18.

13. His correspondence can be found in Biblioteca Nacional de España, MSS/899–900, Correspondencia de D. Manuel de Belmonte com D. Juan José de Austria y D. Mateo Patiño sobre acontecimientos politicos y militares europeos observados desde Amsterdam [Manuscrito], años 1666–1667, 494 folios, años 1668–1679, 719 folios.

14. Swetschinski, “Portuguese Jewish Merchants,” 243–72. I use the term “slave asiento” instead of asiento de negros or its direct English translation in order to convey to English readers that this royal contract pertained to the transatlantic slave trade.

15. Linda Rupert, Creolization and Contraband: Curaçao in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012), 42, 74.

16. Wim Klooster, Illicit Riches: Dutch Trade in the Caribbean, 1648–1795 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1998).

17. Johannes M. Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 23–24, 111–13.

18. Rupert, Creolization and Contraband, 74.

19. Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 16.

20. Klooster surveys the avenues that Jews used for smuggling in the Caribbean in Wim Klooster, “Contraband Trade by Curaçao’s Jews with Countries of Idolatry, 1660–1800,” Studia Rosenthaliana 31, nos. 1/2 (1997): 58–73.

21. His original reports can be found in Archivo General de Simancas (henceforth AGS), Estado 8394, fol. 62; and AGS, E, EEH, legajo 838; copies exist in Archivo General de Indias (henceforth AGI), Indiferente General 1668, Decretos, consultas y otros documentos relativo a fraudes cometidos en Indias por ingleses y holandeses, al comercio de negros y otras mercancías, fols. 372r–829v.

22. Zacharias Moutoukias, “Power, Corruption, and Commerce: The Making of the Local Administrative Structure in Seventeenth-Century Buenos Aires,” Hispanic American Historical Review 68, no. 4 (1988): 787–88.

23. Moutoukias, “Power, Corruption, and Commerce,” 774–75.

24. Moutoukias, “Power, Corruption, and Commerce,” 780–81, 787–88.

25. Moutoukias, “Power, Corruption, and Commerce,” 780–82.

26. For the extensive business operations maintained between Portuguese Jews in Amsterdam and Portuguese New Christians in Portugal and Brazil in the period 1598–1627, see Daniel Strum, “Institutional Choice in the Governance of the Early Atlantic Sugar Trade: Diasporas, Markets, and Courts,” Economic History Review 72, no. 4 (2019): 1202–28. For agents that Portuguese Jews retained in Madrid and Seville, and for the correspondents that New Christian bankers in Madrid kept in northern Europe after 1630, see Israel, Empires and Entrepôts, 396.

27. Israel, Empires and Entrepôts, 418–19.

28. For these correspondents, see the 1655 list gathered by Spanish intelligence efforts at the Spanish embassy in The Hague to trace Portuguese Jewish business networks between Amsterdam and Spain, AGS, Estado 8396 (Libros de la Haya), XXXVIII, fol. 143, reprinted by Israel in Empires and Entrepôts, appendix 1, 414.

29. A model for studying the presence of Protestants in Iberian ports can be found in Cacey Farnsworth, “Atlantic Lisbon: From Restoration to Baroque Splendor, 1668–1750” (PhD diss., University of Florida, 2019), 86–139.

30. Interestingly, several of the advisers who helped the Count-Duke of Olivares set up the almirantazgo were Germans and Dutch merchants and two Portuguese New Christians, one of whom had previously lived as a Jew in Amsterdam before settling in Madrid, Israel, Empires and Entrepôts, 211, 213–45.

31. María Cristina Navarrete Peláez, “De las ‘malas entradas’ y las estrategias del ‘buen pasaje’: El contrabando de esclavos en el Caribe neogranadino, 1550–1690,” Historia Crítica 34 (2007): 160–83.

32. AGI, Contaduría 239, Rs. Cedulas de Indultos y Perdones concedidos, a las personas que sin permiso han comerciado en las Indias, y de otros delitos cometidos, y de varias causas formadas. Desde 1601 a 1728.

33. AGI, Contaduría, Real Cedula de 12 Diciembre de 1650.

34. AGI, Contaduría, Reales. Cedulas desde 1601 a 1728.

35. Moutoukias, “Power, Corruption, and Commerce,” 782.

36. AGI, Contadina 239, Real Cedula de 10 de Diciembre 1659.

37. Wim Klooster, “Inter-Imperial Smuggling in the Americas, 1600–1800,” in Soundings in Atlantic History: Latent Structures and Intellectual Currents, 1500–1830, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Patricia L. Denault (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 141–44.

38. Before being appointed governor, he had a long career serving the Crown, first as a soldier then as a field marshal, and ultimately as governor of Gibraltar from 1659 until 1662: AGI, Indiferente General 124, N.8, Méritos: Francisco Dávila Orejón Gaston, fols. 1r–2v. He was a vecino (permanent resident) of Sanlúcar: AGI, Contratacion 5433, R.21, N.3 Francisco Davila Orejon Gaston, fols. 1r–4v; AGI, Indiferente General 1668, fols. 143r–744v.

39. For this venture, see the intelligence reports compiled by Ambassador Gamarra at The Hague, AGI, Indiferente General 1668, fols. 700r–701v, 726r–727r, 743v–744r, 759r–760v.

40. For his correspondents in Spain, see Israel, Empires and Entrepôts, appendix 1, 414. His alias appears in notarial documents detailing his numerous business deals, such as the venture to ship goods from Lisbon he undertook with Abraam and Ishac Pereyra in 1654, Stadsarchief Amsterdam (henceforth SAA), NA 2197, fol. 439 (notary A. Lock). He should not be confused with Albert Dirksen den Ouden, an alias used by another Portuguese Jew, Manuel Toralta: Bloom, Jews of Amsterdam, 90n64; Israel, Empires and Entrepôts, 413, 413n264.

41. For trade with the Pereyras to Lisbon, SAA, NA 2197, fols. 439–40, act of October 20, 1654 (notary Adriaen Lock); SAA, NA 2269A, fol. 656, act of October 20, 1654 (notary Adriaen Lock). Lopes Suasso was listed among Álvares Nogueira’s creditors in 1659, SAA, NA 2207, fols. 923–924, act of December 8, 1659 (notary Adriaen Lock). For partnerships with Nunes da Costa, SAA, NA 1538, fol. 250 (notary J. V. Oli).

42. He exported tobacco from Martinique. See his venture with Aaron Gabay and David Torres in the summer of 1654: SAA, NA 2201, fol. 153, act of September 1656; and his venture with Alexander Mogeres in the winter of 1657: SAA, NA 2202, fol. 152, act of February 5, 1657; SAA, NA 2272, fol. 67r–67v, act of February 5, 1657 (all notarized by Adriaen Lock).

43. Diogo Carlos apparently conducted payment exchanges for the two by remitting payments between Hamburg and Amsterdam, SAA, NA 2207, fol. 924 (notary Adriaen Lock); SAA, NA 2201, fol. 478, act of November 1656 (notary Adriaen Lock); SAA, NA 2271, fol. 783r–v, act of November 8, 1656 (notary Adriaen Lock). Rodrigues Isidro also used the alias Jacob Baruch in the synagogue and was a business partner of Jeronimo Nunes da Costa in the shipment of North Atlantic cod to Lisbon. In the 1660s, he and Jacob returned to Spain where they lived as Catholics, first in Madrid and then in Cádiz. Manuel died in 1666, but his son continued to maintain ties with his Jewish family: Israel, “An Amsterdam Jewish Merchant,” 26–27; Weinstein, “Senior Stones,” 129.

44. For his alias, see SAA, NA 2890, fol. 985, act of April 25, 1661 (notary Pieter Padthuijzen); SAA, NA 2213B, fol. 964, act of November 1662 (notary Adriaen Lock); Bloom, Jews of Amsterdam, 90n65. Mendes de Brito traded regularly with Bayonne where he first lived after leaving Portugal in the 1650s before relocating to Amsterdam. There he also traded across the nearby Spanish border with Pamplona in Navarre and with Bilbao and San Sebastián in the Basque Country. He appears to have been a relative of the Madrid asentista Francisco Dias Mendes de Brito and maintained contact with his family in Spain, who acted as his correspondents in Andalusia. For his ties to Bayonne and Pamplona, see SAA, NA 2270, fols. 506r–509r, act of September 8, 1655; SAA, NA 2199, fols. 353, 368–71, act of September 1655 (all notarized by Adriaen Lock). For his correspondents in Bilbao and San Sebastián, and relationship to Francisco Dias, see Israel, Empires and Entrepôts, 414, 414n267; SAA, NA 2197, fol. 113, act of July 1654 (notary Adriaen Lock). For his correspondent in Málaga, Fernando Dias de Brito, see SAA, NA 2201, fols. 71–72, act of August 30, 1665 (notary Adriaen Lock).

45. AGI, Indiferente General 1668, fol. 787v.

46. AGI, Indiferente General 1668, fols. 700r–701v, 726r–727r, 743v–744r, 759r–760v.

47. AGI, Indiferente General 1668, fol. 787r.

48. AGI, Indiferente General 1668, fol. 787r–v.

49. This cargo was paid for by the company of Guillaume Belin de la Garde, the French partner resident in Amsterdam.

50. For Álvares Nogueira’s debtors, see SAA, NA 2207, fols. 923–24 (notary Adriaen Lock). For the Rodrigo da Sousa brothers and Lopes de Azevedo, see Israel, “An Amsterdam Jewish Merchant,” 24, 35.

51. C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825 (London: Knopf, 1969), 221–24.

52. Álvares Nogueira and Dias de Brito were part of a venture to trade with Seville and Cádiz undertaken in 1657 executed by a joint group of over a dozen Dutch and Portuguese merchants in Amsterdam, SAA, NA 2203, fols. 350–52, act of September 1657 (notary Adriaen Lock).

53. AGI, Indiferente General 1668, fol. 787v.

54. This clause was confirmed in an addendum that the Spanish Crown ratified in 1650. For a contemporaneous printed text of the Dutch-Spanish treaty, see Lieuwe van Aitzema, Saken van Staet en Oorlog in ende omtrent de Vereenigte Nederlanden, vol. 3 (Amsterdam: Veely, Tongerloo, ende Doll, 1669), accessed through the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands digitized collection.

55. Francesca Trivellato, The Familiarity of Strangers: The Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009).

56. Jessica Roitman, The Same but Different? Inter-cultural Trade and the Sephardim, 1595–1640 (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 93–120.

57. Strum, “Institutional Choice.”

58. See note 2.

59. See the community’s register book of elected officials from 1639–1795: SAA, 334, no. 155, fols. 10, 13, 25.

60. Swetschinski, “Portuguese Jewish Merchants,” 263.

61. SAA, 334, no. 174, fols. 180–88, 201–12, 342–885.

62. SAA, 334, no. 158, fol. 17.

63. SAA, 334, no. 20, fol. 23, 26 Iyar 5441.

64. Bodian, Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation, 80.

65. SAA, 334, no. 20, fol. 23.

1. Daniel M. Swetschinski, “Conflict and Opportunity in Europe’s Other Sea: The Adventure of Caribbean Jewish Settlement,” American Jewish History 72, no. 2 (1982): 223. Miriam Bodian, Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997) refers to Spanish and Portuguese Jews in early seventeenth-century Amsterdam, recognizing that they were part of the Portuguese Nation, a term that denotes the trading network established by Portuguese converso merchants in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

2. Yda Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants and the Atlantic Sugar Trade in the Seventeenth Century (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019). Throughout this chapter I will refer to chapters and subsections in the book where the various topics are discussed.

3. In this study I use the term “converso” to refer to Portuguese New Christians without referring to Jewish identity or aspiration to be considered Jewish. The term “crypto-Jew” refers to New Christians who did adhere to Jewish traditions in secret and identified themselves as Jews. See David Gaizbord, “Religion and Ethnicity among ‘Men of the Nation’: Towards a Realistic Interpretation,” Jewish Social Studies, n.s., 15, no. 1 (2008): 32–65.

4. David Sorkin, “The Port Jew: Notes towards a Social Type,” Journal of Jewish Studies 50, no. 1 (1999): 87–97; and Lois C. Dubin, “‘Wings on their feet . . . and wings on their head’: Reflections on the Study of Port Jews,” Jewish Culture and History 7 (2004): 16–30. See also David Cesarani and Gemma Romain, eds., Jews and Port Cities, 1590–1990: Commerce, Community, and Cosmopolitanism (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006).

5. Wim Klooster, “Communities of Port Jews and Their Contacts in the Dutch Atlantic World,” Jewish History 20, no. 2 (2006): 129–45; and Jonathan I. Israel, “The Economic Contribution of Dutch Sephardic Jewry to Holland’s Golden Age,” in Empires and Entrepôts: The Dutch, the Spanish Monarchy, and the Jews, 1585–1713 (London: Hambledon Press, 1990), 419–20.

6. Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

7. Daniel M. Swetschinski, Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam (London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2000); Jessica Vance Roitman, The Same but Different? Inter-cultural Trade and the Sephardim, 1595–1640 (Leiden: Brill, 2011).

8. James C. Boyajian, “New Christians and Jews in the Sugar Trade, 1550–1750: Two Centuries of Development of the Atlantic Economy,” in The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, ed. Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001), 471–84. See Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 31–76.

9. Roitman, The Same but Different?; and Francesca Trivellato, The Familiarity of Strangers: The Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009). See also Jonathan I. Israel, Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World of Maritime Empires (1540–1740) (Leiden: Brill, 2002), and Swetschinski, “Conflict and Opportunity,” 223.

10. Wim Klooster, “Networks of Colonial Entrepreneurs: The Founders of the Jewish Settlements in Dutch America, 1650s and 1660s,” in Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500–1800, ed. Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 33–49.

11. Jane S. Gerber, “Introduction,” in The Jews in the Caribbean, ed. Jane S. Gerber (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2014), 1–14.

12. See, for instance, Karl Watson, “Shifting Identities: Religion, Race, and Creolization among the Sephardi Jews of Barbados, 1654–1900,” in Gerber, Jews of the Caribbean, 195–222; and Adam Sutcliffe, “Jewish History in an Age of Atlanticism,” in Kagan and Morgan, Atlantic Diasporas, 18–30.

13. See for instance, Jonathan Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585–1740 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989) and Israel, “Economic Contribution.”

14. Officially the collection is called Archives of Notary Publics of Amsterdam: Access number 5075. For a description, see Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, appendix 1, 263–65.

15. There is a separate collection of records related to the Portuguese Jews in Amsterdam: “Notarial Records Relating to the Portuguese Jews in Amsterdam up to 1639,” published in Studia Rosenthaliana intermittently between 1967 and 2001.

16. The most noteworthy Dutch colonial development concerned free port settlements, the best known of which is Curaçao. Wim Klooster, “Curaçao and the Caribbean Transit Trade,” in Riches from Atlantic Commerce: Dutch Trans-Atlantic Trade and Shipping, 1585–1817, ed. Johannes Postma and Victor Enthoven (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 203–18. See also Jonathan Israel, “Curaçao, Amsterdam, and the rise of the Sephardic Trade System in the Caribbean, 1630–1700,” in Gerber, Jews in the Caribbean, 29–43.

17. Wim Klooster, “An Overview of Dutch Trade with the Americas, 1600–1800,” in Postma and Enthoven, Riches from Atlantic Commerce, 370–72.

18. Israel, “Economic Contribution”; Swetschinski, Reluctant Cosmopolitans; and Roitman, The Same but Different?

19. I use the term “Sephardic Moment” as discussed in my book Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 105–18.

20. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 233–62.

21. J. J. Reesse, De suikerhandel van Amsterdam van het begin der 17de eeuw tot 1813: Een bijdrage tot de handelsgeschiedenis des vaderlands, hoofdzakelijk uit de archieven (Haarlem: Kleynenberg, 1908), 30–32, 107–10; György Nováky, “On Trade, Production and Relations of Production: The Sugar Refineries of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam,” Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis 23, no. 4 (1997): 459–89.

22. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 256–57.

23. Roitman, The Same but Different?, 247–51.

24. Daniel Strum, The Sugar Trade: Brazil, Portugal, and the Netherlands, 1595–1630 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013); Bruno Feitler, “Jews and New Christians in Dutch Brazil, 1630–1654,” in Kagan and Morgan, Atlantic Diasporas, 123–52.

25. Arnold Wiznitzer, The Records of the Earliest Jewish Community in the New World (New York: American Jewish Historical Society, 1954). See also Arnold Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960).

26. Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil, 5–10.

27. Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil, 12–32.

28. Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea, 157–58.

29. Swetschinski, Reluctant Cosmopolitans; Roitman, The Same but Different?; Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, chap. 2.

30. Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil, 36–42; Bodian, Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation.

31. Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil, 40.

32. Klooster, “Overview of Dutch Trade with the Americas,” 368–70; Christopher Ebert, “Dutch Trade with Brazil,” in Postma and Enthoven, Riches from Atlantic Commerce, 49–75.

33. Wim Klooster, Illicit Riches: Dutch Trade in the Caribbean, 1648–1795 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1998), 35. Christopher Ebert, Between Empires: Brazilian Sugar in the Early Atlantic Economy, 1550–1630 (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 12–16.

