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Fighting Toxic Ignorance: Origins of the Right to Know about Workplace Health Hazards: Notes

Fighting Toxic Ignorance: Origins of the Right to Know about Workplace Health Hazards
Notes

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Notes

table of contents
  1. Cover Page
  2. Title Page
  3. Dedication Page
  4. Contents
  5. Acknowledgments
  6. Abbreviations
  7. Introduction: Somebody Had to Fight
  8. 1. A Very General Ignorance
  9. 2. Wider Use of Existing Knowledge
  10. 3. The Path of Self-Correction
  11. 4. A Matter of Increasingly Public Record
  12. 5. No Need to Alarm Employees
  13. 6. New Worker-Oriented Counter-Institutions
  14. Epilogue: Turning the Tide on Toxic Chemical Ignorance
  15. Notes
  16. Index
  17. Copyright Page

Notes

INTRODUCTION

Epigraph: OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing on Proposed Standard for Coke Oven Emissions,” December 18, 1975, 3233 (Pughsley quotation), Docket H-017, document 153.18, OSHA Technical Data Center, Perkins Building, Washington.

1. Ibid., 3232, 3243, 3246, 3289; OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing on Proposed Standard for Coke Oven Emissions,” December 16, 1975, 2978, 2980, Docket H-017, document 153.16; J. William Lloyd, “Long-Term Mortality Study of Steelworkers: V. Respiratory Cancer in Coke Plant Workers,” Journal of Occupational Medicine 13, no. 2 (February 1971): 53–68.

2. Richard M. Nixon, The President's Report on Occupational Safety and Health [for 1971] (Washington, DC: United States Government Publishing Office [GPO], 1972), 111; US House of Representatives, Committee on Government Operations, Manpower and Housing Subcommittee, Control of Toxic Substances in the Workplace: Hearings, 94th Cong., 2d sess., 1976 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1976), 55–61.

3. UCLA Labor Center, Fast Food Frontline: COVID-19 and Working Conditions in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: The Center, 2022), 16 (quotation), 3, 7–9, 15–16; California Occupational Safety and Health Standards Board, “COVID-19 Prevention,” General Industrial Safety Orders, November 20, 2020, 3, 5, 6, 10, https://www.dir.ca.gov/OSHSB/documents/COVID-19-Prevention-Emergency-apprvdtxt.pdf; Tamar Lapin, “Amazon Workers at Staten Island Warehouse to Stage Walkout over Coronavirus,” New York Post, March 29, 2020, https://nypost.com/2020/03/29/amazon-workers-on-staten-island-walkout-over-coronavirus/; Ginia Bellafante, “Amazon Workers Are Feeling Vulnerable,” New York Times, April 5, 2020, sec. MB, 3; Jodi Kantor and Karen Weise, “How Two Friends Birthed Union inside Amazon,” New York Times, April 3, 2022, 1, 20. For the right-to-know provisions of the 2021 federal rule that, until invalidated by a judicial decision within a few months, compelled larger employers to notify at-risk employees of cases among coworkers with whom they might have been in contact, see OSHA, “COVID-19 Vaccination and Testing: Emergency Temporary Standard,” Federal Register 86, no. 212 (November 5, 2021): 61475, 61536, 61542–44, 61547–48, 61554–55.

4. Robert N. Proctor, “Agnotology: A Missing Term to Describe the Cultural Production of Ignorance (and Its Study),” in Agnotology: The Making and Unmaking of Ignorance, ed. Proctor and Londa Schiebinger (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 2 (quotation), 8–20; idem, Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don’t Know about Cancer (New York: Basic Books, 1995), esp. 36–48, 110–32; David Michaels, Doubt Is Their Product: How Industry's Assault on Science Threatens Your Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); idem, The Triumph of Doubt: Dark Money and the Science of Deception (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020), 77–101, 117–40, 240–47; David E. Lilienfeld, “The Silence: The Asbestos Industry and Early Occupational Cancer Research—A Case Study,” American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) 81, no. 6 (June 1991): 791–800; Paul Brodeur, Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial (New York: Pantheon, 1985); Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); David Egilman and Samantha Howe, “Against Anti-Health Epidemiology: Corporate Obstruction of Public Health via Manipulation of Epidemiology,” International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 13, no. 1 (January–March 2007): 118–24; Egilman, Tess Bird, and Caroline Lee, “Dust Diseases and the Legacy of Corporate Manipulation of Science and Law,” International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 20, no. 2 (April 2014): 115–25; Marianne Sullivan, “Contested Science and Exposed Workers: ASARCO and the Occupational Standard for Inorganic Lead,” Public Health Reports 122, no. 4 (July–August 2007): 541–47.

5. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, “A ‘Gift of God’? The Public Health Controversy over Leaded Gasoline during the 1920s,” AJPH 75, no. 4 (April 1985): 344–52; idem, “Workers, Industry, and the Control of Information: Silicosis and the Industrial Hygiene Foundation,” Journal of Public Health Policy 16, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 29–58; Paul Blanc, Fake Silk: The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016), 78–109, esp. 82, 85, 98. For insights into the nature of the capitalist state, see, among others, Bob Jessop, State Theory: Putting the Capitalist State in Its Place (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 1990); idem, State Power: A Strategic-Relational Approach (Malden, MA: Polity, 2007); Michael B. Lax, “Falling Short: The State's Role in Workplace Safety and Health,” New Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy 18, no. 3 (2020): 27–41.

6. Lani Watson, Epistemic Rights and Why We Need Them (New York: Routledge, 2021), viii (quotation).

1. A VERY GENERAL IGNORANCE

Epigraph: Illinois Legislature, “Joint Resolution of the Legislature and the Subsequent Acts,” March 12 and 20, 1907, in Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, Report (Chicago: Warner, 1911), 5.

1. James Quesada, Laurie Kain Hart, and Phillippe Bourgois, “Structural Vulnerability and Health: Latino Migrant Laborers in the United States,” Medical Anthropology 30, no. 4 (July 2011): 339–62. For my previous treatment of developments in this period, one that leaves the issues of ignorance and transparency in the shadows, see Alan Derickson, “Naphtha Drunks, Lead Colic, and the Smelter Shakes: The Inordinate Exposure of Immigrant Workers to Occupational Health Hazards at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” Journal of American Ethnic History 37, no. 2 (Winter 2018): 37–61.

2. Massachusetts, Acts and Resolves …, 1907 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1907), 518–20; Massachusetts State Board of Health, Fortieth Annual Report [for the fiscal year ended November 30, 1908] (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1909), 674, 681 (Washburn quotation); idem, Forty-Second Annual Report [for the fiscal year ended November 30, 1910] (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1911), 529 (Hanson quotations), 512 (Hanson quotation), 512–13, 521–31.

3. Barbara Sicherman, Alice Hamilton: A Life in Letters (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 156–58, 180–81; Matthew C. Ringenberg, William C. Ringenberg, and Joseph D. Brain, The Education of Alice Hamilton: From Fort Wayne to Harvard (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2019), 34–83, esp. 50, 81; Earl R. Beckner, A History of Labor Legislation in Illinois (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929), 272–76; Alice Hamilton, Exploring the Dangerous Trades: The Autobiography of Alice Hamilton, M.D. (1943; Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1985), 125 (quotation), 120–26, 138–39, 157–59; idem, “Lead-Poisoning in Illinois,” JAMA 56, no. 17 (April 29, 1911): 1240–41 (quotation), 1240–44; idem, “Lead Poisoning in Illinois,” American Economic Review 1, no. 2 (April 1911): 264 (quotation), 257–64; idem, “Lead Poisoning in Illinois,” American Labor Legislation Review (ALLR), January 1911, 25 (quotation—identical to that in American Economic Review), 17 (quotation), 17–26; Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, Report, 35 (Hamilton quotation), 42 (Hamilton quotation), 22–46, 48. On the saliency of the lead threat at this time, see Christian Warren, Brush with Death: A Social History of Lead Poisoning (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 64–115.

4. Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, Report, 98 (quotation), 52–98.

5. Charles R. Henderson, “Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases,” in American Association for Labor Legislation, First National Conference on Industrial Diseases (New York: The Association, 1910), 25–26 (quotation), 21–22; Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, Report, 16 (quotation), 20 (quotations), 15–17.

6. Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, Report, 160 (quotation), 165–71; Illinois, Laws …, 1909 (Springfield: Illinois State Journal, 1909), 211–12; idem, Laws …, 1911 (Springfield: Illinois State Journal, 1911), 334.

7. Richard A. Greenwald, The Triangle Fire, the Protocols of Peace, and Industrial Democracy in New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005); David Von Drehle, Triangle: The Fire That Changed America (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2003); David R. Colburn, “Al Smith and the New York Factory Investigating Commission, 1911–1915,” in Reform and Reformers in the Progressive Era, ed. David R. Colburn and George E. Pozzetta (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1983), 25–45, esp. 32–35.

8. New York Factory Investigating Commission, Preliminary Report of the Factory Investigating Commission, 3 vols. (Albany, NY: Argus, 1912), 1: 549 (Pratt quotation), 544, 365–556, 3: 677, 683–84; idem, Second Report of the Factory Investigating Commission, 4 vols. (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1913), 2: 1137 (Graham-Rogers and Vogt quotation), 1116 (Graham-Rogers and Vogt quotation), 1116–17, 1137–39, 3: 688f (Bliss quotation), 679–88f. On a subsequent nondisclosure issue in Niagara Falls, see Jim Morris, The Cancer Factory: Industrial Chemicals, Corporate Deception, and the Hidden Deaths of American Workers (Boston: Beacon, 2024), 83, 106, 128.

9. Idem, Second Report, 1: 245 (quotation), 248, 251, 2: 467 (Price quotation), 476 (Price quotations), 477 (Price quotation), 466–77, 1160–61, 3: 630–41; idem, Preliminary Report, 2: 467 (Vogt quotation), 460–62; idem, Second Report, 2: after 462 (quotation), 3: 465–66; idem, Preliminary Report, 3: 1938–44.

10. Idem, Preliminary Report, 1: 401 (Pratt quotation), 396–401, 553 (Pratt quotation), 549–55; idem, Second Report, 2: 486, 1137, 1139, 1: 254, 298–320, 388–89.

11. New York, Laws …, 1913, 4 vols. (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1913), 1: 243–62.

12. New York Department of Labor (NYDoL), Thirteenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor for the Twelve Months Ended September 30, 1913 (Albany, NY: The Department, 1914), 15 (Lynch quotation), 15–16, 20; “Industrial Diseases,” New York Labor Bulletin, March 1913, 64–65.

13. E. R. Hayhurst, A Survey of Industrial Health-Hazards and Occupational Diseases in Ohio (Columbus, OH: F. J. Heer, 1915), 109 (quotation), xv–xviii, 51–113, esp. 112.

14. Hayhurst, A Survey of Industrial Health-Hazards, 129, 134, 136 (quotation), 148, 154, 183 (quotations), 112 (quotation), 117–356 passim on workers’ ignorance and personal habits.

15. Ibid., 164, 208, 228–29, 107 (quotation), 208, 228, 229, 294, 349.

16. Ibid., v, 406 (quotation), 402–7, esp. 403; Ohio, Legislative Acts Passed and Joint Resolutions Adopted …, 1913 (Springfield, OH: Springfield Publishing, 1913), 822; Terence L. Chorba et al., “Mandatory Reporting of Infectious Diseases by Clinicians,” JAMA 262, no. 21 (December 1, 1989): 3018.

17. Paul S. Peirce, “Industrial Diseases,” North American Review, October 1911, 540 (quotation), 529–40; “The Prevention of Industrial Disease, (editorial), JAMA 57, no. 23 (December 2, 1911): 1842; John B. Andrews to Ernst Freund, October 21, 1910, American Association for Labor Legislation Records, reel 4, Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation, Catherwood Library, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; Andrews to Paul Watrous, October 28, 1910, ibid.; Andrews to Erich C. Stern, January 10, 1911, ibid.; Great Britain, Public General Statutes …, 1895 (London: William Clowes, 1895), 83–84; idem, Public General Statutes …, 1901 (London: William Clowes, 1901), 93; “Discussion of Immediate Problems,” ALLR, January 1911, 74, 82–83. For one characteristic expression of outsized enthusiasm for education, see Edmund J. James, “The Economic Significance of a Comprehensive System of National Education: Annual Address of the President,” American Economic Review 1, no. 2 (April 1911): 1–25.

