NOTES

Introduction

1. John Stokes and Kanawahienton, Thanksgiving Address: Greetings to the Natural World, Six Nations Indian Museum, 1993, https://americanindian.si.edu/environment/pdf/01_02_Thanksgiving_Address.pdf (quotes).

2. The People of the Longhouse are often referred to as the Iroquois or Iroquois Confederacy in the historical record. Before the 1720s, they were composed of Five Nations, from east to west: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. Tuscarora families migrated north from their Virginia-North Carolina Tidewater homeland following a series of military conflicts between 1711 and 1713. After their official admittance into the Confederacy in the early 1720s, the Confederacy became “Six” Nations. Indigenous speakers and Europeans employed multiple names to describe Confederacy nations. The Dutch and English, for example, used “Five” or “Six” Nations indiscriminately, or used “Mohawks” or “Senecas” to encompass all groups. Member nations of the Confederacy emphasize their communal settlement patterns and referred to themselves as The People of the Longhouse, or Haudenosaunee in the Seneca language. This work uses individual nation names when referring to specific nations, and Haudenosaunee when referring to the larger group identity of member nations within the Confederacy.

3. Alfred W. Crosby Jr., “Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation of America,” William and Mary Quarterly 33, no. 2 (1976): 289–299; David S. Jones, “Virgin Soils Revisited,” William and Mary Quarterly 60, no. 3 (2003): 703–742; Shepard Kretch III, ed., Indians, Animals, and the Fur Trade: A Critique of Keepers of the Game (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1981); William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill & Wang, 1983); Alison Games, “Beyond the Atlantic: English Globetrotters and Transoceanic Connections,” William and Mary Quarterly 63, no. 4 (October 2006): 675–692; and Philip J. Stern, “British Asia and British Atlantic: Comparisons and Connections,” William and Mary Quarterly 63, no. 4 (October 2006): 693–712.

4. Donald Rumrill, “An Interpretation and Analysis of the Seventeenth Century Mohawk Nation: Its Chronology and Movements,” Bulletin and Journal of Archaeology for New York State, Van Epps-Hartley Chapter 90 (1985): 14; James W. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois: Accommodating Change, 1500–1655 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 121–122, 125–126, 130–132, 139, 145, 157, 165, 168, 174; William Martin Beauchamp, Metallic Ornaments of the New York Indians, New York State Museum Bulletin 73 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1903), 19; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610–1791, 73 vols. (Cleveland, OH: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901), 21:219; 51:203; and James H. Coyne, ed. and trans., “Galinee's Narrative and Map,” Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records 4 (Ontario, Canada, 1903): 23–25.

5. Céline Carayon, Eloquence Embodied: Nonverbal Communication among French and Indigenous Peoples in the Americas (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019).

6. Julianna Barr, “Maps and Spaces: Paths to Connect and Lines to Divide,” in Contested Spaces of Early America, ed. Julianna Barr and Edward Countryman (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 90–110; G. Malcolm Lewis, “First Nations Mapmaking in the Great Lakes Region in Intercultural Contexts: A Historical Review,” Mapping in Michigan and the Great Lakes Region, Part 1, Michigan Historical Review 30, no. 2 (2004): 1–34; G. Malcolm Lewis, “Indicators of Unacknowledged Assimilations from Amerindian “Maps” on Euro-American Maps of North America: Some General Principles Arising from a Study of La Verendrye's Composite Map, 1728–29,” Imago Mundi 38 (1986): 9–34; G. Malcolm Lewis, “Intracultural Mapmaking by First Nations Peoples in the Great Lakes Region: A Historical Review,” Michigan Historical Review 32, no. 1 (2006): 1–17; Mark Warhus, Another America: Native American Maps and the History of Our Land (New York: St. Martin's, 1997); and Samuel de Champlain, “Carte Geographique de la Nouvelle France” (1612) John Carter Brown, Map Collection, Providence, RI, https://jcb.lunaimaging.com/luna/servlet/s/p3vf72.

7. Kelly Hopkins, “Into the Interior: Reading the Native Landscape of the Great Lakes in European Maps, 1612–1755,” in Mapping Nature across the Americas, ed. Kathleen A. Brosnan and James R. Akerman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2021), 41–64.

8. Ashley Glassburn, “Settler Standpoints,” William and Mary Quarterly 76, no. 3 (2019): 399–406; Brian Rice, The Rotinonshonni: A Traditional Iroquoian History through the Eyes of Teharonhia:wako and Sawiskera (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2013); Darren Bonaparte, Creation and Confederation: The Living History of the Iroquois (Wampum Chronicles, 2008); Theresa McCarthy, “De’nis nia ‘sgao’de? Haudenosaunee Clans and the Reconstruction of Traditional Haudenosaunee Identity, Citizenship, and Nationhood,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 34, no. 2 (2010): 81–101; Alyssa Mt. Pleasant, “Independence for Whom? Expansion and Conflict in the Northeast and Northwest,” in The World of the Revolutionary American Republic, ed. Andrew Shankram (New York: Routledge, 2014), 116–133; Penelope Myrtle Kelsey, Reading the Wampum: Essays on Hodinöhsö:ni’ Visual Code and Epistemological Recovery (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2014); Audra Simpson, Mohawk Interruptus: Political Life across the Borders of Settler States (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014); Mishuana Goeman, Mark My Words: Native Women Mapping Our Nations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013); Susan M. Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of: Haudenosaunee Land Tenure on the Grand River (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017); and Alyssa Mt. Pleasant, “Material and Methods in Native American and Indigenous Studies: Completing the Turn,” William and Mary Quarterly 75, no. 2 (2018): 207–236.

9. Patrick Wolfe, “Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native,” Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (2006): 387–409; Cole Harris, “How Did Colonialism Dispossess? Comments from an Edge of Empire,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94, no. 1 (2004): 165–182; Patrick Wolfe, “After the Frontier: Separation and Absorption in US Indian Policy,” Settler Colonial Studies 1, no. 1 (2011): 13–51; Susanah Shaw Romney, “Settler Colonial Prehistories in Seventeenth-Century North America,” William and Mary Quarterly 76, no. 3 (2019): 375–382; and Barbara Alice Mann, George Washington's War on Native America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2008), 51–110.

1. Harmen Meyndertsz van den Bogaert, A Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 1634–1635: The Journal of Harmen Meyndertsz van den Bogaert, trans. Charles T. Gehring and William A. Starna (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 5–6.

2. Van den Bogaert, Journey. “Sinnekens,” variously spelled, often referred to any of the four western Haudenosaunee nations.

3. Van den Bogaert, Journey, 22 (quote). Tenotoge is the Failing archaeological site, see Jon Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2010), appendix 1, 283.

4. Van den Bogaert, Journey, 14 (quote). Onneyuttehage is the Thurston archaeological site. Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 283.

5. “Drafft of this Countrey,” The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC03107.02046; Lawrence H. Leder, ed., The Livingston Indian Records, 1666–1723 (Stanfordville, NY: Earl M. Coleman, 1979), 8–9, 172–173; Memorial of Mr. Livingston to the Board of Trade, December 28, 1696, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1853–1887) (hereafter NYCD), 4:252–253; Mark Warhus, Another America: Native American Maps and the History of Our Land (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1997), 3; Mishuana Goeman, Mark My Words: Native Women Mapping Our Nations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013), 25; G. Malcolm Lewis, “First Nations Mapmaking in the Great Lakes Region in Intercultural Contexts: A Historical Review,” Michigan Historical Review 30, no. 2 (2004): 9–10, 33–34; and G. Malcolm Lewis, “Maps, Mapmaking and Map Use by Native North Americans,” in History of Cartography, ed. David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), vol. 2, book 3, 77. Robert Livingston served as secretary for the Albany Commissioners of Indian Affairs from 1696 to 1710. Key geographic reference points on Livingston's map: 1. Albany; 3–5. Mohawk Castles; 9. Susquehanna River; 11–12. Seneca Castles; 14. Lake Cadaraqui (Ontario); 17. Mont Royal; K. Island in Lake Champlain; Q. Québec.

6. Melanie K. Yazzie and Cutcha Risling Baldy, “Introduction: Indigenous Peoples and the Politics of Water,” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education and Society 7, no. 1 (2018): 1, 8–9; Zoe Todd, “Fish, Kin and Hope: Tending to Water Violations in amiskwaciwâskahikan and Treaty Six Territory,” Afterall: A Journal of Art, Context and Enquiry 43 (2017): 102–107; Zoe Todd, “Protecting Life below Water: Tending to Relationality and Expanding Oceanic Consciousness beyond Coastal Zones,” American Anthropologist, October 17, 2017, https://www.americananthropologist.org/deprovincializing-development-series/protecting-life-below-water?rq=zoe%20todd; and Chelsey Geralda Armstrong, Anne Spice, Mike Ridsdale, and John R. Welch, “Liberating Trails and Travel Routes in Gitxsan and Wet’sewet’en Territories from the Tyrannies of Heritage Resource Management Regimes,” American Anthropologist 125 (2023): 362.

7. Penelope Myrtle Kelsey, Reading the Wampum: Essays on Hodinöhsö:ni’ Visual Code and Epistemological Recovery (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2014), xiii–xv; Barbara Alice Mann, Iroquoian Women: The Gantowisas (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), 32–39; Susan M. Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of: Haudenosaunee Land Tenure on the Grand River (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017), 27–39; Brian Rice, The Rotinonshonni: A Traditional Iroquoian History through the Eyes of Teharonhia:wako and Sawiskera (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2013), 173–250; Kelsey, Reading the Wampum, xiii–xv; “Wampum,” Onondaga Nation, https://www.onondaganation.org/culture/wampum; James W. Bradley, “Onondaga and Empire: An Iroquoian People in an Imperial Era,” New York State Museum Bulletin 514 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 2020): 15, 55; and Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 3, 7. In the work that follows, “League” refers to the internal dynamics and relationships between Haudenosaunee nations, while “Confederacy” refers to the external political and diplomatic relationships with Indigenous and European neighbors.

8. Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of, 3–5; and Deborah Doxtator, “What Happened to the Iroquois Clans? A Study of Clans in Three Nineteenth Century Rotinonhsyonni Communities” (PhD diss., University of Western Ontario, 1996), 113.

9. Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of, 3–5, 27–39 (quote, 36); Robin Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants (Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions, 2013), 17, 25–28; Elizabeth N. Ellis, The Great Power of Small Nations: Indigenous Diplomacy in the Gulf South (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2023), 6–7; Goeman, Mark My Words, 84; Leanne Betasamosake Simpson, “Indigenous Resurgence and Co-Resistance,” Critical Ethnic Studies 2, no. 2 (2016): 22–23; Glen Coulthard, Red Skins, White Masks: Rejecting the Politics of Recognition (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014), 13; Emily Riddle, “Mâmawiwikowin: Shared First Nations and Métis Jurisdiction on the Prairies,” Briarpatch Magazine, September 10, 2020, https://briarpatchmagazine.com/articles/view/mamawiwikowin; and Bradley, “Onondaga and Empire,” 73.

10. William A. Ritchie and Robert E. Funk, “Aboriginal Settlement Patterns in the Northeast,” New York State Museum and Science Service Memoir 20 (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1973), 276–290, 313–332; Doxtator, “What Happened to the Iroquois Clans?,” 116; Hill, The Clay We are Made Of, 5; William Martin Beauchamp, Aboriginal Place Names of New York, New York State Museum Bulletin 108, Archeology 12 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1907), 119–128; Lewis Henry Morgan, League of the Iroquois (New York: Corinth, 1962), 45–46, 347; Dean R. Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology: The Sites (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995), 279–297; and Thomas E. Burke, Jr., Mohawk Frontier: The Dutch Community of Schenectady, New York, 1661–1710 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 26.

11. Hill, The Clay We are Made Of, 5; Peter P. Pratt, “A Perspective on Oneida Archeology,” in Current Perspectives in Northeastern Archeology: Essays in Honor of William A. Ritchie, ed. Robert E. Funk and Charles F. Hayes III, Research and Transactions of the New York State Archeological Association 17, no. 1 (1977), 53; Peter P. Pratt, Archaeology of the Oneida Iroquois, Vol. 1 Occasional Publications in Northeastern Anthropology no. 1 (George's Mill, NH: Man in the Northeast, 1976), 5–6; Jack Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance in Three Oneida Communities” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 1974), 28–29, 32–34, 36–38; Doxtator, “What Happened to Iroquois Clans?,” 116; Michael Recht, “The Role of Fishing in the Iroquois Economy, 1600–1792,” New York History 76, no. 1 (1995): 6; Beauchamp, Aboriginal Place Names, 110, 113–114, 140; and Morgan, League of the Iroquois, 347. The eighteenth-century Oneida village located closer to Oneida Lake is known as the Cheseborough, or Sterling, archaeological site. The Cameron site is also known as the Wayland-Smith site, and the Beecher site is also known as the Andrews site. See, Ritchie and Funk, “Aboriginal Settlement Patterns in the Northeast,” 171; and Pratt, Archaeology of the Oneida Iroquois, 123, 134, 136–137, 141, 144. Parmenter notes an earlier occupation of 1600–1615 for the Cameron site; see Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 283.

12. Hill, The Clay We are Made Of, 5; James W. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois: Accommodating Change, 1500–1655 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987); Bradley, Onondaga and Empire, 37; James A. Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory: A Study in Settlement Archaeology (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1971); A. Gregory Sohrweide, “Onondaga Longhouses in the Late Seventeenth Century on the Weston Site,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association no. 117 (2001): 3; P. L. Marks and Frank Seischab, Late Eighteenth Century Vegetation of Central and Western New York State on the Basis of Original Land Survey Records, New York State Museum Bulletin 484 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1992); Recht, “The Role of Fishing in the Iroquois Economy,” 6, 8–9; Beauchamp, Aboriginal Place Names, 142–154; William Martin Beauchamp, A History of the New York Iroquois Now Commonly Called the Six Nations, New York State Museum Bulletin 78, Archeology 9 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1905), 252; Allen Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York: The Seventeenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960), 15; and Morgan, League of the Iroquois, 42–43, 347. Archaeological period definitions revolve around the level of European contact and exploration. AD pre-1525 sites are defined as “pre-historic,” AD 1525 to 1609 sites are defined as “proto-historic,” and AD post-1609 sites as defined as “historic.”

13. Hill, The Clay We are Made Of, 5; Mary Ann Palmer Niemczycki, The Origin and Development of the Seneca and Cayuga Tribes of New York State, Rochester Museum and Science Center Research Records, no. 17 (Rochester, NY: Rochester Museum and Science Center, 1984), 14–20, 73–78; Carol R. Nelson, “The Klinko Site: A Late Woodland Component in Seneca Country, New York” (master's thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1977); Tracy S. Michaud-Stutzman, “The Community and the Microhousehold: Local Scales of Analysis within an Iroquoian Village,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Laurie E. Miroff and Timothy D. Knapp (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 131–152; Kathleen M. Sydoriak Allen, “Temporal and Spatial Scales of Activity among the Iroquois: Implications for Understanding Cultural Change,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Laurie E. Miroff and Timothy D. Knapp (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 166; Marian E. White, William E. Engelbrecht, and Elizabeth Tooker, “Cayuga,” in Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant, vol. 15, Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1978): 500–504; Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York, 15; Morgan, League of the Iroquois, 42, 347; and Jack Rosen, ed., Corey Village and the Cayuga World: Implications from Archaeology and Beyond (Syracuse, NY: University of Syracuse Press, 2015).

14. The Clay We are Made Of, 5; Charles F. Wray and Harry L. Schoff, “A Preliminary Report on the Seneca Sequence in Western New York, 1550–1687,” Pennsylvania Archaeologist 23, no. 2 (July 1953): 53; George R. Hamell, “Gannagaro State Historic Site: A Current Perspective,” in Studies in Iroquoian Culture, Occasional Publications in Northeastern Anthropology, no. 6, ed. Nancy Bonvillian (Rindge, NH: Department of Anthropology, Franklin Pierce College, 1980), 93–94; and Charles E. Vandrei, “Observations on Seneca Settlement in the Early Historic Period,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association 95 (1987): 8–17.

15. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610–1791 (Cleveland, OH: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901) (hereafter Jesuit Relations), 8:107, 15:153, 38:247; George M. Wrong, ed., Father Gabriel Sagard: The Long Journey to the Country of the Hurons (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1939), 93–95; Van den Bogaert, Journey, 3–14; William A. Ritchie, The Archaeology of New York State, rev. ed. (Harrison, NY: Harbor Hill, 1980), 314; Laurie E. Miroff, “A Local-Level Analysis of Social Reproduction and Transformation in the Chemung Valley: The Thomas/Luckey Site,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Miroff and Knapp, 85; Timothy D. Knapp, “An Unbounded Future? Ceramic Types, “Cultures,” and Scale in Late Prehistoric Research,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Miroff and Knapp, 102, 104; William A. Starna, “The Oneida Homeland in the Seventeenth Century,” in The Oneida Indian Experience: Two Perspectives, ed. Jack Campisi and Laurence M. Hauptman (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 13–14; Conrad Heidenreich, Huronia: A History and Geography of the Huron Indians, 1600–1650 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1971), 116–120; and Thomas S. Abler, “Longhouse and Palisade: Northeastern Iroquoian Villages of the Seventeenth Century,” Ontario Historical Society 62 (1970): 28–29.

16. Starna, “The Oneida Homeland,” 13–14; Heidenreich, Huronia, 116–120; Wrong, Father Gabriel Sagard, 93–95; Van den Bogaert, Journey, 12–13; Sydoriak Allen, “Temporal and Spatial Scales,” 165; Abler, “Longhouse and Palisade,” 28–29; Michaud-Stutzman, “The Community and the Microhousehold,” 135; Kathleen M. Sydoriak Allen, “Iroquois Ceramic Production: A Case of Household-Level Organization, in Ceramic Production and Distribution: An Integrated Approach, ed. George J. Bell III and Christopher A. Pool (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992), 133–154; Holly Martelle, “Redefining Craft Specialization: Women's Labor and Pottery Production—An Iroquoian Example,” in From the Ground Up: Beyond Gender Theory in Archaeology, ed. Nancy L. Wicker and Bettina Arnold (Oxford: Archaeopress, 1999), 133–142; Dean R. Snow, “The Archaeology of Iroquois Longhouses,” Northeast Anthropology 53 (1997): 31–84; William A. Starna, George R. Hamell, and William L. Butts, “Northern Iroquoian Horticulture and Insect Infestation: A Cause for Village Removal,” Ethnohistory 31, no. 3 (1984): 197–207; William A. Starna, “Mohawk Iroquois Populations: A Revision,” Ethnohistory 27, no. 4 (1980): 374; and Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory, 62, 85.

17. Starna, “Mohawk Iroquois Populations: A Revision,” 371–382; and James V. Wright, “The Nodwell Site,” Mercury Series Archaeological Survey of Canada Paper 22 (Ottawa, Canada: National Museum of Man, 1974).

18. Pratt, “A Perspective on Oneida Archeology,” 53–54; Wrong, Father Gabriel Sagard, 91–95; W. L. Grant, Voyages of Samuel De Champlain: 1604–1618 (1907; repr., New York: Scribner's, 1959), 283–292; and William Engelbrecht, “Defense in an Iroquois Village,” in Iroquois Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Miroff and Knapp, 180.

19. Van den Bogaert, Journey, 9, 13. Tenotoge was the western-most Mohawk community.

20. Charles E. Vandrei, “Observations on Seneca Settlement in the Early Historic Period,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association 95 (1987): 8, 13; Eric E. Jones, “Haudenosaunee Settlement Ecology before and after Contact in Northeastern North America,” in Frontiers of Colonialism, ed. Christine D. Beaule (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2017): 30–57; Eric E. Jones, “An Analysis of Factors Influencing Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Settlement Locations,” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 29 (2010): 1–14; Eric E. Jones, “Using Viewshed Analysis to Explore Settlement Choice: A Case Study of the Onondaga Iroquois,” American Antiquity 71, no. 3 (July 2006): 523–538; Jack Rossen, “Site Setting, Description, and Excavations,” in Corey Village and the Cayuga World: Implications from Archaeology and Beyond, ed. Jack Rossen (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2015), 15; and Jack Rossen, “From the Tenth to the Sixteenth Centuries,” in Corey Village and the Cayuga World, ed. Jack Rossen (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2015), 168–192.

21. William D. Finlayson, The 1975 and 1978 Rescue Excavations at the Draper Site: Introduction and Settlement Patterns, Mercury Series, Archaeological Survey of Canada, Paper No. 130 (National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, 1985), 407; William D. Finlayson, “Iroquoian Peoples of the Land and Rocks and Water, A.D. 1000–1650: A Study in Settlement Archaeology,” Special Publication 1 (London Museum of Archaeology, London, Ontario, 1998), 20; Robert E. Funk, “Garoga: A Late Prehistoric Iroquois Village in the Mohawk Valley,” in Iroquois Culture, History, and Prehistory: Proceedings of the 1965 Conference on Iroquois Research, ed. Elisabeth Tooker (Albany: New York State Museum and Science Service), 81–84; Engelbrecht, “Defense in an Iroquois Village,” 179–188, 182; and Van den Bogaert, Journey, 12–13.

22. Engelbrecht, “Defense in an Iroquois Village,” 180–184; and Sohrweide, “Onondaga Longhouses,” 18.

23. Clark M. Sykes, “Swidden Horticulture and Iroquoian Settlement,” Archaeology of Eastern North America 8 (1980): 45–52; Pratt, Archaeology of the Oneida Iroquois, 10–13; Sohrweide, “Onondaga Longhouses,” 9; Starna, Hamell, and Butts, “Northern Iroquoian Horticulture and Insect Infestation,” 197–207; Jesuit Relations, 60:81–83; 62:55; “Robert Livingston's Report of his Journey to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:649; and Abler, “Longhouse and Palisade,” 22–24.