34. Jonathan Israel, “Jews and Crypto-Jews in the Atlantic World Systems, 1500–1800,” in Kagan and Morgan, Atlantic Diasporas, 3–17.

35. Odette Vlessing, “The Economic Influence of the Portuguese Jews on the Dutch Golden Age,” in Il ruolo economico delle minoranze in Europa, secc. XIII–XVIII: Atti della “trentunesima Settimana di studi,” 19–23 aprile 1999, ed. Simonetta Cavaciocchi ([Florence:] Le Monnier, 2000), 303–24; and Israel, “Economic Contribution.”

36. Henk den Heijer, “The Dutch West India Company, 1621–1791,” in Postma and Enthoven, Riches from Atlantic Commerce, 77–112.

37. Ernst Pijning, “New Christians as Sugar Cultivators and Traders,” in Bernardini and Fiering, Jews and the Expansion of Europe, 491–92.

38. Herbert I. Bloom, The Economic Activities of the Jews of Amsterdam (Williamsport, PA: Bayard Press, 1937), 125–27. See also Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil, 48. Likewise, the number of Jewish depositors with the Amsterdam Exchange Bank increased. See Israel, “Economic Contribution,” 422, table 14.

39. Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil, 73–81.

40. Klooster, “Networks of Colonial Entrepreneurs,” 35–36. Establishing exact figures on resident populations of Dutch Brazil has proven difficult. See Miriam Bodian, “The Formation of the Portuguese Jewish Diaspora,” in Gerber, Jews in the Caribbean, 25n29.

41. Charles R. Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957), 148–49.

42. See Stuart B. Schwartz, “A Commonwealth within Itself: The Early Brazilian Sugar Industry, 1550–1670,” in Tropical Babylons: Sugar and the Making of the Atlantic World, 1450–1680, ed. Stuart B. Schwartz (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 169, fig. 6.1.

43. Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil, 291–93.

44. Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil, 81.

45. Schwartz, “A Commonwealth within Itself,” 169.

46. See Schwartz, “A Commonwealth within Itself,” 169, fig. 6.1.

47. Klooster, “Networks of Colonial Entrepreneurs.”

48. Israel, “Economic Contribution,” 417–47.

49. By connecting family names from Wiznitzer’s membership lists of two Jewish congregations in Brazil from 1648–53 and burial records in Eustace M. Shilstone, Jewish Monumental Inscriptions in the Jewish Synagogue at Bridgetown, Barbados with Historical Notes from 1630 (New York: Macmillan, 1988), I was able to trace several Sephardic family names in Barbados with roots in Brazil. The records from Wiznitzer’s “Personalia,” in Jews in Colonial Brazil, 169–77, and from Shilstone show that most of the Brazil Sephardic Jews considered their home base Amsterdam, but of the twenty-two detailed biographical entries, about half can be identified with some certainty as residents of Barbados in the 1660s and 1670s.

50. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 105–18. Richard Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972); Richard Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974).

51. Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes (London, 1657).

52. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, chap. 4. See also Russell R. Menard, Sweet Negotiations: Sugar, Slavery, and Plantation Agriculture in Early Barbados (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006), 50–51, and John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, “The Sugar Industry in the Seventeenth Century: A New Perspective on the Barbadian ‘Sugar Revolution,’” in Schwartz, Tropical Babylons, 289–330, for the dispute about the “Myth of the Dutch.”

53. Shilstone, Jewish Monumental Inscriptions. The request was made by “several Jews and Hebrews, inhabiting in and about this Island” to the Council of Barbados, November 8, 1654, to admit Jews from Brazil. The meeting of council in January 1655, as recorded in the Minutes of Council, states “that during their stay, they shall enjoy the privileges of Laws and Statutes of the Commonwealth of England and of this Island relating to foreigners and strangers.”

54. Matthew Edel, “The Brazilian Sugar Cycle of the Seventeenth Century and the Rise of the West Indian Competition,” Caribbean Studies 9, no. 1 (1969): 24–44. Robert C. Batie, “Why Sugar? Economic Cycles and the Changing of Staples on the English and French Antilles, 1624–1654,” Journal of Caribbean History 8, no. 1 (1976): 3–41. William A. Green, “Supply versus Demand in the Barbadian Sugar Revolution,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 3 (1988): 405; and Menard, Sweet Negotiations, 22, table 3.

55. Wim Klooster, The Dutch Moment: War, Trade, and Settlement in the Seventeenth-Century Atlantic World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016), 167–69.

56. Batie, “Why Sugar?”; Ligon, A True and Exact History, 85.

57. Yda Schreuder, “A True Global Community: Sephardic Jews, the Sugar Trade and Barbados in the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 50 (2004): 166–94.

58. Klooster, Dutch Moment, 167–69.

59. Schreuder, Amsterdam Sephardic Merchants, 233–62.

60. Cromwell’s plans for expansion in the Caribbean region are often referred to as the Western Design. See Carla G. Pestana, The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution, 1640–1661 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004). For a discussion about the efforts undertaken to coordinate the read-mission of Jews to England, see Yosef Kaplan, ed., An Alternative Path to Modernity: The Sephardi Diaspora in Western Europe (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 155–67. For an overview of Menasseh ben Israel’s mission to Cromwell, see Yosef Kaplan, Henri Méchoulan, and Richard H. Popkin, eds., Menasseh ben Israel and his World (Leiden: Brill, 1989).

61. Among the merchants involved in Cromwell’s Western Design promoting denization for Sephardic merchants in Amsterdam and the British colonies were several well-established crypto-Jewish merchants in London. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 178–79.

62. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, chap. 7. For evidence, see W. S. Samuel, R. D. Barnett, and A. S. Diamond, “A List of Jewish Persons Endenizened and Naturalised 1609–1799,” Transactions & Miscellanies (Jewish Historical Society of England) 22 (1968–69): 111–44.

63. For an overview of the role of Menasseh ben Israel in the migration and colonization efforts of Sephardic merchants, see Jonathan Israel, “Menasseh ben Israel and the Dutch Sephardic Colonization Movement,” in Kaplan, Méchoulan, and Popkin, Menasseh ben Israel and His World, 139–63. See also Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 176–216.

64. Schreuder, “A True Global Community,” and Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 77–118.

65. Wilfred S. Samuel, “Sir William Davidson, Royalist (1616–1689) and the Jews,” Transactions of the Jewish Historical Society of England 14 (1935–39): 39–79.

66. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, chap. 6.

67. Wilfred S. Samuel, “A Review of the Jewish Colonists in Barbados in the Year 1680,” Transactions of the Jewish Historical Society of England 13 (1932–35): 94–96.

68. Samuel, “Review of the Jewish Colonists.” See also Martyn J. Bowden, “Houses, Inhabitants and Levies: Place for the Sephardic Jews of Bridgetown, Barbados 1679–1729,” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 57 (2011): 1–53.

69. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 105–18. Pieter Emmer, “The Dutch and the Making of the Second Atlantic System,” in Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System, ed. Barbara L. Solow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 75–96. Seymour Drescher, “Jews and New Christians in the Atlantic Slave Trade,” in Bernardini and Fiering, Jews and the Expansion of Europe, 439–70.

70. Pieter Emmer, “The Jewish Moment and the Two Expansion Systems in the Atlantic, 1580–1650,” in Bernardini and Fiering, Jews and the Expansion of Europe, 512–14.

71. Drescher, “Jews and New Christians in the Atlantic Slave Trade.”

72. Reesse, Suikerhandel van Amsterdam, 30–32, 107–10.

73. Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants, 233–62.

74. In addition, there was a great deal of collaboration between English and Dutch merchants. See Wim Klooster, “Anglo-Dutch Trade in the Seventeenth Century: An Atlantic Partnership?,” in Shaping the Stuart World, 1603–1714: The Atlantic Connection, ed. Allan I. Macinnes and Arthur H. Williamson (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 261–81.

75. Reesse, Suikerhandel van Amsterdam, 30–32, 107–10.

76. Eddy Stols, “The Expansion of the Sugar Market in Western Europe,” in Schwartz, Tropical Babylons, 237–88.

77. Bloom, Economic Activities of the Jews, 36–40, and Swetschinski, Reluctant Cosmopolitans, 154–55.

78. Mordechai Arbell, “Jewish Settlements in the French Colonies in the Caribbean (Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Cayenne) and the ‘Black Code,’” in Bernardini and Fiering, Jews and the Expansion of Europe, 287–313.

1. Manuel Calado, O Valeroso Lucideno e Triumpho da Liberdade (Lisboa: Paulo Craesbeeck, 1648), 10–11.

2. Arnold Wiznitzer, “Jewish Soldiers in Dutch Brazil (1630–1654),” Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society 46, no. 1 (1956): 40–50; Hermann Kellenbenz, A participação da Companhia de Judeus na conquista holandesa de Pernambuco (Paraíba: Universidade Federal da Paraíba, 1966).

3. An exception is Derek Penslar, Jews and the Military: A History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).

4. Paolo Bernardini, “A Milder Colonization: Jewish Expansion to the New World, and the New World in the Jewish Consciousness of the Early Modern Era,” in The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, ed. Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001), 1–23.

5. Sina Rauschenbach and Jonathan Schorsch, “Postcolonial Approaches to the Early Modern Sephardic Atlantic,” in The Sephardic Atlantic: Colonial Histories and Postcolonial Perspectives, ed. Sina Rauschenbach and Jonathan Schorsch (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 4.

6. David Graizbord, Souls in Dispute: Converso Identities in Iberia and the Jewish Diaspora, 1580–1700 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 174–75.

7. Graizbord, Souls in Dispute, 171.

8. Adam Sutcliffe, “Jewish History in an Age of Atlanticism,” in Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500–1800, ed. Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2009), 28.

9. Sutcliffe, “Jewish History,” 24, 27–28.

10. Aviva Ben-Ur, “Atlantic Jewish History: A Conceptual Reorientation,” in Constellations of Atlantic Jewish History, 1555–1890: The Arnold and Deanne Kaplan Collection of Early American Judaica, ed. Arthur Kiron (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 25–46.

11. Victor Tiribás, “Mobility, Clandestine Literature, and Censorship: A Case-Study in the Transatlantic Diaspora of a Migrant Circle,” Rivista Storica Italiana 131, no. 3 (2019): 1050–84.

12. José Antônio Gonsalves de Mello, Gente da Nação: Cristãos-novos e judeus em Pernambuco, 1542–1654 (Recife: Editora Massangana, 1996), 213.

13. José Antônio Gonsalves de Mello, Tempo dos flamengos: Influência da ocupação holandesa na vida e na cultura do norte do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks, 2002), 39–42.

14. Wiznitzer, “Jewish Soldiers,” 40–41; Mark Meuwese, “Samuel Cohen (c. 1600–1642): Jewish Translator in Brazil, Curaçao, and Angola,” in The Human Tradition in the Atlantic World, 1500–1800, ed. Karen Racine and Beatriz Mamigonian (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010), 27–41.

15. Cyrus Adler, “A Contemporary Memorial Relating to Damages to Spanish Interests in America Done by Jews of Holland (1634),” Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society 17 (1909): 48. Unlike his father and brothers, Moisés Cohen Henriques did not pay the annual membership fee (finta) to the Jewish community of Amsterdam in 1630. See Stadsarchief Amsterdam (henceforth SAA), 334, no. 17, fol. 33. This adds credibility to the inquisitorial denunciation claiming he participated in the invasion of Pernambuco that year. The record dated 1630 containing his promises (promessas) to donate money to charity states, “for the account of the last six months,” and refers to the second semester of 1629—year in which he is in fact listed as a donor. See SAA, 334, no. 11, fols. 15, 33.

16. Calado, O Valeroso Lucideno, 11–12.

17. Evaldo Cabral de Mello, Olinda restaurada: Guerra e açúcar no Nordeste, 1630–1654 (São Paulo: Editora 34, 2007), 257–315.

18. Renato Ghezzi, “Il porto di Livorno e il commercio mediterraneo nel Seicento,” in Livorno (1606–1806): Luogo di incontri tra popolo e culture, ed. Adriano Prosperi (Turin: Umberto Allemandi, 2009), 329, attributed the sudden drop to “the shortage of slaves, aggravated by a smallpox epidemic,” without mentioning the Dutch invasion of northern Brazil.

19. Wim Klooster, The Dutch Moment: War, Trade, and Settlement in the Seventeenth-Century Atlantic World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016), 136–38.

20. Michiel van Groesen, Amsterdam’s Atlantic: Print Culture and the Making of Dutch Brazil (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), 72–73, 84, 90, 100.

21. Bruno Miranda, “Gente de Guerra: Origem, cotidiano e resistência dos soldados do exército da Companhia das Índias Ocidentais no Brasil (1630–1654)” (PhD diss., Leiden University, 2011), 125–30, 142–46.

22. Klooster, Dutch Moment, 128–32.

23. For the medieval controversy concerning this violation in times of war, see Maimonides, Hilchot Melachim uMilchamot 8:1; Moses ben Nahman (Nahmanides), Perush ha-Ramban al ha-Torah, Deut. 6:10. A few soldiers may have been aware of this debate, if they had received a solid religious education.

24. Ronaldo Vainfas, Traição: Um jesuíta a serviço do Brasil holandês processado pela Inquisição (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2008), 86–91.

25. Miranda, “Gente de Guerra,” 37.

26. Julio Caro Baroja, Los Judíos en la España Moderna y Contemporánea, vol. 3 (Madrid: Istmo, 1986), 362. See also Archivo Histórico Nacional (henceforth AHN), Inquisición, libro 1103, fol. 484r–84v.

27. Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo (henceforth ANTT), Inquisição de Lisboa, livro 220, fol. 402r.

28. Adler, “A Contemporary Memorial,” 49.

29. Caspar Barleus, Rerum per octennium in Brasilia et alibi nuper gestarum (Amsterdam: Johan Blaeu, 1647), plates 9 and 10. For the participation of Jews in civil militias in the Caribbean, see Jessica Roitman, “Creating Confusion in the Colonies: Jews, Citizenship, and the Dutch and British Atlantics,” Itinerario 36, no. 2 (2012): 75–76.

30. Caspar Barlaeus, The History of Brazil under the Governorship of Count Johan Maurits of Nassau, 1636–1644, trans. Blanche Koning (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2011), 227.

31. Klooster, Dutch Moment, 118.

32. Calado, O Valeroso Lucideno, 14.

33. ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, processo 11562, fol. 46r; Archivio Arcivescovile di Pisa (henceforth AAPi), Inquisizione, filza 5, fol. 381r; SAA, 5075, no. 942, fols. 295–96.

34. SAA, 5001, no. 669, fol. 200.

35. For their brother Henrique Mendes Peixoto, a wealthy merchant who lived as a crypto-Jew in southwestern France, see AHN, Inquisición, libro 1103, fols. 292v–293r; Baroja, Los Judíos en España, 363.

36. Giuseppe Laras, “Diego Lorenzo Piccioto: Un delatore di marrani nella Livorno del seicento,” in Scritti in Memoria di Umberto Nahon: Saggi sull’Ebraismo Italiano, ed. Roberto Bonfil et al. (Jerusalem: Fondazioni Sally Mayer, 1978), 65–104.

37. Lucia Frattarelli Fischer, Vivere fuori dal ghetto: Ebrei a Pisa e a Livorno (secoli XVI–XVIII) (Turin: Silvio Zamorani, 2008).

38. Giuseppe Marcocci, “Itinerari marrani: I portoghesi a Livorno nei secoli dell’età moderna,” in Prosperi, Livorno (1606–1806), 405–17.

39. AAPi, Inquisizione, filza 5, fols. 380r–381r. For what follows, see fols. 382r–400v.

40. Archivio di Stato di Livorno, Governatore e Auditore, filza 3168, no. 549.

41. Archivio di Stato di Livorno, Governatore e Auditore, filza 3168, no. 549.

42. ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, livro 205, fol. 229r.

43. For one of the most famous false accusations based on a child’s testimony, see Juan Ignacio Pulido Serrano, Injurias a Cristo: Religión, política y antijudaísmo en el siglo XVII (Madrid: Universidad de Alcalá, 2002).

44. ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, livro 205, fol. 230r.

45. AAPi, Inquisizione, filza 5, fol. 586v.

46. Baroja, Los Judíos en la España, 363.

47. SAA, 334, no. 1, fols. 114, 163.

48. SAA, 5075, no. 380B, fol. 609; no. 484, fol. 372.

49. SAA, 334, no. 9, fols. 30, 38, 40, 41, 56, 74, 94, 102, 104, 118, 177; no. 3, fols. 64, 121.

50. SAA, 5075, no. 484, fol. 595.

51. Moisés Cohen Peixoto and Jacob Cohen Henriques included their military ranks when signing their poems for a printed book (see below).

52. SAA, 5001, no. 669, fol. 200. After his second marriage, Moisés’s tax payments significantly increased. See SAA, 334, no. 9, fols. 56, 70, 77, 83, 91, 107, 122, 132, 143.

