INDEX

• Abenaki, 250n21
• Abercromby, James, 164, 261n48
• Acadia, 153
• Adandidaghko, 66
• adaptation, 2–6, 12, 33, 38, 44–59, 87, 91, 105, 136, 139–41, 160, 186, 208–11
• Adems, Robert, 189–90
• Adirondack Mountains, 22
• Adriochten, 38, 39
• Aekontjaekon, 118
• agricultural production by Indigenous women, 2–4, 28–30, 33, 51, 71, 102, 118, 124, 127–28, 162, 171, 185, 189, 192, 196; corn, beans, and squash (“three sisters”), 2, 3, 29, 189, 199, 201, 211; crop failures, 32, 51, 71, 161–63, 165, 167–69, 174, 183–84, 209, 260n43; destroyed by American Continental Army, 176, 193–95; destroyed by French military, 44, 65–66, 69–73, 78, 94, 176
• agriculture, colonial modes of, 29, 161, 174–75, 184–86, 188–89, 191–93, 199, 201–2, 210; pastoral farming, 106, 174, 188
• Albany, 10, 49, 92, 97, 131, 142, 208. See also Fort Orange
• alcohol, 45, 148, 184, 260n43
• Algonquian, 45
• Allegheny Plateau, 23
• Allegheny River Valley, 23, 24, 126, 129–31, 134–35, 175–76, 178, 200, 208
• alliances. See Covenant Chain alliance; Two Row Belt alliance
• American Revolution, 13–14; Continental Army expeditions, 175–76, 193–96; war loss claims, 172–73, 176, 189–90, 203
• Amherst, Jeffery, 169
• Anajot, 127
• Andrews, William, 105
• Andros, Edmund, 49–50, 227n26
• Appalachian Mountains, 178
• Aqueendara, 80, 83
• Arenias, 16–17

• Bartram, John, 116, 133, 142–43, 145, 161
• Beaver Kill, 82
• Beaver Wars, 9–10, 38, 42, 63–64, 69, 135
• Bellin, Jacques Nicolas, 47, 48
• Bellomont, Richard Coote, 60–61, 71, 77, 79–81
• Bernou, Claude, 74–75
• Binghamton, 250n23
• Black River, 23
• blacksmiths, 101–2, 109, 112, 129, 158–59, 165, 171, 186
• boundary lines, 21, 178, 180–82, 181, 265n16
• Braddock, Edward, 152, 153, 258n26
• Bradstreet, John, 154, 156
• Brand/Brant, 140, 147, 255n4
• Brant, Joseph (Thayendanegea), 173, 188–91, 202–3
• Brant, Margaret, 188, 190
• Brant, Molly (Gonwatsijayenni), 173, 190–91, 263n3
• Brant, Peggy, 188, 190
• Brébeuf, Jean de, 41
• British colonialism, 2, 5, 9; forts and trade posts, 5, 78–83, 103–4, 108–9, 155, 158, 180, 184 (see also specific forts); geographic knowledge and, 77–83, 178–79; military campaigns against Canada, 104, 244n30; settler communities, 48–49, 70 (see also colonial expansion); trade and, 43 (see also manufactured goods; trade). See also American Revolution; Covenant Chain alliance; imperial competition; imperial warfare
• Brodhead, Daniel, 175–76, 196
• Bruyas, Jacques, 45
• Buffalo Creek, 200
• Burnet, William, 110
• Butler, John, 197
• Butler, Thomas, 157, 259n33
• Butler, William, 194–95
• Butternut Creek, 23, 53, 93, 229n34

• Cahaniaga, 50, 228n28
• Cammerhoff, John Christopher Frederick, 112–14, 116–17, 125, 133–34, 247n1, 247n3
• Campbell, Daniel, 189
• Campfield, Jabez, 198–99
• Canada, 47, 69, 73, 104, 123, 135; French surrender of, 178, 262n56. See also Saint Lawrence River Valley
• Canagere, 15, 37–38, 41, 223n5
• Canaghquiesa, 156–57, 165, 181