24. Sykes, “Swidden Horticulture and Iroquoian Settlement,” 45–52; Hazel Hertzberg, The Great Tree and the Longhouse: The Culture of the Iroquois (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 31; Doxtator, “What Happened to the Iroquois Clans?,” 113; Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 24, 105–117; Douglas J. Perrelli, “Iroquoian Social Organization in Practice: A Small-Scale Study of Gender Roles and Site Formation in Western New York,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Miroff and Knapp, 22–26; Sydoriak Allen, “Temporal and Spatial Scales,” 160–164; Recht, “The Role of Fishing in the Iroquois Economy,” 5–30; Victor Konrad, “An Iroquois Frontier: The North Shore of Lake Ontario During the Late Seventeenth Century,” Journal of Historical Geography 7, no. 2 (1981): 129–144; William N. Fenton, “Northern Iroquoian Culture Patterns,” in Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger, vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1978): 300; Morgan, League of the Iroquois, 183–208; Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology; Dean R. Snow, The Iroquois (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York: Vintage, 1969); Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois, 120; Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory, 44, 70, 89, 118, 135, 146; and Frederick Waugh, Iroquis [sic] Foods and Food Preparation (Ottawa, Ontario: Government Printing Bureau, 1916), 8–12.

25. Sykes, “Swidden Horticulture and Iroquoian Settlement,” 45; Arthur C. Parker, “Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants,” in Parker on the Iroquois, ed., William N. Fenton (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1968), 17, 21–24, 92; Fenton, “Northern Iroquoian Culture Patterns,” 299–301; Perrelli, “Iroquoian Social Organization in Practice,” 28; Jane Mt. Pleasant, “The Paradox of Plows and Productivity: An Agronomic Comparison of Cereal Grain Production under Iroquois Hoe Culture and European Plow Culture in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” Agricultural History 85, no. 4 (2011): 462, 479–480, 487–488; and Susan Sleeper-Smith, Indigenous Prosperity and American Conquest: Indian Women of the Ohio River Valley, 1690–1792 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018), 28–31.

26. Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of, 21; Maeve Kane, Shirts Powdered Red: Haudenosaunee Gender, Trade, and Exchange Across Three Centuries (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2023), 16; Goeman, Mark My Words, 48, 84, 93, 97, 102; Pratt, “A Perspective on Oneida Archeology,” 55; Parker, “Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants,” 17, 21–24, 92; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 43–44; and Fenton, “Northern Iroquoian Culture Patterns,” 299–300.

27. Mt. Pleasant, “The Paradox of Plows and Productivity,” 487–488; Sleeper-Smith, Indigenous Prosperity, 28; “Journal of Lieut. Erkuries Beatty,” and “Journal of Major John Burrowes,” in Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan against the Six Nations of Indians in 1779, ed. Frederick Cook (repr., Glendale, NY: Benchmark, 1970), 27, 45; Haley Negrin, “Native Women Work the Ground: Enslavement and Civility in the Early American Southeast,” in Atlantic Environments and the American South, ed. Thomas Blake Earle and D. Andrew Johnson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2020), 90–110; M. K. Bennett, “The Food Economy of New England Indians, 1600–1675,” Journal of Political Economy 63, no. 5 (Oct. 1955): 369–397; Peter Thomas, “Contrastive Subsistence Strategies and Land Use as Factors for Understanding Indian-White Relations in New England,” Ethnohistory 23, no. 1 (1976): 1–18; and US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Agricultural Handbook 456, Nutritive Value of American Foods in Common Units (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, November 1975), 67.

28. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois, 119; Fenton, “Northern Iroquoian Culture Patterns,” 298, 300–301; Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 13; Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory, 44, 70, 89, 118, 135, 146; Van den Bogaert, Journey, 4–9; Pratt, “A Perspective on Oneida Archeology,” 55; Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York, 17; Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance,” 27, 37–38; and Thomas M. Wickman, Snowshoe Country: An Environmental and Cultural History of Winter in the Early American Northeast (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2018). Fenton estimates that each nation consumed at least 2,000 deer annually. He notes this estimate is very low compared to the annual deer harvest in New York State during the 1970s of 80,000.

29. Beauchamp, Aboriginal Place Names, 168, 171; Recht, “The Role of Fishing in the Iroquois Economy,” 8–9, 13–15; Pratt, “A Perspective on Oneida Archeology,” 55; Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance,” 28–29, 37–38; Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory, 44, 70, 89, 118, 135, 146; Bradley, Onondaga and Empire, 38–39; “Papers Relating to the First Settlement at Onondaga,” in The Documentary History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1849), 1:35; William Martin Beauchamp, Aboriginal Occupation of New York, New York State Museum Bulletin 32 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1900), 113; and Jesuit Relations, 42:71–73, 97, 295; 43:261.

30. Jesuit Relations, 42:71–73.

31. Baron de Lahontan, New Voyages to North America (London, 1703; repr., Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1905), 1:322–323 (quote); Recht, “The Role of Fishing in the Iroquois Economy,” 8–9, 13–15; and Jesuit Relations, 42:97; 43:147–153.

32. Fenton, “Northern Iroquoian Culture Patterns,” 298–299; John Bartram, Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice Made by Mr. John Bartram, in His Travels in Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, in Canada (London: J. Whiston and B. White, 1751), 39–40; Earl of Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, November 28, 1700, NYCD, 4:787; and Perrelli, “Iroquoian Social Organization in Practice,” 19–50.

33. Rossen, “Corey Village and the Cayuga World from the Tenth to the Sixteenth Centuries,” 168–192; Macy O’Hearn, “Ground Stone Artifacts,” in Rossen, Corey Village, 104–109; Jack Rossen, “Botanical Remains,” in Rossen, Corey Village, 140–160, Fenton, “Northern Iroquoian Culture Patterns,” 298–299; Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania to Onondaga, 39–40; Earl of Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, November 28, 1700, NYCD, 4:787; and Perrelli, “Iroquoian Social Organization in Practice,” 19–50.

34. Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 18–29; Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 53, 186, 188, 209; Cronon, Changes in the Land, 122–126; Joseph Kittredge, Forest Influences: The Effects of Woody Vegetation on Climate, Water, and Soil, with Applications to the Conservation of Water and the Control of Floods and Erosion (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1948); Richard Lee, Forest Hydrology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980); Doxtator, “What Happened to the Iroquois Clans?,” 113; and Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of, 43.

1. Harmen Meyndertsz van den Bogaert, A Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 1634–1635: The Journal of Harmen Meyndertsz van den Bogaert, trans. Charles T. Gehring and William A. Starna (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 1; Donald Rumrill, “An Interpretation and Analysis of the Seventeenth Century Mohawk Nation: Its Chronology and Movements,” The Bulletin and Journal of Archaeology for New York State, Van Epps-Hartley Chapter 90 (1985): 14; James W. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois: Accommodating Change, 1500–1655 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 121–122, 125–126, 130–132, 139, 145, 157, 165, 168, 174; William Martin Beauchamp, Metallic Ornaments of the New York Indians, New York State Museum Bulletin 73 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1903), 19; and Maeve Kane, Shirts Powdered Red: Haudenosaunee Gender, Trade, and Exchange Across Three Centuries (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2023), 48–54.

2. Susan M. Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of: Haudenosaunee Land Tenure on the Grand River (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017), 84–86; Jack Rossen, ed., Corey Village and the Cayuga World: Implications from Archaeology and Beyond (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2015), 8; and Penelope Myrtle Kelsey, Reading the Wampum: Essays on Hodinöhsö:ni’ Visual Code and Epistemological Recovery (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2014), 2–4. Two Row Belt image retrieved from https://www.onondaganation.org/culture/wampum/two-row-wampum-belt-guswenta/.

3. Van den Bogaert, Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 10–11 (first quote), 20 (second quote); and Rob Nixon, Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 2.

4. “Ordinance of the colony of Rensselaerswyck prohibiting the sale of powder, lead and firearms to Indians,” 18 July 1641, in Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts, Being the Letters of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, 1630–1643, and other Documents Relating to the Colony of Rensselaerswyck, ed. and trans. A. J. F. van Laer, New York State Library (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1908), 565-566 (quote); “Ordinance of Director and Council of New Netherland, prohibiting the sale of firearms to Indians and requiring vessels sailing to and from Fort Orange, the South River or Fort Hope, to obtain a permit,” 31 March 1639, in Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts, 426; Jan Jansson, Belgii novi, angliae, et partis Virginiae: movissima delineatio (Amsterdam: J. Jansson, 1657), Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/item/96686642/. Rensselaerswyck included much of present-day Albany and Rensselaer Counties.

5. James Bradley, Before Albany: An Archaeology of Native-Dutch Relations in the Capital Region, 1600–1664, New York State Museum Bulletin 509 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 2006), 79 Barthelemy Vimont, “Of the Incursions by the Hiroquois, and the Captivity of Father Jogues, 1642–1643,” in In Mohawk Country: Early Narratives about a Native People, ed. Dean Snow, Charles Gehring, and William Starna (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996), 15 (first quote); “Arent van Curler to Kiliaen van Rensselaer” 16 June 1643, in History of New Netherland, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (New York: D. Appleton, 1846–1848), 1:456–465, (second quote, 463). The Bauder, Rumrill-Naylor, and Oak Hill sites correspond to Mohawk eastern, central, and western village sequences, respectively. Snow, Gehring, Starna, and Jon Parmenter list Ossernenon as the probable Bauder site. Snow, Gehring, and Starna list Canagere as the probable Rumrill-Nader site, and Parmenter designates the Ford site as the proper archaeological place. See Snow, Gehring, and Starna, eds., In Mohawk Country, xix, xxii; and Jon Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2010), appendix 1, 284.

6. J. Franklin Jameson, ed., “Journal of New Netherland,” in Narratives of New Netherland, 1609–1664 (New York: Scribner's, 1909), 273–274; Van den Bogaert, Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 5–6 (quotes); Shaun Sayres, “‘A Daingerous Liberty’: Mohawk-Dutch Relations and the Colonial Gunpowder Trade, 1534–1665” (master's thesis, University of New Hampshire, Durham, 2018), 54; and José António Brandão, Your fyre shall burn no more: Iroquois Policy toward New France and Its Native Allies to 1701 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 88. Brian J. Given challenges the notion of Haudenosaunee access to firearms before 1648. See Brian J. Given, “The Iroquois Wars and Native Firearms,” in Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit, and Métis, ed. Bruce A. Cox (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1987), 3–13.

7. Van den Bogaert, Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 4–5 (quotes), 21. Van den Bogaert listed the easternmost Mohawk village as “Onekahoncka,” 4. Snow, Gehring, and Starna list Oneckegoncka as the probable Cromwell site. See Snow, Gehring, and Starna, In Mohawk Country, xix, xxii. Parmenter lists Oneckegoncka as the Briggs Run archaeological site. See Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 284.

8. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 82–126.

9. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610–1791 (Cleveland, OH: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901) (hereafter Jesuit Relations), 17:223; Conrad Heidenreich, Huronia: A History and Geography of the Huron Indians, 1600–1650 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1971), 97–98; Dean R. Snow, “The Ethnohistoric Baseline of the Eastern Abenaki,” Ethnohistory 23, no. 3 (1976): 291–306; and Ted J. Brasser, “Early Indian-European Contacts,” in Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger, vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1978): 78–88.

10. Dean R. Snow and Kim M. Lanphear, “European Contact and Indian Depopulation in the Northeast: The Timing of the First Epidemics,” Ethnohistory 35, no. 1 (1988): 15–33; Gary Warrick, “European Infectious Disease and Depopulation of the Wendat-Tionontate (Huron-Petun),” World Archaeology 35, no. 2 (2003): 258–275; Tai S. Edwards and Paul Kelton, “Germs, Genocides, and America's Indigenous Peoples,” Journal of American History 107, no. 1 (2020): 52–76; Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CN: Greenwood, 1972), 35–63; Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., “Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation of America,” William and Mary Quarterly 33, no. 2 (1976): 289–299; Henry F. Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population: An Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate,” Current Anthropology 7, no. 4 (1966): 395–416; Henry F. Dobyns, “More Methodological Perspectives on Historical Demography,” Ethnohistory 36, no. 3 (1989): 285–299; Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997); David S. Jones, “Virgin Soils Revisited,” William and Mary Quarterly 60, no. 4 (2003): 703–742; David S. Jones, Rationalizing Epidemics: Meanings and Uses of American Indian Mortality since 1600 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004); Catherine M. Cameron, Paul Kelton, and Alan C. Swedlund, eds., Beyond Germs: Native Depopulation in North America (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015); Robert Larocque, “Secret Invaders: Pathogenic Agents and the Aboriginals in Champlain's Time,” in Champlain: The Birth of French America, ed. Raymonde Litalien and Denis Vaugeois, trans. Käthe Roth (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004), 275; Paul Kelton, “Avoiding the Smallpox Spirits: Colonial Epidemics and Southeastern Indian Survival,” Ethnohistory 51, no. 1 (2004): 45–71; Ann F. Ramenofsky, Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987); and Susan Johnston, “Epidemics: The Forgotten Factor in Seventeenth Century Native Warfare in the St. Lawrence Valley,” in Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit, and Métis, ed. Bruce Alden Cox (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1987), 14–30.

11. Larocque, “Secret Invaders,” 270; Dean R. Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology: The Sites, Occasional Papers in Anthropology, Number 23 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995), 4, 279–359; Jack Campisi, “Oneida,” in Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger, vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1978): 490. In an earlier attempt to calculate the pre- and post-epidemic Mohawk population, William A. Starna based his estimates on 180 longhouses in eight villages filled to capacity. See William A. Starna, “Mohawk Iroquois Populations: A Revision,” Ethnohistory 27, no. 4 (1980): 372, 374–379. The Five Nations experienced epidemics of varying intensity in 1634, 1637, 1639, 1649, 1669, 1678–1679, 1681, 1687–1691, and 1696. Other epidemics afflicted individual communities more frequently. See Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods, appendix 2, 289–291.

12. Van den Bogaert, Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 3–22 (quotes, 4-6); Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 279–297; and Bradley, Before Albany, 43; Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 283–284.

13. Jesuit Relations, 7:213–221 (first quote, 214-215; second quote, 216–217; third and fourth quotes, 220-221).

14. Van den Bogaert, Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 4; Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 239, 279–297; and Campisi, “Oneida,” 490.

15. Dean Snow and William A. Starna, “Sixteenth-Century Depopulation: A View from the Mohawk Valley,” American Anthropologist 91, no. 1 (1989): 144; Daniel K. Richter, “War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience,” William and Mary Quarterly 40, no. 4 (1983): 528–559; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 32–38; Catherine M Cameron, “The Effects of Warfare and Captive-Taking on Indigenous Mortality in Postcontact North America,” in Beyond Germs: Native Depopulation in North America, ed. Catherine M. Cameron, Paul Kelton, and Alan C. Swedlund (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015), 174–197; Myrtle Kelsey, Reading the Wampum, xix, 84–86; Elizabeth N. Ellis, The Great Power of Small Nations: Indigenous Diplomacy in the Gulf South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2023), 38, 52; Mishuana Goeman, Mark My Words: Native Women Mapping Our Nations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013), 49, 84; and Audra Simpson, Mohawk Interruptus: Political Life Across the Borders of Settler States (Raleigh, NC: Duke University Press, 2013), 48.

16. Van den Bogaert, Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 10, 12–13 19–20; Vimont, “Of Incusions by the Hiroquois, and the Captivity of Father Jogues, 1642–1643,” 15, 21; Johannes Megapolensis, Jr., “A Short Account of the Mohawk Indians, 1644,” in In Mohawk Country: Early Narratives about a Native People, ed. Dean Snow, Charles Gehring, and William Starna (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996), 44; “Ordinance of the colony of Rensselaerswyck prohibiting the sale of powder, lead and firearms to Indians,” 18 July 1641, in Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts, 565; “Arent van Curler to Kiliaen van Rensselaer,” June 16, 1643, History of New Netherland, 1:456–465; Bradley, Before Albany, 124; Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse, 32–38; George T. Hunt, The Wars of the Iroquois: A Study in Intertribal Relations (Madison, WI: Oxford University Press, 1940); William A. Starna and José António Brandão, “From the Mohawk-Mahican War to the Beaver Wars: Questioning the Pattern,” Ethnohistory 51, no. 4 (2004): 725–750; Parmenter, Edge of the Woods; and Anthony Wonderley, At the Font of Marvelous: Exploring Oral Narrative and Mythic Imagery of the Iroquois and their Neighbors (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2009), 14–52. Brandão, Your fyre shall burn no more, questions the “Beaver Wars” interpretation.

17. Jesuit Relations, 48:77–81; 54:111 (quotes); Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, 115–116; Francis Jennings, “Glory, Death, and Transfiguration: The Susquehannock Indians in the Seventeenth Century,” American Philosophical Society, Proceedings 112 (1968): 20–29; and Matthew Kruer, Time of Anarchy: Indigenous Power and the Crisis of Colonialism in Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2022).

18. Jesuit Relations, 50:139–147; 201–203; Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, 122–124; Cadwallader Colden, History of the Five Indian Nations Depending on the Province of New York in America: A Critical Edition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016), 18–19; Message of the Governor of Canada to the Five Nations, and their Answer, February 4, 1694/95, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1853–1887) (hereafter NYCD), 4:120–122; “Of the War and the Treaties of Peace of the French With the Iroquois,” in The Documentary History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1849) (hereafter DHNY), 1:64–71, (quotes, 69–70); and “The Iroquois Country, and Plans of Forts on the River Richelieu 1664–65,” Jesuit Relations, 49: between 266–267.

19. Campisi, “Oneida,” 482; Jesuit Relations, 43:187, 265; 44:21, 205; 45:205–209; 51:121–123; David B. Guldenzopf, “The Colonial Transformation of Mohawk Iroquois Society” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 1987), 32.

20. Simpson, Mohawk Interruptus, 48; Snow, Gehring, and Starna, eds., In Mohawk Country, xix; Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 361, 403–410, 429; William Martin Beauchamp, Aboriginal Place Names of New York, New York State Museum Bulletin 108, Archeology 12 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1907), 156; William Martin Beauchamp, Antiquities of Onondaga, New York State Library, Albany, microfilm reel 5, vol. 4:408–409; Jesuit Relations, 51:81, 123; 54:111–113, 281–283; 57:69–71, 89–91, 137–139; 58:161; 59:237–239; “Treaty between the Senecas and the French,” May 25, 1666, NYCD, 9:44–45; “Treaty between the Oneidas and the French,” July 12, 1666, NYCD, 9:45–47; Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 107, 109–111; and Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from its beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 176. In 1657, Mohawk fighting men escorted a large group of Huron refugees to Mohawk country and placed them on the north side of the river and west of Caroga Creek. Artifacts recovered from this site, while formed with Mohawk Valley clay, reflect the Huron style of pottery making. See also Timothy D. Knapp, “An Unbounded Future? Ceramic Types, ‘Cultures,’ and Scale in Late Prehistoric Research,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Laurie E. Miroff and Timothy D. Knapp (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 125.

21. Joyce Marshall, ed. and trans., Word from New France: The Selected Letters of Marie de L’Incarnation (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1967), 317–328; Allen Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York: The Seventeenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960), 251–253, 261; Loren Michael Mortimer, “Kateri's Bones: Recovering an Indigenous Political Ecology of Healing along Kaniatarowanenneh, 1660–1701,” Native American and Indigenous Studies 7, no. 2 (2020): 55–86; Jesuit Relations, 54:111–113; 55:33–37; 57:69–71, 89–91, 107–111; 58:75–89, 171, 207–211, 247–253; 60:145–147, 277; 61: 239–241; 62:167–173; Lt. Governor Nanfan to the Five Nations, July 10, 1701, NYCD, 4:907; Jack Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance in Three Oneida Communities” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 1974), 32–34; William N. Fenton and Elisabeth J. Tooker, “Mohawk,” in Northeast, 469–473; Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 403–410, 419–431; Kathryn Magee Labelle, “Like Wolves from the Woods: Gahoendoe Island and Early Wendat Dispersal Strategies,” in From Huronia to Wendakes: Adversity, Migrations, and Resilience, 1650–1900, ed. Thomas Peace and Kathryn Magee Labelle (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016), 17–34; and Thomas Peace, “Maintaining Connections: Lorette during the Eighteenth Century,” in From Huronia to Wendakes: Adversity, Migrations, and Resilience, 1650–1900, ed. Thomas Peace and Kathryn Magee Labelle (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016), 74–110.

22. Jesuit Relations, 55:33–37; 57:91, 107–111; 58:75–89, 171, 207–211, 247–253; 60:145–147; 61: 239–241; 62:167–173; Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 119, 126; and Mortimer, “Kateri's Bones,” 55–86.

23. Jesuit Relations, 58:81; and Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 128.

24. Jesuit Relations, 45:207; 50:326; 51:177, 257, 290; Victor Konrad, “An Iroquois Frontier: The North Shore of Lake Ontario During the Late Seventeenth Century,” Journal of Historical Geography 7, no. 2 (1981), 131–136; James H. Coyne, ed. and trans., “Galinée's Narrative and Map,” Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records 4 (Ontario, Canada, 1903), 39–41; Victor Konrad, “The Iroquois Return to the Homelands: Military Retreat or Cultural Adjustment,” in A Cultural Geography of North American Indians, ed. Thomas E. Ross and Tyrel G. Moore (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), 191–192; Deborah Doxtator, “What Happened to the Iroquois Clans? A Study of Clans in Three Nineteenth Century Rotinonhsyonni Communities” (PhD diss., University of Western Ontario, 1996), 113; Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 138; and Jacques Nicolas Bellin and Homann Erben, Partie occidentale de la Nouvelle France ou du Canada, 1755, Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/item/73694802/. Although no tribal affiliation is given for Quinaouatoua, its proximity to, and location along, Seneca routes to villages on the north shore and in their traditional homeland strongly suggest a Seneca affiliation. Bellin's map uses Kente for Quinté/Quintio.

25. Jesuit Relations, 50:326; 51:177, 257, 290; Count de Frontenac to M. Colbert, November 2, 1672, NYCD, 9:91; Richard A. Preston and Leopold Lamontagne, “The Quinte Mission,” in Royal Fort Frontenac, ed. and trans. Richard Preston and Leopold Lamontagne (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1958), 3–16, 85–101; James S. Pritchard, “For the Glory of God: The Quinte Missions, 1668–1680,” Ontario History 65 (1973), 133–148; Preston and Lamontagne, “Establishment of Fort Frontenac,” in Royal Fort Frontenac, 20–27; “Correspondence of Frontenac, 2 November 1672–1674,” in Royal Fort Frontenac, 105–116; “Journal of Count de Frontenac's Voyage to Lake Ontario in 1673,” June 3–July 30, NYCD, 9:95–114; “Memoir of M. de Denonville on the State of Canada,” November 12, 1685, NYCD, 9:282–283; and Louis Hennepin, A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America (London: Bentley, 1698), 25–26.