53. SAA, 5001, no. 669, fol. 200.

54. SAA, 5075, no. 631, fol. 313.

55. SAA, 5075, no. 941, fol. 157; no. 942, fols. 531–33.

56. SAA, 334, no. 1, fols. 128, 132, 134, 159, 160, 171.

57. SAA, 334, no. 9, fols. 152, 172.

58. SAA, 334, no. 1141, fol. 76. Jonathan Israel, “Piracy, Trade and Religion: The Jewish Role in the Rise of the Muslim Corsair Republic of Saleh (1624–1666),” in Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World of Maritime Empires (1540–1740) (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 293–307, claimed that the Jewish alias of Francisco Vaz de Leão was Moisés Cohen Henriques, confounding father and son. But their separate identities are unmistakable. See SAA, 5075, no. 942, fols. 565–66, 592; SAA, 5001, no. 671, fol. 285; SAA, 1555A, fols. 281–84. The birth date and alias of Moisés Cohen Henriques have been the subject of much confusion. Before the Inquisition, Isaac Cohen Henriques claimed that “Antônio Henriques” was his baptismal name, and not that of his brother Moisés, whom he said was called Rodrigo and was born in 1611 or 1612 (ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, processo 7820, fols. 6v–7r). The statement, however, is contradicted by the records of the Jewish community in Amsterdam, which indicate that Moisés held office as early as 1627 (see below). It seems that Isaac deliberately assumed his brother’s alias, adopting the common tactic of using fake names or the names of relatives who were beyond the reach of the Inquisition.

59. Daniel Swetschinski, Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam (London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2000), 165–87.

60. SAA, 334, no. 10, fols. 105, 107, 113, 120, 130–32, 134, 156, 162; no. 1142, fols. 1, 33–34, 131.

61. SAA, 334, no. 10, fol. 160.

62. SAA, 5075, no. 941, fols. 146–55, 234–37, 248–49, 651–53; no. 942, fols. 449–50, 1338–39, 1375–77.

63. SAA, 334, no. 3, fol. 116; no. 1051, fol. 11r.

64. SAA, 334, no. 10, fol. 135.

65. Adler, “A Contemporary Memorial,” 48.

66. SAA, 5001, no. 671, fol. 214; SAA, 334, no. 11, fols. 30, 33.

67. SAA, 5075, no. 942, fols. 1392–93.

68. SAA, 5001, no. 671, fol. 285.

69. SAA, 334, no. 11, fols. 33, 51.

70. SAA, 5075, no. 941, fols. 516–17; no. 942, fols. 565–66, 591–92.

71. SAA, 5075, no. 942, fols. 438–39, 465–66, 1392–93, 1568–69.

72. SAA, 334, no. 10, fol. 178.

73. ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, processo 11139, fols. 25v–26r.

74. Isaac Cohen Henriques, Jacob’s brother, insisted on this very narrative to justify the change of the family name from Israel to Cohen: “they were descendants of the tribe of Levi and of the strain of Aaron by the male line, for which reason they were invested with the priesthood, and consequently with the title of Cohen.” ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, processo 7820, fol. 12r.

75. On the meanings behind choices of Jewish names, see Aviva Ben-Ur, Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society: Suriname in the Atlantic World, 1651–1825 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), 36–37. For the role that genealogy played among Iberian Jews and conversos, see Jane Gerber, “Pride and Pedigree: The Development of the Myth of Sephardic Aristocratic Lineage,” in Reappraisals and New Studies of the Modern Jewish Experience: Essays in Honor of Robert M. Seltzer, ed. Brian Smollett and Christian Wiese (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 85–103.

76. SAA, 334, no. 157, fols. 24–25.

77. Gonsalves de Mello, Gente da Nação, 218–23.

78. There is still no consensus in historiography about the size of the Jewish population in Dutch Brazil. See Tiribás, “Mobility, Clandestine Literature, and Censorship,” 1055.

79. Nationaal Archief Nederland (henceforth NAN), OWIC [Oude West-Indische Compagnie] 14, fol. 68r.

80. ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, processo 11562, fol. 46r; SAA, 5001, no. 690, fol. 198. For the levirate marriage among Iberian Jews in Amsterdam, see Tirtsah Levie Bernfeld, “Religious Life among Portuguese Women in Amsterdam’s Golden Age,” in The Religious Cultures of Dutch Jewry, ed. Yosef Kaplan and Dan Michman (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 68.

81. Bruno Feitler, Inquisition, juifs et nouveaux-chrétiens au Brésil: Le Nordeste XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2003), 147–56.

82. ANTT, Inquisição Lisboa, livro 217, fol. 518v.

83. Feitler, Inquisition, juifs et nouveaux-chrétiens, 151–52. For Machorro, see Meyer Kayserling, “Une Histoire de la Littérature Juive de Daniel Lévi de Barrios,” Revue des études juives 19 (1889): 287.

84. Elias Lipiner, Izaque de Castro: O mancebo que veio preso do Brasil (Recife: Massangana, 1992), 12.

85. The messianic meaning behind the name is evident in a passage of the Siddur berakha: Orden de bendicion conforme el uso del K.K. de Sepharad (Amsterdam: Menasseh ben Israel, 1634), unnumbered folio: “We shall not be ashamed in the world to come, and the kingdom of the House of David, Your anointed, shall soon return to its place in our days.” Throughout his work, Menasseh ben Israel refers to the Messiah as both, a descendant from the “House of David” and a “captain.” For just one earlier example, see Menasseh ben Israel, De la resurrección de los muertos (Amsterdam: Menasseh ben Israel, 1636), 151–52. In his inquisitorial trial, the martyr Isaac de Castro Tartas, a member of the congregation in Paraíba, continually insisted on the theme of the Messiah awaited by the Jews, calling him “a captain with a prophetic spirit”: ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, processo 11550, fols. 51r, 86v, and 93r–94r. For messianism in Jewish congregations in the Caribbean, see Wim Klooster, “Networks of Colonial Entrepreneurs: The Founders of the Jewish Settlements in Dutch America, 1650s and 1660s,” in Kagan and Morgan, Atlantic Diasporas, 41–42, 48; Aviva Ben-Ur with Rachel Frankel, Remnant Stones: The Jewish Cemeteries and Synagogues of Suriname. Essays (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 2012), 105–17.

86. ANTT, Inquisição Lisboa, livro 217, fols. 518v–520r. For another mention of Peixoto as a rabbi in Paraíba, see AHN, Inquisición, libro 1103, fol. 292v. A third witness claimed to have heard that he held an “office in the synagogue” of Amsterdam, but I found no trace of it: AHN, Inquisición, libro 1101, fol. 766v.

87. Gonsalves de Mello, Gente da Nação, 228–31.

88. Benjamin J. Kaplan, Divided by Faith: Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007), 177–79.

89. NAN, OWIC 68, Dagelijkse Notulen, November 22, 1638.

90. Frans Leonard Schalkwijk, Igreja e Estado no Brasil Holandês (1630 a 1654) (São Paulo: Cultura Cristã, 2004), 315.

91. NAN, OWIC 68, Dagelijkse Notulen, November 22, 1638.

92. NAN, OWIC 68, Dagelijkse Notulen, September 28, 1638.

93. ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, livro 220, fol. 387r.

94. Lipiner, Izaque de Castro, 12.

95. “Actas da Assemblêa Geral,” Revista do Instituto Archeologico e Geographico Pernambucano 30–31 (1886): 228.

96. NAN, OWIC 70, Dagelijkse Notulen, October 27 and November 12, 1644.

97. Klooster, “Networks of Colonial Entrepreneurs,” 34–35.

98. Van Groesen, Amsterdam’s Atlantic, 108–12.

99. Pedro Puntoni, A Mísera sorte: A escravidão africana no Brasil holandês e as guerras do tráfico no Atlântico sul, 1621–1648 (São Paulo: Hucitec, 1999), 71–122.

100. Arnold Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), 71.

101. Ronaldo Vainfas, Jerusalém colonial: Judeus portugueses no Brasil holandês (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2010), 123.

102. Gonsalves de Mello, Gente da Nação, 233–36.

103. NAN, OWIC 57, no. inv. 190.

104. NAN, OWIC 59, no. inv. 69–70; OWIC 60, no. inv. 14–15.

105. NAN, OWIC 58, no. inv. 6, 10, 183–84, 348–49; OWIC 59, no. inv. 55, 72; OWIC 60, no. inv. 14, 18, 52–53.

106. NAN, OWIC 59, no. inv. 55, 69, 72; OWIC 60, no. inv. 14, 17–18, 50–53.

107. Vainfas, Jerusalém colonial, 124. For examples of Jews reselling slaves as part of an intra-Caribbean trade, see Eli Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 54–55.

108. Gonsalves de Mello, Tempo dos flamengos, 197. For a deconstruction of the myth that slaves preferred Jewish owners, see also Jonathan Schorsch, Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 296.

109. Johannes Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 227–58.

110. SAA, 334, no. 1304, fol. 9.

111. Lucia Furquim Xavier, “Sociabilidade no Brasil Holandês (1630–1654)” (PhD diss., Leiden University, 2018), 155–56; Wiznitzer, Jews in Colonial Brazil, 72–73.

112. Wiznitzer, “Jewish Soldiers,” 42–46.

113. Anonymous, “Diário ou Breve Discurso acerca da Rebellião e dos pérfidos Desígnios dos Portuguezes do Brazil,” Revista do Instituto Arqueológico, Histórico e Geográfico Pernambucano 32 (1887): 159; see also 139, 167, 190, 195.

114. Herbert Bloom, “A Study of Brazilian Jewish History 1623–1654, Based Chiefly upon the Findings of the Late Samuel Oppenheim,” Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society 33 (1934): 95.

115. Vainfas, Jerusalém colonial, 221–48; Schalkwijk, Igreja e Estado, 318–19; Bloom, “A Study of Brazilian Jewish History,” 103–4. The Jews of Dutch Brazil received the status of subjects before their coreligionists in Amsterdam. See Jessica Roitman, “Economics, Empire, Eschatology: The Global Context of Jewish Settlement in the Americas, 1650–70,” Itinerario 40, no. 2 (2016): 298.

116. Wiznitzer, “Jewish Soldiers,” 46.

117. SAA, 334, no. 1304, fol. 3 (Ascama 10).

118. SAA, 334, no. 1304, fol. 3 (Ascama 9).

119. SAA, 334, no. 1304, fols. 25–29.

120. Tiribás, “Mobility, Clandestine Literature, and Censorship,” 1062. For this refugee crisis in Amsterdam, see Steven Nadler, Ton Tielen, and Victor Tiribás, “Two New Documents on Spinoza’s Biography,” Journal of the History of Philosophy 58, no. 4 (2020): 805–10.

121. SAA, 334, no. 174, fols. 118, 136, 166, 172, 191.

122. Tiribás, “Mobility, Clandestine Literature, and Censorship.”

123. The poet and captain Daniel Levi de Barrios did the same throughout his Coro de las musas (Amsterdam: Juan Luis de Pas, 1672). For a further example, see the translation that Captain Joseph Semah Arias made of Flavius Josephus, Respuesta de Josepho contra Apion Alexandrino (Amsterdam: David de Castro Tartas, 1687).

124. Daniel de Ribera et al., Elogios que zelozos dedicaron a la felice memoria de Abraham Nuñez Bernal (Amsterdam: David de Castro Tartas, 1656), 19, 116.

125. Ribera et al., Elogios, 138.

1. David Franks, Baynton & Wharton, et al., Philadelphia, to Moses Franks and George Croghan, December 12, 1763 in Papers of Sir William Johnson, vol. 4, ed. Alexander C. Flick (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1965), 267.

2. “Memorial of the Merchants of the Province of Pennsylvania concerned in the late Trade with the Indians” to the Lords Commissioner for Trade and Plantations, December 12, 1763, in Papers of Sir William Johnson, 4:267.

3. Franks, Baynton & Wharton et al, Philadelphia, to Franks and Croghan, December 12, 1763, 267.

4. £80,000 in 1763 was approximately equal to £17,000,000 in 2021.

5. Quote from Abigaill Levy Franks to Naphtali Franks, May 7, 1733, in The Letters of Abigaill Levy Franks, 1733–1748, ed. Edith B. Gelles (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3–6. See also Eli Faber, A Time for Planting: The First Migration, 1654–1820 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1992); Jacob Rader Marcus, Early American Jewry, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1953); William Pencak, Jews and Gentiles in Early America, 1654–1800 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005); Jonathan Sarna, American Judaism: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004).

6. Lois Dubin, “Introduction: Port Jews in the Atlantic World,” Jewish History 20, no. 2 (2006): 117–27. See also Miriam Bodian, Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); David Cesarini, ed., Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950 (London: Frank Cass, 2002); David Cesarini and Gemma Romain, eds., Jews and Port Cities, 1590–1990: Commerce, Community and Cosmopolitanism (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006); David Sorkin, “The Port Jew: Notes toward a Social Type,” Journal of Jewish Studies 50, no. 1 (1999): 87–97; Jonathan Israel, Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews, and the World of Maritime Empires (1540–1740) (Leiden: Brill, 2002); Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, eds., The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800 (New York: Berghahn, 2001); Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500–1800 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009); Jessica Vance Roitman, The Same but Different? Inter-cultural Trade and the Sephardim, 1595–1640 (Leiden: Brill, 2011); Yda Schreuder, Amsterdam’s Sephardic Merchants and the Atlantic Sugar Trade in the Seventeenth Century (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019); Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Daniel M. Swetschinski, Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam (Portland, OR: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2000); Francesca Trivellato, The Familiarity of Strangers: The Sephardic Diaspora, Livorno, and Cross-Cultural Trade in the Early Modern Period (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009).

7. Toni Pitock, “‘Separated from Us as Far as West Is from East’: Eighteenth-Century Ashkenazi Immigrants in the Atlantic World,” American Jewish History 102, no. 2 (2018): 173–93. See also Natalie Zemon Davis, “Epilogue,” in Kagan and Morgan, Atlantic Diasporas, 213–17.

8. Peggy Liss, Atlantic Empires: The Network of Trade and Revolution, 1713–1826 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 2–5; P. J. Marshall, The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and American, c. 1750–1783 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 5–7, 13.

9. Liss, Atlantic Empires, 15–17; Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, 7, 57–59, 113–18, 157–60.

10. Michael Graetz, “Court Jews in Economics and Politics,” in From Court Jews to the Rothschilds, ed. Vivian B. Mann and Richard I. Cohen (Munich: Prestel, 1997), 27–43; Jonathan Israel, European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750, 3rd ed. (Portland, OR: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 1998).

11. Hannah Weiss Muller, Subjects and Sovereign: Bonds of Belonging in the Eighteenth-Century British Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 2, 6–7, 9. See also Carla Pestana, Protestant Empire: Religion and the Making of the British Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009).

12. Graetz, “Court Jews,” 39; Israel, European Jewry, 101.

13. Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, 13.

14. W. Rubinstein and Michael A. Jolles, eds., The Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History (Hampshire: Palgrave, 2011), 293–96; Matt Goldish, “The Strange Adventures of Benjamin Franks, an Ashkenazi Pioneer in the Americas,” in The Jews in the Caribbean, ed. Jane S. Gerber (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2014), 311–18; Walter J. Fischel, “The Jewish Merchant-Colony in Madras during the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Contribution to the Economic and Social History of the Jews in India (Concluded),” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 3, no. 2 (1960): 175–95; Letters of Abigaill Levy Franks, xix–xx; Jacob Rader Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1492–1776, 3 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), 1:379; Cecil Roth, The Great Synagogue: London 1690–1940 (London: Edward Goldston & Son, 1950), 26, 62–63; Malcolm H. Stern, Americans of Jewish Descent: A Compendium of Genealogy (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1960); Gedalia Yogev, Diamonds and Coral: Anglo-Dutch Jews and Eighteenth-Century Trade (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1978), 65, 113, 152–54; Rachel Daiches-Dubens, “Eighteenth Century Anglo-Jewry in and around Richmond, Surrey,” Transactions of the Jewish Historical Society of England 18 (1953–55): 146, 150; Todd M. Endelman, The Jews of Georgian England, 1714–1830 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 132, 251.

15. S. Max Edelson, The New Map of Empire: How Britain Imagined America before Independence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), 2–3.

16. Letters of Abigaill Levy Franks, 133. See also Eli Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 134, 179; Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 2:580, 617, 712–23, 723–24.

17. Jerome H. Wood Jr., Conestoga Crossroads: Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1730–1790 (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical And Museum Commission, 1979), 93–94; Thomas M. Doerflinger, A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 15, 76; Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, 15, 19, 20; Judith Ridner, “Relying of the ‘Saucy’ Men of the Backcountry: Middlemen and the Fur Trade in Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 129, no. 2 (2005): 133–62; A. T. Volwiler, “George Croghan and the Westward Movement, 1741–1782,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 46, no. 4 (1922): 273–311.

18. Toni Pitock, “Commerce and Connection: Jewish Merchants, Philadelphia, and the Atlantic World, 1736–1822” (PhD diss., University of Delaware, 2016), 53–63, 60–69.