• Canagora, 50, 228n28
• Canajoharie, 140, 143, 144, 148–50, 159, 167, 172, 178, 188–90, 202–3, 263n3
• Canajorha, 50, 228n28
• Canandaigua, 197, 198
• Canandaigua Lake, 94–95, 110, 134, 197
• Canastota Creek, 108
• Canoenada, 55–56, 230n38
• Canosedaken, 95
• Canostens (Abraham Peters), 140, 144, 164, 255n4, 255n9
• Canowarode, 15
• Canowaroghere (Kanonwalohale), 132
• Caroga Creek, 226n20
• cash economy. See market economy
• Cataraqui River, 47, 115. See also Saint Lawrence River Valley
• Catawba, 81, 86, 118, 137
• Catholicism, 45–46. See also Christianity
• Cattaraugus Creek, 200
• Caughnawaga (Kahnawake), 46, 51, 57, 66, 92, 228n28
• Cayuga, 23–24, 213n2; borders, 21; cash economy and, 148, 150; defenses, 23–24, 47, 54; diplomacy, 88; European traders and, 94, 120, 121, 164–65, 202; housing, 2–3, 133–34, 198; hunting, 84; imperial warfare and, 68, 152, 154, 158–60, 175, 195–200; mourning wars, 64; natural environment, 23–24, 113–14; seasonal resource acquisition camps, 32; settlement patterns, 23–24, 47, 54, 93–94, 110, 113–15, 129, 133–34, 195–202; subsistence practices in late colonial period, 175, 183–84
• Cayuga Lake, 23–24, 32, 54, 94, 113–15, 126, 133, 197–98, 200
• Cazenovia Lake, 23
• Chabert de Joncaire, Philippe-Thomas, 158, 259n35
• Champlain, Lake, 22, 104, 150, 153, 157
• Champlain, Samuel de, 6–7, 41, 46
• Chandot/Chondote (Peach Town), 2, 198–99
• Chaumont, Joseph, 31
• Chemung River, 2, 24, 118, 125–26, 129, 175, 196
• Chenango River, 23, 126–27, 129, 179, 250n23
• Chenussio, 114, 125, 134, 197
• Cherokee territory, 180
• Cherry Valley, 191
• China, 145–46
• Chittenango Creek, 30, 107–8, 132
• Christianity, 45–46, 183–88, 204
• Chugnutt, 179
• Clarke, George, 132
• Clarke, Lieutenant Governor, 238n43
• class stratification, 176–78, 202–3, 210–11
• Claus, Daniel, 147
• Clinton, George, 132, 140, 144
• Clinton, James, 175–76, 195–96
• clothing, 3; fashion and social status, 149, 190–91, 211; as payment for military services, 149–50, 160
• Cohocton River, 196
• Cohoes Falls, 22, 36
• Colden, Cadwallader, 96, 96–97, 176–77
• Collinson, Peter, 145
• colonial expansion, 4, 11–14, 92–95, 101–11, 115–16, 205; after Seven Years’ War, 209–10; fishing and, 167, 171, 184; French defeat and, 178; hunting and, 116, 130, 167, 171, 184, 202; impact on subsistence practices, 130, 166–68, 171; in late colonial period, 173–74, 176, 193–203; resistance to (see sovereignty, Haudenosaunee). See also Mohawk River Valley; Susquehanna River Valley
• colonial patronage, 13, 92, 104, 139, 141, 156, 188, 203
• Conestoga, 126, 129
• Conestoga Creek, 123, 250n18
• Conesus Lake, 197
• Conoy, 179
• Coreorgonel, 198
• Corey Village, 32
• Covenant Chain alliance, 49–50, 60–63, 70–73, 76–88, 95–97, 120–24, 129–30, 135, 165, 194, 204–5, 252n27
• Cowaselon Creek, 132
• crises and subsistence problems, 70–73, 141–42, 160–71, 174, 183, 187–88, 200, 209. See also epidemics; famine
• Cross Lake, 30