26. Jesuit Relations, 50:139–147, 199–205; 54:111–113; Colden, History of the Five Indian Nations, 24–25; and Marshall, Word from New France, 317–328. In 1664, the English conquered the Dutch colony of New Netherland and renamed it New York. The colony served as a pawn in imperial politics for nearly a decade, but by 1673, the English gained permanent control of the territory and the fur-trade outpost of Fort Orange became Albany. Edmond Andros served as New York governor from 1674 to 1681.

27. Jennings, Ambiguous Iroquois Empire, 145–171; Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 21–24, 136–141; James W. Bradley, Onondaga and Empire: An Iroquoian People in an Imperial Era, New York State Museum Bulletin 514 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 2020), 273; and “Wentworth Greenhalgh's Journal of a Tour to the Indians of Western New-York,” July 14, 1677, NYCD, 3:250–252.

28. Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 403–414, 419–431; William N. Fenton and Elisabeth Tooker, “Mohawk,” in Northeast, 469–473; Jesuit Relations, 49:257; 57:91, 111; “Wentworth Greenhalgh's Journal,” NYCD, 3:250; and Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, 130. Dean Snow calculates that by the 1670s Mohawk longhouses sheltered an average of twenty-three people, giving the nation a total population of almost 2,000. He disregarded the ten houses at the small, unnamed community as only a temporary settlement, giving the Mohawk eighty-six longhouses. Cahaniaga is the Fox Farm archaeological site, Canagora is the Turtle Pond site and Canajorha is the Schenk 2 site. For the western sequence, Tionondogue is the White Orchard site. For the 1680s villages, the eastern community of Caughnawaga is the Veeder archaeological site and the western community of Tionnondagé is the Crouse 2 site. See Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 283–284; and Bradley, Before Albany, 184, 186.

29. “Wentworth Greenhalgh's Journal,” NYCD, 3:250 (quote); Jesuit Relations, 61:21, 165; Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance,” 32–33; and Gilbert Hagerty, “Oneida Miscellany,” Chenango Chapter New York State Archeological Association 16, no. 1 (1975), 10, 14, 28. Parmenter dates two Oneida archaeological sites during the 1670s, with a break at 1676–1677. The Sullivan archaeological site (located near the mission at Saint Francis Xavier) had an estimated occupation of 1661–1676. The Marsh archaeological site (Jesuits only refer to it as Onneiout) had an estimated occupation of 1677–1693. See Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 283.

30. Campisi, “Oneida,” 481; Monte R. Bennett, “The Primes Hill Site MSV.5–2: An Eighteenth Century Oneida Station,” Bulletin of the Chenango Chapter New York State Archaeological Association 22, no. 4 (1988), 5; Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance,” 32–34; and Samuel W. Durant, History of Oneida County, New York (Philadelphia: Everts and Fariss, 1878), 41. The 1690s Oneida community is the Upper Hogan archaeological site, see Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 283; and Bradley, Before Albany, 184.

31. Bradley, Onondaga and Empire, 170–173. These two main communities are the archaeological sites of Lot 18 (ca. 1650–1655) and Indian Castle (ca. 1655–1663). Beginning and end dates of occupation are approximate and overlap. Both communities were in the Pompey Hills south of present-day Syracuse. Parmenter lists the early 1650s community as Nontageya, see Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 283.

32. James A. Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory: A Study in Settlement Archaeology (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 20, 178, 186, 212–217; Joshua V. H. Clark, Onondaga or Reminiscences of Earlier and Later Times (Syracuse, NY: Stoddard and Babcock, 1849); James W. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois: Accommodating Change, 1500–1655 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987); 206; and Bradley, Onondaga and Empire, 288–289. This community is the archaeological site Indian Hill (ca. 1663–1682). As with the two previous occupations, this community was in the Pompey Hills south of present-day Syracuse. Archaeological evidence from a 1640s village revealed a similar oblong defensive structure surrounding the community's two acres; see Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory, 175–176.

33. “Wentworth Greenhalgh's Journal,” NYCD, 3:251 (quote); Francis Jennings “Glory, Death, and Transfiguration,” 15–53; Francis Jennings, “‘Pennsylvania Indians’ and the Iroquois,” in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 75–91; Elisabeth Tooker, “The Demise of the Susquehannocks: A Seventeenth Century Mystery,” Pennsylvania Archaeologist 54, nos. 3–4 (1984), 1–10; and Kruer, Time of Anarchy.

34. Jesuit Relations, 62:55–57 (first quote); Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 136; “Wentworth Greenhalgh's Journal,” NYCD, 3:250–251; Count de Frontenac to Louis XIV, October 25, 1696, NYCD, 9:639–640; “Narrative of the most remarkable occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:651–657 (second quote, 651); Bibliothèque Historique de la Marine, Paris: Album 67, No. 91, in Harold Blau, Jack Campisi, and Elisabeth Tooker, “Onondaga,” Northeast, 494; Arthur C. Parker, The Archaeological History of New York, New York State Museum Bulletin 237–238 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1922), 641–642; Peter P. Pratt, Onondaga Iroquois Acculturation at the time of Frontenac's Invasion of 1696 (n.d.), cited in James W. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois: Accommodating Change, 1500–1655 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 206; Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory, 188–191; Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York, 319; and William Martin Beauchamp, A History of the New York Iroquois Now Commonly Called the Six Nations, New York State Museum Bulletin 78, Archeology 9 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1905), 161. The Onondaga community along Limestone Creek (1663–1682) is the Indian Hill archaeological site and the new village along Butternut Creek is the Weston site. See Bradley, Onondaga and Empire, 289; and Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 283. Louis de Buade de Frontenac was the governor of New France from 1672 to 1682, and again from 1689 to 1698.

35. Marian E. White, William E. Engelbrecht, and Elisabeth Tooker, “Cayuga,” in Northeast, 500–504, 500; Mary Ann Palmer Niemczycki, The Origin and Development of the Seneca and Cayuga Tribes of New York State (Rochester, NY: Rochester Museum and Science Center Research Records no. 17, 1984), 75; Mary Ann Palmer Niemczycki, “Cayuga Archaeology: Where Do We Go From Here?,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association 102 (1991): 27–33; and Jesuit Relations, 51:293, 52:179, 262, 54:33. Goiogouen was southeast of present-day Union Springs and is the archaeological site of Mead Farm. Onontaré was east of present-day Savannah and is the archaeological site of Rogers Farm. Thiohero is the archaeological site of René Ménard Bridge Hilltop. See also Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 282.

36. Jesuit Relations, 52:177–193, 54:53–55, 57:177–185, 59:245, 251, 60:173–175, 61:152, 69:99–107, 229–231; Niemczycki, The Origin and Development of the Seneca and Cayuga Tribes, 73–77, 93; Niemczycki, “Cayuga Archaeology: Where Do We Go From Here?,” 30–33; Harrison C. Follette, “Following the Cayuga Iroquois Migration in Cayuga County New York,” Archaeological Society of Central New York Bulletin 2, no. 2 (1947); Harrison C. Follette, “Sequence Chart of the Cayuga Nation,” Archaeological Society of Central New York Bulletin 8, no. 10 (1953); Harrison C. Follette, “The Cayugas,” Archeological Society of Central New York Bulletin 12, no. 3 (1957); and “Wentworth Greenhalgh's Journal,” NYCD, 3:251. Archaeological evidence identified these three consolidated Cayuga communities as the Fleming, Mapleton, and Crane Brook sites.

37. William N. Fenton, “Problems Arising from the Historic Northeastern Position of the Iroquois,” in Essays in Historical Anthropology of North America, Published in Honor of John R. Swanton, ed. Julian H. Steward, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 100 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1940), 240; George R. Hamell, “Gannagaro State Historic Site: A Current Perspective,” in Studies in Iroquoian Culture, ed. Nancy Bonvillian, Occasional Publications in Northeastern Anthropology no. 6 (Rindge, NH: Department of Anthropology, Franklin Pierce College, 1980), 95–97; and Coyne, “Galinée's Narrative and Map,” 23–25 (quotes), 81. Gandagan (Marsh site) was among the eastern sequence of Seneca communities. Gandachiorágon was in the western sequence and is known as the Dann site.

38. Coyne, “Galinée's Narrative and Map,” 25; “Wentworth Greenhalgh's Journal,” NYCD, 3:251-252 (quote); Charles F. Wray and Harry L. Schoff, “A Preliminary Report on the Seneca Sequence in Western New York, 1550–1687,” Pennsylvania Archaeologist 23, no. 2 (1953), 59; Charles F. Wray, Manual for Seneca Iroquois Archeology (Honeoye Falls, NY: Cultures Primitive, 1973), 2, 5, 8; and Lorraine P. Saunders and Martha L. Sempowski, “The Seneca Site Sequence and Chronology: The Baby or the Bathwater?,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association 102 (1991): 13–26. Gannagaro, also listed as Canagorah (eastern sequence), is the archaeological site of Ganondagan, as well as the Boughton Hill site. Totiakton (western sequence) is the Rochester Junction archaeological site. The small western community of Keint:he is the Kirkwood site and the small eastern community of Canoenada is the Beale site. Canoenada replaced Gandougaraé after a 1670 fire had destroyed the community. Also see Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 1, 282.

39. “Wentworth Greenhalgh's Journal,” NYCD, 3:251-252 (quotes); Charles E. Vandrei, “Observations on Seneca Settlement in the Early Historic Period,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association 95 (1987), 11, 13; and Starna, “Mohawk Iroquois Populations: A Revision,” 374–375. Math calculations are based on an average apartment length of 19.2 feet and two families per apartment length, with family size ranging from four to five members per family. Greenhalgh spelled these towns differently: Canagorah and Tiotohatton.

40. Kimberly Williams-Shuker, “‘Bottom-Up’ Perspectives of the Contact Period: A View from the Rogers Farm Site,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Laurie Miroff and Timothy Knapp (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 207–209; Mimi Kapches, “The Spatial Dynamics of Ontario Iroquoian Longhouses,” American Antiquity 55, no. 1 (1990): 49–67; Gary A. Warrick, “Evolution of the Iroquoian Longhouse,” in People Who Lived in Big Houses: Archaeological Perspectives on Large Domestic Structures, ed. Gary Coupland and E. B. Banning, Monographs in World Archaeology no. 27 (Madison, WI: Prehistory, 1996), 11–26; Laurie E. Miroff, “A Local-Level Analysis of Social Reproduction and Transformation in the Chemung Valley: The Thomas/Luckey Site,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Laurie Miroff and Timothy Knapp (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 95; and Julia A. Hendon, “Archaeological Approaches to the Organization of Domestic Labor: Household Practice and Domestic Relations,” Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996): 46–61.

41. Thomas Grassmann, The Mohawk Indians and Their Valley: Being a Chronological Documentary Record to the End of 1693 (Schenectady, NY: Eric Hugo Photography and Printing, 1969), 638–646; Donald Rumrill, “An Interpretation and Analysis of the Seventeenth Century Mohawk Nation: Its Chronology and Movements,” The Bulletin and Journal of Archaeology for New York State, Van Epps-Hartley Chapter no. 90 (1985): 33; Starna, “Mohawk Iroquois Populations: A Revision,” 374; Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 313, 362–363, 429–443; and Van den Bogaert, Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country, 3–10. Both Grassmann and Starna concluded that Mohawk residents used seven of the longhouses for housing space, the remaining five for storage. Snow, however, contends Mohawk residents used eight of the longhouses for housing space and four for storage. Despite the increase in residential space, he estimated a similar total population because he calculated a slightly lower housing density. Snow averaged thirty-seven individuals per house, while Starna calculated forty-six per house.

42. A. Gregory Sohrweide, “Onondaga Longhouses in the Late Seventeenth Century on the Weston Site,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association no. 117 (2001): 1–24; and Bibliothèque Historique de la Marine, Paris: Album 67, No. 91, in Harold Blau, Jack Campisi, and Elisabeth Tooker, “Onondaga,” Northeast, 494.

43. Sohrweide, “Onondaga Longhouses in the Late Seventeenth Century on the Weston Site,” 19–23.

1. Earl of Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, April 20, 1700, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1853–1887) (hereafter NYCD), 4:636–639, 637; Messrs. Schuyler, Livingston and Hansen to the Earl of Bellomont, May 3, 1700, NYCD, 4: 653; Lawrence H. Leder, Robert Livingston and the Politics of Colonial New York, 1654–1728 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), 151–153; Stefan Bielinski, Colonial Albany Project, The People of Colonial Albany, Pieter Schuyler, New York State Museum, https://exhibitions.nysm.nysed.gov/albany/bios/s/pischuyler61.html; Henrick Hansen, New York State Museum, https://exhibitions.nysm.nysed.gov/albany/bios/h/hehansen4939.html; and Lawrence H. Leder, ed., The Livingston Indian Records, 1666–1723 (Stanfordville, NY: Earl M. Coleman, 1979), 8. Hendrick Hanson served as mayor of Albany from 1698 to 1699. Peter Schuyler was chair of the Board for the Commissioners of Indian Affairs from 1686 to 1694.

2. Leder, Robert Livingston, 117–118, 134–135, 151–153; Earl of Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, May 25, 1700, NYCD, 4:644; Mr. Robert Livingston to the Earl of Bellomont, May 3, 1700, NYCD, 4:647; and “Negotiation of the Commissioners sent by the Earl of Bellomont to Onondaga,” April 27, 1700, NYCD, 4:655–656.

3. Major Ingoldesby to Governor Fletcher, February 11, 1693, NYCD, 4:6–7; “Major Peter Schuyler's Report to Governor Fletcher,” February 8–21, 1693, NYCD, 4:16–19; “Journal of Governor Fletcher's Expedition, March 7, 1693,” NYCD, 4:14–16; “Governor Fletcher's Speech to the Indian Sachems,” February 25, 1693, NYCD, 4:20–22; “Answer of the Five Nations to Governor Fletcher,” NYCD, 4:22–24; “Account of Stores at Schenectady, in July, 1696,” NYCD, 4:431–432; and “Journal of Governor Fletcher's Visit to Albany,” September 17, 1696, NYCD, 4:237–239. King William's War, from 1688 to 1697, involved the North American theater of the European conflict the War of the League of Augsburg.

4. Mr. Robert Livingston to the Earl of Bellomont, May 3, 1700, NYCD, 4:647 (first quote); “Mr. Robert Livingston's Report of his Journey to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:648 (second, third, and fourth quotes); and “Negotiation of the Commissioners sent by the Earl of Bellomont to Onondaga,” April 27, 1700, NYCD, 4:654–661 (remaining quotes, 661).

5. David Schuyler to the Earl of Bellomont, August 17, 1700, NYCD, 4:747. Schuyler spelled the castle Kachnauage.

6. Marquis de Meulles to Marquis de Seignelay, July 8, 1684, NYCD, 9:228–232; Marquis de Seignelay to Monsieur Barillon, July 31, 1684, NYCD, 9:234; “Presents of the Onondagas to Onontio at La Famine,” September 5, 1684, NYCD, 9:236–239; “Monsieur de la Barre's Proceedings with the Five Nations,” October 1, 1684, NYCD, 9:239–243; Reverend Jean de Lamberville to Monsieur de la Barre, July 13, 1684, NYCD, 9:254–255; Baron de Lahontan, Letter VII, dated Montreal, November 2, 1684, in New Voyages to North America (London, 1703; repr., Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1905), 1:37; Memoir of M. de Denonville on the State of Canada,” November 12, 1685, NYCD, 9:280–286; and Jon Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2010), 181–189.

7. Lahontan, Letter VII, dated Montreal, November 2, 1684, in New Voyages to North America, 1:37; M. de Denonville to M. de Seignelay, September 8, 1686, NYCD, 9:296–303; “Abstract of M. de Denonville's Letters and of the Minister's Answers thereto,” 1686, NYCD, 9:312–316; “Memoir on the State of Canada,” January 1687, NYCD, 9:319–322; Francis Jennings, Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indians Tribes with English Colonies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 165–166; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 134–136; Allen Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York: The Seventeenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960), 297–299, 310–311; and “Monsieur de la Barre's Proceedings with the Five Nations,” October 1, 1684, NYCD, 9:239–243.

8. M. de Denonville to M. de Seignelay, August 25, 1687, NYCD, 9:338 (first and second quotes); “Expedition of M. de Denonville against the Senecas, Oct 1687,” NYCD, 9:358–368, 366–368 (third and fourth quotes); Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610–1791 (Cleveland, OH: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901) (hereafter Jesuit Relations), 63:269–277; Charles F. Wray and Harry L. Schoff, “A Preliminary Report on the Seneca Sequence in Western New York, 1550–1687,” Pennsylvania Archaeologist 23, no. 2 (1953): 57–59; and Lahontan, Letter XIII, Niagara, August 2, 1687, New Voyages to North America, 1:70–80.

9. Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004), 112, 160–164, 212–214, 230.

10. Lahontan, Letter XIII, Niagara, August 2, 1687, New Voyages to North America, 1:77 (quote); and M. de Denonville to M. de Seignelay, August 25, 1687, NYCD, 9:338.

11. “Examination of Kakariall, an Indian Prisoner,” August 31, 1687, NYCD, 3:431–433; and “Examination of Adandidaghko, an Indian Prisoner,” September 1, 1687, NYCD, 3:433–436.

12. “Narrative of the Military Operations in Canada, 1692, 1693,” August 17, 1693, NYCD, 9:550–555; “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1692, 1693,” NYCD, 9:555–561; Major Ingoldesby to Governor Fletcher, February 11, 1692/93, NYCD, 4:6–7; “Major Peter Schuyler's Report to Governor Fletcher,” February 8–21, 1693, NYCD, 4:16–19; and “State of the Frontiers of New-York during Governor Fletcher's Administration,” NYCD, 4:429–430. Louis de Buade de Frontenac served as governor of New France from 1672 to 1682, and again from 1689 to 1698.

13. “Narrative of the Military Operations in Canada, 1692, 1693,” August 17, 1693, NYCD, 9:550–555 (first quote, 551); and “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1692, 1693,” NYCD, 9:559–560 (second quote).

14. Count de Frontenac to Louis XIV, October 25, 1696, NYCD, 9:639–640 (quotes); “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:640; and Jesuit Relations, 65:25. For European struggles with winter military expeditions, see Thomas Wickman, “‘Winters Embittered with Hardships’: Severe Cold, Wabanaki Power, and English Adjustments, 1690–1710,” William and Mary Quarterly 72, no. 1 (2015): 57–98.

15. “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:652 (quotes); and Jesuit Relations, 65:25.

16. Count de Frontenac to Louis XIV, October 25, 1696, NYCD, 9:639–640 (first quote); “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:652–654 (second quote); Bibliothèque Historique de la Marine, Paris: Album 67, No. 91, in Harold Blau, Jack Campisi, and Elisabeth Tooker, “Onondaga,” in Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant, vol. 15, Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1978), 494 (map); A. Gregory Sohrweide, “Onondaga Longhouses in the Late Seventeenth Century on the Weston Site,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association no. 117 (2001): 1–24; Arthur C. Parker, The Archaeological History of New York, New York State Museum Bulletins 237–238 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1922), 641–642; Peter P. Pratt, Onondaga Iroquois Acculturation at the time of Frontenac's Invasion of 1696 (n.d.), cited in James W. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois: Accommodating Change, 1500–1655 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 206; James A. Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory: A Study in Settlement Archaeology (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 188–191; Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York, 319; and William Martin Beauchamp, A History of the New York Iroquois Now Commonly Called the Six Nations, New York State Museum Bulletin 78, Archeology 9 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1905), 161.

17. “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:653–654 (first quote, second, and third quotes); Count de Frontenac to Louis XIV, October 25, 1696, NYCD, 9:639–640 (fourth and fifth quotes); Jesuit Relations, 65:25–29; and Governor Benjamin Fletcher to the Lords of Trade, August 22, 1696, NYCD, 4:173–174.

18. Count de Frontenac to Louis XIV, October 25, 1696, NYCD, 9:639–640; “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:654–657; Jack Campisi, “Oneida,” in Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant, vol. 15, Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1978), 481; and Monte R. Bennett, “The Primes Hill Site MSV.5–2: An Eighteenth Century Oneida Station,” Bulletin of the Chenango Chapter New York State Archaeological Association 22, no. 4 (1988): 5.

19. “Expedition of M. de Denonville against the Senecas,” October 1687, NYCD, 9:368 (first quote); “Narrative of the Military Operations in Canada, 1692, 1693,” August 17, 1693, NYCD, 9:551 (second quote); “Answer of the Five Nations to Governor Fletcher,” February 25, 1693, NYCD, 4:23–24 (third and fourth quotes); “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:657 (remaining quotes); and Governor Benjamin Fletcher to the Lords of Trade, August 22, 1696, NYCD, 4:173–174. Benjamin Fletcher served as New York governor from 1692 to 1698.

20. “Journal of Major General Winthrop's March to Wood Creek,” July–September 1690, NYCD, 4:193–196; Count de Frontenac to the Minister, November 12, 1690, NYCD, 9:460–461; Jesuit Relations, 64:47, 97–99; and John Duffy, “Smallpox and the Indians in the American Colonies,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 25, no. 4 (1951): 331–333.

21. Earl of Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, October 24, 1698, NYCD, 4:409–411 (quote); “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:657; Colonel Peter Schuyler to Lt. Gov. Nanfan, June 30, 1699, NYCD, 4:575–576; and Thomas E. Burke, Jr., Mohawk Frontier: The Dutch Community of Schenectady, New York, 1661–1710 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 206.