19. Franks was a member of a group of about two dozen traders, the “Sufferers of 1754,” whose goods were destroyed in a series of attacks by the French and their Indian allies. This group valued their combined losses at £48,000. See Mark Abbott Stern, David Franks: Colonial Merchant (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010), 30; Volwiler, “George Croghan”; Sidney M. Fish, Barnard and Michael Gratz: Their Lives and Times (Lanham: University Press of America, 1994), 45, 81–84. See also Nicholas Wainwright, “An Indian Trade Failure: The Story of the Hockley, Trent and Croghan Company, 1748–1752,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 72, no. 4 (1948): 345; Edelson, New Map of Empire, 2–3.

20. Craig Bailey, “The Nesbitts of London and Their Networks,” in Irish and Scottish Mercantile Networks in Europe and Overseas in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, ed. David Dickson, Jan Parmentier, and Jane Ohlmeyer (Gent: Academia Press, 2007), 231; H. V. Bowen, “Colebrooke, Sir George, second baronet (1729–1809),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edition, September 2004, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/37301.

21. Bailey, “The Nesbitts of London,” 237–38.

22. Kings Warrant for payment to Sir James Colebrooke et al., contractors for supplying British forces in North America, signatures appearing include King George II, the Duke of Newcastle, and Moses Franks, 1760, Franks Family Papers, P-142, Box 1, Folder 12, American Jewish Historical Society, New York (hereafter AJHS); and in The Papers of Henry Bouquet, ed. Sylvester Kirby Steven et al., 19 vols. (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1984), 4:468n; Account of Contractors for Victualing Troops, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 4:569; Stern, David Franks, 34–35.

23. Jeffery Amherst to Governor James Hamilton, March 21, 1760, SC 3651, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio (henceforth AJA).

24. Letter to David Franks, September 16, 1762; Letter to Messrs Thompson, Paris and Company, September 16, 1762; David Franks, Letters regarding Purchase of Supplies for British Garrisons, SC 3652, AJA (from Bouquet Papers, Public Archives of Canada); “The Crown in Account with William Plumsted and David Franks,” for May 1760–May 1761, dated June 1761, Horatio Gates Papers, New-York Historical Society; David Franks to George Washington, June 27, 1758, SC 3656, AJA; Jeffery Amherst to Plumsted and Franks, June 19, 1763, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:243; see also Stern, David Franks, 33, 47.

25. Pitock, “‘Separated from Us as Far as West Is from East.’”

26. Until recently, the scholarly focus on Jews’ kinship and ethnoreligious networks emphasized the idea that a shared cultural heritage promoted trust, which was essential since trade was extremely risky. On Jewish networks, see Cornelia Aust, “Commercial Cosmopolitans: Networks of Jewish Merchants between Warsaw and Amsterdam, 1750–1820” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2010); Noah Gelfand, “A People Within and Without: International Jewish Commerce and Community in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Dutch Atlantic World” (PhD diss., New York University, 2008); Roitman, The Same but Different?; Sarah Abrevaya Stein, Plumes: Ostrich Feathers, Jews, and a Lost World of Global Commerce (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008); Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea; Francesca Trivellato, “Sephardic Merchants in the Early Modern Atlantic and Beyond: Toward a Comparative Historical Approach to Business Cooperation,” in Kagan and Morgan, Atlantic Diasporas, 99–120, and Trivellato, Familiarity of Strangers; Tijl Vanneste, Global Trade and Commercial Networks: Eighteenth-Century Diamond Merchants (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2011).

27. Pitock, “Commerce and Connection,” 116, 120–21.

28. Liss, Atlantic Empires, 15–16; Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, 7, 15, 64.

29. Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000), 25–30; Walter S. Dunn Jr., Frontier Profit and Loss: The British Army and the Fur Traders, 1760–1764 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998); Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673–1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 40–41; Volwiler, “George Croghan”; Nicholas Wainwright, George Croghan: Wilderness Diplomat (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959).

30. David Franks Account Book, 1760–1767, (Phi) Am 0684 Franks, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA (henceforth HSP); this account book pertains to Franks’s joint venture with Simon, Levy, and Trent. Barnard Gratz account with David Franks, Gratz-Franks-Simon Papers (McA MSS 011), McAllister Collection, Box 2, Folder 64, Library Company of Philadelphia (henceforth LCP) [Barnard Gratz’s Day Book]. David Franks Account Book, 1757–1762, Frank M. Etting Collection, Collection 0193, Box 1a, HSP; see also Joseph Simon to Barnard Gratz, August 17, 1762, August 29, 1762, May 30, 1763, Gratz-Franks-Simon Papers (McA MSS 011), McAllister Collection, Box 1, Folder 47, LCP.

31. George Croghan, Fort Pitt, to Trent and Lowery, February 5, 1761, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 5:282.

32. John W. Jordan, “James Kenny’s ‘Journal to Ye Westward,’ 1758–1759,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 37, no. 1 (1913): 13.

33. John Langdale to Henry Bouquet, Pittsburgh, March 5, 1761, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 5:328–31.

34. Walter S. Dunn Jr., Opening New Markets: The British Army and the Old Northwest (Westport: Praeger, 2002), 2.

35. David Franks Account Book, 1760–1767, (Phi) Am 0684 Franks, HSP.

36. Anderson, Crucible of War, 453, 545, 558–59; Patrick Spero, Frontier Rebels: The Fight for Independence in the American West, 1765–1776 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2018), xx.

37. David Franks to Michael Gratz, Philadelphia, June 12, 1763, Gratz-Franks-Simon Papers (McA MSS 011), McAllister Collection, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 17, LCP. It is unclear who Levy’s servants were. “List of Indian Traders and Their Servants Killed or Capture by Indians”: Henry Bouquet to Jeffery Amherst, September 30, 1763, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:412.

38. David Franks Account Book, 1760–1767, (Phi) Am 0684, HSP; List of Losses of Indian Traders, February 1765, in Papers of Sir William Johnson, vol. 11, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1953), 613.

39. Henry Bouquet to Jeffery Amherst, June 4, 1763, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:205–6.

40. Plumsted and Franks, Philadelphia to Henry Bouquet, July 18, 1763, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:319–20.

41. Plumsted and Franks to Henry Bouquet, July 18, 1763; Henry Bouquet, Fort Loudoun to Plumsted and Franks, July 19, 1763, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:319–21.

42. Henry Bouquet, Fort Pitt, to Plumsted and Franks, September 30, 1763, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:418–20.

43. Henry Bouquet, Fort Pitt, to Plumsted and Franks, October 26, 1763, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:440–42.

44. Weiss Muller, Subjects and Sovereign, 6–7.

45. John Watts, New York, to Moses Franks, April 14, 1764, in Letter Book of John Watts, Merchant and Councillor of New York: January 1, 1762–December 22, 1765, ed. Dorothy C. Barck (New York: New York Historical Society, 1928), 240.

46. Robert Harrison, “Fludyer, Sir Samuel, first baronet (1704/5–1768),” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edition, January 2008, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/9777.

47. Plumsted and Franks to Thomas Gage, December 8, 1763, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 10, William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI; General Gage, New York, to Henry Bouquet, March 6, 1764, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:498–500.

48. Agreement between Franks, Inglis, and General Thomas Gage, February 4, 1765, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 30, Clements Library (also in SC 3636, AJA); Thomas Gage, New York, to Henry Bouquet, February 6, 1765, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 30, Clements Library.

49. Henry Bouquet, Philadelphia to Thomas Gage, June 21, 1764, Papers of Henry Bouquet, 6:575–76.

50. Franks and Inglis were retained as agents; Barclay had moved to Canada. Articles of Agreement between commissioners of his Majesty’s Treasury and Nesbitt, Drummond, and Franks, July 14, 1766; Grey Cooper, Treasury Chambers, to Thomas Gage, August 20, 1766; and Nesbitt, Drummond, and Franks, London, to Thomas Gage, August 9, 1766, Gage Papers, English Series, vol. 7, Clements Library; Thomas Gage, New York, to Inglis and Franks, September 2, 1766; Thomas Gage to Inglis and Franks, September 29, 1766, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 57; and Thomas Gage to Inglis, Franks, and Barclay, December 4, 1766, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 60, Clements Library; Stern, David Franks, 86; Dunn, Opening New Markets, 161, notes the renewal of the contract with Fludyer, Drummond, and Franks.

51. Edelson, New Map of Empire, 2–3; Patrick Griffin, American Leviathan: Empire, Nation, and Revolutionary Frontier (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 25, 35–36; Spero, Frontier Rebels, 8–9, 119–24, 131–33; Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, 115–18.

52. Charles Grant, Commander at Fort Loudoun, to Henry Bouquet, March 9, 1765, enclosure in Henry Bouquet to Thomas Gage, March 16, 1765, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 32, Clements Library; Henry Bouquet, Philadelphia, to Thomas Gage, March 29, 1765, Thomas Gage, New York, to Governor Penn, March 30, 1765, Thomas Gage, New York, to George Croghan, April 4, 1765, Thomas Gage to Henry Bouquet, April 4, 1765, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 33, Clements Library; Dunn, Opening New Markets, 80–81, 99–100, 119.

53. George Croghan account with Simon, Levy and Company, March 23, 1765, in William Vincent Byars, B. & M. Gratz: Merchants in Philadelphia, 1754–1798: Papers of Interest to Their Posterity and the Posterity of Their Associates (Jefferson City: Hugh Stephens Printing, 1916), 69–71; Joseph Simon, Lancaster, to Barnard Gratz, February 17, 1767, Gratz Family Papers, Mss.Ms.Coll. 72, Series I, LCP; and Joseph Simon, Lancaster, to Barnard Gratz, May 10, 1767, Gratz-Franks-Simon Papers (McA MSS 011), McAllister Collection, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 47, LCP.

54. Inglis and Franks to Thomas Gage, September 4, 1766, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 56, and Thomas Gage to Inglis, Franks, and Barclay, December 4, 1766, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 60, Clements Library. According to Dunn, the rations cost £15,000 sterling in 1766 compared with £4,849 elsewhere. Dunn, Opening New Markets, 159.

55. Baynton, Wharton, and Morgan, Philadelphia, to Thomas Gage, December 26, 1765, and Thomas Gage, New York, to Baynton, Wharton, and Morgan, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 46, Clements Library; Dunn, Opening New Markets, 161–63.

56. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 2:592; Stern, David Franks, 88.

57. William Murray, Fort Pitt, to Thomas Gage, August 24, 1767, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 68, Clements Library; Proposal to Messrs Rumsey & Co for the purchase of Baynton and Co Goods, October 18, 1770, Rumsey and Murray account with David Franks, SC 3640, AJA; Dunn, Opening New Markets, 165.

58. Edelson, New Map of Empire, 9; Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, 117–18, 162; Spero, Frontier Rebels, 8–9; Wainwright, George Croghan, 162–76.

59. The editors of Papers of Sir William Johnson, 4:199, note a September 1, 1763, entry in the Johnson calendar of the receipt of a letter from Franks and other merchants, asking for Johnson’s support.

60. Griffin, American Leviathan, 35–39, 53–54; Dunn, Opening New Markets, 113.

61. Marshall, Making and Unmaking of Empires, 117.

62. Papers of Henry Bouquet, 5:439n; Barnard Gratz, Memorial to the House Representatives in the Pennsylvania General Assembly, n.d., Gratz-Sulzberger Papers, SC 4292, AJA (copies from AJHS).

63. Anderson, Crucible of War, 565–69; Griffin, American Leviathan, 55, 101.

64. Thomas Gage, New York, to George Croghan, May 22, 1765, and July 23, 1765, and Thomas Gage to Lieut. Gov. Penn, June 2, 1765, Gage Papers, American Series, vol. 7, Clements Library; Fish, Barnard and Michael Gratz, 84–85; Griffin, American Leviathan, 55–56.

65. Proceedings from Fort Stanwix, 1768, Grant from the Six Nations, Frank M. Etting Collection, Collection 0193, Ohio Company Papers, vol. 1, box 58, HSP; Spero, Frontier Rebels, 138–42; Fish, Barnard and Michael Gratz, 93–95; Griffin, American Leviathan, 84–85; Stern, David Franks, 62, 96–97. The actual size of the tract is unclear. According to Fish it was 3,500,000 acres.

66. Edward Shippen, Joseph Morris, Benjamin Levy, David Franks, Thomas Lawrence, Samuel Wharton to Moses Franks, January 4, 1769, Frank M. Etting Collection, Collection 0193, Ohio Company Papers, vol 1, box 58, HSP.

67. Memorial of Moses Franks to the King, Frank M. Etting Collection, Collection 0193, Ohio Company Papers, vol. 1, box 58, HSP.

68. See Fish, Barnard and Michael Gratz, 102–9; Griffin, American Leviathan, 88; Stern, David Franks, 97–98.

69. Barnard and Michael Gratz to George Croghan, April 27, 1772, Michael Gratz Letter Book 1769–1772, Frank M. Etting Collection, Collection 0193, Flat File 193, HSP; Toni Pitock, “Michael Gratz,” in Immigrant Entrepreneurship: German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present, ed. Marianne Wokeck, vol. 1, http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=212; Griffin, American Leviathan, 72–94; Fish, Barnard and Michael Gratz, 100, 121.

70. A contract between the firm and King George III, dated April 2, 1776, survives stipulating that they were to furnish supplies to twelve thousand British troops from January 1776 to May 1777, SC 3684, AJA. But in his Loyalist claim, David Franks purported to have served as agent to the contractors from November 24, 1776, until February 25, 1779. See David Franks Loyalist Claims, SC 3653, AJA.

71. David Franks to Major John Andre, December 2, 1779, Clinton Papers, vol. 53:35, Clements Library; John Robinson, Whitehall, to Henry Clinton, April 30 and October 9, 1778, SC 10225, AJA; two sets of bills of exchange for £300 sterling each from David Franks to Nesbitt, Drummond, and Franks in favor of Tench Coxe, May 28, 1778, David Franks Legal Documents and Correspondence, 1744–1778, SC 3643, AJA. See also Pitock, “Commerce and Connection,” 348.

72. Richard Rowland for Nesbitt, Drummond, and Franks, London, to David Franks, March 6, 1779, Clinton Papers, vol. 53:35, Clements Library; Moses Franks, London, to David Franks, April 4, 1779, Coxe Family Papers, Collection 2049, Series 2, box 8, folder 13, HSP.

73. David Franks Loyalist Claims, June 12, 1786, SC 3653, AJA.

74. Moses Franks, Jr., Isleworth, to Barnard Gratz, Richmond, [month illegible], 1789, Gratz Family Papers, Mss.Ms.Coll. 72, Series I, LCP.

75. When David and Moses Franks came of age, New York was home to the largest Jewish community in what would become the United States, approximately two hundred Jews. When David Franks moved to Philadelphia in 1741, he was one of a handful of Jews. During the course of the next decade, only ten to twenty Jewish families inhabited Philadelphia and the surrounding region. See Hasia R. Diner, The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 27; Faber, A Time for Planting, 34, 39; Pitock, “Commerce and Connection,” 52–66, 71–82, 531.

1. Journal of the House of Assembly of Lower-Canada, 4th Provincial Parliament, 3rd Sess. (1807): 602–4; 4th Provincial Parliament, 4th Sess. (1808): 22–23, 38–39, 60–61, 72–75, 106–9, 114–23, 128–31, 142–45; 5th Provincial Parliament, 1st Sess. (1809): 76–77, 106–13, 200–201, 218–19, 222–23, 242–51, 264–65.

2. Ezekiel Hart’s story has been related in great detail, most recently by Sheldon and Judith Godfrey, Michael Brown, Gerald Tulchinsky, and Richard Menkis, who provide complementary accounts. Sheldon J. Godfrey and Judith C. Godfrey, Search Out the Land: The Jews and the Growth of Equality in British Colonial America, 1740–1867 (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1995), 171–85; Gerald Tulchinsky, Taking Root: The Origins of the Canadian Jewish Community (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 1993), 24–29; Michael Brown, Jew or Juif? Jews, French Canadians, and Anglo-Canadians, 1759–1914 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1986), 196–98; Richard Menkis, “Antisemitism and Anti-Judaism in Pre-Confederation Canada,” in Antisemitism in Canada: History and Interpretation, ed. Alan Davies (Québec: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 2006), 11–38. Attempts to analyze and understand L’affaire Hart go back to the nineteenth century, as Brown notes. Brown, Jew or Juif?, 308–9n100.

3. Godfrey and Godfrey, Search Out the Land, 146–52, 171–81, 238t–240t.

4. Henry Straus Quixano Henriques, The Jews and the English Law (London: Bibliophile Press, 1908), 177–78. Under the rule of the Plantagenet kings, from Henry I to John Lackland (roughly 1100–1201), Jewish trade and property had been specifically protected by the Crown on the theory that it was a resource that could be exploited at will through confiscation, taxation, or the imposition of special fees by the Crown. While this royal favor enabled Jews to engage freely in those activities that were specifically permitted to them (i.e., usury), English Jews were thereby made wholly dependent upon the intercession of the Crown to insulate them from the retribution of those to whom they lent money. On the condition of the Jews as serfs of the English Crown, see Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, 18 vols., 2nd ed., rev. and enl. (New York: Columbia University Press; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1957), 4:75–86, 203–4.