• Crown Point, 153
• culture. See social life and cultural traditions
• Cunnahunta, 192
• Cuyahoga River Valley, 126

• Dablon, Claude, 31
• Dackashata, 71
• D’Aigremont, François Clairambault, 98–99
• Daniel, 153
• Daniel, Captain, 172
• David, 140, 255n4
• Dearborn, Henry, 197
• defensive structures, 22–24, 26–27, 47, 50–59, 62, 68–69, 78, 91–92, 94, 131–32, 217n11, 219n19, 227n24. See also palisades; stockades
• Dekanohage, 79, 81, 93
• DeLancey, James, 143, 153
• Delaware River Valley, 22, 43
• De’Lisle, Guillaume, 96, 99, 99–100
• Denonville, Jacques René de Brisay, 64–65, 70, 73, 78, 93, 100–101
• Deseruntyon, John, 172, 263n1
• diplomacy, 10, 18, 63, 79–86, 98, 103, 163, 165, 169, 190, 207. See also Covenant Chain alliance; neutrality; Two Row Belt alliance; wampum strings and belts
• diseases. See epidemics
• “Dish with One Spoon” principle, 20–21, 33, 71, 73, 94, 176, 183, 187
• displaced Indigenous communities, 9, 11–12, 45, 94, 100, 107–8, 118, 123–31, 175, 180, 182, 195, 208
• domestic animals, 2, 30, 65; American Revolution and, 200; destructive impact of, 168; gendered division of labor and, 208; Haudenosaunee adoption of, 105–6, 115–16, 128, 172–76, 182, 189, 196, 201, 208–11
• Dongan, Thomas, 88, 120–21, 238n1
• droughts, 32, 137, 161
• Duplessis, Captain, 73
• Dutch colonialism, 2, 5, 9, 15–17, 34–37, 39, 43, 49, 97

• East Canada Creek, 93, 132
• economic relationships, 49, 87. See also Covenant Chain alliance; trade; Two Row Belt alliance
• emergency relief, 161; British aid, 70–73, 165–71, 183, 235n24; missionary aid, 187–88. See also “Dish with One Spoon” principle
• environmental crises, 32–33, 39, 51, 71, 148, 162, 165, 171
• environmental resources: changes to, 124, 130, 141–42, 160, 164–71; Haudenosaunee access to, 116, 119–20, 124–25, 137–38. See also fishing; gathering of wild flora; hunting; subsistence strategies
• epidemics, 3, 9–10, 38–42, 50, 56–57, 63, 205–6, 224n11; smallpox, 38–40, 70–72, 161–62; subsistence emergencies and, 70–71, 161–62, 171, 201, 209; trade and, 99
• Erben, Homann, 48
• Erie (Chat), 42, 47, 100
• Erie, Lake, 7, 17, 24, 95, 100, 116, 126, 130, 134–35, 151; map of, 152
• Erie-Ontario Plain, 23
• Evans, Lewis, 116, 117, 142

• famine, 33, 44, 73–74, 183
• farming. See agricultural production by Indigenous women; agriculture, colonial modes of
• fighting men: as military auxiliaries, 148–60, 164–65, 168–71, 177, 209, 258n25, 261n49 (see also imperial warfare). See also mourning wars; violence and warfare
• Finger Lakes, 20–21, 30, 82, 176. See also specific lakes
• fishing, 23–24, 28, 47, 52, 70, 73–75, 102, 118, 162–63, 183–84, 200; colonial expansion and, 167, 171, 184; fishing stations, 30–31, 163
• Five Nations. See Iroquois Confederacy
• Fletcher, Benjamin, 70, 71
• flexibility, 3, 9, 20, 33, 73, 130, 211
• floodplains, 2, 120, 137, 188, 199, 208
• floods, 32, 71, 137, 161
• Fogg, Jeremiah, 175
• footpaths, 15–19, 39, 50, 74, 77, 82, 133, 136, 157, 179