18. Connecticut, Public Acts …, 1911 (Hartford: Connecticut Press, 1911), 1425; New York, Laws …, 1911, 3 vols. (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1911), 1: 646; California, The Statutes of the State of California and Amendments to the Codes …, 1911 (San Francisco: Bancroft-Whitney, 1911), 953; Michigan, Public Acts …, 1911 (Lansing, MI: Wynkoop Hallenbeck Crawford, 1911), 179; Illinois, Laws, 1911, 331; Wisconsin, Session Laws, Acts, Resolutions and Memorials …, 1911 (Madison, WI: Democrat Printing, 1911), 256; John B. Andrews, “The Beginning of Occupational Disease Reports,” ALLR, December 1911, 108 (quotation), 107–11; idem, “Industrial Diseases and Physicians,” JAMA 56, no. 15 (April 15, 1911): 1133 (quotation), 1132–34; New Jersey, Acts …, 1912 (Trenton, NJ: MacCrellish and Quigley, 1912), 603–4; New Jersey Board of Health, Thirty-Sixth Annual Report, 1912 (Union Hill, NJ: Dispatch, 1913), 39; Maryland, Laws …, 1912 (Baltimore, MD: King Brothers, 1912), 330–31. Andrews's call to physicians echoed one made little more than a year earlier in the same forum. See David L. Edsall, “Some of the Relations of Occupations to Medicine,” JAMA 53, no. 23 (December 4, 1909): 1873–81, esp. 1879, 1881.

19. W. Gilman Thompson, “Occupational Poisoning in Chemical Trades,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 4, no. 6 (June 1912): 454–57; [John B. Andrews] to Leonard W. Hatch, October 2, 1912 (quotation), AALL Records, reel 8; Andrews to Gertrude Felker, October 18, 1912, ibid.

20. C.-E. A. Winslow, “Occupational Disease and Economic Waste,” Atlantic Monthly, May 1909, 684 (quotation); Joint Board of Sanitary Control in the Cloak, Suit and Skirt Industry, Second Annual Report (New York: The Board, 1912), 12–13; John B. Andrews to Gertrude Felker, October 18, 1912, AALL Records, reel 8. On the garment workers’ union and the Joint Board of Sanitary Control, see Greenwald, The Triangle Fire, 25–79; George M. Price, “A General Survey of the Sanitary Conditions of the Shops in the Cloak Industry,” in Joint Board of Sanitary Control in the Cloak, Suit and Skirt Industry, First Annual Report (New York: The Board, 1911), 35–72; Daniel E. Bender, Sweated Work, Weak Bodies: Anti-Sweatshop Campaigns and Languages of Labor (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 75–154.

21. Diana Chapman Walsh, Corporate Physicians: Between Medicine and Management (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 33–49; Angela Nugent, “Fit for Work: The Introduction of Physical Examinations in Industry,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 57, no. 4 (Winter 1983): 578–95; Harry E. Mock, “Industrial Medicine and Surgery—A Resume of Its Development and Scope,” Journal of Industrial Hygiene 1, no. 1 (May 1919): 1–8. On welfare capitalism, see, among many others, Stuart Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880–1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), esp. 52–65; Andrea Tone, The Business of Benevolence: Industrial Paternalism in Progressive America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997.

22. Harry E. Mock, Industrial Medicine and Surgery (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1919), 141 (quotation), 142–43 (quotation); Hamilton, Exploring the Dangerous Trades, 4 (quotation).

23. Hamilton, Exploring the Dangerous Trades, 153 (quotation—lead), 152–53, 197 (quotation—TNT); idem, “In Retrospect,” in American Labor Health Association, Papers and Proceedings of the National Conference on Labor Health Services (Washington, DC: The Association, 1958), 162 (quotation), 161–62; Josephine W. Bates, Mercury Poisoning in the Industries of New York City and Vicinity (New York: National Civic Federation, New York and New Jersey Section, n.d. [ca. 1912]), 31.