5. See, e.g., David S. Katz, Philo-Semitism and the Readmission of the Jews to England, 1603–1655 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 158–231.

6. This dictum is laid out in canon 69 of the Fourth Lateran, which is one of four canons issued by the council that concern Jews. See H. J. Schroeder, trans., “Fourth Lateran Council, ‘Canons Concerning Jews’ (1215),” Council of Centers on Jewish–Christian Relations, December 20, 2008, https://ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/primary-texts-from-the-history-of-the-relationship/lateran4.

7. Distinctions in Jewish dress were laid out in canon 68 of the Fourth Lateran. Schroeder, “Fourth Lateran Council, ‘Canons Concerning Jews’ (1215).” For textual description and visual examples of clothing specifically mandated for Jews to wear in England as well as in various nations on the European continent between 1200 and 1600 CE, see Alfred Rubens, A History of Jewish Costume (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1967), 92–107.

8. James Harrington, “The Commonwealth of Oceana” and “A System of Politics,” ed. J. G. A. Pocock (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 6.

9. John Dury, A Case of Conscience, Whether It Be Lawful to Admit Jews into a Christian Common-wealth? (London: Richard Wodenothe, 1656), 4.

10. Dury, A Case of Conscience, 5, 9.

11. John Russell Bartlett, Records of the Colony of Rhode Island, 3:160. The case against the eight “fforeigne borne” Jews was brought to trial on March 13, 1685, and resulted in a jury verdict in favor of the eight merchants, with court costs charged to Dyer. The goods retained pursuant to the writ of attachment were subsequently returned to them. Dyre v. Campanell et al., General Court of Trial, March Term 1685, Newport Record Book A, fol. 73, Collection of the Rhode Island Supreme Court Judicial Records Center.

12. The National Archives of the United Kingdom, CO 137/1, Petition of Anthony Gomez Serra, Nunes Fernandes Nunes, Andrew Lopez, and Manoel Lopez Pereyra of London, June 28, 1695, 230–31.

13. Holly Snyder, “A Sense of Place: Jews, Identity, and Social Status in Colonial British America, 1654–1831” (PhD diss., Brandeis University, 2000), 113–17. See also David S. Katz, The Jews in the History of England, 1485–1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 188–89.

14. Katz, Jews in the History of England, 234–36, 245–59; Dana Rabin, “The Jew Bill of 1753: Masculinity, Virility, and the Nation,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 39, no. 2 (2006): 157–71.

15. Theodore de la Guard, The Simple Cobbler of Aggavvam in America (London: J. D. & R. I. for Stephen Bowtell, 1647), 3.

16. Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 17–29.

17. Jonathan D. Sarna and David G. Dalin, eds., Religion and State in the American Jewish Experience (South Bend: Notre Dame University Press, 1997), 4–5, 82–85; Leon Hühner, “The Struggle for Religious Liberty in North Carolina, with Special Reference to the Jews,” Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society (1907): 46–52, 68–71; Samuel Clark, comp., The American Orator, Selected Chiefly from American Authors; for the use of Schools and Private Families (Gardiner: Intelligencer Office, 1828), 46–49.

18. A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Jews, in Their Attempt to Establish Their Right to the Elective Franchise in Jamaica. To Which is Added, a Correct Report of the Action brought by Levy Hyman, Esq. Against Samuel Joseph Geoghegan, Esq. Returning Officer, for Refusing His Vote. In a Series of Letters, from a Gentleman of Kingston, to His Friend Off the Island (Belfast: A. MacKay, Jun., 1823), 1–46. Letter writers who advocated Jewish voting rights included Philanthropos, Vetus, Candidus, Justice, A JEW, and A Citizen of the World; their letters appeared in the Kingston Chronicle, The Royal Gazette (Kingston), and the Cornwall Chronicle (Montego Bay). The anonymous author of the Narrative notes that some newspapers (notably the Jamaica Courant and the St. Jago Gazette) declined to print letters on this topic.

19. A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Jews, 53–70, 102–9.

20. The story of Levy Hyman’s attempt to vote is recounted at greater length in Holly Snyder, “Rules, Rights and Redemption: The Negotiation of Jewish Status in British Atlantic Port Towns, 1740–1831,” Jewish History 20, no. 2 (2006): 147–70.

21. Godfrey and Godfrey, Search Out the Land, 173–74; Snyder, “Rules, Rights and Redemption.”

22. A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Jews, 20–23.

23. Helen Taft Manning, The Revolt of French Canada: A Chapter in the History of the British Commonwealth (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1962), 23–25.

24. Godfrey and Godfrey, Search Out the Land, table 6: 239–40. The Godfreys note that “exercise of the franchise [voting] without challenge” happened far later in England (1867) than it did in Canada, where Nova Scotia and New Brunswick passed laws that enfranchised Jews in 1789 and 1810 respectively. The abolition of state oaths also occurred earlier in pre-Confederation Canada (1832 in Lower Canada and 1833 in Upper Canada) than it did in England (1858).

25. Denis Vaugeois, The First Jews in North America: The Extraordinary Story of the Hart Family, 1760–1860, trans. Kathe Roth (Montreal: Baraka Books, 2012), 73–74.

26. Ursula Henriques, Religious Tolerance in England, 1787–1833 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1961), 136–74. The publisher of the Jamaican volume, Alexander Mackay Jr., was of a Belfast Protestant family and inherited his printing and publishing business from his father of the same name. Embedded in the local Protestant publishing network in Belfast, MacKay’s family associations leaned decidedly toward Protestant interests in Northern Ireland and lowland Scotland. Why he chose to publish a set of letters that could have been viewed as stimulative—or at least sympathetic—to the cause of Catholic Emancipation at this particular moment remains something of a mystery. For context, see Roger Dixon, “Belfast Publishing,” in The Irish Book in English, 1800–1891, ed. James H. Murphy, The Oxford History of the Irish Book, 4 (Oxford University Press, 2011), 73; Frank Ferguson, “Ulster-Scots Literature,” in Murphy, The Irish Book in English, 423–24. The history of the Mackay family as Belfast publishers is laid out in “Address and Presentation to Mrs. Henderson, Norwood Tower,” Belfast News-Letter, November 16, 1887, 5.

27. As quoted in M. C. N. Salbstein, The Emancipation of the Jews in Britain: The Question of Admission of Jews to Parliament, 1828–1860 (Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1982), 44 (emphasis added); David Feldman, Englishmen and Jews: Social, Religious and Political Culture, 1840–1914 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 2–3; Katz, Jews in the History of England, 384–88. Salbstein observes that, after 1707, English law authorized the administration of the Oath of Abjuration (“upon the true faith of a Christian”) to prospective voters. However, enforcement was contingent upon the request of a third party, and remarkably spotty. Consequently, as Katz notes, Jews did manage to vote in some areas prior to the removal of the oath-taking requirements in 1835. Salbstein, Emancipation of the Jews in Britain, 51; Katz, Jews in the History of England, 386; A Narrative of the Proceedings of the Jews, 3, 92. By this point, Jews had already been voting at the federal level without challenge in both the United States and Canada for at least three decades. See note 24, above.

28. Acts and Laws of His Majesties Colony of Rhode-Island, and Providence Plantations in America (Boston: John Allen, for Nicholas Boone, 1719).

29. Sidney S. Rider, An Inquiry Concerning the Origin of the Clause in the Laws of Rhode Island (1719–1783) Disfranchising Roman Catholics, Rhode Island Historical Tracts, Second Series, 1 (Providence: Sidney S. Rider, 1889), 1–9, citing Robert Walsh, An Appeal from the Judgments of Great Britain Respecting the United States of America Part First Containing an Historical Outline of Their Merits and Wrongs as Colonies, and Strictures upon the Calumnies of the British Writers (Philadelphia: Mitchell, Ames and White, 1819), 428–35; Bartlett, Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (1856), 1:504–19; 2:36–37. Close examination of Rhode Island legislative history casts doubt on the validity of this law. Rider concluded that the purported “statute” as set out in the 1719 Digest of Laws was never officially enacted by the assembly, but rather was Ward’s unauthorized invention. Examination of the assembly’s 1663/64 proceedings by two subsequent Rhode Island secretaries of state, Samuel Eddy (in 1818) and John Russell Bartlett (in 1856), revealed no such enactment. Some years later, Ward was censured by the assembly after being caught red-handed “affixing the Colony’s seal to false record” following an inconclusive assembly debate over the issuance of paper money. Bartlett, Records of the Colony of Rhode Island (1707–40), 4:456–63; William Wanton, A True Representation of the Conduct of the Late Secretary Mr. Richard Ward, in Reference to Some Papers that Were Prepared to be Sent Home to England against this Colony ([Newport], 1733). Despite its evident falsity, the 1719 “statute” appeared in each subsequent edition of the Rhode Island Digest of Laws, remained in common practice, and was actively used as a means of disfranchising Jews and Catholics to the end of the Revolution.

30. For the Petition of Lopez and Elizer for naturalization, see Record Book E of the Newport Superior Court of Judicature, fols. 171 (August 1761), 184 (March 1762), at the Rhode Island Supreme Court Judicial Records Center; Petition of Aaron Lopez, October 30, 1761, in Petitions to the Rhode Island General Assembly, Rhode Island State Archives.

31. Rider, An Inquiry Concerning the Origin of the Clause, 14–22, 24–26.

32. Philip Lawson, “‘Sapped by Corruption’: British Governance of Québec and the Breakdown of Anglo-American Relations on the Eve of Revolution,” Canadian Review of American Studies 22, no. 3 (Winter 1991): 307–8. As Lawson notes, the shift was experienced by Anglo-Americans as so dramatically different from their expectations that it upended colonists’ relations with the mother country.

33. Fernand Ouellet, Economic and Social History of Québec, 1760–1850: Structures and Conjonctures [sic], trans. Institute of Canadian Studies at Carleton University, The Carleton Library 120 (n.p.: Gage Publishing, for the Institute of Canadian Studies, 1980), 147–54.

34. Ouellet, Economic and Social History of Québec, 155–72, 175–203.

35. Jean-Pierre Wallot, “Revolution et Reformisme dans Le Bas-Canada (1773–1815),” Annales historiques de la Révolution Française 45, no. 213 (1973): 347, 352–62; Ouellet, Economic and Social History of Québec, 203–5, 209–11. On the impact of the French Revolution in Lower Canada, see Michel Tetu, “Québec and the French Revolution,” Canadian Parliamentary Review 12, no. 3 (Autumn 1989): 2–6; Michel Brunet, “La Révolution Française sur les Rives du Saint-Laurent,” Revue d’Histoire de l’Amérique Française 11, no. 2 (September 1957): 155–62; Gilles Chaussée, “Les effets de la révolution française sur la montée du nationalisme au Canada français dans la première moitié du 19e siècle,” History of European Ideas 15, nos. 1–3 (1992): 297–303.

36. Vaugeois, First Jews in North America, 73–74, 85, 119–27. Vaugeois characterizes Aaron Hart’s warning to Moses about seeking political office as bearing on Ezekiel as well, seemingly on circumstantial evidence of Ezekiel’s doing so only after his father had died. Here, I present a different reading of this episode, suggesting that Aaron Hart aimed the warning only to Moses, while Ezekiel’s interest in politics evolved on a different timeline. As Vaugeois himself notes, Ezekiel’s character was as sober, industrious, and gentlemanly as that of Moses was scandalous; it must have been obvious to both brothers that he made the better candidate.

37. Jean-Pierre Wallot, “Le Crise Sous Craig (1807–1811): Nature des Conflits et Historiographie,” Historical Papers / Communications historiques 2, no. 1 (1967): 67. For general background on Craig’s career as a soldier, see Chaim M. Rosenberg, “James Henry Craig: The Pocket Hercules,” Journal of the American Revolution, October 30, 2017, https://allthingsliberty.com. For Craig’s place in Canadian historiography, see Wallot, “Le Crise Sous Craig.”

38. Vaugeois, First Jews in North America, 72, 135–36. The October 9, 1809, issue of Le Canadien, the primary organ of the Parti Canadien, included a chart that satirically ranked members of the late assembly, prorogued by Gov. Craig just the week before, as “Bon Sujet” (“vous avez vraiment manifesté votre attachement envers le Gouvernement de sa Majesté”) or “Mauvais Sujet” (someone whose loyalty was questionable) according to their level of support for the governor’s agenda. Hart, having been able to cast a few votes between his swearing in and his ultimate expulsion, was ranked as “Good Subject.” Adherents of the Parti Canadien were ranked as “Bad Subjects.” Le Canadien, Monday, October 9, 1809, 2 (enumerated as 191 on the printed page), https://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/3453406.

39. Royal Gazette (Kingston, Jamaica), December 21, 1799, 17, and December 28, 1799, 19; Ẓvi Loker, “An Eighteenth-Century Plan to Invade Jamaica: Isaac Yeshurun Sasportas—French Patriot or Jewish Radical Idealist,” Transactions & Miscellanies (Jewish Historical Society of England) 28 (1981–82): 132–44. See also Wim Klooster’s chapter in this volume for Sasportas.

40. Jacob Rader Marcus, United States Jewry, 1776–1985, 4 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989), 1:84–87; Sarna and Dalin, Religion and State, 63, 94.

41. Godfrey and Godfrey, Search Out the Land, 199–203; Vaugeois, First Jews in North America, 154–58.

42. See H. J. Hanham, “Canadian History in the 1970s,” Canadian Historical Review 58, no. 1 (March 1977): 2–3, 6; Phillip A. Buckner, “‘Limited Identities’ and Canadian Historical Scholarship: An Atlantic Provinces Perspective,” Journal of Canadian Studies 23, nos. 1–2 (Spring/Summer 1988): 177–78; Ramsay Cook, “Identities Are Not Like Hats,” Canadian Historical Review 81, no. 2 (June 2000): 262–63.

1. “Will of Abraham Henriques de Souza, 1773,” Island Record Office, Twickenham, Jamaica Lib. 41, fol. 171.

2. “Privilege Bill of Rebecca Souza, 1774,” The National Archives of the United Kingdom, Kew, United Kingdom, CO 139/31. I am deeply grateful to Professor Daniel Livesay for generously providing me with this reference.

3. “Will of Rebecca Souza, 1811,” Island Record Office, Lib. 84, fol. 16.

4. For recent studies of Jews of color in the Atlantic world, see Aviva Ben-Ur, Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society: Suriname in the Atlantic World, 1651–1825 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020), 138–91, and her chapter in the present volume; Laura Arnold Leibman, Once We Were Slaves: The Extraordinary Journey of a Multiracial Jewish Family (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021).

5. On white Jamaican anxiety about the Haitian Revolution, see Daniel Livesay, Children of Uncertain Fortune: Mixed-Race Jamaicans in Britain and the Atlantic Family, 1733–1833 (Chapel Hill: Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture; University of North Carolina Press, 2018), 238–39.

6. This view is most prominently expressed by Gad Heuman, Between Black and White: Race, Politics, and the Free Coloreds in Jamaica, 1792–1865 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1981), 15, 73.

7. My use of the terminology of entanglement draws from several influential studies, especially Jeffrey D. Burson, “Entangled History and the Scholarly Concept of Enlightenment,” Contributions to the History of Concepts 8, no. 2 (2013): 3; other critical studies include Michael Werner and Bénédicte Zimmerman, “Beyond Comparison: Histoire croisée and the Challenge of Reflexivity,” History and Theory 45, no. 1 (2006): 30–50; Eliga H. Gould, “Entangled Histories, Entangled Worlds: The English-Speaking Atlantic as a Spanish Periphery,” American Historical Review 112, no. 3 (2007): 764–86; Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, ed., Entangled Empires: The Anglo-Iberian Atlantic, 1500–1830 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018).

8. On the false binary between slavery and freedom in Jamaica, see Diana Paton, No Bond but the Law: Punishment, Race, and Gender in Jamaican State Formation, 1780–1870 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), esp. 5.

9. Edward B. Rugemer, Slave Law and the Politics of Resistance in the Early Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 128, 156. This represents a 60 percent increase from 1717 when 4,500 slaves were brought to Jamaica annually.

10. These figures are based on the population table in Brooke N. Newman, A Dark Inheritance: Blood, Race, and Sex in Colonial Jamaica (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 17. For an extensive quantitative analysis of British West Indian slave society, see B. W. Higman, Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984).

11. For the Dutch context of “half-freedom,” see A. Leon Higginbotham Jr., In the Matter of Color: Race & the American Legal Process, the Colonial Period (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 121–22; for the Spanish context, see Herman Lee Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico: Absolutism, Christianity, and Afro-Creole Consciousness, 1570–1640 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005).

12. Laura M. Smalligan, “An Effigy for the Enslaved: Jonkonnu in Jamaica and Belisario’s Sketches of Character,” Slavery & Abolition 32, no. 4 (2011): 561–81.