• Fort Beauséjour, 153
• Fort Cadaraqui, 83
• Fort Denonville, 100–101
• Fort Duquesne, 134, 151, 153
• Fort Frontenac, 47, 54, 74, 88–90, 102
• Fort Herkimer, 169
• Fort Hunter, 104–5, 109, 111, 131, 142
• Fort Le Boeuf, 134, 151
• Fort Machault, 134, 151
• Fort Nassau, 41
• Fort Niagara, 74, 78, 102, 108–9, 111, 133–34, 141–43, 151, 153, 158, 169, 183, 195, 197, 200
• Fort Orange, 5, 16, 22, 34–35, 38, 41, 43, 49, 227n26. See also Albany
• Fort Oswego, 110, 111, 131, 141–43, 151, 154, 156–57, 164, 166, 167, 169
• Fort Pitt, 151
• Fort Presque Isle, 134, 151
• Fort Stanwix Treaty, 181–82, 195, 265n16
• Fort Venango, 134, 151
• Fowler, David, 183
• freedom of movement, 10, 63, 89–90, 205. See also mobility
• Frémin, Jacques, 43
• French-allied Indigenous groups, 54, 61–62, 65–66, 151, 152, 158; Mohawk emigrants in Saint Lawrence River Valley, 66–67, 88, 154–55
• French colonialism (New France), 2, 5, 9, 10, 16, 42–47; defeat of, 178; forts and trade posts, 5, 47–48, 61, 78–79, 83, 100–103, 108–9, 130, 134, 151–53; geographic knowledge, 74–76, 88–89, 96, 100; imperial claims, 54, 97, 100; settler communities, 31, 39, 42, 115. See also imperial competition; imperial warfare; Montréal; Québec; Saint Lawrence River Valley
• French Creek, 151
• French-led military invasions, 42–47, 54, 63–74, 85–91, 110, 175–76, 206–7; destruction of agriculture, 44, 65–66, 69–73, 78, 94, 176
• Frey, Henry, 127
• Frontenac, Louis de Buade de, 53–54, 66–70, 77, 83, 93–94, 229n34
• fur trade, 3–5, 9, 56, 148, 206; beaver pelts, 3, 37, 42, 95, 102; British forts and, 81; competition between New York and Pennsylvania, 120–21, 124; Dutch traders, 16; French traders, 47–48, 64; illicit trade networks and theft, 64, 86; imperial competition in, 16, 88, 95, 102, 121–22, 141, 151; in late colonial period, 194, 200, 202; manufactured goods and, 123–24; volume of, 12, 35, 120, 243n19; western Indigenous nations and, 85–86, 141, 143

• Gajagaja, 163
• Gajehne, 112–13, 116, 136
• Galinée, René de Bréhant de, 55
• Galland, Lieutenant, 181
• Ganagaro, 66
• Ganatisgoa, 132–33
• Ganatocheracht, 113, 114, 118, 125, 175
• Gandachiorágon, 55, 230n37
• Gandagan, 55, 230n37
• Gandougaraé, 55, 230n38
• Ganechstage, 95
• Ganestiquiagon, 47
• Ganiatarage, 114
• Ganistigoa, 108
• Gannagaro (Canagorah), 55–56, 230n38
• Gannounata, 65
• Ganochserage (Canaseraga), 108, 133
• Ganondagan, 65, 230n38
• Ganundasaga, 95
• Garontianechqui, 134
• gathering of wild flora, 28, 30, 31–32, 73, 75, 118, 162; ginseng trade and, 145–48. See also orchards
• Gaweghe, 153
• gendered division of labor, 5, 10, 28, 30, 38, 106, 113–14, 127–28, 141–42, 148, 162, 165, 170–71, 174, 185, 208. See also agricultural production by Indigenous women; fishing; hunting
• Genesee River Valley, 1, 24, 102, 125, 134, 197, 200
• geographic and environmental knowledge, 17; British, 77–83, 178–79; French, 74–76, 88–89, 96, 100; Indigenous, 6–8, 50, 77–83, 89, 112–20, 136, 140, 153–54, 156, 170, 205. See also maps; mobility