24. W. Irving Clark, “Medical Supervision of Factory Employees,” JAMA 60, no. 7 (February 15, 1913): 508–9; C. H. Watson, “Physical Examinations: A Resume,” in National Industrial Conference Board, The Physician in Industry: A Symposium (New York: The Board, 1922), 25; Eugene L. Fisk, The Periodic Physical Examination of Employees (New York: Life Extension Institute, [1915]), 5 (quotation), 14; National Industrial Conference Board, Health Service in Industry (New York: The Board, 1921), 6, 39–41; W. Irving Clark, Health Service in Industry (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 82, 98.

25. J. W. Schereschewsky, “Physical Examination of Workers,” Public Health Reports 29, no. 47 (November 20, 1914): 3109 (quotation), 3109–12; C. D. Selby, “Physicians in Industry,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Seventh National Safety Congress, 1918 (n.p., n.d.), 329–30 (quotation), 329–31; idem, Studies of the Medical and Surgical Care of Industrial Workers (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office [GPO], 1919), 5 (quotation), 5–9, 61–63; NYDoL, Bureau of Statistics and Information, European Regulations for Prevention of Occupational Diseases (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1916), 21.

26. George M. Price, The Modern Factory: Safety, Sanitation and Welfare (New York: John Wiley, 1914), 483–85; Thomas Darlington, “Practical Health Work for the Industries, Large and Small,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Seventh National Safety Congress, 1918 (n.p., n.d.), 249 (quotation), 249–57; idem, “Model Yard Conditions at the Bethlehem Steel Company's Works,” Monthly Bulletin of the American Iron and Steel Institute, January 1913, 4–5; idem, “Why Have Bathing Facilities in Industrial Plants?,” ibid., July 1913, 199–207; idem, “The Importance of Mouth Hygiene,” ibid., September 1914, 240–42; Magnus W. Alexander, “The Physician in Industry,” Safety Engineering, May 1916, 299–304, esp. 303.

27. C. E. Ford, “Health Instruction,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Sixth National Safety Congress, 1917 (n.p., n.d.), 246–49; Michael M. Davis and Linda James, “Industrial Medicine and the Immigrants,” Journal of Industrial Hygiene 2, no. 11 (March 1921): 399–401; Michael M. Davis, Immigrant Health and the Community (New York: Harper, 1921), 350 (quotation), 348–53, 361.

28. Alice Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in the Smelting and Refining of Lead, BLS Bulletin 141 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1914), 50 (quotation), 50–51 (quotation), 10, 50–53, 72; idem, Exploring the Dangerous Trades, 5 (quotation), 5–6, 153–54; Alan M. Kraut, Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the “Immigrant Menace” (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Amy L. Fairchild, Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and the Shaping of the Modern Industrial Labor Force (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Howard Markel, When Germs Travel: Six Major Epidemics That Have Invaded America since 1900 and the Fears They Have Unleashed (New York: Pantheon, 2004), 13–140; Mark Aldrich, Safety First: Technology, Labor, and Business in the Building of American Work Safety, 1870–1939 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 116 (quotation), 115–16.

29. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 52–65; Tone, Business of Benevolence, 158–61; Susan F. Martin, A Nation of Immigrants (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 123–30; Aneta Pavlenko, “‘We Have Room for but One Language Here’: Language and National Identity in the U.S. at the Turn of the 20th Century,” Multilingua 21, nos. 1–2 (April 2002): 163–96. On Americanization more broadly, see James R. Barrett and David Roediger, “Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality and the ‘New Immigrant’ Working Class,” Journal of American Ethnic History 16, no. 3 (Spring 1997): 3–44; Edward G. Hartmann, The Movement to Americanize the Immigrant (New York: Columbia University Press, 1948); Gerd Korman, “Americanization at the Factory Gate,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 18, no. 3 (April 1965): 396–419; idem, Industrialization, Immigrants, and Americanizers: The View from Milwaukee, 1866–1921 (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1967).

30. US Immigration Commission, Reports, 42 vols. (Washington, DC: GPO, 1911), 1: 474–79; Homer Hoyt, “The Relation of the Literacy Test to a Constructive Immigration Problem,” Journal of Political Economy 24, no. 5 (May 1916): 452; Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, First Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor and Industry, 1913, Part I (Harrisburg, PA: William Stanley Ray, 1915), 255–56; Marion K. Clark, “Americanization and Safety,” Bulletin of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, June 1918, 46 (quotation), 45–49.