13. Rugemer, Slave Law, 120–24.

14. Rugemer, Slave Law, 165. For a comprehensive study of Tacky’s Revolt, see Vincent Brown, Tacky’s Revolt: The Story of an Atlantic Slave War (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2020).

15. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 31, 51–55; Rugemer, Slave Law, 129.

16. Robin Blackburn, “Introduction,” in Paths to Freedom: Manumission in the Atlantic World, ed. Rosemary Brana-Shute and Randy J. Sparks (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2009), 1–14.

17. David Beck Ryden, “Manumission in Late Eighteenth-Century Jamaica,” New West Indian Guide 92 (2018): 232–33.

18. Ryden, “Manumission in Late Eighteenth-Century Jamaica,” 232.

19. Marisa J. Fuentes, “Power and Historical Figuring: Rachael Pringle Polgreen’s Troubled Archive,” Gender & History 22, no. 3 (2010): 566n15.

20. Wieke Vink, Creole Jews: Negotiating Community in Colonial Suriname (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2010), 141n64. There were 3,714 free people of color in Curaçao in 1789. See Wim Klooster, “Manumission in an Entrepôt: The Case of Curaçao,” in Brana-Shute and Sparks, Paths to Freedom, 168.

21. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 113.

22. Stewart King, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Prerevolutionary Saint-Domingue (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001), 108.

23. On residency prohibitions against free people of color in Virginia, see Higginbotham, In the Matter of Color, 48; for South Carolina, see 175.

24. On the use of a security bond in New York, see Higginbotham, In the Matter of Color, 129.

25. Ryden, “Manumission in Late Eighteenth-Century Jamaica,” 212–14. For a nuanced recent discussion of sexual agency and coercion, see Jenny Shaw, “In the Name of the Mother: The Story of Susannah Mingo, a Woman of Color in the Early English Atlantic,” William and Mary Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2020): 185–88.

26. See John F. Campbell, “How Free Is Free? The Limits of Manumission,” in Brana-Shute and Sparks, Paths to Freedom, 143–59.

27. Heuman, Between Black and White, 4. Carol Barash, “The Character of Difference: The Creole Woman as Cultural Mediator in Narratives about Jamaica,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 23, no. 4 (1990): 410.

28. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 97; Heuman, Between Black and White, 15.

29. Erin Trahey, “Among Her Kinswomen: Legacies of Free Women of Color in Jamaica,” William and Mary Quarterly 76, no. 2 (2019): 272, 282–83; Fuentes, “Power and Historical Figuring,” 576, 580. Free people of color using slavery as a type of patronage for relatives is certainly not the case everywhere and in every instance. For an opposing perspective, see Susan M. Socolow, “Economic Roles of the Free Women of Color of Cap Français,” in More than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas, ed. David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 285.

30. Trahey, “Among Her Kinswomen,” 258–59, 282–83.

31. Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert, A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 58–59.

32. Stanley Mirvis, The Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica: A Testamentary History of a Diaspora in Transition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2020), 155–58.

33. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 99–100.

34. For discussions of Jewish population estimates in Jamaica, see Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 10–11, 29, 31, 57, 70, 71, 100–101.

35. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, chap. 6.

36. Natalie A. Zacek, “Great Tangled Cousinries? Jewish Intermarriage in the British West Indies,” in A Sefardic Pepper-Pot in the Caribbean, ed. Michael Studemund-Halévy (Barcelona: Tirocinio, 2016), 136–55.

37. Holly Snyder, “A Sense of Place: Jews, Identity, and Social Status in Colonial British America, 1654–1831” (PhD diss., Brandeis University, 2000), 137.

38. Livesay, Children of Uncertain Fortune, 309. The correlation of Jews and free people of color is central to Newman’s analysis; see Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 63, 105.

39. Nicholas Mirzoeff, “Introduction,” in Diaspora and Visual Culture: Representing Africans and Jews, ed. Nicholas Mirzoeff (New York: Routledge, 2000), 3–4.

40. George Fortunatus Judah, “The Jews’ Tribute in Jamaica: Extracted from the Journals of the House of Assembly of Jamaica,” Publication of the American Jewish Historical Society 18 (1909): 21; Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 61–62.

41. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 62.

42. Acts of the Assembly of Jamaica Passed in the Island of Jamaica from 1681 to 1737, Inclusive (London: Printed by John Baskett, 1738), 58. See the discussion of the 1711 law in Holly Snyder, “Rules, Rights and Redemption: The Negotiation of Jewish Status in British Atlantic Port Towns, 1740–1831,” Jewish History 20, no. 2 (2006): 158.

43. Daniel Livesay, “Privileging Kinship: Family and Race in Eighteenth-Century Jamaica,” Early American Studies 14, no. 4 (2016): 695.

44. For Jewish testimonials, see Stanley Mirvis, “Between Assembly and Crown: The Debate over Jewish Taxation in Jamaica (1692–1740),” Journal of Early American History 6 (2016): 215. For free people of color testimonials, see Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 64.

45. Heuman, Between Black and White, 5; Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 67.

46. Mirvis, “Between Assembly and Crown,” 213.

47. Livesay, Children of Uncertain Fortune, 32–52.

48. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 97.

49. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 65; Livesay, Children of Uncertain Fortune, 41–43.

50. Livesay, “Privileging Kinship,” esp. 692; Trahey, “Among Her Kinswomen,” 268, 270n3.

51. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 175–76.

52. Heuman, Between Black and White, 5.

53. Snyder, “Rules, Rights, and Redemption,” 158. On Sanches Morao’s censure by the London Mahamad, see “The Sexton of London to the Holy Community of Jamaica, 1751,” London Metropolitan Archives, London, England, LMA/4521/A/01/03/002.

54. Brooke N. Newman, “Contesting ‘Black’ Liberty and Subjecthood in the Anglophone Caribbean, 1730s–1780s,” Slavery & Abolition 32, no. 2 (2011): 178.

55. Newman, “Contesting ‘Black’ Liberty,” 177.

56. Jews lagged behind free people of color in asserting voting rights. In 1733, seventeen years before the Sanches Morao controversy, John Golding—a well-known mixed-race planter and activist—illegally cast a vote for his member of assembly. This provocative gesture resulted in a formal reiteration of the voting ban on free people of color. See Livesay, “Privileging Kinship,” 690–92.

57. Quoted from Snyder, “A Sense of Place,” 111.

58. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 123; Jack P. Greene, Settler Jamaica in the 1750s: A Social Portrait (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2016), 158–59.

59. Heuman, Between Black and White, 9.

60. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 71; Eli Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 65.

61. For Paramaribo, see Rosemarijn Hoefte and Jean Jacques Vrij, “Free Black and Colored Women in Early-Nineteenth-Century Paramaribo, Suriname,” in Beyond Bondage: Free Women of Color in the Americas, ed. David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 145–68. For Curaçao, see Klooster, “Manumission in an Entrepôt,” 162.

62. Edward Long, The History of Jamaica: or General Survey of the Antient and Modern State of That Island, 3 vols. (London: T. Lowndes, 1774), 2:62.

63. Long, History of Jamaica, 2:17–18 (Spanish Town), 2:28–29 (Kingston).

64. Heuman, Between Black and White, 10.

65. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 118–23.

66. Belisario’s Sketches of Character are reproduced in full in Tim Barringer, Gillian Forrester, and Barbaro Martinez-Ruiz, eds., Art and Emancipation in Jamaica: Isaac Mendes Belisario and His Worlds (New Haven: Yale Center for British Art in association with Yale University Press, 2007), 231–34.

67. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 58.

68. For militia service in Curaçao, see Klooster, “Manumission in an Entrepôt,” 168–69; Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 113.

69. Samuel J. Hurwitz and Edith F. Hurwitz, “A Token of Freedom: Private Bill Legislation for Free Negroes in Eighteenth-Century Jamaica,” William and Mary Quarterly 24, no. 3 (1967): 428.

70. Heuman, Between Black and White, 27.

71. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 258.

72. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 75.

73. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 258.

74. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 74.

75. James Robertson, “The ‘Confession Made by Cyrus’ Reconsidered: Maroons and Jews during Jamaica’s First Maroon War, 1728–1738/9,” in The Jews in the Caribbean, ed. Jane S. Gerber (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2014), 241–59.

76. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 74, 121.

77. Philippe Girard, “Isaac Sasportas, the 1799 Slave Conspiracy in Jamaica, and Sephardic Ties to the Haitian Revolution,” Jewish History 33 (2020): 403–35; Ẓvi Loker, “An Eighteenth-Century Plan to Invade Jamaica: Isaac Yeshurun Sasportas—French Patriot or Jewish Radical Idealist?,” Transactions & Miscellanies (Jewish Historical Society of England) 28 (1981–82): 132–44.

78. Long, History of Jamaica, 2:18 (Jews); 2:320 (free people of color).

79. Quoted in Livesay, Children of Uncertain Fortune, 125. “Portuguese” is often used synonymously with “Jew.”

80. Livesay, Children of Uncertain Fortune, 126.

81. For the stereotyping of Jews and Quakers in England, see Erin Bell, “‘Mrs. Weaver Being a Quaker, Would not Swear’: Representations of Quakers and Crime in the Metropolis ca. 1696–1815,” in Quakerism in the Atlantic World, 1690–1830, ed. Robynne Rogers Healey (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2021), 113–32.

82. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 87.

83. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 93.

84. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 75 (Sunday markets), 76 (collusion).

85. Fuentes, “Power and Historical Figuring,” 576.

86. Heuman, Between Black and White, 14.

87. Vink, Creole Jews, 115–16.

88. Mirvis, Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, 87.

89. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 55–59.

90. Heuman, Between Black and White, 25.

91. Livesay, “Privileging Kinship,” 708–9; Trahey, “Among Her Kinswomen,” 270.

92. Samuel J. Hurwitz and Edith Hurwitz, “The New World Sets an Example for the Old: The Jews of Jamaica and Political Rights, 1661–1831,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly 55, no. 1 (1965): 46. The authors quote the Committee of Correspondences, an interpretive legal body found in all English colonies.

93. Hurwitz and Hurwitz, “The New World Sets and Example for the Old,” 46; Snyder, “A Sense of Place,” 320.

94. Hurwitz and Hurwitz, “The New World Sets an Example for the Old,” 46. This position might find support in Jonathan Schorsch’s argument that Jews in the Atlantic world asserted a white identity in response to industrialized and racialized slavery. Jonathan Schorsch, Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 166–216.

95. Hurwitz and Hurwitz, “The New World Sets an Example for the Old,” 46.

96. Heuman, Between Black and White, 73.

97. Snyder, “A Sense of Place,” 320–21n93.

98. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 260; Heuman, Between Black and White, 29–37.

99. Snyder, “Rules, Rights, and Redemption,” 147–48.

100. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 262.

101. Heuman, Between Black and White, 49.

102. Quoted in Snyder, “A Sense of Place,” 321; Hurwitz and Hurwitz, “The New World Sets an Example for the Old,” 49.

103. Newman, A Dark Inheritance, 264.

104. Heuman, Between Black and White, 50.

105. Livesay, “Privileging Kinship,” 710.

106. Heuman, Between Black and White, 73.

107. Hurwitz and Hurwitz, “The New World Sets an Example for the Old,” 53.

108. Hurwitz and Hurwitz, “The New World Sets an Example for the Old,” 53.

1. H. L. Bromet, Aanspraak, gedaan in de sociëteit Felix Libertate, op den 7 maart 1795, het eerste jaar der Bataafse vrijheid (Amsterdam: J. H. Van Laar Mahuët, de Erven Jac. Benedictus, 1795), 3 (quote), 7.

2. The Dutch Republic was renamed the Batavian Republic after the French invasion of 1794–95.

3. Bromet, Aanspraak, 21–22.

4. Jacob R. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1492–1776, 3 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970), 3:1278–1302.

5. William Pencak, “The Jews in Early North America: Agents of Empire, Champions of Liberty,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 7: The Early Modern Period, 1500–1815, ed. Jonathan Karp and Adam Sutcliffe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 1009.

6. Jacob Marcus, “Jews and the American Revolution: A Bicentennial Documentary,” American Jewish Archives 27, no. 2 (1975): 213–16.

7. Geoffrey Symcox, “The Jews of Italy in the Triennio Giacobino, 1796–1799,” in Acculturation and Its Discontents: The Italian Jewish Experience between Exclusion and Inclusion, ed. David N. Myers et al. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008), 159.

8. David Nassy, Lettre politico-theologico-morale sur les Juifs (Paramaribo, [1799]), 70.

9. Renzo de Felice, “Gli ebrei nella repubblica romana del 1798–99,” Rassegna storica del Risorgimento 40 (1953): 340.

10. David Sorkin, Jewish Emancipation: A History across Five Centuries (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 61. In addition to toleration and equality, a third status obtained in eighteenth-century Livorno and Trieste, where Jews found themselves in an intermediate position between the abovementioned extremes. As subject nations, these Jewish communities were privileged corporate entities that enjoyed what Lois Dubin calls “civil inclusion.” Lois C. Dubin, “Subjects into Citizens: Jewish Autonomy and Inclusion in Early Modern Livorno and Trieste,” Jahrbuch des Simon Dubnow-Instituts 5, no. 1 (2006): 55.

11. An exception to the withholding of political rights was the measure introduced by Peter Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in April 1789 that gave Jews along with other non-Catholics political equality and allowed them to hold municipal office. The Jews of Livorno were explicitly excluded from this measure. Francesca Bregoli, “The Port of Livorno and Its Nazione Ebrea in the Eighteenth Century: Economic Utility and Political Reforms,” Quest: Issues in Contemporary Jewish History, no. 2 (October 2011): 65.

12. “Pétition des juifs établis en France, adressée à l’Assemblée Nationale,” January 28, 1790, in Adresses, mémoires et pétitions des juifs 1789–1794 (Paris: EDHIS, 1968), 17–18. While reflecting the demands and concerns of the northeastern Jews, this petition was actually written by Jacques Godard, a gentile lawyer from Lorraine.

13. A wealthy leader of the ghettoized local Jewish community, Formiggini was selected by Napoleon to serve in the parliament of the Cispadane Republic in October 1797. Federica Francesconi, “From Ghetto to Emancipation: The Role of Moisè Formiggini,” Jewish History 24, no. 3/4 (2010): 332, 333.

14. Francesconi, “From Ghetto to Emancipation,” 336, 345.

15. Lucien Simon and Anne-Marie Duport, Les juifs du Pape à Nîmes et la Révolution (Aix-en-Provence: Édisud, 1988), 35–37.

16. M. Liber, “Les Juifs et la convocation des États Généraux (suite),” Revue des études juives 65, no. 129 (1913): 93.

17. S. E. Bloemgarten, “De Amsterdamse joden gedurende de eerste jaren van de Bataafse Republiek (1795–1798) I,” Studia Rosenthaliana 1, no. 1 (1967): 92. Salvador Bloemgarten, Hartog de Hartog Lémon, 1755–1823: Joods revolutionair in Franse Tijd (Amsterdam: Aksant, 2007), 41, 59.

18. Jozeph Michman and Marion Aptroot, Storm in the Community: Yiddish Polemical Pamphlets of Amsterdam Jewry, 1797–1798 (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 2002), 120, 122.

19. Samuel Rezneck, Unrecognized Patriots: The Jews in the American Revolution (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975), 10.

20. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 3:1303.

21. David Sorkin, The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 27.

22. Sina Rauschenbach, “Patriots at the Periphery: David Nassy, the French Revolution, and the Emancipation of the Dutch Jews,” in Religious Changes and Cultural Transformations in the Early Modern Western Sephardic Communities, ed. Yosef Kaplan (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 592–93.

23. De Felice, “Gli ebrei nella repubblica romana,” 341–42.

24. Christopher Tozzi, “Jews, Soldiering, and Citizenship in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France,” Journal of Modern History 86, no. 2 (June 2014): 247.

25. Frances Malino, A Jew in the French Revolution: The Life of Zalkind Hourwitz (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), 81, 98–99. Tozzi, “Jews, Soldiering, and Citizenship,” 237.

26. Rezneck, Unrecognized Patriots, 24.

27. Mark I. Greenberg, “A ‘Haven of Benignity’: Conflict and Cooperation between Eighteenth-Century Savannah Jews,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 86, no. 4 (Winter 2002): 561.

28. Marcus, “Jews and the American Revolution,” 174–75.

29. Stanley F. Chyet, “The Political Rights of the Jews in the United States, 1776–1840,” American Jewish Archives 10, no. 1 (1958): 45.

30. Chyet, “Political Rights of the Jews,” 22–24, 31–32, 67.

31. David Vitale, A People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe, 1789–1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 17.

32. Ralf Roth, “‘. . . der blühende Handel macht uns alle glücklich. . . .’: Frankfurt am Main in der Umbruchszeit 1780–1825,” Historische Zeitschrift, Beihefte, n.s., 14 (1991): 393.

33. S. E. Bloemgarten, “De Amsterdamse joden gedurende de eerste jaren van de Bataafse Republiek (1795–1798) II,” Studia Rosenthaliana 1, no. 2 (1967): 45–47.