• George, Lake, 154, 157
• George III, 152, 166, 168
• George IV, 152, 166, 168
• German Flats, 185
• German Palatines, 107
• Gerritsen, Martin, 16
• gift-giving and reciprocity, 1, 4, 21, 33, 46–47, 176–77; class stratification and, 211; condolence ceremonies, 38; by European traders, 37, 61, 103, 141, 144; by hereditary village leaders, 170, 186; land transfer and, 97; matrilineal families and, 183; military service and, 139, 156–57, 164–66, 170; by missionaries, 46, 61, 112–14; with other-than human kin, 21, 33; social relationships and, 203, 209; trade and, 141, 165
• Gingegoe, 139–41, 255n4
• ginseng market, 145–48, 256n10
• Gist, Christopher, 151
• Given, Brian J., 223n6
• global market economy. See market economy
• Goiogouen, 54, 229n35
• Grand Settlement (1701), 10–12, 63, 85–87, 90–91, 95, 98, 111, 121, 132, 165, 207
• Grant, Thomas, 199
• Great Carrying Place, 142–44, 166–67, 169, 181–82
• Great Gully, 179
• Great Gully Brook, 133, 198
• Great Lakes, 42, 73, 96–97, 99, 151. See also Erie, Lake; Huron, Lake; Ontario, Lake
• Great Law of Peace and Unity, 19, 97; condolence ceremonies, 38; Dish with One Spoon, 20–21, 33, 71, 73, 94, 176, 183, 187
• Greenhalgh, Wentworth, 50–51, 53, 54, 56, 76
• guides and porters, 6–7, 15–17, 50, 81–82, 112–18, 140, 142–44, 154, 181–82. See also portages; scouts
• guns. See weapons

• Haetwe, 113, 125, 175
• Hahotschaunquas, 112–18, 124, 136
• Hansen, Hendrick, 60, 231n1
• Hart, William, 199
• Hatachsogo, 163
• Haudenosaunee: agency of, 13; autonomy, 84–85, 205 (see also freedom of movement; mobility); displaced Indigenous groups and, 12, 124, 128–31; homelands, 1–2, 5, 6, 19–21, 20, 21, 22–24, 135; member nations, 213n2 (see also Cayuga; Mohawk; Oneida; Onondaga; Seneca; Tuscarora). See also adaptation; diplomacy; flexibility; housing; Iroquois Confederacy; Iroquois League; settlement patterns; social life and cultural traditions; subsistence strategies
• Hawley, Gideon, 147
• Hiawatha Belt, 19–20, 20
• Honeoye Creek Valley, 24
• Honeoye Lake, 134, 197
• Honeoye silt-loam soils, 26, 32
• hospitality, 15–17, 20, 46–47, 50, 187–88
• housing, 2, 24–28; adaptations of colonial styles, 91–95, 131–34, 136–37, 155, 173, 188, 189, 191–96, 198–99, 201, 210; compact European-style forts, 52, 58, 68–70. See also defensive structures; longhouses; settlement patterns, Haudenosaunee
• Hudson River Valley, 5, 22, 36, 38–39, 150, 156, 157, 167, 178
• Hunter, Robert, 103–4, 122, 124
• hunting: access to territory, 95–97, 100, 141–42; colonial expansion and, 116, 130, 167, 171, 184, 202; continued importance of, 128, 183–84, 191, 199–200; environmental crises and, 32; fur trade, 102, 123–24, 182; hunter's cabins, 16; imperial warfare and, 73–74, 164; wildlife population growth, 118, 123
• Huron. See Wendat
• Huron, Lake, 135

• Ileas, 154
• Illinois, 64, 65, 84, 87