31. Korman, Industrialization, Immigrants, and Americanizers, 102–5, 147; “Combining Americanization with Safety First in the Plant of the American Car and Foundry Company at Berwick,” Monthly Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, January 1917, 13 (quotation), 13–17; Charles H. Paull, “Development of Americanization Project: Experiment and Experience at Solvay Process,” Industrial Management, March 1919, 213–17, esp. 214; George F. Quimby and Charles H. Paull, English of Leather Making: Lessons for Adult English Classes (Boston: Associated Industries of Massachusetts, 1919), n.p., Lesson 3 (quotation), and passim.

32. Robert Shaw, “Discussion,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Sixth National Safety Congress, 1917 (n.p., n.d.), 236–37; Stephen Meyer III, The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control at the Ford Motor Company, 1908–1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981), 156–61; Peter Roberts, “The Roberts Method of Teaching English to Foreigners,” Illinois Miners’ and Mechanics’ Institutes Bulletin, November 16, 1914, 37–52; idem, “The YMCA Teaching Foreign-Speaking Men,” Immigrants in America Review, June 1915, 18–22; Peter Roberts, The New Immigration: A Study of the Industrial and Social Life of Southeastern Europeans in America (New York: Macmillan, 1912), 81 (quotation), 91; Korman, Industrialization, Immigrants, and Americanizers, 143–46; Howard C. Hill, “The Americanization Movement,” American Journal of Sociology 24, no. 6 (May 1919): 638 (Ford management quotation); Esther E. Lape, “The ‘English First’ Movement in Detroit,” Immigrants in America Review, September 1915, 46–50; National Americanization Committee, Americanizing a City: The Campaign for the Detroit Night Schools Conducted in August–September, 1915 (New York: National Americanization Committee and Committee for Immigrants in America, 1915), 10, 12, 19; “Educate Alien Workmen, Prevent Accidents and Increase Your Plant's Efficiency,” Spokesman-Review (Spokane, WA), August 27, 1916, 2; Frank V. Thompson, Schooling of the Immigrant (New York: Harper, 1920), 56 (quotation), 55–56, 104. On Roberts's wider agenda, see Paul McBride, “Peter Roberts and the YMCA Americanization Program, 1907–World War I,” Pennsylvania History 44, no. 2 (April 1977): 145–62, esp. 150–52.

33. L. P. Worthington, “The Non-English Speaking Workman in Shop Safety Organization,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of the Third Industrial Safety Congress …, 1918 (Albany, NY: Bureau of Statistics and Information, n.d.), 184–86; J. L. Gerson, “General Discussion,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of the Third Industrial Safety Congress …, 1918 (Albany, NY: Bureau of Statistics and Information, n.d.), 195; “Americanization Questionnaire Gives Interesting Facts,” Personnel, October 1919, 3; Chester S. Carney, “National Conference on Americanization in Industries,” Journal of Applied Psychology 3, no. 3 (September 1919): 269–70.

34. Pennsylvania, Laws …, 1913 (Harrisburg, PA: C. E. Aughinbaugh, 1913), 1366; Pennsylvania Industrial Board, “Minutes,” July 5, 1917, “Industrial Board Minutes, 1914–1918, 285–86, RG-16: Records of the Department of Labor and Industry, Minutes of the Industrial Board, 1914–1932, box 1, Pennsylvania State Archives, Harrisburg; Pennsylvania Industrial Board, “Employment of Non-English Speaking Persons,” Monthly Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, July 1917, 52; J. B. Douglas, “Address by Chairman,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Sixth National Safety Congress, 1917, 485; “Benzol Poisoning,” Monthly Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, February 1916, 14; Pennsylvania Industrial Board, “Safety Standards: Plants Manufacturing or Using Explosives,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Sixth National Safety Congress, 1917 (n.p., n.d.), May 1917, 52–53; “Suggested Practices for the Manufacture of Nitro and Amido Compounds as Evolved by the Industrial Board with the Aid of the Division of Industrial Hygiene and Engineering and a Committee of Representatives of Plants Manufacturing Explosives,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Sixth National Safety Congress, 1917 (n.p., n.d.), September 1917, 48–50; Pennsylvania Council of National Defense, Americanization Bureau, Americanization in Pennsylvania: Methods of Teaching English to the Non-English-Speaking Foreign-Born (Philadelphia: The Bureau, n.d. [ca. 1918]), Lesson IV; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919–1939, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 163; C. W. Hammond, “Getting Close to the Men: Intensive Instruction by Foremen,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Seventh National Safety Congress, 1918, 897–98; Francis D. Patterson, “The Functions of the State in Enforcing Industrial Hygiene Legislation,” Public Health Reports 37, no. 42 (October 10, 1922): 2630 (quotation), 2625–31.