34. Zosa Szajkowski, Jews and the French Revolutions of 1789, 1830 and 1848 (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1970), 45–46.

35. Jacques Godechot, “Les juifs de Nancy de 1789 à 1795,” Revue des études juives 86, no. 128 (1929): 13.

36. David Sorkin, The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 197–98.

37. Roland Goetschel, “L’hostilité du monde hassidique à la Révolution française,” in Les juifs et la Révolution française: Histoire et mentalités. Actes du colloque tenu au Collège de France et à l’Ecole Normale Supérieure les 16, 17 et 18 mai 1989, ed. Mireille Hadas-Lebel and Evelyne Oliel-Grausz (Louvain: E. Peeters, 1992), 273.

38. Quoted in Malino, A Jew in the French Revolution, 71.

39. Chobaut, “Les Juifs d’Avignon et du Comtat (suite et fin),” 32–33. Not until 1800 did the Jews have their synagogue back.

40. Éric Hartmann, La Révolution française en Alsace et en Lorraine (Paris: Perrin, 1990), 451–52. Nigel Aston, Religion and Revolution in France, 1780–1804 (Washington, DC: Catholic Press of America, 2000), 256. Similarly, more than a few Catholic priests abjured the priesthood, usually under some form of pressure.

41. Aston, Religion and Revolution in France, 255.

42. Ulrich Wyrwa, Juden in der Toskana und in Preussen im Vergleich: Aufklärung und Emanzipation in Florenz, Livorno, Berlin und Königsberg i. Pr. (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), 153–54.

43. Carlo Mangio, Politica toscana e rivoluzione: Momenti di storia livornese, 1790–1801 (Pisa: Pacini, 1974), 93–95; Carlo Mangio, “La communauté juive de Livourne face à la Révolution française,” in Les Juifs et la Révolution française: Problèmes et aspirations, ed. Bernhard Blumenkranz and Albert Soboul (Toulouse: Edouard Privat, 1976), 196. Wyrwa, Juden in der Toskana und in Preussen, 159.

44. Wyrwa, Juden in der Toskana und in Preussen, 164–65.

45. Some Jews in the city of Groningen did the same: E. Schut, De joodse gemeenschap in de stad Groningen 1689–1796 (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1995), 173.

46. Jozeph Michman, The History of Dutch Jewry during the Emancipation Period, 1787–1815: Gothic Turrets on a Corinthian Building (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1995), 15–19. Bloemgarten, Hartog de Hartog Lémon, 25–26.

47. Bloemgarten, Hartog de Hartog Lémon, 48–49. Michman, History of Dutch Jewry, 55.

48. Bloemgarten, “Amsterdamse joden I,” 83–84. Bloemgarten, “Amsterdamse joden II,” 70.

49. Marco H. D. van Leeuwen, “Arme Amsterdamse joden en de strijd om hun integratie aan het begin van de negentiende eeuw,” in De Gelykstaat der Joden: Inburgering van een minderheid, ed. Hetty Berg (Amsterdam: Joods Historisch Museum; Zwolle: Waanders Uitgevers, 1996), 61.

50. Bloemgarten, “Amsterdamse joden I,” 69. S. E. Bloemgarten, “De Amsterdamse joden gedurende de eerste jaren van de Bataafse Republiek (1795–1798) III,” Studia Rosenthaliana 2, no. 1 (1968): 44. Bloemgarten, Hartog de Hartog Lémon, 136–41, 144.

51. Isaac S. Emmanuel and Suzanne A. Emmanuel, History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, 2 vols. (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1970), 1:281–82.

52. Rezneck, Unrecognized Patriots, 137. Hays later did take the oath.

53. William Pencak, Jews and Gentiles in Early America, 1654–1800 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005), 228.

54. Paolo Bernardini, La sfida dell’uguaglianza: Gli ebrei a Mantova nell’età della rivoluzione francese (Rome: Bulzoni, 1996), 234. One of the few exceptions was Mantua rabbi Abram Vita Cologna, who served on the legislative body of the Cisalpine Republic. The same man would later be the vice-president of the Grand Sanhedrin convened by Napoleon before serving as the chief rabbi of France.

55. Michman, History of Dutch Jewry, 30–33.

56. Steven M. Lowenstein, The Berlin Jewish Community: Enlightenment, Family, and Crisis, 1770–1830 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 82.

57. Their names were Roosi Arons, Lea Benjamin, Sara Benjamin, Judik Israel, Anna Levi, Sara S. de Vries, Sara Phlip, Rebekka Levie Rutje, and Judith Wolf. Nationaal Archief, The Netherlands, Archieven van de Wetgevende Colleges van de Bataafse Republiek en het Koninkrijk Holland, 358, address by mothers, citizenesses, and Batavian residents to the First Chamber of the Representative Body, July 8, 1799; 359, address by Johanna van Haren et al. to the Representative Body, August 28, 1799. I am grateful to Elisa Hendriks and Joris Oddens for unearthing these documents and to Oddens for making them available to me. See Elisa Hendriks and Joris Oddens, “Bataafse vrouwen, politieke rechten en het digitaliseringsproject Revolutionaire Petities: Twee onbekende verzoekschriften uit het jaar 1799,” Holland: Historisch tijdschrift 52, no. 1 (2020): 11–19.

58. Malino, A Jew in the French Revolution, 149–50.

59. Frances Malino, The Sephardic Jews of Bordeaux: Assimilation and Emancipation in Revolutionary and Napoleonic France (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1978), 41–42.

60. Paul R. Hanson, The Jacobin Republic under Fire: The Federalist Revolt in the French Revolution (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003), 162.

61. Malino, Sephardic Jews of Bordeaux, 60–61. See for the ties Furtado and other Jewish intellectuals maintained with the Abbé Grégoire: Alyssa Goldstein Sepinwall, “Strategic Friendships: Jewish Intellectuals, the Abbé Grégoire, and the French Revolution,” in Renewing the Past, Reconfiguring Jewish Culture: From Al-Andalus to the Haskalah, ed. Ross Brann and Adam Sutcliffe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 189–212.

62. Gershom Scholem, Du frankisme au jacobinisme: La vie de Moses Dobruška alias Franz Thomas von Schönfeld alias Junius Frey (Paris: Gallimard, Le Seuil, 1981), 43, 58, 64, 66–69. Susanne Wölfle-Fischer, Junius Frey (1753–1794): Jude, Aristokrat und Revolutionär (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1997), 69, 81–85.

63. Scholem, Du frankisme au jacobinisme, 70–75, 84. Wölfle-Fischer, Junius Frey, 95–99.

64. Walter Grab, Ein Volk muß seine Freiheit selbst erobern: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Jakobiner (Frankfurt am Main: Büchergilde Gutenberg; Vienna: Olten, 1984), 476–77.

65. Nassy, Lettre politico-theologico-morale, 20.

66. Nassy, Lettre politico-theologico-morale, xxxiii–xxxiv.

67. Nassy, Lettre politico-theologico-morale, xx, xxiv.

68. Rauschenbach, “Patriots at the Periphery,” 597–98.

69. Natalie Zemon Davis, “Judges, Masters, Diviners: Slaves’ Experience of Criminal Justice in Colonial Suriname,” Law and History Review 29, no. 4 (November 2011): 976.

70. Philippe Girard, “Isaac Sasportas, the 1799 Slave Conspiracy in Jamaica, and Sephardic Ties to the Haitian Revolution,” Jewish History 33 (2020): 403–35.

1. John Dixon, “Rethinking American Jewish Citizenship: George Washington’s Newport Letter in Atlantic Perspective,” paper presented at the “Atlantic Jewish Worlds, 1500–1900” conference, the McNeil Center for Early American Studies, in partnership with the Herbert D. Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies, University of Pennsylvania, April 7–8, 2021 (cited with his permission).

2. London Metropolitan Archives (henceforth LMA), LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, September 23, 1810 (24 Elul 5570). The laborers are alternatively denoted as “girls” and “women employed . . . as labourers . . . hired the preceding week.” It is unclear whether they were enslaved.

3. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, September 23, 1810 (24 Elul 5570).

4. Melanie J. Newton, The Children of Africa in the Colonies: Free People of Color in Barbados in the Age of Emancipation (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008), 41.

5. Matthew C. Reilly, “‘Poor Whites’ on the Peripheries: ‘Poor White’ and Afro-Barbadian Interaction on the Plantation,” in Archaeologies of Slavery and Freedom in the Caribbean, ed. Lynsey A. Bates, John M. Chenoweth, and James A. Delle (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2016), 51; Karl Stewart Watson, “‘Walk and Nyam Buckras’: Poor-White Emigration from Barbados, 1834–1900,” Journal of Caribbean History 34, nos. 1–2 (2000): 130–56.

6. Reilly, “‘Poor Whites’ on the Peripheries,” 52.

7. Reilly, “‘Poor Whites’ on the Peripheries,” 64.

8. E. M. Shilstone, “The Jewish Synagogue,” in Chapters in Barbados History, First Series, ed. P. F. Campbell (St. Anne’s Garrison: Barbados Museum and Historical Society, 1986), 146, 148.

9. Pedro L. V. Welch, Slave Society in the City: Bridgetown, Barbados, 1680–1834 (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2003), 122.

10. Shilstone, “The Jewish Synagogue,” 144; Eric R. Seeman, “Jews in the Early Modern Atlantic: Crossing Boundaries, Keeping Faith,” in The Atlantic in Global History, 1599–1800, ed. Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra and Erik R. Seeman (New York: Routledge, 2007), 43.

11. LMA, LMA 4521/D/01/01/002, Joseph Barrow to the Nidhe Israel Mahamad, February 3, 1803 (“few remaining members”; “small community”); Mr. Mendes Da Costa (presidente) to Joseph Barrow, Isaac Baruh Lousada, and Isaac DePiza Massiah (London), August 30, 1805 (“decayed & almost annihilated congregation of Jews in this island”; “small community”); LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, Abraham Brandon to Raphael Brandon and J. S. Brandon, February 7, 1809 (“paucity of our members”); July 2, 1815 (“community . . . reduced in number”); Abraham Lindo (presidente) to Messrs. Barrow & Lousadas (the congregation’s Portuguese Jewish agents in London), June 22, 1817 (“paucity of our members”). By 1820, the community had dwindled to thirty-five individuals. LMA, LMA 4521/D/01/01/08, July 3, 1820, 22.

12. Eli Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Jonathan Schorsch, Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Wieke Vink, Creole Jews: Negotiating Community in Colonial Suriname (Leiden: KITLV, 2010); Stanley Mirvis, The Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica: A Testamentary History of a Diaspora in Transition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2020) and his chapter in the present volume; Aviva Ben-Ur, Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society: Suriname in the Atlantic World, 1651–1825 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020).

13. Stephanie Jones-Rogers, “‘[S]he could . . . spare one ample breast for the profit of her owner’: White Mothers and Enslaved Wet Nurses’ Invisible Labor in American Slave Markets,” Slavery & Abolition 38, no. 2 (2017): 337–55; Jessica Marie Johnson, Wicked Flesh: Black Women, Intimacy, and Freedom in the Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020). I thank Ellen Hartigan-O’Connor for her suggestion of the term “close body work.”

14. Larry Gragg, The Quaker Community of Barbados: Challenging the Culture of the Planter Class (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2009), 37, 59, 76, 92; Marisa J. Fuentes, Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), 28; Newton, Children of Africa in the Colonies; Hilary McD. Beckles, A History of Barbados: From Amerindian Settlement to Nation-State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and A History of Barbados: From Amerindian Settlement to Caribbean Single Market, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

15. For statistics, see Alfred D. Chandler, “The Expansion of Barbados,” in Campbell, Chapters in Barbados History, 61, 65; Richard S. Dunn, “The Barbados Census of 1680: Profile of the Richest Colony in English America,” William and Mary Quarterly 26, no. 1 (1969): 7–9; Jerome Handler and F. Lange, Plantation Slavery in Barbados: An Archaeological and Historical Investigation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 16–17.

16. Michael Gomez, Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 59; Judith Ann Carney and Richard Nicholas Rosomoff, In the Shadow of Slavery: Africa’s Botanical Legacy in the Atlantic World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 174; Hishaam Aidi and Manning Marable, “The Early Muslim Presence and Its Significance,” in Black Routes to Islam, ed. Manning Marable and Hishaam Aidi (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2009), 6.

17. Richard Hall, Acts Passed in the Island of Barbados, from 1643, to 1762, inclusive (London: Printed for Richard Hall, 1764), 5; Katharine Gerbner, Christian Slavery: Conversion and Race in the Protestant Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018).

18. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, April 15, 1808.

19. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, Joseph Barrow, Isaac Baruh Lousada, and Isaac DePiza Massiah, August 30, 1805; Mr. Mendes Da Costa (presidente) to Joseph Barrow, Isaac Baruh Lousada, and Isaac DePiza Massiah (London), April 15, 1808.

20. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, April 15, 1808; July 3, 1808 (“to teach the poor children gratis”).

21. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, March 18, 1798 (1 Nisan 5558).

22. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, August 20, 1809, and LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, September 18, 1822.

23. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, March 29, 1810. See also April 26, 1818.

24. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, April 11, 1811 (Angel Massiah’s request for an addition to her pension granted at 12 shillings 6 pence per month); LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, September 12, 1822.

25. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, October 11, 1812, August 20, 1820; LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, July 15, 1821.

26. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, August 16, 1804. The word banyadeiras is underscored and appears without the apostrophe.

27. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, February 25 and August 14, 1806.

28. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, July 31, 1806.

29. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, August 14, 1806. In the original, the words appear as “bath.” and “bathg.” and “improper” is underscored.

30. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002.

31. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/09, Duties of the Public Officers of Kaal Kadosh Nidhe Israel, “Keeper of the Bath,” 6 (unpaginated).

32. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, September 23, 1810.

33. Charles William Day, Five Years’ Residence in the Indies, 2 vols. (London: Colburn and Co., 1852), 1:62.

34. Neville Connell, “Hotel Keepers and Hotels,” in Campbell, Chapters in Barbados History, 106.

35. The National Archives of the United Kingdom (henceforth TNAUK), T 71.520, 1817, 193.

36. Fuentes, Dispossessed Lives.

37. Connell, “Hotel Keepers and Hotels,” 107.

38. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, January 22, 1809. For a different treatment of the Abendana case, see Laura Arnold Leibman, Once We Were Slaves: The Extraordinary Journey of a Multiracial Jewish Family (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021), 46–49.

39. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, October 8, 1809.

40. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, August 25, 1811.

41. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, April 27, 1812.

42. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, June 7, 1812.

43. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, September 4, 1812; October 11, 1812 (three children).

44. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, October 11, 1812. Albert Montefiore Hyamson, The Sephardim of England: A History of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish Community, 1492–1951 (London: Methuen, 1951), notes that “no reason” for Abendana’s dismissal was recorded.

45. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, October 18, 1812.

46. LMA, LMA/4521/A/01/03/009, Minutes of the Meeting of the Mahamad [London], June 2, 1826.

47. Johnson, Wicked Flesh, 39. For additional treatments of this topic, see Gerbner, Christian Slavery, 78 (enslaved women had “little choice or say”); Kirsten Fischer and Jennifer Morgan, “Sex, Race, and the Colonial Project,” William and Mary Quarterly 60, no. 1 (2003): 197; Sharon Block, Rape and Sexual Power in Early America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Wendy Anne Warren, “‘The Cause of Her Grief’: The Rape of a Slave in Early New England,” Journal of American History 93, no. 4 (2007): 1031–49; Saidiya V. Hartman, “Venus in Two Acts,” Small Axe 26 (2008): 1–14; Fuentes, Dispossessed Lives; and Marisa J. Fuentes, “Power and Historical Figuring: Rachael Pringle Polgreen’s Troubled Archive,” Gender & History 22, no. 3 (2010): 564–84.

48. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, September 12, 1832.

49. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/005, October 23, 1832.

50. National Archief Nederland, Nederlands Portugees-Israëlitische Gemeente, Suriname, inv. no. 423, pp. 14, 19, 37 (Abigail, daughter of the “Mustiça/molata” Simha de Meza).

51. National Archief Nederland, Gouvernement Secretaris, inv. no. 538.

52. TNAUK, T 71.520, 1817, 143, 161, 343; The Barbados Mercury and Bridge-Town Gazette, passim.

53. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/005, October 21 and October 23, 1832 (for the quote).

54. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/005, October 23, 1832.

55. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/005, November 12, 1832.

56. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, April 28, 1806. The word “coloured” appears as “cold.”

57. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, February 15, 1801; April 15, 1801; Eliezer Montefiore (presidente) and Jos. Barrow (treasurer) to Messrs. Barrow Lousada and Co. (London); August 21, 1801.

58. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, January 30 and April 19, 1803.

59. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, 3 Elul 5565 [August 28, 1805]; March 28 and December 14, 1806. Hazanim were permitted to speculate in real estate.

60. TNAUK, T 71.520, 1817, 49; LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, September 2, 1832. His salary was reduced to £150 in 1832 as part of the retrenchment measures following the 1831 hurricane.

61. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, April 19, 1821.

62. Newton, Children of Africa in the Colonies, 68.

63. Karl Watson, “Shifting Identities: Religion, Race, and Creolization among the Sephardi Jews of Barbados, 1654–1900,” in The Jews in the Caribbean, ed. Jane S. Gerber (Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2014), 220.

64. Watson, “Shifting Identities.” See also Leibman, Once We Were Slaves; Laura Arnold Leibman, The Art of the Jewish Family: A History of Women in Early New York in Five Objects (New York: Bard Graduate Center, 2020), chap. 3; Hannah Ruth London, Miniatures of Early American Jews (Rutland, VT: C. E. Tuttle, [1953]), 34.

65. Watson, “Shifting Identities,” 220.

66. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, May 15, 1796.

67. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, September 4, 1796.

68. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, April 3, 1798. An additional nine men contributed £50 and above.

69. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, September 11 and 27, 1803; LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, September 13 and 17, 1809.

70. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/002, 15 Iyar 5565 [May 14, 1805].

71. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, March 29, 1810; March 10, 1819; TNAUK, T 71.520, 1817, 52–56.

72. He served actively in one or more offices, as documented in the communal minutes, from 1810 to 1826.

73. The fear that the schism would destroy “our religious establishment” is expressed by Benjamin Elkin in LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, September 13, 1820.

74. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/003, April 18, 1813; Ben-Ur, Jewish Autonomy in a Slave Society, 158.

75. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/09, passim; The Barbados Mercury and Bridge-Town Gazette, August 19, 1820, 2–3.

76. TNAUK, T 71.520, 1817, 360, 348, 429.

77. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, July 3, 1820, 16–17.

78. Leibman, Once We Were Slaves, 95; Jonathan Sarna, American Judaism: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 48.

79. Another Eurafrican Jew was Benjamin Massiah who, along with one Henry Aaron, signed “the former counter-petition,” which was perhaps an earlier version of it, as they were not included among the final signatories. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, July 3, 1820, 30.

80. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, April 30, 1820.

81. The Barbados Mercury and Bridge-Town Gazette, August 19, 1820, 2–3.

82. LMA, LMA/4531/D/01/01/004, February 18, 1821.

83. Melanie J. Newton, “The King v. Robert James, a Slave, for Rape: Inequality, Gender, and British Slave Amelioration, 1823–1834,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 47, no. 3 (July 2005): 601–2.

84. Newton, Children of Africa in the Colonies, iv, 2.

85. Newton, Children of Africa in the Colonies, 8.

86. LMA, LMA/4521/D/01/01/004, December 10, 1820, 65 (for quote), and LMA/4521/D/01/01/06, January 30, 1837; April 12 and May 8, 1838.

87. Stephen Alexander Fortune, Merchants and Jews: The Struggle for British West Indian Commerce, 1650–1750 (Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1984), 96.

88. Reilly, “‘Poor Whites’ on the Peripheries,” 56.

89. Reilly, “‘Poor Whites’ on the Peripheries,” 56.

90. Salo Wittmayer Baron, “The Jewish Factor in Medieval Civilization,” Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 12 (1942): 1–48. See also Joseph Shatzmiller, Jews, Christians, and Art in the Medieval Marketplace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013); Lena Roos, ‘God wants it!’: The Ideology of Martyrdom in the Hebrew Crusade Chronicles and Its Jewish and Christian Background (Turnhout: Brepols, 2006), chap. 2; Elka Klein, Jews, Christian Society, and Royal Power in Medieval Barcelona (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), 195. By citing sources from the medieval era, I make an a fortiori argument for early modernity.

1. Thomas Jefferson Moïse, “Letter from Thomas Jefferson Moïse to Isaac Leeser,” October 19, 1850, Jesselson-Kaplan American Genizah Project. For Thomas Jefferson Moïse, see Frederick A. Ford, Census of the City of Charleston, South Carolina, for the Year 1861 (Charleston: Evans & Cogswell, 1861), 99 and 167. Thomas Jefferson Moïse is listed at 27 Pickney Street and 6 Hayne Street under the name T. J. & C. H. Moise & Co.

2. Arthur Kiron, “Biographical Sketch of Isaac Leeser,” Gershwind-Bennett Isaac Leeser Digital Repository, 2012, https://library.upenn.edu, 1–6.

3. “The Late Rev. Isaac Leeser,” The Occident and American Jewish Advocate, March 1868, Historical Jewish Press, 594.

4. Leeser’s duties as hazan were a subject of contention between Leeser himself and the board of the congregation. See this important article on the work of hazanim: Shari Rabin, “Working Jews: Hazanim and the Labor of Religion in Nineteenth-Century America,” Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 25, no. 2 (2015): 178–217.

5. “Leeser’s tenure at Mikveh Israel was marked by constant bickering with the Board of the synagogue over the extent of the Hazan’s authority, his status and independence, as well as over Leeser’s on-going demands for a life-time contract and salary increase. The Board also resisted several innovations by Leeser, such as his introduction into the weekly service of a regular English language sermon.” Kiron, “Biographical Sketch of Isaac Leeser,” 1–2. See also Lance J. Sussman, Isaac Leeser and the Making of American Judaism (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996), 56–59, 71, 118–20, 175.

6. Rudolf Glanz, “Where the Jewish Press Was Distributed in Pre-Civil War America,” Western States Jewish Historical Quarterly 5 (1972): 1–14. Glanz’s sole focus on subscribers in the United States is problematic. However, Glanz was mainly interested in understanding and tracking Jewish communities in America, part of a cohort of American Jewish historians who did not consider the Caribbean or the larger Atlantic world as part of their study.

7. Robert Singerman, “The American Jewish Press, 1823–1983: A Bibliographic Survey of Research and Studies,” American Jewish History 73, no. 4 (1984): 422–44.

8. Arthur A. Goren, “The Jewish Press in the U.S.” Kesher, no. 6 (1989): 4e–22e. Goren’s other focus was the use of the English language. He devotes most of the article to the Yiddish press.

9. Jonathan D. Sarna, “The History of the Jewish Press in North America,” Alexander Brinn Forum, 1994, 2.

10. Arthur Kiron, “An Atlantic Jewish Republic of Letters?,” Jewish History 20, no. 2 (2006): 171–211.

11. Adam Mendelsohn, “Tongue Ties: The Emergence of the Anglophone Jewish Diaspora in the Mid-Nineteenth Century,” American Jewish History 93, no. 2 (2007): 181.

12. Shari Rabin, Jews on the Frontier: Religion and Mobility in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: New York University Press, 2017). Shari Rabin, “The ‘American Israelite’ and American Israelites in the Era of Citizenship,” in Yearning to Breathe Free, ed. Adam Mendelsohn and Jonathan D. Sarna (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2022), 275–305.

13. Bertram Wallace Korn, “Isaac Leeser: Centennial Reflections,” American Jewish Archives 19, no. 2 (1967): 133.

14. Korn, “Isaac Leeser: Centennial Reflections,” 136.

15. Sussman, Isaac Leeser and the Making of American Judaism.

16. Rev. Isaac Leeser, “Introductory Remarks,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, April 1843, Historical Jewish Press, National Library of Israel, https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/occ/1843/04/01/01/article/1.

17. Rev. Isaac Leeser, “Third List of Subscribers to the Occident,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, March 1845, Historical Jewish Press, National Library of Israel, https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/occ/1845/03/01/01/article/10.

18. Brian Findlay, “Subscription Publishing,” in The Oxford Companion to the Book, ed. Michael Suarez, S. J. Woudhuysen, and H. R. Woudhuysen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198606536.001.0001/acref-9780198606536-e-4727.

19. We know that Leeser issued a prospectus for The Occident in 1842, and he wrote to his uncle, Zalma Rehiné, in 1842 discussing how many subscribers he had procured. See Isaac Leeser, “Letter from Isaac Leeser to Zalma Rehine,” October 19, 1842, Jesselson-Kaplan American Genizah Project. In later wrappers for The Occident, Leeser issued prospectuses, but they are reflections on the paper’s publication for the previous year, rather than a call for subscriptions. See Isaac Leeser, “Prospectus for the Occident, Vol. IV,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, March 1846, sec. Advertising Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia. It is important to note that Leeser did not seem to depend on The Occident for income. Leeser wrote that The Occident barely broke even, and Leeser’s will indicates that numerous subscribers owed him money.

20. Brian Findlay, “Subscription List,” in Suarez, Woudhuysen, and Woudhuysen, The Oxford Companion to the Book, https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198606536.001.0001/acref-9780198606536-e-4726. See also Francis J. G. Robinson and Peter J. Wallis, Book Subscription Lists: A Revised Guide (Newcastle upon Tyne: Harold Hill & Son, 1975).

21. Rev. Isaac Leeser, The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, April 1846, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia. “At our own expense” indicates that The Occident would pay for the publication of the announcement rather than the congregation or society.

22. Mayer Sulzberger functioned in this authoritative role for a year after Leeser’s death. Jonah Bondi did as well when he helped Leeser during the 1860s, but Leeser was the primary authority figure.

23. Ryan Cordell, “Reprinting, Circulation, and the Network Author in Antebellum Newspapers,” American Literary History 27, no. 3 (September 1, 2015): 418.

24. When Cordell references republication he means an article’s virality. He wrote, “Like some viral content online today, which can become noteworthy because of its virality, the system of newspaper exchanges produced a kind of feedback loop, in which texts circulated because of their perceived value to readers while that perceived value was often tied to a given piece’s wide circulation.” Cordell, “Reprinting, Circulation,” 417–18.

25. Sophia Tobias, “Letter from Sophia Tobias to Rev. Isaac Leeser,” November 7, 1849, Jesselson-Kaplan American Genizah Project, http://leeser.library.upenn.edu/documentDisplay.php?id=LSKAP0257.

26. “Ladies Sewing Association in New York, of the Congregation Shearith Israel,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, December 1849, Historical Jewish Press, https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/occ/1849/12/01/01/article/9.

27. An important article that connects American Jewish women and their involvement in Jewish religious pursuits during the nineteenth century to other religious developments in the United States is Jonathan D. Sarna, “‘God Loves an Infant’s Praise’: Cultural Borrowing and Cultural Resistance in Two Nineteenth-Century American Jewish Sunday-School Texts,” Jewish History 27, no. 1 (2013): 73–89.

28. Nathaniel Levine, “Letter from Nathaniel Levine to Rev. Isaac Leeser,” March 3, 1867, Jesselson-Kaplan American Genizah Project, http://leeser.library.upenn.edu/documentDisplay.php?id=LSTCAT_item26.

29. “Charleston, S.C.,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, April 1867, sec. News Items, Historical Jewish Press, National Library of Israel, https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/occ/1867/04/01/01/article/10.

30. Rev. Isaac Leeser, The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, August 1863, sec. Advertising Wrapper, Historical Jewish Press, National Library of Israel, https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/occ/1863/08/02/01/article/3.1.

31. Leeser, “Introductory Remarks.”

32. Leeser, “Introductory Remarks.”

33. Rev. Isaac Leeser, The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, May 1846, sec. Advertising Wrapper, The Library Company of Philadelphia, 6.

34. For more, see Joseph M. Adelman, Revolutionary Networks: The Business and Politics of Printing the News, 1763–1789 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019).

35. M. B. Simmons, “Letter from M.B. Simmons to Rev. Isaac Leeser,” June 22, 1843, Jesselson-Kaplan American Genizah Project, http://leeser.library.upenn.edu/documentDisplay.php?id=LSKAP0029.

36. Simmons, “Letter from M.B. Simmons to Rev. Isaac Leeser.”

37. In addition, if payments were going through an agent intermediary (subscriber ◊ agent ◊ Leeser), this would assure both agent and subscriber that payment was reaching the editor in Philadelphia and no foul play was at hand.

38. Rev. Isaac Leeser, “Occident Advertiser,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, May 1846, sec. Advertising Wrapper, The Library Company of Philadelphia, 3. To be clear, double cover meant that instead of the original two pages (four usable sides) used for the wrapper (1r, 1v, 2r, 2v), now four pages (eight useable sides) would be used (1r, 1v, 2r, 2v, 3r, 3v, 4r, 4v), in effect doubling the advertising space. A wrapper is defined by The Oxford Companion to the Book as “a cover for a book or pamphlet without boards—typically paper.” See “Wrapper,” in Suarez, Woudhuysen, and Woudhuysen, The Oxford Companion to the Book. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198606536.001.0001/acref-9780198606536-e-5304.

39. The notes following The Occident’s third subscription list indicate that Leeser felt the demands of the precarious newspaper business in 1845. The loss of subscribers meant lost revenue. Therefore, as Leeser explains, he could not hire anyone to help with the work of publishing The Occident: “the labour of which falls to our lot is heavy indeed, as the receipts will not permit us to obtain any but voluntary assistance, without running the risk of a loss which we cannot afford.” Leeser, “Third List of Subscribers,” 616.

40. Rosalind Remer, “Preachers, Peddlers, and Publishers: Philadelphia’s Backcountry Book Trade, 1800–1830,” Journal of the Early Republic 14, no. 4 (1994): 499.

41. Isaac Leeser, “Occident Advertiser,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, May 1846, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia.

42. Mendelsohn, “Tongue Ties,” 180.

43. Kiron, “An Atlantic Jewish Republic of Letters?,” 181.

44. Isaac Leeser, “Consecration of the New Synagogue, Kenesseth Shalom, at Syracuse, New York,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, October 1851, sec. News Items, Historical Jewish Press.

45. Isaac Leeser, The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, November 1851, sec. Wrapper, University of Pennsylvania.

46. Leeser never traveled to the Caribbean or to California. He made it as far west as Saint Louis, Missouri, and as far south as New Orleans, Louisiana.

47. Isaac Leeser, “To Our Readers,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, April 1852, Historical Jewish Press, 2.

48. Leeser, “To Our Readers” (April 1852), 1.

49. “United States Jewish Population,” Current Jewish Population Reports (Jewish Federations of North America, Berman Jewish Data Bank), 2017, https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/US_Jewish_Population_2017_AJYB_DataBank_Final.pdf, 9.

50. Leeser, “To Our Readers” (April 1852), 1.

51. Remer, “Preachers, Peddlers, and Publishers,” 499.

52. Remer, “Preachers, Peddlers, and Publishers,” 499.

53. While Leeser reflects in The Occident on his travels, more work needs to be done to assess what exactly he did during these trips.

54. It is important to note that Leeser edited two different prayer books for different rites (nusach): Sidur Siphthei Tzaddikim / The Form of Prayers According to the Custom of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews (1st edition, 1837), and Siddur Divrei Tsadikim / The Book of Daily Prayers for Every Day in the Year According to the Custom of the German and Polish Jews (1st edition, 1848).

55. Rev. Isaac Leeser, The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, August 1843, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia; Isaac Leeser, The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, September 1843, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia, 3.

56. Rev. Isaac Leeser, The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, April 1844, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia.

57. Rev. Isaac Leeser, “To Our Readers,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, March 1845, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia, 3. Leeser did not make a profit from The Occident nor his other publications, at least initially. The hazan led a modest life and for many years lived as a border with the Cozens family of Philadelphia. Leeser’s amended will shows a long list of debtors that still owed him money.

58. Rev. Isaac Leeser, “Will Be Issued about the Fifth of June, The Law of God, Volume One. Containing The Book of Genesis, Hebrew and English,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, June 1845, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia, 3.

59. Leeser, “Will Be Issued about the Fifth of June.”

60. Rev. Isaac Leeser, “Now Ready, The Law of God, Volume One. Containing The Book of Genesis, Hebrew and English,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, September 1845, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia, 3.

61. Rev. Isaac Leeser, untitled notice, The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, December 1845, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia, 2.

62. Rev. Isaac Leeser, “Completion of The Law of God, in Five Volumes,” The Occident, and American Jewish Advocate, March 1846, sec. Wrapper, Library Company of Philadelphia, 3.

63. Rabbi Lance J. Sussman, “Another Look at Isaac Leeser and the First Jewish Translation of the Bible in the United States,” Modern Judaism 5, no. 2 (1985): 172.

64. See Gavin I. Langmuir, History, Religion, and Antisemitism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990) and Gavin I. Langmuir, Toward a Definition of Antisemitism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).

65. Rev. Isaac Leeser, Instruction in the Mosaic Religion (Philadelphia: A. Waldie, 1830), viii.

66. Rev. Isaac Leeser, The Jews and the Mosaic Law (Printed for the author, and sold by E. L. Carey and A. Hart, 1834).

67. Rev. Isaac Leeser, Discourses, Argumentative and Devotional, on the Subject of the Jewish Religion: Delivered at the Synagogue Mikveh Israel, in Philadelphia, in the Years 5590–5593 (Philadelphia: Haswell and Fleu, 1842), 295–96.

68. Rev. Isaac Leeser, “Advertisement” (1842), Jesselson-Kaplan American Genizah Project, http://leeser.library.upenn.edu/documentDisplay.php?id=LSTCAT_item205.