• imperial competition, 4, 10; for Haudenosaunee allies, 61–62, 65–66, 141, 151–52, 158; for Indigenous trade partners, 16, 88, 92, 95, 97–111, 120–22, 131, 141, 151, 184, 207–8; for territorial control, 48, 60–88, 115–16, 134–36, 141, 150–51, 204–5, 207–8, 227n26
• imperial terraforming, 4, 13, 105–6, 128, 142, 166–68, 171, 202, 209–11
• imperial warfare, 12, 13, 132, 139–71; Haudenosaunee military auxiliaries, 139–41, 148–60, 168–71, 244n30; Haudenosaunee neutrality in, 104, 122–23, 140, 150, 158–59, 165; impact on subsistence strategies, 141–42, 160–61, 164–71; market economy and, 208–9; in Ohio Country, 151–53. See also American Revolution; specific wars
• Indian Affairs office, New York, 10, 12, 17, 60, 72–73, 108–9, 124, 129, 153, 164–65, 168–69, 231n1, 235n24, 244n27, 252n27, 261n49
• Indigenous removal, 13, 175–76, 193–96
• Indigenous studies, 8–9
• Irondequoit Bay, 64, 78, 101, 108, 111, 133, 238n43
• Iroquois Confederacy: economic and diplomatic competition within, 91, 108–11; member nations, 213n2 (see also Cayuga; Mohawk; Oneida; Onondaga; Seneca; Tuscarora); sovereignty over displaced Indigenous groups, 12, 124, 128–31; use of term, 216n7. See also Haudenosaunee
• Iroquois League: competition among member nations, 91, 108–11; internal relationships, 49, 58, 89–90; use of term, 216n7. See also Haudenosaunee
• Iroquois (Richelieu) River, 43, 44, 64
• Isaac (Anoghsoktea), 140, 149–50, 173, 255n4

• Jansson, Jan, 36
• Jenkins, Robert, 254n2
• Jesuit missionaries, 5, 41, 43–47, 49, 51, 54, 58, 60–61, 75–76, 176
• Jogues, Isaac, 36–37
• Johnson, Guy, 181, 194
• Johnson, William, 12, 129, 178, 180–81, 188, 203, 252n27; as Colonel of the warriors of the Six Nations, 139–40; conferences with Iroquois Confederacy, 163, 204; death of, 194; gift-giving by, 209; Haudenosaunee military service and, 139–42, 149, 153–61, 164–66, 168–70, 177, 258n25, 259n33, 259n38; marriage, 190, 263n3; trade and, 131, 146–47, 164–65

• Kaejaegoeke, 118
• Kaghradodea (Englishman), 165
• Kahioghage, 79
• Kahnawake, 154, 256n10
• Kakariall, 66
• Kalm, Peter, 143, 146
• Kanadesaga, 158, 183, 196–97
• Kanagquaindi, 81
• Kanatakwente, 62
• Kaneenda, 79
• Kanesatake, 154, 258n27
• Kannawaloholla, 196
• Kanonraron (Aaron Hill), 172–73
• Kanonwalohale, 93, 240n10
• Kanowarohare, 183–87
• Karonghyontyee (David Hill), 172–73
• Kashong, 199
• Kaswentha belt, 34, 97
• Keint:he, 55–56, 230n38
• Kendaia (Apple Town), 2, 197–99
• King George's War, 139–40, 149–50, 258n25
• King William's War, 61, 72, 83, 232n3
• kinship networks: captives in, 41–47, 57, 58; other-than human kin, 12–13, 19, 21, 33, 118. See also matrilineal families; nuclear families
• Kirkland, Samuel, 182–88
• Kitchin, Thomas, 135
• knives, 4–5, 15, 35, 124, 143, 206

• La Barre, Joseph-Antoine Le Febvre de, 87–90, 238n1
• la Croex, Jeronimus, 15–17
• Lafitau, Jesuit Joseph-François, 145, 256n10
• La Galissonière, Roland-Michel Barrin de, 151
• Lahontan, Baron de, 32