35. “Occupational Hygiene,” ALLR, December 1914, 544; New Jersey, Acts of the One Hundred and Thirty-Eighth Legislature [1914] (Union Hill, NJ: Dispatch, 1914), 301 (quotations); Massachusetts State Board of Labor and Industries, Rules and Regulations Suggested for Safety in the Manufacture of Benzene Derivatives and Explosives (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1916), 10 (quotation); M. G. Overlock, “Education for the Prevention of Industrial Diseases,” ALLR, June 1912, 333 (quotation), 332–33. The federal government publicized the Massachusetts regulation that called for multilingual notices. See Alice Hamilton, Industrial Poisoning in Making Coal-Tar Dyes and Dye Intermediates, BLS Bulletin 280 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1921), 77.

36. Meyer, The Five Dollar Day, 56; J. A. Smith, “How the Employer Feels about It,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of the Second Industrial Safety Congress …, 1917 (n.p., n.d.), 61; “Discussion,” in National Safety Council, Transactions of the National Safety Council Sixteenth Annual Safety Congress, 1927, 3 vols. ([Chicago]: The Council, 1928) 1: 518–19; Charles H. Paull, Americanization: A Discussion of Present Conditions with Recommendations for the Teaching of Non-Americans (Syracuse, NY: Solvay Process, 1918), 28–29; “General Round Table,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Fifth National Safety Congress, 1916 (n.p., n.d.), 125; John Train, “Motion Pictures—The Universal Language,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of the Fourth Industrial Safety Congress …, 1919 (Albany, NY: Bureau of Statistics and Information, n.d.), 235–40; Vincent Colelli, “How to Reach the Non-English Speaking Workman,” Monthly Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, March 1917, 26–27; Alice Hamilton, “The Fight against Industrial Diseases: The Opportunities and Duties of the Industrial Physician,” Pennsylvania Medical Journal 21, no. 6 (March 1918): 380 (quotation).

37. William Conibear, “System of Safety Inspection of the Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company,” in Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of the First Cooperative Safety Congress, 1912 (n.p., n.d.), 85, 87; Frank McKee, “Accident Prevention in Foundry and Machine Shop,” in Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of the First Cooperative Safety Congress, 1912 (n.p., n.d.), 228; New York Division of Industrial Hygiene, Health Hazards of the Chemical Industry, Special Bulletin 96 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1920), 33; Carl M. Hansen, Universal Safety Standards: A Reference Book of Rules, Drawings, Tables, Formulae, Data and Suggestions for Use of Architects, Engineers, Superintendents, Foremen, Inspectors, Mechanics and Students, 2nd ed. (New York: Workmen's Compensation Service Bureau, 1914), 36 (quotation), 36–38; “General Round Table,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Fifth National Safety Congress, 1916, 125; “Discussion,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Sixth National Safety Congress, 1917, 235 (Schereschewsky quotation), 234–36.

38. John Roach, “Hygienic and Sanitary Equipment,” Industrial Management, October 1917, 20–29; Aldrich, Safety First, 116–20; Lucian W. Chaney, “The Engineering Factor in Safety Work,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of Safety Congress, 1917, 47–53; Royal Meeker, “General Discussion,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of Safety Congress, 1917, 63 (quotation); Bernard J. Newman, “Industrial Health,” in US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Proceedings, Americanization Conference …, 1919 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1919), 182–89.

39. Hamilton, Exploring the Dangerous Trades, 131–32, 141–43, 155–60; Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, Report, 24, 26–27, 32–34, 47–48; Alice Hamilton, Poisons Used in the Rubber Industry, BLS Bulletin 179 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1915), 48; idem, Lead Poisoning in the Smelting and Refining of Lead, 6 (quotation), 5–9, 21, 28, 31–42, 46–49; idem, Lead Poisoning in Potteries, Tile Works, and Porcelain Enameled Sanitary Ware Factories, Bureau of Labor Bulletin 104 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1912), 15, 26, 30, 33–36.