22. Susan M. Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of: Haudenosaunee Land Tenure on the Grand River (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017), 43; Deborah Doxtator, “What Happened to the Iroquois Clans? A Study of Clans in Three Nineteenth Century Rotinonhsyonni Communities” (PhD diss., University of Western Ontario, 1996), 113; “Journal of Governor Fletcher's Visit to Albany,” September 17, 1696, NYCD, 4:235–241 (first quote, 239); Governor Benjamin Fletcher to the Lords of Trade, August 22, 1696, NYCD, 4:173–174; Governor Fletcher to the Duke of Shrewsbury, November 9, 1696, NYCD, 4:232–233; “Indian Conference,” March 9, 1697, March 12, 1697, in Calendar of Historical Manuscripts in the Office of the Secretary of State, Albany, N.Y., English Manuscripts, 1664–1776, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1866), New York State Library, Albany, Manuscripts (hereafter CHM), 41:38 (second quote); Governor Thomas Dongan to the Seneca, 4 July 1687, Livingston Indian Records, 127; and Governor Benjamin Fletcher to the Mohawk, February 25, 1693, NYCD, 4:20–21. See also Rachel B. Herrmann, “‘No Useless Mouth’: Iroquoian Food Diplomacy in the American Revolution,” Diplomatic History 41, no. 1 (2017): 20–49.

23. “Memorial of the Agents from Albany, &c., to the Government of Connecticut,” March 12, 1690, NYCD, 3:692–694; “Memorial of the Agents from Albany to the Government of Massachusetts,” March 20, 1690, NYCD, 3:695–698 (quote, 695); Governor Fletcher to Mr. Blathwayt, March 8, 1693, NYCD, 4:13; Fletcher to the Lords of Trade, November 9, 1696, NYCD, 4:234–235; Burke, Mohawk Frontier, 62, 88; “An Account of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada from the Departure of the Vessels, From the Month of November 1689 to the Month of November 1690,” in The Documentary History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1849), 1:300–306; Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York, 304–305; Thomas Grassmann, The Mohawk Indians and Their Valley: Being a Chronological Documentary Record to the End of 1693 (Schenectady, NY: Eric Hugo Photography and Printing, 1969), 638–646; Dean R. Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology: The Sites (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995), 429–443; and Susan J. Staffa, Schenectady Genesis: How a Dutch Colonial Village Became an American City, ca. 1661–1800, vol. 1, The Colonial Crucible, ca. 1661–1774 (Fleischmanns, NY: Purple Mountain, 2004), 76–92.

24. Dirck Wessells to Governor Benjamin Fletcher, 1 December 1697, CHM, 41:136; “An Account of Provisions Delivered by Robert Livingston, Commissary to the Indians of ye five nations from May 6–August 2, 1698,” CHM, 42:37, 39a; “Provisions delivered by Robert Livingston to the French Prisoners and to the Sachems of the Five Nations, 28 August–18 October 1698,” CHM, 42:81; “Account of Provisions delivered to the Five Nations,” 21 September 1699, CHM, 43:55–56 (volume destroyed in fire, information from Calendar table of contents); and “Indian Conference,” March 9, 1697, March 12, 1697, CHM, 41:38. In April 1698, Albany provided a census of the warrior count for Haudenosaunee villages: Mohacques (Mohawk): 110; Oneydes: 70; Onnondages: 250; Cayouges: 200; and Sennicks: 600. Conservative population estimates can be calculated by multiplying the warrior count by four. See “Comparative Population of Albany and of the Indians in 1689 and 1698,” April 19, 1698, NYCD, 4:337; and Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, appendix 2, 291. To put the provision disbursements into perspective, consider that Denonville estimated his troops destroyed 1.2 million bushels of Seneca corn, growing and stored. The allotment of 520 quarts of corn is around fifteen bushels of corn. Also consider that a hog yields between 120–150 pounds pork, fifty people can eat around 33 pounds of uncooked pork at a meal, and a cow yields around 440 pounds of beef. In addition, contemporary meat consumption patterns estimate per capita meat consumption in the United States of above 250 pounds per person in 2020. See, Gretchen Kuck and Gary Schnitkey, “An Overview of Meat Consumption in the United States,” Farmdoc Daily (11): 76, Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, May 12, 2021, https://farmdocdaily.illinois.edu/2021/05/an-overview-of-meat-consumption-in-the-united-states.html.

25. Lahontan, Letter XIII, Niagara, August 2, 1687, New Voyages to North America, 1:78; Kathleen M. Sydoriak Allen, “Temporal and Spatial Scales of Activity among the Iroquois,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, eds. Laurie E. Miroff and Timothy D. Knapp (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 162–163; Kurt A. Jordan, The Seneca Restoration, 1715–1754: An Iroquois Local Political Economy (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2008), 39; “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1694, 1695,” NYCD, 9:599; and “Proceedings of the Commissioners and the Five Nations,” June 1699, NYCD, 4:572.

26. Lahontan, Letter XIII, Niagara, August 2, 1687, New Voyages to North America, 1:77–78 (first and second quotes); “Captain Duplessis’ Plan for the Defense of Canada,” February 15, 1690, NYCD, 9:447 (third quote); Governor Thomas Dongan to the Seneca, July 4, 1687, Livingston Indian Records, 127; Governor Benjamin Fletcher to the Lords of Trade, August 22, 1696, NYCD, 4:173–174; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 18–29; “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1695, 1696,” NYCD, 9:657; “Observations on the State of Canada,” November 18, 1689, NYCD, 9:431–432; “Summary of Intelligence from Canada, 1689, 1690,” NYCD, 9:434–439; and Louis XIV to Count de Frontenac and M. de Champigny, July 14, 1690, NYCD, 9:452–453.

27. Carte du Lac Ontario ou de Frontenac et de sa Region, 1680, Bibliothèque Nationale de France https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b53016904s (quote); Rick Laprairie, “Toronto's Cartographic Birth Certificate: Hiding in Plain Sight for 350 Years,” Ontario History 110, no 2 (2018): 158–159; David Y. Allen “French Mapping of New York and New England, 1604–1760,” MAGERT ALA Map and Geography Roundtable, series A, no. 1, October 2005, https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/129182/a1.pdf; and Conrad E. Heidenreich, “Seventeenth-Century Maps of the Great Lakes: An Overview and Procedures for Analysis,” Archivaria no. 6 (1978): 88–94 fn. 12, fn. 15, 98–100.

28. Pierre Raffeix, “Le Lac Ontario avec les lieux circonvoisins et particulièrement les cinq nations iroquoises,” 1688, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb40739412k; and Allen, “French Mapping of New York and New England,” 1–2.

29. Carl Kupfer and David Buisseret, “Seventeenth-Century Jesuit Explorers’ Maps of the Great Lakes and Their Influence on Subsequent Cartography of the Region,” Journal of Jesuit Studies 6 (2019): 57–60.

30. Robert Livingston to the Earl of Bellomont, May 3, 1700, NYCD, 4:647 (first, second, and third quotes); and “Mr. Robert Livingston's Report of his Journey to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:648–652 (remaining quotes, 649).

31. “Mr. Robert Livingston's Report of his Journey to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:648–652.

32. “Negotiation of the Commissioners Sent by the Earl of Bellomont to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:655. Dekanohage spelled Dekanoge.

33. “Negotiation of the Commissioners Sent by the Earl of Bellomont to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:655.

34. “Negotiation of the Commissioners Sent by the Earl of Bellomont to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:660–661.

35. “Conference of the Earl of Bellomont with the Indians,” August 26–September 4, 1700, NYCD, 4:731–737; “Instructions to Colonel Romer,” September 3, 1700, NYCD, 4:750–751; “Colonel Romer's Account of His Visit to Onondaga,” October 5, 1700, NYCD, 4:798–801; “A mappe of Colonel Römers Voyage to ye 5 Indian Nations: going from New Yorck to Albany, thence west,” Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division, New York Public Library Digital Collections, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/ec32d360-34ad-0134-f1fd-00505686a51c; and Seymour I. Schwartz and Ralph E. Ehrenberg, The Mapping of America (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1980), 133–143. For other significant early 1700s maps, also see Guillaume Delisle, “Carte du Canada ou de la Nouvelle France” (1703); Guillaume Delisle, “Carte du Mexique et de la Floride” (1703); Guillaume Delisle, “Carte de la Louisiane et du Cours du Mississipi” (1718); and Herman Moll, “Map of North America According to ye Newest and most Exact observations” (1720).

36. “A mappe of Colonel Römers Voyage to ye 5 Indian Nations: going from New Yorck to Albany, thence west.”

37. “Conference of the Earl of Bellomont with the Indians,” August 26–September 4, 1700, NYCD, 4:731–737; and “Journal of Messrs. Hansen and Van Brugh's Visit to Onondaga,” September 13–October 11, 1700, NYCD, 4:802–807.

38. “Instructions to Colonel Romer,” September 3, 1700, NYCD, 4:750–751; Governor Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, November 28, 1700, NYCD, 4:783–784; “Colonel Romer's Account of His Visit to Onondaga,” October 5, 1700, NYCD, 4:798–801; “Journal of Messrs. Hendrick Hansen and Peter van Brugh's Visit to Onondaga, September–October, 1700,” NYCD, 4:802–807; and Robert Livingston to the Lords of Trade, May 13, 1701, NYCD, 4:873. Teganissorens is often spelled Dekanissorens in conference documents.

39. “A Mappe of Colonel Römers Voyage to ye 5 Indian Nations: going from New Yorck to Albany, thence west.”

40. “Messages from the Governor of Canada to the Five Nations, and Their Answer,” January 31–February 4, 1695, NYCD, 4:120–122 (quotes); “Colonel Romer's Account of His Visit to Onondaga,” October 5, 1700, NYCD, 4:798–801; and “Journal of Messrs. Hendrick Hansen and Peter van Brugh's Visit to Onondaga, September–October 1700,” NYCD, 4:802–807. Fort Cadaraqui was later known as Fort Frontenac, in honor of the French governor.

41. Earl of Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, November 28, 1700, NYCD, 4: 796; “Message from the Onondaga for the Commissioners of Indian Affairs,” September 21, 1699, NYCD, 4:597–598; “Journal of Captain Johannes Bleeker and Mr. David Schuyler's Journey to Onondaga,” June 1701, NYCD, 4:889–895; Earl of Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, October 24, 1700, NYCD, 4:768–769; Leroy V. Eid, “The Ojibwa-Iroquois War: The War the Five Nations Did Not Win,” Ethnohistory 26, no. 4 (1979): 301–306; and Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 190–195.

42. Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 205.

43. Jose A. Brandão and William A. Starna, “The Treaties of 1701: A Triumph of Iroquois Diplomacy,” Ethnohistory 43, no. 2 (1996): 209–244; Parmenter, Edge of the Woods, 231–273; and Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 190–213. In an August 1740 conference between the Six Nations and Lieutenant Governor Clarke, New York Indian affairs secretary Peter Wraxall described the main characteristic of the neutralist strategy: “To Preserve the Balance between [the English] and the French is the great ruling Principle.” Wraxall offered this response after the Six Nations sought to prevent the French and British from constructing competing trade posts at Irondequoit. Haudenosaunee leaders worried that “Trading houses too near [one another] generally Quarrel about Trade …. [and they would] breed Mischeif.” See Peter Wraxall, An Abridgement of the Indian Affairs Contained in Four Folio Volumes, Transacted in the Colony of New York, from the Year 1678 to the Year 1751, ed. Charles Howard McIlwain (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1968), 219n.

44. Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 180; Richard Haan, “The Problem of Iroquois Neutrality: Suggestions for Revision,” Ethnohistory 27, no. 4 (1980): 317–330; Richard L. Haan, “The Covenant Chain: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Niagara Frontier, 1697–1730” (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1976), 128–147; Anthony F. C. Wallace, “Origins of Iroquois Neutrality: The Grand Settlement of 1701,” Pennsylvania History 24, no. 3 (1957): 223–235; “Conference of the Earl of Bellomont with the Indians,” August 26, 1700 to September 4, 1700, NYCD, 4:727–746; and “Conference between Governor de Callières and the Iroquois,” September 3, 1700, NYCD, 9:715–720.

45. Brandão and Starna, “The Treaties of 1701: A Triumph of Iroquois Diplomacy,” 231–232; Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 214–280; and Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 142–185.

46. “Propositions of the Five Nations to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs,” June 30, 1700, NYCD, 4:693–695; Victor Konrad, “An Iroquois Frontier: The North Shore of Lake Ontario during the Late Seventeenth Century,” Journal of Historical Geography 7, no. 2 (1981): 132, 142; Count de Frontenac to Louis XIV, October 25, 1696, NYCD, 9:639–640; “Conference of the Earl of Bellomont with the Indians,” August 26–September 4, 1700, NYCD, 4:736–737; and Lords of Trade to Secretary Stanhope, November 18, 1715, NYCD, 5:467–469.

1. “M. de la Barre's Proceedings with the Five Nations,” October 1, 1684, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1853–1887) (hereafter NYCD), 9:239–243; M. de Meulles to M. de Seignelay, October 10, 1684, NYCD, 9:244–248; and “Proposition or Oration of the Onondagoes and Cayouges Sachims,” August 2, 1684, in The Documentary History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1849) (hereafter DHNY), 1:401–403 (quotes). Joseph-Antoine Le Febvre de la Barre served as governor of New France from 1682 to 1685. Thomas Dongan served as governor of New York from 1683 to 1688. La Barre estimated 550 western warriors and 150 Frenchmen, but Meulles stated 200 Frenchmen and 400 western warriors; troop estimates starting from Québec included 900 Frenchmen and 300 Indigenous warriors.

2. Reverend Jean de Lamberville to M. de la Barre, August 28, 1684, NYCD, 9:257–258 (first and third quotes); and Baron de Lahontan, Letter VII, dated Montreal, November 2, 1684, New Voyages to North America (London, 1703; repr., Chicago: A.C. McClurg, 1905), 1:37 (second quote).

3. “Proposition or Oration of the Onondagoes and Cayouges Sachims,” August 2, 1684, DHNY, 1:401 (first quote); “M. de la Barre's Proceedings with the Five Nations,” October 1, 1684, NYCD, 9:239–243; M. de Meulles to M. de Seignelay, October 10, 1684, NYCD, 9:244–248; and Reverend Jean de Lamberville to M. de la Barre, July 10, 1684, NYCD, 9:252 (second quote).

4. “Proposition or Oration of the Onondagoes and Cayouges Sachims,” August 2, 1684, DHNY 1:401–403; and Lahontan, Letter VII, dated Montreal, November 2, 1684, New Voyages to North America, 1:40 (quotes).

5. Lahontan, Letter VII, dated Montreal, November 2, 1684, New Voyages to North America, 1:40–42 (italics added, quotes). Onontio and Corlaer (variously spelled) were the terms Haudenosaunee peoples and other Indigenous groups used to refer to the French king or governor of New France and the English governor of New York, or their representatives, respectively. Onontio was loosely translated for “big mountain” after Governor Charles Jacques du Huault de Montmagny (1636 to 1648) and Corlaer drew on memories of the important role Arent van Curler played in Dutch-Haudenosaunee relations. See Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 131–132, 140–141.

6. Thomas E. Burke, Jr., Mohawk Frontier: The Dutch Community of Schenectady, New York, 1661–1710 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), xii, 19–21, 23, 28, 30–31; “Intelligence of a French Fort at Niagara,” July 6, 1719, NYCD, 5:528–529; Colonel Schuyler to Lords of Trade, April 27, 1720, NYCD, 5:537–538; “Journal of Lawrence Clausen's Visit to Niagara,” May 22, 1720, NYCD, 5:550–551; Governor Burnet to the Lords of Trade, June 18, 1721, NYCD, 5:585; “Mr. Durant's Memorial Relative to French Post at Niagara,” July 1, 1721, NYCD, 5:588–591; “Conference between Governor Burnet and the Indians,” September–October 1721, NYCD, 5:630–642; “Conference between Commissioners of Indian Affairs and Some Western Tribes,” May 1723, NYCD, 5:693–697; Governor Burnet to the Lords of Trade, August 9, 1724, NYCD, 5:709–710; “Conference between Governor Burnet and the Indians,” September 1724, NYCD, 5:715–721; “Conference between Governor Burnet and the Indians,” September 1726, NYCD, 5:786–788; and Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 22.

7. M. de Vaudreuil to M. de Pontchartrain, November 6, 1712, NYCD, 9:864; “Conference with the Five Nations at Onondaga,” September 18, 1713, NYCD, 5:373; “Conference between Governor Hunter and the Indians,” June 13, 1717, NYCD, 5:486; and Dekanasore to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, July 6, 1719, in Peter Wraxall, An Abridgement of the Indian Affairs Contained in Four Folio Volumes, Transacted in the Colony of New York, from the Year 1678 to the Year 1751, ed. Charles Howard McIlwain (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1968), 124.

8. Dean R. Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology: The Sites, Occasional Papers in Anthropology Number 23 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995), 431–443; John Duffy, Epidemics in Colonial America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1953), 72; Allen Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York: The Seventeenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960), 304–305; Count de Frontenac to the Minister, November 12, 1690, NYCD, 9:460–461; “Narrative of the Most Remarkable Occurrences in Canada, 1689, 1690,” NYCD, 9:490; “Comparative Population of Albany and of the Indians in 1689 and 1698,” April 19, 1698, NYCD, 4:337; and “Fraudulent Purchase of Land from Mohawk Indians,” May 31, 1698, NYCD, 4:345.

9. Ruth L. Higgins, Expansion in New York: With Special Reference to the Eighteenth Century (Columbus: Ohio State University, 1931), 47, 51–52, 54, 56, 59, 62; “Answer of ye mohog Sachims to ye Commissrs,” July 3, 1710, in Lawrence H. Leder, ed., The Livingston Indian Records,1666–1723 (Stanfordville, NY: Earl M. Coleman, 1979), 215–216; Walter A. Knittle, Early Eighteenth Century Palatine Emigration: A British Government Redemptioner Project to Manufacture Naval Stores (Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing, 1965), 152, 192–193, 195; Donald Rumrill, “An Interpretation and Analysis of the Seventeenth Century Mohawk Nation: Its Chronology and Movements,” The Bulletin and Journal of Archaeology for New York State, Van Epps-Hartley Chapter no. 90 (1985): 32–36; Dean R. Snow, Charles T. Gehring, and William A. Starna, eds., In Mohawk Country: Early Narratives about a Native People (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996), xviii–xxiii; and Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 449–470, 473–481. Eastern Mohawks located one community, known archaeologically as the Tribes Hill site, on the north side of the river, opposite Schoharie Creek. They also built several communities on the southern shore, known as the Bushy Hill site, east of Schoharie Creek, as well as the Milton Smith site and two sites in present-day Auriesville, west of Schoharie Creek. Other eastern Mohawks dispersed along the southern bank of the river at the archaeologically identified sites of Wemp #1, Gravel Ridge, Tehondaloga, and possibly Cold Spring. The western Mohawk community at Otsquago Creek is the Prospect Hill site.

10. Monte R. Bennett, “The Primes Hill Site MSV.5–2: An Eighteenth Century Oneida Station,” Bulletin of the Chenango Chapter New York State Archaeological Association 22, no. 4 (1988): 5; Peter P. Pratt, “A Perspective on Oneida Archeology,” in Current Perspectives in Northeastern Archeology: Essays in Honor of William A. Ritchie, ed. Robert E. Funk and Charles F. Hayes III, Researches and Transactions of the New York State Archeological Association 17, no. 1 (1977): 53; Jack Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance in Three Oneida Communities” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 1974), 32–34; Karim Tiro, The People of the Standing Stone: The Oneida Nation from the Revolution through the Era of Removal (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011), 16–17; “A Mappe of Colonel Römers Voyage to ye 5 Indian Nations: going from New Yorck to Albany, thence west,” Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division, New York Public Library. The Upper Hogan site is also known as the Enck site. The Primes Hill site was the main Oneida village before Kanonwalohale in the mid-1740s. After Kanonwalohale, the older village was known as Old Oneida. Kanonwalohale is the Sterling, or Cheeseborough, site. Archaeological evidence remains incomplete concerning the Oneida sequence. Repeated cultivation may have destroyed many villages while others remain unrevealed. In 1710, the Oneida requested William Printup, a smith, to assist them in rebuilding their castle. Printup made the trip, but no further mention is made of a new village or its specific location. See Wraxall, An Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 79.

11. James A. Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory: A Study in Settlement Archaeology (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1971), 189; James W. Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois: Accommodating Change, 1500–1655 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 206; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610–1791 (Cleveland, OH: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901) (hereafter Jesuit Relations), 65:25–29; “Robert Livingston's Report of his Journey to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:649; Commissioners to Bellomont, April 14, 1700, NYCD, 4:661; and “Diary of the Journey of Brother Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger to the Five Nations,” in Moravian Journals Relating to Central New York, 1745–1766, ed. William Martin Beauchamp (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 46, 49, 51, 60. The new Onondaga village along Onondaga Creek is the Valley Oaks archaeological site. Not much archaeological evidence was recovered from eighteenth-century Onondaga communities before the growth of Syracuse covered the area. The documentary record also remains silent until the 1740s when Moravian missionaries visited the region. See Tuck, Onondaga Iroquois Prehistory, 191–192; and Bradley, Evolution of the Onondaga Iroquois, 207.

12. Marquis de Nonville to Marquis de Seignelay, August 25, 1687, NYCD, 9:342; Marquis de Nonville to Marquis de Seignelay, October 27, 1687, NYCD, 9:346–347, 350; Jesuit Relations, 65:25–27; Mary Ann Palmer Niemczycki, The Origin and Development of the Seneca and Cayuga Tribes of New York State (Rochester, NY: Rochester Museum and Science Center Research Records, no. 17, 1984), 73–78; Harrison C. Follette, “Following the Cayuga Iroquois Migration in Cayuga County New York,” Archaeological Society of Central New York Bulletin 2, no. 2 (1947), Tompkins County Historical Society, Ithaca, NY, Native American Collection; and Marian E. White, William E. Engelbrecht, and Elisabeth Tooker, “Cayuga,” in Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant, vol. 15, Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1978), 501.

13. There was one exception to this northward migration. When the eastern village at the Warren site (1610 to 1630) relocated to the Steele site (1630 to 1650), villagers moved almost eight miles east. Subsistence needs influenced such a distant removal as the Steele site offered a better soil location and reduced environmental competition with the western lineage. See Charles E. Vandrei, “Observations on Seneca Settlement in the Early Historic Period,” The Bulletin: Journal of the New York State Archaeological Association 95 (1987): 15; Kurt A. Jordan, “From Nucleated Villages to Dispersed Networks: Transformations in Seneca Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Community Structure, circa AD 1669–1779,” in The Archaeology of Villages in Eastern North America, ed. Jennifer Birch and Victor D. Thompson (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2018), 180–181; and Anthony Wonderley, At the Font of the Marvelous: Exploring Oral Narrative and Mythic Imagery of the Iroquois and Their Neighbors (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2009), 130.