• Lamberville, Jacques de, 69, 125
• Lamberville, Jean de, 45, 53, 89
• La Prairie, 46
• La Salle, René-Robert Cavelier de, 55
• leaders, hereditary, 91, 137, 139, 170, 177, 186, 203, 206, 209–10
• le Jeune, Paul, 40, 44
• le Mercier, François Joseph, 43
• le Moine, Simon, 30
• Lenni Lenape (Delaware), 112–13, 126, 129, 151, 179–80, 247n1
• Limestone Creek, 23, 52–53, 229n34
• Livingston, Robert, 17, 60–63, 72, 77–79, 131–32
• Logan, James, 123–24, 250n18
• longhouses, 16–33, 38–39, 50–59; arrangement and size of, 40, 56–57, 62–63, 92; in Cayuga villages, 133–34, 198; in late colonial period, 192–93, 196, 210; matrilineal families and, 33, 56–59, 92, 132, 206; in Mohawk villages, 50–51, 57–58, 92, 228n28, 231n41; in Oneida villages, 51–52; in Onondaga villages, 54, 58; in Seneca villages, 56, 198
• Loudoun, John Campbell, 156, 159, 259n32, 261n48
• Louis XIV, 67, 69
• Lycoming Creek, 126

• manufactured goods, 3–5, 9–13; cash economy and, 148; colonial economic boycotts of, 194; in early colonial period, 34–39; hereditary village leaders’ control over, 91, 101, 137, 139, 170, 177, 186, 203, 206, 209–10; in late colonial period, 172–77, 188–91, 201; missionaries and, 185–86; as payment for military services, 149, 171; prices of, 98–99, 121–23; social status and, 202–3. See also clothing; material culture; trade; weapons
• maps: European, 6–8, 16–17, 47, 50, 74–76, 96–97, 116, 119–20, 136, 178–79; Haudenosaunee, 6–8, 17–19, 33, 115; images of, 7, 18, 36, 44, 74, 76, 80, 96, 99, 117, 119, 135, 152, 166, 168, 179, 181, 197; imperial claims and, 7–8, 11, 43, 100, 134–36, 166–68, 181. See also geographic and environmental knowledge
• Margareth, 172
• market economy: expansion of, 205–11; global, 4, 35, 38, 56, 83–84, 91; intellectual labor, 144; in late colonial period, 189–90, 200, 201–3; military service and, 148–60, 164–65, 168–71, 177, 209, 258n25, 261n49; physical labor, 141–44, 182, 255n7; women's labor, 144–48, 160, 170, 209, 260n40. See also manufactured goods; trade
• material culture, 2–4; blending of colonial and Haudenosaunee practices, 34, 38, 58–59, 90, 105–6, 188–91, 196, 201–3; European, 52–53, 58. See also clothing; housing; manufactured goods; subsistence strategies
• matrilineal families, 24, 188–89; gift-giving and reciprocity, 183; longhouses and, 33, 56–59, 92, 132, 206; population losses and, 92
• medicinal plants, 24, 145. See also ginseng market
• men. See fighting men; gendered division of labor; leaders, hereditary; young men
• Miami, 64, 84, 87, 151
• Millar, Andrew, 135
• missionaries, 182–88; gift-giving and reciprocity by, 46, 61, 112–14. See also Jesuit missionaries; Moravian missionaries
• Mississippi River, 115, 134
• Mitchell, John, 134–36, 135
• mobility, 9–12, 17–20, 30–33, 39–41, 63, 74–76, 81–82, 87–111, 116–20, 126, 132, 136–37, 187, 205–7, 211. See also footpaths; freedom of movement; geographic and environmental knowledge; portages; water routes
• Mohawk, 22, 213n2; adopted captives and, 45; agriculture, 162; American military expeditions in, 195; borders, 21; colonial patrons in Albany, 92, 104; defenses, 22, 50–51, 57, 219n19; emigrants in Saint Lawrence River Valley, 45–47, 49, 51, 60–62, 64, 66–67, 70, 73, 88, 105, 154–55, 172, 194, 204; European traders and, 108–9, 111; French attacks on, 43–44, 66–67, 70, 140; guns, 35–37; housing, 2, 50–51, 57–58, 92, 228n28, 231n41; imperial warfare and, 149–50, 154–55, 157, 159–60; Iroquois Confederacy leaders and, 49; as Keepers of the Eastern Door, 22; market economy and, 143–44, 202–3; natural environment, 22, 26, 115; pastoral farming, 174; population losses, 40, 45–47, 49, 51, 57, 60–62, 92, 104, 105, 228n28; Revolutionary War loss claims, 172–73, 176, 189–90, 203; Schoharie Mohawks, 106–7, 126, 160; settlement patterns, 22, 50–51, 57, 92–93, 104–7, 110, 125, 131, 132, 188–91, 194, 219n19
• Mohawk River Valley, 1, 5, 20, 145; American Revolution and, 172, 195; British environmental alterations in, 166–68, 171; colonial expansion in, 11, 77, 79, 92–93, 104–6, 110, 167–68, 173–74, 178–80, 188–91, 209; English exploration of, 81–82; fishing in, 30; footpaths and shelters, 15–19; ginseng trade, 147; Haudenosaunee communities in, 38–39, 62, 92–93, 131–33, 188–91, 206; natural environment, 22
• Mohegan, 182
• Mohican, 179, 191–92
• Monckton, Robert, 153
• Montauk, 182
• Montgomerie, John, 110
• Montmagny, Charles Jacques du Huault de, 239n5
• Montour, Catharine, 197
• Montour, Madame, 250n22
• Montréal, 43, 49, 62, 64, 69, 85, 99–100, 146, 169, 256n10
• Moravian missionaries, 112–16, 129, 134, 148, 162, 179–80, 197, 241n11
• mourning wars, 41–47, 53, 56–57, 63–64, 66–68, 83–84, 86, 98, 100, 101, 118, 170, 206, 207; women's role in, 170
• Mud Creek Valley, 24
• multinational villages, 46–47, 126–27, 162, 186, 192–93, 208

• Nanfan, John, 71
• Nanticoke, 112, 126–29, 179
• Narragansett, 182
• Native American studies, 8–9
• natural environment, 22–24; altered by colonial terraforming, 4, 13, 105–6, 128, 142, 166–68, 171, 202, 209–11; maps documenting engagement with, 17–19 (see also maps); travel and, 113–18, 247n3
• Neutral, 42, 47, 100
• neutrality, 84–85, 207, 238n43; in imperial warfare, 104, 122–23, 140, 150, 158–59, 165; open trade, 85, 90–91, 103–4, 121, 165
• Newfoundland, 4
• New France. See French colonialism
• New Ganechstage, 95
• New Netherland, 16, 48, 227n26
• Newtown, 196
• New York: boundary lines, 180–82; colonial economy and frontier security, 60–86; colonial population, 178; competition with Pennsylvania in fur trade, 120–21, 124; establishment of, 48, 227n26. See also British colonialism; Indian Affairs office, New York
• Niagara Falls, 7, 24, 48, 95, 100, 115; portage trail, 48, 100, 102, 143. See also Fort Niagara
• Niagara River, 48, 100
• Nicholson, Francis, 104
• Nonesuch, Hannah, 183
• Nontageya, 228n31
• nuclear families, 25, 105, 174, 192, 201
• Nukerck, Charles, 198–99