14. “Colonel Bellomont's Instructions to Colonel Romer,” September 3, 1700, NYCD, 4:750; “Journal of Messrs. Schuyler and Livingston's Visit to the Senecas,” April 23, 1720, NYCD, 5:542; Monsieur de Nonville to Monsieur de Seignelay, October 27, 1687, NYCD, 9:346–347; Monsieur de Beauharnois to Count de Maurepas, October 15, 1732, NYCD, 9:1036; George S. Conover, “Seneca Indian Villages: Principal Settlements between Canandaigua and Seneca Lake” (March 1889), Ayer Manuscripts, Newberry Library, Chicago, 1–6; John S. Clark, “Seneca Iroquois Castles and Mission Sites from 1650 to 1750,” Rochester Historical Society Publication Fund Series 7 (1928): 218–219, map places “Onahie” east of present-day Roseland Park; New York Colonial Manuscripts, 1638–1800, New York State Archives, Albany, vol. 67, folio 139; Cadwallader Colden, “Continuation of Colden's History of the Five Indian Nations, for the Years 1707 through 1720,” New York Historical Society Collections ([1720] 1935), 68:357–434, 376; Messrs Groenendyke and Provoost to Commissioners for Indian Affairs, June 16, 1700, NYCD, 4:691; Kees-Jan Waterman, trans. and ed., “To Do Justice to Him & Myself”: Evert Wendell's Account Book of the Fur Trade with Indians in Albany, New York, 1695–1726 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2008); and Henry Lewis Morgan, League of the Hodenosaunee or Iroquois (New York: Citadel Press, 1851, 424, 469 (quotes). The post-1688 Seneca villages were located at the archaeological sites of Snyder-McClure (western sequence) and White Spring (eastern sequence), see Kurt Jordan, The Seneca Restoration, 1715–1754: An Iroquois Political Economy (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2008), 93.

15. “Deed from the Five Nations to the King of their Beaver Hunting Ground,” July 19, 1701, NYCD, 4:908–911 (quotes); and Jose A. Brandão and William A. Starna, “The Treaties of 1701: A Triumph of Iroquois Diplomacy,” Ethnohistory 43, no. 2 (1996): 225–227.

16. Cadwallader Colden, The History of the Five Indian Nations Depending on the Province of New York in America (New York, 1727; repr., Ithaca: Great Seal, 1958); and Cadwallader Colden, A Map of the Country of the Five Nations, belonging to the Province of New York; and of the Lakes near which the Nations of Far Indians live, with part of Canada, 1727, Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, https://digital.library.cornell.edu/catalog/ss:544197.

17. Susan M. Hill, The Clay We Are Made Of: Haudenosaunee Land Tenure on the Grand River (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017), 32; “Abstract of the Proposalls of the Onoundages and Cayouges Sachems at New York, August 2, 1684,” DHNY, 1:400–401; and “Proposition or Oration of the Onondagoes and Cayouges Sachims,” August 2, 1684, DHNY, 1:401–403.

18. Wraxall, An Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 71–74 (first quote, 72); Messrs Groenendyke and Provoost to Commissioners for Indian Affairs, June 16, 1700, NYCD, 4:691 (second quote); and Jon Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2010), 181–273.

19. M. de Clerambaut d’Aigremont to M. de Pontchartrain, November 18, 1710, NYCD, 9:852–853 (quotes); M. de Pontchartrain to M. Raudot, June 6, 1708, NYCD, 9:811; Paul C. Phillips, The Fur Trade, 2 vols. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), 1:303; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 111; and Richard L. Haan, “The Covenant Chain: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Niagara Frontier, 1697–1730” (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1976), 159. Phillips provides figures for furs brought to the Montreal trade for 1700–1704 (1700: 273,509; 1702: 142,429; 1703:240,171; 1704: 198,780). Vaudreuil was governor of New France from 1703 to 1725.

20. Guillaume De L’Isle, Carte de la Louisiane et du cours du Mississipi i.e. Mississippi: dressée sur un grand nombre de mémoires entrautres sur ceux de Mr. le Maire (Paris: Chez l'auteur le Sr. Delisle sur le quay de l'horloge avec privilege du roy, 1718), Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/item/2001624908/ (quotes).

21. Guillaume De L’Isle, Carte de la Louisiane et du cours du Mississipi i.e. Mississippi: dressée sur un grand nombre de mémoires entrautres sur ceux de Mr. le Maire (Paris: Chez l'auteur le Sr. Delisle sur le quay de l'horloge avec privilege du roy, 1718), Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/item/2001624908/.

22. Donald H. Kent, Iroquois Indians II: Historical Report on the Niagara River and the Niagara River Strip to 1759 (New York: Garland, 1974), 29–31.

23. “Proposal to Take Possession of Niagara,” 1706, NYCD, 9:773–775; “Letter from M. Raudot, Jr.,” October 25, 1708, in Cadillac Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, vol. 33 (1904): 395; “MM. de Vaudreuil and Raudot Report of the Colonies and Criticise Cadillac,” November 14, 1708, in Cadillac Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, 33:415–416 (quote); and M. de Pontchartrain to M. de Clerambault d’Aigremont, July 6, 1709, NYCD, 9:826–828.

24. “Proceedings of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs at Albany,” July 17, 1716, in Calendar of Historical Manuscripts, English Manuscripts, 1664–1776, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1866), New York State Library, Albany, Manuscripts (hereafter CHM), 60:122; “Proceedings of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs,” August 13, 1716, CHM, 60:122; “Propositions of the Five Nations to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs,” September 15, 1716, CHM, 60:131; “Minutes of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs,” November 23, 1730, NYCD, 5:911; and Arthur H. Buffington, “The Policy of Albany and English Westward Expansion,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 8, no. 4 (1921–1922): 357–358.

25. “Memoir on the Indians between Lake Erie and the Mississippi,” December 1, 1718, NYCD, 9:885.

26. Colonel Schuyler to the Lords of Trade, April 27, 1720, NYCD, 5:537–538; “Journal of Messrs. Myndert Schuyler and Robert Livingston's Visit to the Senecas,” May 22, 1720, NYCD, 5:542–545; “Journal of Lawrence Clausen's Visit to Niagara,” May 22, 1720, NYCD, 5:550–551; “Abstract of Messrs. De Vaudreuil and Begon to the Council of the Marine,” October 26, 1720, NYCD, 9:897–898; Governor Burnet to Marquis de Vaudreuil, July 11, 1721, NYCD, 9:899–900; M. de Vaudreuil to Governor Burnet, July 11, 1721, NYCD, 9:900–903; Michael N. McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and its Peoples, 1724–1774 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 16; and Thomas S. Abler and Elizabeth Tooker, “Seneca,” in Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant, vol. 15, Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1978), 507.

27. “A Meeting of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, May 1711,” NYCD, 5:243–244; Colonel Peter Schuyler to Governor Hunter, May 27, 1711, NYCD, 5:245; “Journal of Colonel Peter Schuyler's Negotiations with the Onondaga Indians, May 1711,” NYCD, 5:245–249; Wraxall, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 82–87 (quotes); and Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 227. Queen Anne's War was the North American theater of the European War of the Spanish Succession. Peter Schuyler was appointed the first mayor of Albany in 1686, a position that also made him the chair of the Board for the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. In 1692, he became a member of the executive council, an unelected member of New York's colonial legislature. Schuyler played a role in the two aborted military expeditions against Canada in 1709 and 1711. John H. G. Pell, “Schuyler, Peter (1657–1723/24),” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, ed. David Hayne, vol. 2 (University of Toronto Press/Université Laval, 2003), http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/schuyler_peter_1657_1723_24_2E.html.

28. Governor Hunter to the Lords of Trade, October 31, 1712, NYCD, 5:349 (quote); and “Conference between Governor Hunter and the Indians, September 1714,” NYCD, 5:386–387. Robert Hunter served as the governor of New York from 1710 to 1719.

29. Higgins, Expansion in New York, 47, 51–52, 54, 56, 59, 62; “Propositions Made by the Commissioners of Indian Affairs to the Mohawk,” July 2, 1710, Livingston Indian Records, 215–216; and Knittle, Early Eighteenth Century Palatine Emigration, 152, 192–193, 195.

30. “Proposals for Expedition Against Canada,” August 12, 1709, Livingston Indian Records, 213–214; “Examination of Querel Roulonse [Carel Rolantse], by Monsieur de Ramezay at Crown Point,” August 1, 1709, NYCD, 9:837; Monsieur de Ramezay to Monsieur de Vaudreuil, October 19, 1709, NYCD, 9:838–839; “Memoir on the Condition of Canada in November 1709,” NYCD, 9:840–842; Monsieur de Vaudreuil to Monsieur de Pontchartrain, May 1, 1710, NYCD, 9:842–844; Monsieur de Pontchartrain to Monsieur de Vaudreuil, May 10, 1710, NYCD, 9:844; Bruce T. McCully, “Catastrophe in the Wilderness: New Light on the Canadian Expedition of 1709,” William and Mary Quarterly 11, no. 2 (1954): 441–456; “Killiaen van Rensselaer et al. to Hunter,” July 24, 1711, New York Colonial Manuscripts, New York State Archives, Albany, vol. 55, folio 182; “Conference between Governor Hunter and the Indians,” August 1711, NYCD, 5:265–277; General Hill to Governor Hunter, August 25, 1711, NYCD, 5:277–280; “Letter to Governor Robert Hunter,” December 7, 1711, CHM, 57:22; Commissioners of Indian Affairs to Governor Robert Hunter, January 9, 1712, CHM, 57:56; and “Treaty Minutes,” October 9, 1711, New York Colonial Manuscripts, vol. 56, folio 122. Men from all Five Nations except the Seneca Nation joined the 1709 campaign: 100 Cayuga men; 88 Onondaga men; 105 Oneida men; 150 Mohawk men. Men from all nations joined the 1711 campaign: 182 Seneca men; 127 Cayuga men; 99 Onondaga men; 93 Oneida men; 155 Mohawk men. See “Conference between Governor Hunter and the Indians,” August 1711, NYCD, 5:265–277; and Wraxall, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 69, 91–92. Colonists routinely referred to the Tiononderoge settlement complex as the Lower Mohawk village.

31. Wyllys Terry, “Negotiating the Frontier: Land Patenting in Colonial New York” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1997), 10–17, 90–131, 135–163; Arthur C. Parker Papers, New York State Library, Albany, Manuscripts and Special Collections, box 3, folder 5; “Propositions Made by the Commissioners of Indian Affairs to the Mohawk,” July 2, 1710, Livingston Indian Records, 215–216; “Propositions of the Maquase Indians to Governor Robert Hunter,” August 22, 1710, New York Historical Society, New York, Indian box, folder 3: 1700–1799; “Meeting between the Five Nations and Governor Robert Hunter,” August 22, 1710, Abridgment of Indian Affairs, 78–79; Governor Hunter to the Lords of Trade, October 3, 1710, NYCD, 5:171; Johannes Wilhelm Schefs to the Lords of Trade, November 1, 1720, NYCD, 5:574–576; “An Account of the Number of People in the Province of New York A. D. 1723,” DHNY, 1:693; Rev. John F. Haeger to the Society for Propagating the Gospel, May 19, 1715, in Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York, ed. Edward T. Corwin (Albany: J. B. Lyon, 1901–1916), 3:2093–2094; Higgins, Expansion in New York, 47, 51–52, 54, 56; and Knittle, Early Eighteenth Century Palatine Emigration, 152, 192–193, 195.

32. William Andrews to William Taylor, Queen's Fort near Mohawk Castle, March 9, 1712/13, in Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, MSS (L.C. Trans.) A. 8, 146–147, in Frank J. Klingberg, “The Noble Savage as Seen by the Missionary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Colonial New York, 1702–1750,” Historical Magazine of the Protestant Episcopal Church 8, no. 2 (1939): 144 (quote); Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 450–451, 471–476; John Lydekker, The Faithful Mohawks (New York: Ira J. Friedman, 1938), 37, 40; and Arthur C. Parker Papers, New York State Library, Albany, Manuscripts and Special Collections, box 3, “Iroquois Blood for Beaver: An Account of the Interplay of the Iroquois with the Forces of France and England, 1609–1779,” folder 5.

33. Rumrill, “An Interpretation and Analysis of the Seventeenth Century Mohawk Nation,” 35–36; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 149–150; Jane Mt. Pleasant, “The Science behind the Three Sisters Mound System: An Agronomic Assessment of an Indigenous Agricultural System in the Northeast,” in Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, ed. John E. Staller, Robert H. Tykot, and Bruce F. Benz (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2006), 532–533; and Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 4, 473.

34. Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 481; “An Account of the Number of People in the Province of New York A. D. 1723,” DHNY, 1:693; Rev. John F. Haeger to the Society for Propagating the Gospel, May 19, 1715, Ecclesiastical Records, 3:2093–2094; and Lydekker, Faithful Mohawks, 40.

35. Laurence M. Hauptman, “Refugee Havens: The Iroquois Villages of the Eighteenth Century,” in American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History, ed. Christopher Vecsey and Robert W. Venables (Syracuse, NY:Syracuse University Press, 1980), 130, 133; Governor Robert Hunter to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, August 14, 1713, CHM, 58:161; Five Nations to Governor Robert Hunter, September 25, 1714, CHM, 59:99; “Revd Wm Andrews Missionary to the Mohawks,” November 14, 1712, DHNY, 3:900–902; “License to Build a Church for the Mohawks,” DHNY, 3:916–917; Sachems of the Five Nations to Governor Robert Hunter, September 25, 1714, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 101; and “Conference with the Five Nations at Onondaga,” September 10–22, 1713, NYCD, 5:372–376.

36. “Order from Governor Hunter,” May 13, 1712, Livingston Indian Records, 220–221; Lawrence Clause to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, May 21, 1723, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 144; “Diary of J. Martin Mack's, David Zeisberger's, and Gottfreid Rundt's Journey to Onondaga in 1752,” Moravian Journals, 114–115, 120, 152, 154–155, 177; Hauptman, “Refugee Havens,” 133; and William Martin Beauchamp, Aboriginal Place Names of New York, New York Museum Bulletin 108, Archeology 12 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1907), 110. For an understanding of the psychological impact of this relocation, see David Landy, “Tuscarora Tribalism and National Identity,” Ethnohistory 5, no. 3 (1958): 250–284; for a different view, see Douglas W. Boyce, “Did a Tuscarora Confederacy Exist?,” in Four Centuries of Southern Indians, ed. Charles M. Hudson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1975), 28–45; and Colden, Map of the Country of the Five Nations.

37. Commissioners of Indian Affairs to Gov. Hunter, August 13, 1716, CHM, 60:121; “Proceedings of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs,” August 13, 1716, CHM, 60:122; “Proceedings of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs at Albany,” September 15, 1716, CHM, 60:131; Five Nations to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, September 15, 1716, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 113–115; Dekanasore to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, July 6, 1719, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 124–125; and “Intelligence of a French Fort at Niagara,” July 6, 1719, NYCD, 5:528–529.

38. Dekanasore to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, July 6, 1719, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 124–126; and “Intelligence of a French Fort at Niagara,” July 6, 1719, NYCD, 5:528–529.

39. “Conference between Governor William Burnet and the Indians,” September 17, 1724, NYCD, 5:717–721; John Bartram, Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice Made by Mr. John Bartram, in His Travels in Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, in Canada (London: J. Whiston and B. White, 1751), 46–50, 55; and Colden, The History of the Five Indian Nations Depending on the Province of New York, 78. William Burnet served as governor of New York from 1720 to 1728.

40. “Conference between Governor Montgomerie and the Indians,” October 1, 1728, NYCD, 5:861–864; and “Abstract of M. de Beauharnois’ dispatches relative to Crown Point,” February 5, 1731, NYCD, 9:1023. John Montgomery served as governor of New York from 1728 to 1731.

41. “Fraudulent Purchases of Land from Mohawk Indians,” May 31, 1698, NYCD, 4:345; Marquis de Nonville to Marquis de Seignelay, October 27, 1687, NYCD, 9:346–347; Onondaga to Governor Fletcher, March 9, 1697, CHM, 41:38; Rumrill, “An Interpretation and Analysis of the Seventeenth Century Mohawk Nation,” 32–36; Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 449–470; Conover, “Seneca Indian Villages,” 2, 4–5; and Clark, “Seneca Iroquois Castles and Mission Sites,” 218–219.

42. Five Nations to Commissioners of Indian Affairs, November 9, 1719, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 126; Burke, Jr., Mohawk Frontier, xii, 19–21, 23, 28, 30–31; “Intelligence of a French Fort at Niagara,” July 6, 1719, NYCD, 5:528–529; Colonel Schuyler to Lords of Trade, April 27, 1720, NYCD, 5:537–538; “Journal of Lawrence Clausen's Visit to Niagara,” May 22, 1720, NYCD, 5:550–551; Governor Burnet to the Lords of Trade, June 18, 1721, NYCD, 5:585; “Mr. Durant's Memorial Relative to French Post at Niagara,” July 1, 1721, NYCD, 5:588–591; “Conference between Governor Burnet and the Indians,” September-October 1721, NYCD, 5:630–642; “Conference between Commissioners of Indian Affairs and some Western Tribes,” May 1723, NYCD, 5:693–697; Governor Burnet to the Lords of Trade, August 9, 1724, NYCD, 5:709–710; “Conference between Governor Burnet and the Indians,” September 1724, NYCD, 5:715–721; and “Conference between Governor Burnet and the Indians,” September 1726, NYCD, 5:786–788.

1. “Diary of the Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger to the Five Nations from May 3–14 to August 6–17, 1750,” in Moravian Journals Relating to Central New York, 1745–1766, ed. William Martin Beauchamp (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 25–26, 54–55; and Paul A. W. Wallace, Conrad Weiser: Friend of Colonist and Mohawk, 1696–1760 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1945), 138. Europeans referred to the Lenni Lenape as “Delaware.” Cammerhoff repeatedly spelled Wyoming as Wajomik, located in present-day northeastern Pennsylvania, near Nanticoke. Zeisberger was an invaluable traveling companion to Cammerhoff because he had accompanied previous Moravian expeditions into Haudenosaunee homelands and could communicate with Indigenous hosts and visitors in the Mohawk language. In addition, as a subordinate to Cammerhoff, the younger Zeisberger performed more of the physical labor than the older and occasionally ill Cammerhoff.

2. “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 26–33, 61.

3. “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 32–33, 35–39 (quotes, 36-37). Moravians and other diplomatic travelers from Pennsylvania described a similar scene of impassible mountains, swamps, and impenetrable woods along the route from the Susquehanna River to the main Onondaga villages near Onondaga Lake. See “Bishop A. G. Spangenberg's Journal of a Journey to Onondaga in 1745,” Moravian Journals, 10–12. Tiaoga is Tioga, at the east and west branch of the Susquehanna River. Cammerhoff estimated the twelve days on water between Wajomik and Tiaogo as two hundred miles.

4. “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 42, 44–46, 65–73, 86.

5. “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 37–40 (quote, 37); and J. F. Meginness, Otzinachson: A History of the West Branch Valley of the Susquehanna: Its First Settlement, Privations Endured by the Early Pioneers, Indian Wars, Predatory Incursions, Abductions and Massacres (Williamsport, PA: Gazette and Bulletin Printing House, 1889), 1:5. Harris's Ferry is present-day Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

6. “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 45.

7. “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 33–34.

8. Lewis Evans and L Hebert, A Map of Pensilvania, New-Jersey, New-York, and the Three Delaware Counties (Philadelphia, 1749), Huntington Digital Library Maps, https://hdl.huntington.org/digital/collection/p15150coll4/id/7237. Evans lists the Chemung River as the Cayuga Branch, and Tioga is Tohicon.

9. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations, and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610–1791 (Cleveland, OH: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901) (hereafter Jesuit Relations), 48:77–81; 54:111; Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 88; Laurie E. Miroff, “A Local-Level Analysis of Social Reproduction and Transformation in the Chemung Valley: The Thomas/Luckey Site,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Laurie E. Miroff and Timothy D. Knapp (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 79; Francis Jennings, “Glory, Death, and Transfiguration: The Susquehannock Indians in the Seventeenth Century,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 112 (1968): 20–29; Francis Jennings, “‘Pennsylvania Indians’ and the Iroquois,” in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 75–91; Elisabeth Tooker, “The Demise of the Susquehannocks: A Seventeenth Century Mystery,” Pennsylvania Archaeologist 54, nos. 3–4 (1984): 1–10; and Victor Konrad, “An Iroquois Frontier: The North Shore of Lake Ontario during the Late Seventeenth Century,” Journal of Historical Geography 7, no. 2 (1981): 129–144.

10. “Extraordinary Meeting holden in Albany on the 7 September 1683,” in The Documentary History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1849) (hereafter DHNY), 1:393–394; and “Settlements along the Susquehanna River,” Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, GLC03107.01923.

11. “Extraordinary Meeting holden in Albany on the 7 September 1683,” DHNY, 1:393–394; The Magistrates of Albany to Governor Dongan, September 24, 1683, DHNY, 1:395–396 (quote); and “Draught of ye Susquehannes River & how soon ye Indians westward can come there,” in The Livingston Indian Records, 1666–1723, ed. Lawrence H. Leder (Stanfordville, NY: Earl M. Coleman, 1979), 69–70.

12. “Proposition or Oration of the Onondagoes and Cayouges Sachims,” August 2, 1684, DHNY, 1:401–403 (first quote); “Proposals Offered by the Cayuga and Onnondage Sachems to the W. Commissaries of Albany,” September 26, 1683, DHNY, 1:396–397 (second and third quotes); “Abstract of the Proposalls of the Onundages and Cayouges Sachems at New York,” August 2, 1684, DHNY, 1:400–401 (fourth quote); The Magistrates of Albany to Governor Dongan, September 24, 1683, DHNY, 1:395–396 (remaining quotes); and Reverend Father de Lamberville to M. de la Barre, February 10, 1684, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1853–1887) (hereafter NYCD), 9:226–228. Thomas Dongan served as New York governor from 1683 to 1688.

13. “Council Minutes,” 20 August 1686, DHNY, 1:403–405.

14. Baron de Lahontan, Letter VII, dated Montreal, November 2, 1684, New Voyages to North America (London, 1703; repr., Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1905), 40–42; “At a General Meeting between the Commissrs of Albany & the Representatives of the 5 Nations,” August 14, 1706, “A Speech of the Sachems of the 5 Nations to the Commissrs,” August 9, 1708, “5 Nations Answer to Governor Hunter,” August 19, 1710, “Sachems Addressed themselves to Col. Schuyler,” May 11, 1711, and “Governor Hunter meets the 5 Nations at Albany,” June 10, 1711, in Peter Wraxall, An Abridgement of the Indian Affairs Contained in Four Folio Volumes, Transacted in the Colony of New York, from the Year 1678 to the Year 1751, ed. Charles Howard McIlwain (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1968), 47, 49, 61, 77, 86, 88.

15. “Col. Schuyler's Journal of his Proceedings in Onondaga,” July 19, 1712, “Dekanissore Chief Sachem of Onondaga Speaks for the 5 Nations,” August 27, 1715, “Deputation from the Oneida Indians,” January 19, 1716, “Deputation from the Oneida Indians,” June 13, 1716, and “Gov. Hunter's Answer to the 5 Nations,” June 15, 1717, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 95 (first and third quotes), 106, 111 (second quote), 112, 121–122; and Kees-Jan Waterman, trans. and ed., “To Do Justice to Him & Myself”: Evert Wendall's Account Book of the Fur Trade with Indians in Albany, New York, 1695–1726 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2008).

16. “Deputation from the Oneida Indians,” June 13, 1716, “Sachems Addressed themselves to Col. Schuyler,” 11 May 1711, and “5 Nations Answer to Governor Hunter,” August 19, 1710, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 78 (second quote), 85-86 (first quote), 112.

17. “A Speech of the Sachems of the 5 Nations to the Commissrs,” August 9, 1708, and “Governor Hunter meets the 5 Nations at Albany,” June 10, 1711, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 61 (first and second quotes), 88 (remaining quotes); Richard Haan, “The Covenant Chain: Iroquois Diplomacy on the Niagara Frontier, 1697–1730” (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1976), 177, 186, 192; and Jack Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance in Three Oneida Communities” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 1974), 62–63, 65.

18. “A Deputation of the 5 Nations to the Commissioners,” August 23, 1699, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 33; James Logan Receipt Book, 1702–1709, James Logan Letter Book, and James Logan Account Book, 1712–1720, Logan Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 18–26; James Howard, Shawnee! The Ceremonialism of a Native Indian Tribe and Its Cultural Background (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1981), 1–8; Francis Jennings, “The Indian Trade of the Susquehanna Valley,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 110, no. 6 (1966), 411, 415–416, 420; Francis Jennings, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 254–257, 264–268; Francis Jennings, “Minquon's Passing: Indian-European Relations in Colonial Pennsylvania, 1674–1755” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1965), 36–48; Laura Elaine Johnson, “‘Goods to Clothe Themselves’: Native Consumers, Native Images on the Pennsylvania Frontier, 1712–1730” (master's thesis, University of Delaware, 2004); and Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navahos (Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 69–146. After establishing himself as a trader, James Logan exploited his relationship with loyal traders to play a dominant role in Pennsylvania's Indian affairs and then turned his merchant success into a windfall of land speculation success. Conestoga is located near present-day Lancaster, PA.

19. “Lord Cornbury Govr meets the Indians at Albany,” September 29, 1707, and “Conference between the Commissioners and the 5 Nations,” September 15, 1716, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 51, 115; and “An order from gov hunter dated ye 13 may [1712] to give an acct of ye number of Indians in ye 5 nations & what Part of Pouder & arms of her majs at albany and shinnectady,” Livingston Indian Records, 220–221 (quotes). Onnochquage was variously spelled throughout the documentary record (e.g., Onaquaga and Oquaga). The community was located along the upper Susquehanna River, not the Delaware River, and near present-day Ouaquaga, New York.

20. “Proposition or Oration of the Onondagoes and Cayouges Sachims,” August 2, 1684, DHNY, 1:401–403 (quote); “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 45; Jesuit Relations, 65:25–29; “An order from gov hunter dated ye 13 may [1712] to give an acct of ye number of Indians in ye 5 nations & what Part of Pouder & arms of her majs at albany and shinnectady,” Livingston Indian Records, 221; “Conference between Governor Spotswood and the Five Nations,” September 12, 1722, NYCD, 5:675; Evert Wendell Account Book, 1695–1726, New York Historical Society, New York; Douglas W. Boyce, “‘As the Wind Scatters the Smoke’: The Tuscaroras in the Eighteenth Century,” in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 156–157; and Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 18.

21. “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 33; Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 84–94; Michael N. McConnell, “Peoples ‘In Between’: The Iroquois and the Ohio Indians, 1720–1768,” in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 93–96; Michael N. McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and its Peoples, 1724–1774 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 5–20, 23; and Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 188. Other Indigenous groups migrating east to the southeastern shore of Lake Erie included French-allied Ojibwe (Chippewa), Abenaki, and Ottawa bands; see White, Middle Ground, 188.

22. Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 77, 80, 86 (quote); and “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 31–34. Otsquaga was the community where Madame Montour lived, also called Frenchtown.

23. “Diary of Brother David Zeisberger's and Henry Frey's Journey and Stay in Onondaga,” Moravian Journals, 158–163. The mouth of the Chenango River is near present-day Binghamton, New York.

24. “David Zeisberger's and Henry Frey's Journey,” Moravian Journals, 165 (quotes), 193; and John Bartram, Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice Made by Mr. John Bartram, in His Travels in Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, in Canada (London: J. Whiston and B. White, 1751), 39–42, 46–48.

25. “Proposition or Oration of the Onondagoes and Cayouges Sachims,” August 2, 1684, DHNY, 1:402 (quote); Konrad, “An Iroquois Frontier,” 129–144; Timothy D. Knapp, “An Unbounded Future? Ceramic Types, ‘Cultures,’ and Scale in Late Prehistoric Research,” in Iroquoian Archaeology and Analytic Scale, ed. Laurie Miroff and Timothy Knapp (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2009), 101–130; Dean R. Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology: The Sites, Occasional Papers in Anthropology Number 23 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995), 361, 403–410; Jesuit Relations, 43:187, 265; 44:21, 205; 45:205–209; 51:121–123; Laurence M. Hauptman, “Refugee Havens: The Iroquois Villages of the Eighteenth Century,” in American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History, ed. Christopher Vecsey and Robert W. Venables (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1980), 128–139; Laurence M. Hauptman, “The Dispersal of the River Indians: Frontier Expansion and Indian Dispossession in the Hudson Valley,” in Neighbors and Intruders: An Ethnohistorical Exploration of the Indians of Hudson's River, ed. Laurence M. Hauptman and Jack Campisi, National Museum of Man, Mercury Series, Canadian Ethnology Service Paper no. 39 (Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa Press, 1978); Neal Salisbury, “Toward the Covenant Chain: Iroquois and Southern New England Algonquians, 1637–1684,” in Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800, ed. Daniel K. Richter and James H. Merrell (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 61–73; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 136–137; and Dolores Elliott, “Otsiningo, An Example of an Eighteenth Century Settlement Pattern,” in Current Perspectives in Northeastern Archeology: Essays in Honor of William A. Ritchie, ed. Robert E. Funk and Charles F. Hayes III, Researches and Transactions of the New York States Archeological Association 17, no. 1 (1977), 93–105.

26. “Lord Cornbury Govr meets the Indians at Albany,” September 29, 1707, and “Conference between the Commissioners and the 5 Nations,” September 15, 1716, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 51, 115; “An order from gov hunter dated ye 13 may [1712] to give an acct of ye number of Indians in ye 5 nations & what Part of Pouder & arms of her majs at albany and shinnectady,” Livingston Indian Records, 220–221; “Conference between Governor Hunter and the Indians,” August 25, 1711, NYCD, 5:270, 272; Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 77–80; and John Christopher Frederick Cammerhoff and John W. Jordan, “Bishop J. C. F. Cammerhoff's Narrative of a Journey to Shamokin, Penna., in the Winter of 1748,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 29, no. 2 (1905): 160–179.

27. “Message of Montour recorded by Thomas Burny, Logstown June 22d, 1753,” in Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, from the Organization to the Termination of the Proprietary Government, ed. Samuel Hazard (Harrisburg, PA: Theodore Fenn, 1851) (hereafter MPCP), 5:307; “A Treaty at the Court House in Lancaster, Tuesday, July 19th, 1748,” MPCP 5: 635 (first quote); and “At a Meeting of the Commissioners and Indians the Third Day of October, 1753,” MPCP 5:673–677 (second quote). William Johnson served as colonel of the Six Nations and New York's Indian Agent from 1746 to 1751, and then the British superintendent for Indian Affairs for the Northern Division from 1755 to 1774. The Covenant Chain alliance did not always work according to its original plan. There were many different alliances radiating in multiple directions. For an account of these complex connections, see Jennings, “‘Pennsylvania Indians’ and the Iroquois,” 75–91; and McConnell, “Peoples ‘In Between’: The Iroquois and the Ohio Indians,” 93–112.

28. “Abstract of Messrs. de Beauharnois and d’Airgremont's Despatches,” October 1, 1728, NYCD, 9:1010–1014; Lawrence Henry Gipson, The British Empire before the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1939), 4:284 (quote); George S. Snyderman, “Concepts of Land Ownership among the Iroquois and Their Neighbors,” Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 149, no. 2 (1951), 20; White, The Middle Ground, 225, 232–234, 237–239; and McConnell, A Country Between, 70–71, 75, 104–105. For the derogatory nature of the term “Mingo” for relocated Haudenosaunee groups into the Allegheny watershed, see Barbara Alice Mann, George Washington's War on Native America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), 41–42, 111.

29. “Order from Governor Hunter,” May 13, 1712, Livingston Indian Records, 220–221; “Conference between Governor Spotswood and the Five Nations,” September 12, 1722, NYCD, 5:675; Evert Wendell Account Book, 1695–1726, New York Historical Society, New York; Peter Warren to Jacob Glen, September 3, 1738, in The Papers of Sir William Johnson, eds. James Sullivan, et. al. (Albany: State University of New York, 1921–1963) (hereafter JP), 9:1; William Johnson to Peter Warren, May 10, 1739, JP, 1:4–7; “Delivered to Capt. Lewis,” November 1750, JP, 1:310–312; William Johnson to Samuel and William Baker, September 12, 1751, JP, 1:346–347; William Johnson to John George Libenrood, August 4, 1752, JP, 1:371–373; William Johnson to John George Libenrood, August 22, 1752, JP, 1:376–377; William Johnson to George Clinton, September 16, 1752, JP, 1:377; William Johnson to James Abercromby, May 17, 1758, JP, 9:903–904; Marjory Barnum Hinman, Onaquaga: Hub of the Border Wars of the American Revolution in New York State (Windsor, NY: Hinman, 1975), 10; Boyce, “‘As the Wind Scatters the Smoke,’” 155–157; Ruth L. Higgins, Expansion in New York: With Special Reference to the Eighteenth Century (Columbus: Ohio State University, 1931), 73; Milton W. Hamilton, Sir William Johnson: Colonial American, 1715–1763 (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat, 1976), 3–18, 45; Wraxall, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 248, n1; and Fintan O’Toole, White Savage: William Johnson and the Invention of America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), 41–43, 68.

30. “Robert Livingston's Report of his Journey to Onondaga,” April 1700, NYCD, 4:648–649; Commissioners to Bellomont, April 14, 1700, NYCD, 4:661 (first quote); Lt. Gov. Clarke to the Lords of Trade, 30, August 1739, NYCD, 6:148; Lt. Gov. Clarke to the Lords of Trade, November 30, 1739, NYCD, 6:151; and Two Mohawk Sachems to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, October 3–5, 1741, “Conference between Lt. Gov. George Clarke and the Six Nations,” June 15, 1742, and “Conference between Gov. George Clinton and the Six Nations,” June 18–20, 1744, in Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 223–224, 226–227 (second quote), 233–235. George Clarke served as lieutenant governor of New York from 1736 to 1743. George Clinton served as governor of New York from 1743 to 1753.

31. “Enumeration of the Indian Tribes,” 1736, DHNY, 1:22; “Present State of the Northern Indians,” November 18, 1763, DHNY, 1:26; “Description of the Country Between Oswego and Albany, 1757,” DHNY, 1:524–534, 526; “Diary of J. Martin Mack's, David Zeisberger's and Gottfried Rundt's Journey to Onondaga in 1752,” Moravian Journals, 114 (quote), 120, 152, 154, 155; Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology, 471–483; and Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance,” 33. The older Oneida community was also referred to as Anajot.

32. Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania to Onondaga, 39–42 (first and second quotes); “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 60 (third quote); and Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 310. Tiatachtont was also called Tueyahdasso.

33. “Journey of Brother Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger to the Five Nations,” Moravian Journals, 41–44 (quotes), 65–66, 109–111.

34. “Journey of Brother Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger to the Five Nations,” Moravian Journals, 67–74; and Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania to Onondaga, 82.

35. “Intelligence from Ohio,” May 25, 1753, MPCP, 5:614–616; Peter Wraxall, “Some Thoughts upon the British Indian Interest in North America, More Particularly as It Relates to the Northern Confederacy Commonly Called the Six Nations,” January 9, 1756, NYCD, 7:23; White, Middle Ground, 188, 232–234; Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed., Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986), 41; and McConnell, A Country Between, 23, 100–112.

36. Edmund Berkeley and Dorothy Smith Berkeley, Dr. John Mitchell: The Man Who Made the Map (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1974), 175–189, 190–213; Matthew Edney, “John Mitchell's Map of North America (1755): A Study of the Use and Publication of Official Maps in Eighteenth-Century Britain,” Imago Mundi 60, no. 1 (2008): 63–85; Lawrence Martin, “John Mitchell,” in Dictionary of American Biography, ed. Dumas Malone (New York: Scribner's, 1934), 13:50–51; and John Mitchell, Thomas Kitchin, and Andrew Millar, “A map of the British and French dominions in North America, with the roads, distances, limits, and extent of the settlements, humbly inscribed to the Right Honourable the Earl of Halifax, and the other Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners for Trade & Plantations” (London: Sold by A. Millar, 1755), Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/item/74693173/. The Osher Maps website describes Mitchell's map as “the most comprehensive map of North America produced during the Colonial Era,” see http://www.oshermaps.org/special-map-exhibits/mitchell-map. Seymour Schwartz and Ralph Ehrenberg call Mitchell's map “the most important map in the history of American cartography”; see Seymour I. Schwartz and Ralph E. Ehrenberg, The Mapping of America (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1980), 159; see also Chad Anderson, “Rediscovering Native North America: Settlements, Maps, and Empires in the Eastern Woodlands,” Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 14, no. 3 (2016): 478–505.

37. G. Malcolm Lewis, “First Nations Mapmaking in the Great Lakes Region in Intercultural Contexts: A Historical Review,” Mapping in Michigan and the Great Lakes Region, Part 1, Michigan Historical Review 30, no. 2 (2004): 9–10, 33–34; and G. Malcolm Lewis, “Maps, Mapmaking and Map Use by Native North Americans,” in History of Cartography, ed. David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), vol. 2, book 3, 77.

38. “Conference between Governor Cosby and the Indians,” September 11, 1733, NYCD, 5:962–970.

39. “Journey of Brother Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger to the Five Nations” and “David Zeisberger's and Henry Frey's Journey,” Moravian Journals, 31–32, 160 (quote); and Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania to Onondaga, 18–19, 26–27, 36, 68.

1. “Money Paid for Scalps and Prisoners,” July 2, 1747, in The Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. James Sullivan et al. (Albany: State University of New York, 1921–1963) (hereafter JP), 9:8; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 47–48; and Wilbur R. Jacobs, Diplomacy and Indian Gifts: Anglo-French Rivalry along the Ohio and Northwest Frontiers, 1748–1763 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1950), 11–28.

2. The war between Great Britain and Spain began in 1739, years after a British smuggler, Captain Robert Jenkins, lost an ear to Spanish colonial justice when caught trying to smuggle goods. The war became popularly known as the War of Jenkins's Ear and focused on colonial possessions and trade in the Western Hemisphere. Hostilities in the Caribbean, however, soon merged with a larger European conflict in the War of the Austrian Succession after the French came to Spain's aid in 1744 when they feared that Great Britain would eventually shift the tide and win the war. France also harbored concerns about growing British power in the Western Hemisphere. Philip Woodfine, Britannia's Glories: The Walpole Ministry and the 1739 War with Spain (Rochester, NY: Royal Historical Society, 1998).

3. “Chronology and Itinerary for Sir William Johnson, 1715–1774,” JP, 1:xvii; “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” December 13, 1746–November 7, 1747, JP, 9:21–23, 25, 27–28; and Peter Wraxall, An Abridgement of the Indian Affairs Contained in Four Folio Volumes, Transacted in the Colony of New York, from the Year 1678 to the Year 1751, ed. Charles Howard McIlwain (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1968), 242–248. Wraxall viewed Johnson's influence in the more hierarchical terminology of “influence over” his Mohawk neighbors, see Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 248 n1. For the early life of William Johnson, see Milton W. Hamilton, Sir William Johnson: Colonial American, 1715–1763 (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat, 1976), 3–14; and James T. Flexner, Mohawk Baronet: A Biography of Sir William Johnson (New York: Harper, 1959), 13–27.

4. “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” December 13, 1746–November 7, 1747, JP, 9:15–31; “Money Paid for Scalps and Prisoners,” July 2, 1747, JP, 9:8; and “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” August 12, 1747, JP, 9:30. For Johnson's complaint about the colony's 1755 allotment of presents, see Commissioners of Indian Affairs to Lieutenant Governor James De Lancey, January 21, 1755, in Calendar of Historical Manuscripts, English Manuscripts, 1664–1776, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1866), New York State Library, Albany, Manuscripts (hereafter CHM), 80:4. Theyanoguin, Sahonwagy, Canostens, Brant, and David lived at Canajoharie, the western Mohawk community. Seth and Isaac lived at Tiononderoge, the Lower Castle near the confluence of Schoharie Creek with the Mohawk River. Gingegoe's village is not identified.

5. “Niagara and Detroit Proceedings, July–September 1761,” July 21, 1761, JP, 3:444; and “An Indian Conference,” May 28, 1763, JP, 10:683–684.

6. “Conference between Lt. Gov. Clarke and the Six Nations,” August 16, 1740, Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1853–1877) (hereafter NYCD), 6:177; “Diary of Brother David Zeisberger's and Henry Frey's Journey and Stay in Onondaga” and “Diary of a Journey to Onondaga, Residence There, and Return from Thence, by the Moravian Brethren, Charles Frederick and David Zeisberger,” in Moravian Journals Relating to Central New York, 1745–1766, ed. William Martin Beauchamp (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 180–181, 211; and John Bartram, Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate, Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and Other Matters Worthy of Notice Made by Mr. John Bartram, in His Travels in Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and the Lake Ontario, in Canada (London: J. Whiston and B. White, 1751) (hereafter Travels in Pensilvania to Onondago), 45–48.

7. Peter Kalm, “A Letter from Mr. Kalm, a Gentlemen, of Sweden, now on his Travels in America, to his Friend in Philadelphia; containing a particular Account of the Great Fall of Niagara,” September 2, 1750, in Travels in Pensilvania and Canada, 82 (quote); “Memoir on the Indians between Lake Erie and the Mississippi,” December 1, 1718, NYCD, 9:885. The men earned twenty pence per pack carried. Two trips would approximate the daily wages of a skilled laborer in England. See “Currency Converter: 1270–2017,” National Archives, https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/currency-converter/.

8. “At a Meeting of the Commissrs of Indian Affairs at the House of Robert Lutteridge,” June 18, 1754, NYCD, 6:857–858.

9. William Johnson to George Clinton, September 20, 1749, JP, 9:52 (quotes); Extract of William Johnson to George Clinton, September 20, 1749, JP, 9:53–54 (extract enclosed in Clinton to John Catherwood, October 3, 1749); and “Johnson's Account of Indian Expenses,” March 1755–October 1756, JP, 2:573. Johnson described Paulus as the son of Abraham and nephew of Hendrick, but Eric Hinderaker lists Paulus as Hendrick's son. Canostens/Abraham Peters, was Theyanoguin's brother (baptized Hendrick Peters); see Eric Hinderaker, The Two Hendricks: Unraveling a Mohawk Mystery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 159, 266.

10. Christopher M. Parsons, “The Natural History of Colonial Science: Joseph-François Lafitau's Discovery of Ginseng and Its Afterlives,” William and Mary Quarterly 73, no. 1 (2016): 37–38, 45, 55, 63; Brian L. Evans, “Ginseng: Root of Chinese-Canadian Relations, Canadian Historical Review 66, no. 1 (1985): 3–4; John H. Appleby, “Ginseng and the Royal Society,” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 37, no. 2 (1983): 125; and William Simpson, “Some observations made upon the root nean, or ninsing, imported from the East-Indies shewing Its wonderful Virtue, in curing Consumptions, Ptissicks, Shorness of Breath, Distillation of Rhume, and restoring Nature after it hath been Impaired by Languishing Distempers, and long Fits of Sickness” (London, 1680), 3–6, (quotes) https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/A56769.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext. The Mohawk women lived at Kahnawake, a missionary community at the Sault Saint Louis and near Montréal. Lafitau named the plant Aureliana Canadensis, Sinensibus Gin-seng, Iroquoeis Garent-oguen; see Joseph-François Lafitau, Mémoire presenté a son altesse royale Monseigneur le duc d’Orléans, regent du royaume de France: Concernant la précieuse plante du gin-seng de Tartarie, découverte en Canada par le P. Joseph François Lafitau, de la Compagnie de Jesus, missionnaire des Iroquois du Sault Saint Louis (Paris, 1718), 86–87.

11. Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania to Onondago, 26–29, 36, 62–64, 68–69; Peter Kalm, Travels into North America; Containing Its Natural History, and a Circumstantial Account of Its Plantations and Agriculture in General, trans. John Reinhold Forster (London: T. Lowndes, 1772), 2:271–274; Parsons, “The Natural History of Colonial Science,” 61; Appleby, “Ginseng and the Royal Society,” 133; Peter Collinson to John Bartram, February 1, 1738/39, in Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall, ed. William Darlington (Philadelphia, 1849), 125 (quote); and Evans, “Ginseng: Root of Chinese-Canadian Relations,” 4, 11–12.

12. Kees-Jan Waterman, trans. and ed., “To Do Justice to Him & Myself:” Evert Wendall's Account Book of the Fur Trade with Indians in Albany, New York, 1695–1726 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2008); and Kalm, Travels into North America, 2:271.

13. Kalm, Travels into North America, 2:272–273.

14. “Delivered to Capt. Lewis,” November 1750, JP, 1:310–312; William Johnson to Samuel and William Baker, September 12, 1751, JP, 1:346–347 (quotes); William Johnson to John George Libenrood, August 4, 1752, JP, 1:371–373; William Johnson to John George Libenrood, August 22, 1752, JP, 1:376–377; William Johnson to George Clinton, September 16, 1752, JP, 1:377–379; and Nolan M. Cool, “Pelts and Prosperity: The Fur Trade and the Mohawk Valley, 1730–1776,” New York History 97, no. 2 (2016): 133–137.

15. Daniel Claus to Conrad Weiser, August 23, 1752, in Paul A. W. Wallace, Conrad Weiser: Friend of Colonist and Mohawk, 1696–1760 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1945) 338.

16. “A Letter from Rev. Gideon Hawley of Marshpee containing a Narrative of His Journey to Onohoghgwage in 1753,” July 31, 1794, in The Documentary History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1849) (hereafter DHNY), 3:628 (quotes); and “Diary of J. Martin Mack's, David Zeisberger's and Gottfried Rundt's Journey to Onondaga in 1752,” Moravian Journals, 113, 120, 122–127, 134, 138.

17. “Diary of J. Martin Mack,” and “Diary of a Journey to Onondaga,” Moravian Journals, 113, 120, 122–124, 126, 134, 146–148, 201; William Johnson to Governor George Clinton, 24 September 1753, DHNY, 2:630; and Commissioners of Indian Affairs to Lt. Gov. James DeLancey, December 29, 1754, CHM, 79:105.

18. “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” December 13, 1746–November 7, 1747, JP, 9:15–31; Marshall J. Becker, “Matchcoats: Cultural Conservatism and Change in One Aspect of Native American Clothing,” Ethnohistory 52, no. 4 (2005): 727, 764; Timothy Shannon, “Dressing for Success on the Mohawk Frontier: Hendrick, William Johnson, and the Indian Fashion,” William and Mary Quarterly 53, no. 1 (1996): 17–18, 22, 25–26; Kees-Jan Waterman, “Not Confined to the Village Clearings: Indian Women in the Fur Trade in Colonial New York, 1695–1732” (paper presented at the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Conference, Boston, June 6–8, 2008); and “The Present State of the Indian Affairs with the British and French Colonies in North America,” August 8, 1751, Cadwallader Colden Papers, New York Historical Society, New York, Collections 53 (1920), 273. For examples of the items regularly provided to war leaders, fighting men, and their families, see “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” JP, 9:15–31; “An Account of Indian Expenses,” March 30, 1755–October 1756, JP, 2:566–646; and “List of Goods to Be Sent from London,” November 1756, JP, 2:898–900.

19. “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” December 13, 1746–May 29, 1747, JP, 9:15–16, 18, 22–24.

20. “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” April 15, 1747–June 23, 1747, JP, 9:21–28.

21. “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” JP, 9:15–31.

22. Governor Hamilton to Governor Clinton, September 20, 1750, NYCD, 6:593–594; Galissonière to Chevelier De Longueuil, October 23, 1748, NYCD, 10:181–186; Galissonière to Rouillé, June 26, 1749, in Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library, vol. 29, “Illinois on the Eve of the Seven Years’ War, 1747–1755,” ed. Theodore C. Pease and Ernestine Jenison (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1940), 29:97; Andrew A. Lambing, ed., “Céloron's Journal,” Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 29 (1920): 339, 341–346, 352–353, 357, 359; “1749: Céloron's Expedition Down the Ohio,” in Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1908) (hereafter WHC), 18:36–59; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Early Western Travels, 1748–1846, vol. 1, Journal of Conrad Weiser, 1748 (Cleveland, OH: Arthur H. Clark, 1904), 31–32; “Hendrick's Speech to Colonel Johnson,” February 2, 1749/1750, NYCD, 6:548–549; “Return of Western Tribes who traded at Oswego, 1749,” August 20, 1749, NYCD, 6:538; La Jonquière to the French Minister, September 20, 1750, WHC, 18:67–69; “Abstract of Despatches from Canada,” 1749, NYCD, 10:199–205; William Johnson to George Clinton, September 14, 1750, JP, 9:67–71; La Jonquière and Bigot to the French Minister, October 9, 1749, WHC, 18:33–35; Lois Mulkearn, ed., George Mercer Papers Relating to the Ohio Company of Virginia (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1954), 7–40; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 188, 202, 206–210, 224–226; Michael N. McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and its Peoples, 1724–1774 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 82–91; and Francis Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), 16–17.

23. George, III, King of Great Britain, George, IV, King of Great Britain, and Edward Braddock, “A map of Lake Erie with the route southward from Fort Presqu'Isle to Fort Cumberland, with inset plans of Fort Pitt, Fort Venango, Fort Le Boeuf and Fort Presque Isle,” 1760–1763, British Library Images, https://imagesonline.bl.uk/asset/180939; “Intelligence from Ohio,” May 25, 1753, in Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, From the Organization to the Termination of the Proprietary Government, ed., Samuel Hazard (Harrisburg, PA: Theodore Fenn, 1851), 5:614–616; Peter Wraxall, “Some Thoughts upon the British Indian Interest in North America, More Particularly as It Relates to the Northern Confederacy Commonly Called the Six Nations,” 1756, NYCD, 7:23; Colonel Johnson to Governor Clinton, September 25, 1750, NYCD, 6:599–600; Lt. Lindesay to Col. Johnson, July 15, 1751, DHNY, 2:623; Meeting of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, June 15, 1754, DHNY, 2:559–560; George Croghan to William Johnson, September 10, 1755, JP, 2:28–30; Lewis Henry Morgan, League of the Iroquois (Rochester, NY: Sage, 1851), 26; Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed., Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986), 41; White, The Middle Ground, 232–234; and McConnell, A Country Between, 100–112.

24. “Secret Instructions to General Braddock,” November 25, 1754, NYCD, 6:920–922; Daniel Claus to Richard Peters, July 10, 1755, JP, 9:198–199; and “Journal of Indian Affairs,” August 8, 1755, JP, 9:217–220.

25. William Johnson to Lt. Gov. James DeLancey, September 8, 1754, DHNY, 2:642–644; “Indian Proceedings,” July 27, 1755, JP, 9:213; “Journal of Indian Affairs,” August 8, 1755, JP, 9:217–219; William Johnson to the Earl of Loudoun, March 17, 1757, JP, 9:640–642; “Journal of Indian Proceedings,” January 23, 1757, JP, 9:590; and “Johnson's Account of Indian Expenses,” March 1755–October 1756, JP, 2:626, 631, 635. During King George's War, Johnson offered scouts one shilling per day; see William Johnson to George Clinton, May 14, 1748, DHNY, 2:620. Johnson served as the British superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Northern Department from 1755 until his death in 1774.

26. William Shirley to William Johnson, May 10, 1755, JP, 9:168–170; John Saint Clair to William Johnson, March 12, 1756, JP, 9:401–402; John Bradstreet to William Johnson, April 9, 1756, JP, 9:423–424 (quotes); William Williams to William Johnson, March 1756, JP, 9:412; John Butler to William Johnson, May 20, 1756, JP, 7:503. William Shirley was the colonial governor of Massachusetts (1741 to 1749, 1753 to 1756) and, after the death of Major General Edward Braddock in 1755, the commander-in-chief of British military forces in North America until 1757.

27. William Johnson to Lt. Gov. James DeLancey, August 24, 1755, DHNY, 2:682–683; General Johnson to the Board of Trade, September 3, 1756, DHNY, 2:684–689; and Major Louis Livingston Seaman, “Daniel Claus’ Narrative of His Relations with Sir William Johnson and Experiences in the Lake George Fight,” Lake George Celebration Executive Committee Report, Native Troops in our Colonial Possessions (New York: Order of the Society, 1904), 13–16 (quote). Kanesatake was located near the confluence of the Ottawa River and Saint Lawrence River.

28. William Johnson to William Shirley, September 9, 1755, JP, 9:231; William Johnson to the Board of Trade, September 24, 1755, DHNY, 2:699; “Return of Killed, Wounded and Missing in Battle of Lake George,” September 11, 1755, JP, 9:238; “Speech of Peter, Lower Castle,” September 26, 1755, JP, 2:126–127 (first quote); and William Johnson to William Shirley, April 22, 1756, JP, 9:438 (second quote).

29. “Journal of Sir William Johnson's Proceedings with the Indians,” July 21, 1756–September 17, 1756, NYCD, 7:171–199 (quote, 184-185).

30. “Journal of Sir William Johnson's Proceedings with the Indians,” July 21, 1756–September 17, 1756, NYCD, 7:171–199 (quotes, 184-185); “Johnson's Account of Indian Expenses,” March 1755–October 1756, JP, 2:614–638; “Cost of Maintaining an Indian Regiment,” 1756, JP, 2:662; and “Expense of an Indian Regiment,” March 15, 1757, JP, 9:639.

31. “Journal of Sir William Johnson's Proceedings with the Indians,” July 21, 1756–September 17, 1756, NYCD, 7:171–199 (quotes, 185); and “William Johnson to the Earl of Loudon,” March 17, 1757, JP, 9:640–642.

32. “Journal of Sir William Johnson's Proceedings with the Indians,” July 21, 1756–September 17, 1756, NYCD, 7:171–199 (quote, 185). John Campbell, Earl of Loudoun, served as commander-in-chief of the British Forces in America, 1756 to 1757; see Secretary Pownall to Major-General Johnson, March 5, 1756, NYCD, 7:40 and JP, 9:552 n1.

33. Sir William Johnson to the Lords of Trade,” September 10, 1756, DHNY, 2:733 (first quote); Thomas Butler to William Johnson, August 27, 1756, JP, 2:552; Thomas Butler to William Johnson, August 29, 1756, JP, 2:553 (second quote); William Johnson to Lord Loudon, August 22, 1756, JP, 2:549; and Robin Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants (Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions, 2013), 26–28. Thomas Butler appeared in Johnson's expense accounts as early as 1747; see “Money Paid for Scalps and Prisoners,” July 2, 1747, JP, 9:8.

34. “Journal of Sir William Johnson's Proceedings with the Indians,” July 21, 1756–September 17, 1756, NYCD, 7:171–199 (quote, 189).

35. Myndert Wempel to William Johnson, November 22, 1755, JP, 2:325–326 (first quote); “Indian Intelligence,” February 18, 1757, JP, 9:612–613 (second quote); and “Information Given of Alexander McCluer,” March 6, 1757, JP, 2:680–682. Philippe-Thomas Chabert de Joncaire was the son of a Frenchman and a Seneca woman. He served as New France's principal agent among the Haudenosaunee after 1735 and lived among Seneca families for much of his life; see “Chabert De Joncaire, Philippe-Thomas,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 3 (1741–1770), http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/chabert_de_joncaire_philippe_thomas_3E.html.

36. “Instructions for Claas de Graef,” May 20, 1756, JP, 9:457–458; William Johnson to the Lords of Trade, March 6, 1756, DHNY, 2:712–714; and Kurt A. Jordan, The Seneca Restoration, 1715–1754: An Iroquois Local Political Economy (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2008), 190–191.

37. William Johnson to Edmund Atkins, June 21, 1757, JP, 9:783–786 (quotes); and William Johnson to the Earl of Loudon, September 3, 1757, JP, 9:824–830.

38. William Johnson to General Jeffery Amherst, October 13, 1763, JP, 10:876–882; William Johnson to Major-General James Abercromby, December 29, 1757, JP, 2:769–771 (first quote); Earl of Loudon to William Johnson, January 16, 1758, JP, 9:868–870 (second quote). Johnson estimated 1,000 fighting men among all Seneca villages. He stated that Seneca villages had “near twenty” castles; see William Johnson to General Jeffery Amherst, October 13, 1763, JP, 10:878.

39. “Journal of Indian Affairs,” October 28–29, 1758, JP, 10:49; “Journal of Indian Affairs,” October 31–November 10, 1758, JP, 10:51–53, 53; and “Journal of Indian Affairs,” November 18–December 4, 1758, JP, 10:57–62 (quote).

40. “An Account of Expenses with Receipt,” December 1746–November 1747, JP, 9:16–18; “Johnson's Account of Indian Expenses,” March 1755–October 1756, JP, 2:575, 579, 599, 625, 632, 636, 639, 641, 642; “Account of Indian Expenses,” November 1756–March 1757, JP, 9:651; “Johnson's Account of Indian Expenses,” November 1758–December 1759, JP, 3:156–159, 161, 162, 164–165, 167; Aileen B. Agnew, “Silent Partners: The Economic Life of Women on the Frontier of Colonial New York” (PhD diss., University of New Hampshire, 1998), 169–222; and Gail D. MacLeitch, “‘Red’ Labor: Iroquois Participation in the Atlantic Economy,” Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 1, no. 4 (2004): 69–90. Older studies of Indigenous women's participation in the cash economy stress female subordination, see Carol Devens, Countering Colonization: Native American Women and the Great Lakes Missions, 1630–1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

41. Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania to Onondaga, 31.

42. William Johnson to Susan Warren, May 11, 1741, JP, 13:5; Six Nations to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, June 18, 1741, and Seneca Indians to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, August 16, 1741, Abridgement of Indian Affairs, 221, 222; “Communications between Marquis de Beauharnois and the Indians,” August 7, 1741, NYCD, 9:1075, 1083; and Lieutenant-Governor Clarke to the Lords of Trade, August 24, 1741, NYCD, 6:201–203.

43. William Williams to William Johnson, March 1756, JP, 9:412–414; “Examination of Michael Greenleaf,” July 15, 1756, JP, 2:503; Governor Hardy to Mr. Kennedy, July 26, 1756, CHM, 83:35; “Minutes of Conference of [George] Croghan with Indians,” March 29–May 21, 1757, JP, 9:733, 762; George Croghan to William Johnson, May 24, 1757, JP, 9:770–772; William Johnson to Peter and Elizabeth Wraxall, July 17, 1757, JP, 9:799–801; “An Indian Council,” August 24, 1757, JP, 9:813, 821; William Johnson to General John Stanwix, December 16, 1758, JP, 10:76–77; “Journal of Indian Affairs,” February 3–10, 1759, JP, 10:97–99; William Johnson to Major-General Jeffery Amherst, March 7, 1759, JP, 10:108–109; and William Johnson to General Jeffery Amherst, December 6, 1761, JP, 3:581–582. Alcohol also contributed to subsistence troubles when residents failed to plant their crops at the proper time; see “Diary of a Journey to Onondaga,” Moravian Journals, 199–200.

44. “Diary of the Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger to the Five Nations,” “Diary of J. Martin Mack,” and “David Zeisberger's and Henry Frey's Journey,” Moravian Journals, 31–32, 41–42, 46, 49, 51, 60 (quote), 62, 71, 73, 81–82, 98–99, 135, 137, 140, 150–151, 169, 189, 193–194; and Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania to Onondaga, 39–42, 46–48.

45. “Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” Moravian Journals, 63, 86; Bartram, Travels in Pensilvania to Onondaga, 47–48; and Michael Recht, “The Role of Fishing in the Iroquois Economy, 1600–1792,” New York History 76, no. 1 (1995): 20.

46. “David Zeisberger's and Henry Frey's Journey,” Moravian Journals, 182–185 (quotes), 196–197; Wallace, Conrad Weiser, 310; and Recht, “The Role of Fishing in the Iroquois Economy,” 8. Tohashwuchdioony was also known as The Belt of Wampum, highlighting his diplomatic role.

47. “Johnson's Account of Indian Expenses,” November 1758–December 1759, JP, 3:149–182; “Diary of a Journey to Onondaga,” Moravian Journals, 199–200; Thomas Butler to William Johnson, January 6, 1757, JP, 2:664; William Johnson to Major-General James Abercromby, May 17, 1758, JP, 9:901–906; and William Johnson to Arent Stevens, May 1755, JP, 9:184–186 (quotes).

48. “Speeches to Indians and Replies,” May 17, 1755, JP, 9:171–179 (first quote); and William Johnson to General James Abercromby, September 30, 1758, JP, 10:16–18 (second quote). Major General James Abercromby succeeded the earl of Loudoun as commander-in-chief of British forces in North America in 1758; see JP, 9:890, n2.

49. Sir William Johnson to the Lords of Trade, September 10, 1756, DHNY, 2:733–737 (quotes); William Johnson to Lord Loudon, August 22, 1756, JP, 2:549; “Johnson's Account of Indian Expenses,” March 1755–October 1756, JP, 2:566–646; and Gail D. MacLeitch, Imperial Entanglements: Iroquois Change and Persistence on the Frontiers of Empire (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 113–145. Johnson's Indian Affairs expenses included his travel to and from different meetings with Indigenous leaders, the cost of storing and transporting any goods and provisions for recipients, and labor costs to colonists who stored and transported goods.

50. “An Indian Congress,” June 16–18, 1758, JP, 9:926–929. Kaghradodea was also known as the Englishman.

51. “Journal of Indian Affairs,” December 9–December 12, 1758, JP, 10:65–76.

52. King George, III, of Great Britain, King George, IV, of Great Britain, Daniel Webb, and William Shirley, “The Course of the Wood Creek from the Mowhock River at the Onoida or Great Carrying Place to The Onoida Lake. Representing the Forts built on the Carrying Place by order of General Shirley: and Afterwards destroyed by Major General Webb,” 1758, British Library Images online, https://imagesonline.bl.uk/asset/180983 (quotes); and King George III of Great Britain, King George IV of Great Britain, Patrick Mackellar, and Peter Schuyler, “PLAN of the FORTS at the Onoida or Great Carrying Place in the Province of New York in America built by Major Charles Craven by Order of General Shirley Commander in Chiefe of all His Majesty's Forces in North America; and Destroyed by Gen.l Webb 31st. August 1756, before they were finished, also of General Webbs Encampment within his Entrenchments & Great Works, which he quitted 1st. September 1756 & Retreated to the German Flatts,” 1756–1758, British Library Images online, https://imagesonline.bl.uk/asset/180984.

53. William Martin Beauchamp, Antiquities of Onondaga, New York State Library, Albany, microfilm reel 5, vol. 4:344–345; Lieutenant Archibald Mcaulay to William Johnson, December 2, 1758, JP, 10:56; “Niagara and Detroit Proceedings,” 1761, JP, 3:444; “Indian Proceedings,” April 21–28, 1762, JP, 3:707, 710–711; “An Indian Conference,” September 8–10, 1762, JP, 10:500–508; and “An Indian Conference,” May 20–28, 1763, JP, 10:683–684.

54. King George III of Great Britain, and King Great IV of Britain, "A colored map of the route between Albany and Oswego; drawn about 1756, on a scale of 2 miles to an inch," 1756, British Library Images online, https://imagesonline.bl.uk/asset/180969; “Indian Conference,” February 27, 1756, JP, 9:387–392, 388–389, 392–393; “Complaint of the Canajoharie Indians,” September 27, 1756, JP, 9:546–548; “Journal of Indian Proceedings,” January 24, 1757, JP, 9:591; Jacob Ogden to William Johnson, October 5, 1755, JP, 2:145; “Report of Sybrant G. Van Schaick,” October 17, 1755, CHM, 81:155; “Journal of Indian Affairs,” July 30–August 2, 1758, JP, 9:963–966; and William Johnson to Brigadier General Thomas Gage, April 8, 1760, JP, 3:218.

55. “Journal of Indian Affairs,” December 9–December 12, 1758, JP, 10:72–73; General Jeffery Amherst to Brigadier General Monckton, August 2, 1760, Chalmers Collection, New York Public Library, New York, 4 vols., 3:845 (quote); and “Census of Indians,” August 5, 1760, JP, 10:175.

56. General Jeffery Amherst to William Johnson, August 9, 1761, JP, 3:514–516; “Journal of Indian Affairs,” January 23–29, 1762, JP, 10:370–371; “Niagara and Detroit Proceedings, 1761,” July 21, 1761, JP, 3:445; William Johnson to General Jeffery Amherst, December 6, 1761, JP, 3:580–582; George Croghan to William Johnson, September 28, 1763, JP, 10:825–827; General Jeffery Amherst to William Johnson, January 16, 1762, JP, 10:353–355; “Journal of Indian Affairs,” March 8–15, 1761, JP, 10:236–242; William Johnson to General Jeffery Amherst, April 10, 1762, JP, 3:675 (quote); “Indian Proceedings, 21–28 April, 1762,” JP, 3:711–712; William Johnson to Major General Thomas Gage, May 11, 1762, JP, 10:453–454; William Johnson to Lt. Governor Cadwallader Colden, May 15, 1762, JP, 3:738–739; William Johnson to George Croghan, May 15, 1762, JP, 3:740; William Johnson to General Jeffery Amherst, April 14, 1763, JP, 10:653–654; and Barbara Alice Mann, Iroquoian Women: The Gantowisas (New York: Peter Lang, 2000), 164–167. The British gained the surrender of Québec in September 1759. Governor Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil (1755 to 1760) surrendered all of Canada at Montréal in September 1760.

57. Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 47–48.

58. Mann, Iroquoian Women, 177, 179–182; Joseph Francois Lafitau, Customs of the American Indians Compared with the Customs of Primitive Times, ed. and trans. William N. Fenton and Elizabeth L. Moore (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1974–1977), 1:69; and Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 35–36, 68–69.

59. Beauchamp, Antiquities of Onondaga, New York State Library, Albany, reel 5, vol. 4:344–345; Lieutenant Archibald Mcaulay to William Johnson, December 2, 1758, JP, 10:56; “Niagara and Detroit Proceedings, July–September, 1761,” JP, 3:444–445; “Indian Proceedings, April 21–28, 1762,” JP, 3:707, 710–711; “An Indian Conference,” September 8–10, 1762, JP, 10:507–508; and “An Indian Conference,” May 20–28, 1763, JP, 10:683–684.

1. “Effects and Possessions Left behind in 1777 by the Mohawk at La Chine,” Haldimand Papers (Ottawa: Public Archives of Canada, n.d.), Series Q, 232 vols., 24:299–305, transcribed in David B. Guldenzopf, “The Colonial Transformation of Mohawk Iroquois Society” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 1987), 195–199. After the war, John Deseruntyon led Mohawk families who relocated to Montreal; see Elisabeth Tooker, “Eighteenth Century Political Affairs and the Iroquois League,” The Iroquois in the American Revolution, 1976 Conference Proceedings (Rochester, NY: Rochester Museum Science Center, 1981), 12. Tiononderoge was also referred to as the Lower Castle because of its geographic location along the Mohawk River. Captain John Deseruntyon, also spelled Deseronto, lived at Tiononderoge.

2. “War Losses of Real & Personal Estate as Valued in the Year 1775 Claimed by the Mohawk at Niagara,” Haldimand Papers (Ottawa: Public Archives of Canada, n.d.), Series Q, 232 vols., 24:307–320, transcribed in Guldenzopf, “The Colonial Transformation of Mohawk Iroquois Society,” 199–207.

3. “Effects and Possessions Left behind in 1777 by the Mohawk at La Chine,” and “War Losses of Real & Personal Estate as Valued in the Year 1775 Claimed by the Mohawk at Niagara,” in Guldenzopf, “The Colonial Transformation of Mohawk Iroquois Society,” 198-199, 204–206. Mary/Molly Brant is spelled Gonwatsijayenni in the claims. Molly Brant was the common-law wife to Sir William Johnson. Joseph and Molly's possessions were at Canajoharie, and Isaac lived at Tiononderoge. Values are estimated in New York currency.

4. Maeve E. Kane, Shirts Powdered Red: Haudenosaunee Gender, Trade, and Exchange across Three Centuries (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2023), 177–178; Anthony Wonderly, “An Oneida Community in 1780: Study of an Inventory of Iroquois Property Losses during the Revolutionary War,” in Man in the Northeast 56 (1998): 39; “Account of the Losses sustained by the Oneidas & Tuscaroras, in consequence of their attachment to the United States in the late war,” November 27, 1794, Timothy Pickering Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society; Jelles Fonda, “Account Book,” 1768–1778, Mss Collection BV Indian Trader, New York Historical Society, New York, NY; and Jelles Fonda, “Indian Book for Jelles Fonda at Cachsewago, 1758–1763,” MS651–647, Old Fort Johnson, Fort Johnson, NY.

5. “Major-Gen. Sullivan's Official Report,” and “Journal of Major Jeremiah Fogg,” in Frederick Cook, ed., Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan against the Six Nations of Indians in 1779 (repr., Glendale, NY: Benchmark, 1970) (hereafter Journal of Sullivan's Expedition), 97 (quote), 303–304.

6. Journal of Sullivan's Expedition, throughout; “Diary of the Journey of Br. Cammerhoff and David Zeisberger,” in William Martin Beauchamp, ed., Moravian Journals Relating to Central New York, 1745–1766 (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 33; George Washington to Major General John Sullivan, May 31, 1779, Washington Papers, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-20-02-0661 (first quote); William L. Stone, The Life of Joseph Brant—Thayendanegea: Including the Border Wars of the American Revolution, and Sketches of the Indian Campaign of Generals Harmar, Saint Clair, and Wayne, and Other Matters Connected with the Indian Relations of the United States and Great Britain, from the Peace of 1783 to the Indian Peace of 1795, 2 vols. (New York: Kraus, 1969), 2:25 (second quote); and A. Lynn Smith, Memory Wars: Settlers and Natives Remember Washington's Sullivan Expedition of 1779 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2023).

7. Barbara Alice Mann, George Washington's War on Native America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2008), 51–110; Rhiannon Koehler, “Hostile Nations: Quantifying the Destruction of the Sullivan-Clinton Genocide of 1779,” American Indian Quarterly 42, no. 4 (2018): 427–453; and Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, throughout.

8. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610–1791, 73 vols. (Cleveland, OH: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901), 43:271 (first quote); 58:183; 64:75–81; Cadwallader Colden, The History of the Five Indian Nations Depending on the Province of New-York in America (New York, 1727; repr., Ithaca, NY: Great Seal, 1958), xx (second quote); and Gail D. MacLeitch, “‘Red’ Labor: Iroquois Participation in the Atlantic Economy,” Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 1, no. 4 (2004): 69–90. For class stratification among other Indigenous communities, see Kathryn E. Holland Braund, Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685–1815 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993); and Claudio Saunt, A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733–1816 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

9. “Indian Proceedings,” April 22, 1762, in James Sullivan et al., eds., The Papers of Sir William Johnson, 14 vols. (Albany: State University of New York, 1921–1963) (hereafter JP), 3:691, 693, 697–698 (quote); and MacLeitch, “‘Red’ Labor,” 74.

10. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix to Settle a Boundary Line,” September 19, 1768–November 6, 1768, in E. B. O’Callaghan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, 15 vols. (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1853–1887) (hereafter NYCD), 8:111–134 (quotes, 120); and Sir William Johnson to the Earl of Shelburne, March 14, 1768, NYCD, 8:36–37.

11. “Return of the Number of Inhabitants of the County of Albany,” July 2, 1756, in E. B. O’Callaghan, ed., Calendar of Historical Manuscripts: English Manuscripts, 1664–1776 (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1866), New York State Library, Albany, Manuscripts, 82:114; William Johnson to Daniel Burton, December 23, 1767, JP, 6:28 (quotes); Richard Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers: The Hudson, Mohawk, Susquehanna and Delaware in 1769, ed. Francis W. Halsey (Port Washington, NY: Ira J. Friedman, 1906), xiii; and N.W. Parts of New York, no. 156 [between 1750 and 1768], 1750, Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/item/75693009/.

12. “Enumeration of Indians within the Northern Department,” November 18, 1763, NYCD, 7:582; “Diary of Brother David Zeisberger's and Henry Frey's Journey and Stay in Onondaga from April 23d to November 12th, 1753,” and “Journey to Onondaga and Cayuga, by David Ziesberger [sic] and Gottlob Sensemann, October, 1766,” Moravian Journals, 159 (first quote), 166, 223–224 (second quote), 226, 238; and Dolores Elliott, “Otsiningo, An Example of an Eighteenth Century Settlement Pattern,” in Current Perspectives in Northeastern Archeology: Essays in Honor of William A. Ritchie, ed. Robert E. Funk and Charles F. Hayes III, Researches and Transactions of the New York State Archeological Association 17, no. 1 (1977): 98.

13. “Journey to Cajuga, Spring of 1766” and “Journey to Onondaga and Cayuga,” Moravian Journals, 218–222 (quote, 221), 228; and John Heckewelder, Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians, from Its Commencement, in the Year 1740, to the Close of the year 1808 (Philadelphia: McCarty and Davis, 1820), 94–97.

14. “Journey to Onondaga and Cayuga, by David Ziesberger and Gottlob Sensemann, October, 1766,” Moravian Journals, 234–235.

15. “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix to Settle a Boundary Line,” September 19, 1768–November 6, 1768, NYCD, 8:111–134, 123; Karim Tiro, The People of the Standing Stone: The Oneida Nation from the Revolution through the Era of Removal (Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011), 28–34; Michael N. McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724–1774 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 248–254; and “Map of the frontiers of the northern colonies,” Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division, New York Public Library. New York Public Library Digital Collections, https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/9fe41b90–8f35–0134–367e-00505686a51c.

16. William Johnson to Governor Henry Moore, September 28, 1768, JP, 6:412 (first quote); and “Proceedings of Sir William Johnson with the Indians at Fort Stanwix to Settle a Boundary Line,” September 19, 1768–November 6, 1768, NYCD, 8:111–134, 124–125 (second quote). The specific boundary line of the 1768 Fort Stanwix Treaty was noted as follows: “Begin line at mouth of Cherokee River, then go along to the south east side to the Ohio to Kittanning, from thence to the head of the West Branch of Susquehanna thence down the same to Bald Eagle Creek thence across the river at Tiadaghta Creek below the great Island, thence by a straight line to Burnett's Hills then along the same to the mouth of Awanda Creek on the West Side of the East Branch of Susquehanna, thence up the stream thereof to Oswegy [Owego], thence Eastward to the Delaware River, thence up the stream thereof till they come opposite to the mouth of Tianaderra [Unadilla] Creek to the head of its Westerly Branch, and from thence to the mouth of Canada Creek on Wood Creek.” See “Deed Determining the Boundary Line between the Whites and Indians,” November 5, 1768, NYCD, 8:135–137.

17. “Extract from Indian Records,” October 15, 1773, JP, 12:1037–1038; “Conference with Kayaghshota,” January 13, 1774, JP, 12:1060; “Proclamation,” October 4, 1774, JP, 13:683–684 (quote); James D. McCallum, ed., Letters of Eleazar Wheelock's Indians (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College, 1932), 157–159; and Laurence M. Hauptman, “Refugee Havens: The Iroquois Villages of the Eighteenth Century,” in American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History, ed. Christopher Vecsey and Robert W. Venables (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1980), 132.

18. Christine Sternberg Patrick, “The Life and Times of Samuel Kirkland, 1741–1808: Missionary to the Oneida Indians, American Patriot, and Founder of Hamilton College” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Buffalo, 1993), 111-112; Walter Pilkington, ed., The Journals of Samuel Kirkland: 18th-Century Missionary to the Iroquois, Government Agent, Father of Hamilton College (Clinton, NY: Hamilton College, 1980) (hereafter Kirkland Journal), 14, 22, 29–31; “Extract of a Letter of Mr. Samuel Kirtland [sic], now at Boston,” August 22, 1768, item not indexed (second quote), Samuel Kirkland Correspondence, Hamilton College; William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 34–53; and Carla Cevasco, Violent Appetites: Hunger in the Early Northeast (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2022), 1–3, 22–24, 44–46, 50–52, 89.

19. Kane, Shirts Powdered Red, 165–167.

20. Pilkington, Kirkland Journal, 14; and Cevasco, Violent Appetites, 50–55, 170–172.

21. Sternberg Patrick, “The Life and Times of Samuel Kirkland,” 111–112 (quotes); “Account of Expenses,” September 16, 1771, item 21g, Kirkland Correspondence, Hamilton College; Cevasco, Violent Appetites, 199; Cronon, Changes in the Land, 101–103; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 16–18, 26–33; and Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976), 86–87.

22. Pilkington, Kirkland Journal, 41; Eleazar Wheelock to Lord Dartmouth, September 4, 1766, in The Papers of Eleazar Wheelock: Together with the Early Archives of Dartmouth College and Moor's Indian Charity School, and Records of the Town of Hanover, New Hampshire through the Year 1779 (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College Library, 1971), (microfilm, 16 reels), reel 4, no. 766504.4 (quote); and Sternberg Patrick, “The Life and Times of Samuel Kirkland,” 111–112.

23. Pilkington, Kirkland Journal, 40 (first and second quote); and “Extract of a Letter of Mr. Samuel Kirtland [sic], now at Boston,” August 22, 1768, item not indexed (third quote), Samuel Kirkland to Reverend Levi Hart, January 17, 1771, item 14a, and Samuel Kirkland to Ebenezer Pemberton, 25 March 1771, item 16c, Kirkland Correspondence, Hamilton College.

24. Samuel Kirkland to Indian Charity School, “Account of Expenses,” October 5, 1769, item 22c, Samuel Kirkland to Eleazar Wheelock, February 15, 1770, item 6a, Samuel Kirkland to Eleazar Wheelock, October 9, 1770, item11d (quote), Samuel Kirkland to Eleazar Wheelock, November 6, 1770, item 12a, and “Account of Expenses,” September 16, 1771, item 21g, Kirkland Correspondence, Hamilton College.

25. Samuel Kirkland to Eleazar Wheelock, November 6, 1770, item 12a, Samuel Kirkland to Andrew Oliver, November 12, 1770, item 12b, “Account of Expenses,” September 16, 1771, item 21g, Samuel Kirkland to Indian Charity School, item 22c, “Account of Expenses,” October 5, 1769, item 22c, Samuel Kirkland to Eleazar Wheelock, October 9, 1770, item 11d (quote), and Samuel Kirkland to John Thorton, October 31, 1770, item 11f, Kirkland Correspondence, Hamilton College.

26. Jack Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance in Three Oneida Communities,” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Albany, 1974), 65–68.

27. Samuel Kirkland to Eleazar Wheelock, February 15, 1770, item 6a, Samuel Kirkland to Eleazar Wheelock, October 9, 1770, item 11d (first quote), and “Account of Expenses,” September 16, 1771, item 21g (second quote), Kirkland Correspondence, Hamilton College; Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers, 67–68; and Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 128.

28. “Account of Expenses,” September 16, 1771, item 21g, Kirkland Correspondence, Hamilton College.

29. Onoide Indians to John Earl of Dunmore, Captain General and Governor in Chief of New York, trans. Samuel Kirkland, December 31, 1770, item 13b, “Account of Expenses,” September 16, 1771, item 21g, and Samuel Kirkland to Eleazar Wheelock, November 6, 1770, item 12b, Kirkland Correspondence, Hamilton College; Pilkington, Kirkland Journals, 40–41; and Campisi, “Ethnic Identity and Boundary Maintenance,” 69.

30. William Johnson to John Inglis, September 4, 1770, JP, 7:876; and “A Diary of 1773 by Jabez Maud Fisher of Philadelphia,” July 2, 1773, in William Martin Beauchamp, Antiquities of Onondaga, New York State Library, Albany, microfilm reel 11, vol. 10:44–46 (quotes).

31. “War Losses of Real & Personal Estate as Valued in the Year 1775 Claimed by the Mohawk at Niagara,” in Guldenzopf, “The Colonial Transformation of Mohawk Iroquois Society,” 206; Isabel Thompson Kelsay, Joseph Brant, 1743–1807: Man of Two Worlds (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1984), 115–116; Elizabeth Elbourne, Empire, Kinship and Violence: Family Histories, Indigenous Rights and the Making of Settler Colonialism, 1770–1842 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022); Mishuana Goeman, Mark My Words: Native Women Mapping Our Nations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013); and Audra Simpson, Mohawk Interruptus: Political Life across the Borders of Settler States (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014).

32. “War Losses of Real & Personal Estate as Valued in the Year 1775 Claimed by the Mohawk at Niagara,” in Guldenzopf, “The Colonial Transformation of Mohawk Iroquois Society,” 206; and Kelsey, Joseph Brant, 116–117.

33. Robert Adems, “Day Book,” New York State Library, Albany, microfilm; Daniel Campbell, “Account Books, 1756–1799,” New York State Library, Albany, Manuscripts, 5 vols., 5:152; “War Losses of Real & Personal Estate as Valued in the Year 1775 Claimed by the Mohawk at Niagara,” in Guldenzopf, “The Colonial Transformation of Mohawk Iroquois Society,” 206 (quotes); Timothy Shannon, “Dressing for Success on the Mohawk Frontier: Hendrick, William Johnson, and the Indian Fashion,” William and Mary Quarterly 53, no. 1 (1996): 25; and “Items from Day Book of Robert Adems, June 10, 1768–July 14, 1773,” JP, 13:532–616.

34. Gretchen Green, “Molly Brant, Catherine Brant, and Their Daughters: A Study in Colonial Acculturation,” Ontario History 81, no. 3 (1989): 235–250; “Items from Day Book of Robert Adems,” June 10, 1768–July 14, 1773, JP, 13:532–616; “War Losses of Real and Personal Estate as Valued in the Year 1775 Claimed by the Mohawk at Niagara,” in Guldenzopf, “The Colonial Transformation of Mohawk Iroquois Society,” 204–205; and Aileen Agnew, “Silent Partners: The Economic Life of Women on the Frontier of Colonial New York” (PhD diss., University of New Hampshire, 1998), 207–216.

35. Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers, 83 (quotes); and “Items from Day Book of Robert Adems,” June 10, 1768–July 14, 1773, JP, 13:532–616.

36. Ruth L. Higgins, Expansion in New York: With Special Reference to the Eighteenth Century (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1931), 95; and Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers.

37. Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers, 63 (quotes); and Franklin T. Hesse, “The Egli and Lord Sites: The Historic Component—‘Unadilla,’ 1753–1778,” The Bulletin: New York State Archeological Association 63 (1975): 19.

38. Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers, 64–66, 68, 83.

39. Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers, 64–66.

40. William Johnson to Lord Hillsborough, July 12, 1770, DHNY, 2:971 (quotes); and William Johnson to John Blackburn, June 1, 1770, JP, 7:707–708.

41. “Speech of Decharihoga, Chief of the Canajoharies, to Sir William Johnson,” July 11, 1774, DHNY, 2:1004–1005; William Martin Beauchamp, A History of the New York Iroquois Now Commonly Called the Six Nations, New York State Museum Bulletin 78, Archeology 9 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1905), 343; and Colin Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 108–128.

42. George Clinton, Hugh Hastings, and James A. Holden, eds., Public Papers of George Clinton, First Governor of New York, 1777–1795, 1801–1804, 10 vols. (New York and Albany: State of New York, 1899), 4:222–228 (quotes); and “Map and Letter of Captain William Gray,” Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, 288–290.

43. Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers, 64–66 (first and third quotes); and Clinton, Hastings, and Holden, eds., Public Papers of George Clinton, 4:222–228 (second quote).

44. “Journal of Lieutenant Erkuries Beatty,” “Major General Sullivan's Official Report,”and “Colonel Daniel Brodhead's Official Report,” Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, 18–37, 296–305, 306–309; Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country, 108–128; Karim M. Tiro, “A ‘Civil’ War? Rethinking Iroquois Participation in the American Revolution,” Explorations in Early American Culture 4 (2000): 148–149; and Mann, George Washington's War on Native America, 1–110.

45. “Journal of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Dearborn,” “Journal of Thomas Grant,” “Journal of Lieutenant John Jenkins,” and “Major General Sullivan's Official Report,” Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, 74, 139, 173, 303 (quote).

46. “Map of Gen. Sullivan's march from Easton to the Senaca & Cayuga countries,” 1779, Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, https://www.loc.gov/item/gm71002211/; Beauchamp, Antiquities of Onondaga, New York State Library, Albany, microfilm reel 2, vol. 1:213–214; reel 4, vol. 3:457; reel 9, vol. 8:86–87; William Henry Egle, ed., Notes and Queries, Historical, Biographical and Genealogical, Relating Chiefly to Interior Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA: Harrisburg Publishing, 1895), 126; William Martin Beauchamp, Aboriginal Place Names of New York, New York Museum Bulletin 108, Archeology 12 (Albany: New York State Education Department, 1907), 66, 107, 203–205; and “Journal of Lieutenant John L. Hardenbergh,” Journal of Sullivan's Expedition, 129 (editor's note).

47. “Journal of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Dearborn,” “Journal of Sergeant Major George Grant,” and “Journal of Thomas Grant,” Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, 76–77, 113, 143.

48. “Journal of Dr. Jabez Campfield,” “Journal of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Dearborn,” and “Major General Sullivan's Official Report,” Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, 60 (third quote), 70 (second and fourth quotes), 299 (first quote).

49. “Journal of Major John Burrowes,” “Journal of Lieutenant William McKendry,” and “Journal of Lieutenant Charles Nukerck,” Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, 47, 204, 217 (quote).

50. “Journal of Lieutenant Erkuries Beatty,” “Journal of Major John Burrowes,” “Journal of Dr. Jabez Campfield,” “Journal of Major Jeremiah Fogg,” “Journal of Serg’t Major George Grant,” and “Journal of Thomas Grant,” and “Journal of Lieutenant Colonel Adam Hubley,” Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, 27, 44–45, 59 (first quote), 96–99 (fourth quote), 113, 143 (fifth quote), 163; William Hart to Colonel Israel Shreve, Newtown, August 30, 1779, Colonel Israel Shreve Papers, University of Houston, Special Collections (second and third quotes); and Mann, Washington's War on Native America, 71.

51. “Journal of Lieutenant William Barton,” “Journal of Major John Burrowes,” “Journal of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Dearborn,” “Journal of Thomas Grant,” “Journal of Lieutenant Colonel Adam Hubley,” “Journal of Lieutenant John Jenkins,” “Journal of Lieutenant Samuel M. Shute,” and “Journal of Lieutenant Rudolphus Van Hovenburgh,” Journals of Sullivan's Expedition, 8, 45–49, 73–74, 139–143, 158–161, 173, 270–271, 280.

52. Mann, George Washington's War on Native America, 108–109.

53. Murray G. Lawson, Fur: A Study in English Mercantilism, 1700–1775 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1943), 71–72; Thomas Elliot Norton, The Fur Trade in Colonial New York, 1686–1776 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1974), 100–103, 149, 221–223; Stephen H. Cutcliffe, “Colonial Indian Policy as a Measure of Rising Imperialism: New York and Pennsylvania, 1700–1755,” Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 64 (1981): 240–244; and Cathy Matson, Merchants of Empire: Trading in Colonial New York (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 222–226.

54. Smith, A Tour of Four Great Rivers, 60 (second quote), 84 (first quote).

55. “Account against the Crown,” September 26, 1770–March 25, 1771, JP, 12:897–903, (quotes, 897– 898); and “Account against the Crown,” September 26, 1772–March 24, 1773, JP, 12:1019.

1. Transactions with the Six Nations, September 1753, in The Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. James Sullivan (Albany: State University of New York, 1921–1963), 9:117.

2. Dean R. Snow, Mohawk Valley Archaeology: The Sites, Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 23 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995); and Charles F. Wray and Harry L. Schoff, “A Preliminary Report on the Seneca Sequence in Western New York, 1550–1687,” Pennsylvania Archaeologist 23, no. 2 (1953): 53–63.