40. Crystal Eastman, Work-Accidents and the Law (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910), 90–104; Lucian W. Chaney and Hugh S. Hanna, The Safety Movement in the Iron and Steel Industry, 1907 to 1917, BLS Bulletin 234 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1918), 165 (quotation), 176–77; Chaney, “The Engineering Factor in Safety Work,” 47 (quotation); Arthur H. Young, “Practical Aspects of the Safety Movement,” Industrial Management, October 1917, 32 (quotations), 30–35; L. A. DeBlois, “Some Hazards of the Chemical Industry and Their Prevention,” Monthly Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, March 1917, 112 (quotation), 108, 112–13; Daniel M. Berman, Death on the Job: Occupational Health and Safety Struggles in the United States (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978), 21–23.

41. Charles L. Close, “Safety in the Steel Industry,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 123 (January 1926): 86–92; “Plant Safety Committees,” Bulletin (US Steel Committee/Bureau of Safety, Sanitation and Welfare), July 1, 1911, n.p.; Young, “Practical Aspects of the Safety Movement,” 30; Aldrich, Safety First, 91–93; Thompson, “Occupational Poisoning in the Chemical Trades,” 457; R. W. Campbell, “Safety in the Iron and Steel Industry,” in Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of Safety Congress, 1912, 279–91; R. J. Young, “Our Foreigner: What We Are Doing to Help Him Help Himself,” in Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers, Proceedings of Safety Congress, 1912, 302–6; C. W. Price, “Safety as Insured by State Bureaus,” in National Council for Industrial Safety, Proceedings of the Second Safety Congress …, 1913 (n.p., n.d.), 110.

42. Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, Report, 92–93; Young, “Our Foreigner,” 302–6; “The National Tube Company: Description of Educational Work—Lorain, Ohio,” Bulletin (US Steel), December 1914, 93; “National Tube Company—Riverside Works: Teaching English to Foreigners,” Bulletin (US Steel), December 1914, 92; “Lessons for Teaching Foreigners English by the Roberts Method,” Bulletin (US Steel), December 1914, November 1913, 8–9; Campbell, “Safety in the Iron and Steel Industry,” 289; Robert J. Young, “How to Reach the Man and Reduce Accidents,” Monthly Bulletin of the American Iron and Steel Institute, April 1914, 91.

43. “The Universal Danger Sign,” Bulletin (US Steel), August 1912, front cover (quotation); “Bureau of Safety, Sanitation and Welfare,” Bulletin (US Steel), August 1912, 4; “The Universal Danger Sign,” Monthly Bulletin of the American Iron and Steel Institute, February 1913, 51; “United States Steel Corporation, Gary Plant,” Monthly Bulletin of the American Iron and Steel Institute, March 1913, back cover; “Signs and Their Value in the Prevention of Accidents,” American Industries (National Association of Manufacturers), May 1914, supplement, 4; William H. Tolman and Leonard B. Kendall, Safety: Methods for Preventing Occupational and Other Accidents and Disease (New York: Harper, 1913), 48.

44. W. L. Chandler, “Report of the Subcommittee on Universal Danger Emblem,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Safety Congress …, 1916 (n.p., n.d.), 146 (quotation), 152 (quotation), 146–57; “Discussion,” National Safety Council, Proceedings…, 1916, 168–81; “The Committee of Safety,” Bulletin (US Steel), October 1, 1910, n.p.; “Electric Danger Sign All May Read,” Popular Mechanics, May 1913, 724; Charles P. Neill, Report on Conditions of Employment in the Iron and Steel Industry in the United States, 4 vols., vol. 4: Accidents and Accident Prevention (Washington, DC: GPO, 1913), following 234; Stewart J. Owen, Jr., “Warning Signs—Their Use and Maintenance,” National Safety News, January 1928, 25–31.

45. New York Division of Industrial Hygiene, Health Hazards of the Chemical Industry, 9 (quotation), 3.

46. Alan Derickson, “The United Mine Workers of America and the Recognition of Occupational Respiratory Diseases, 1902–1968,” American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) 81, no. 6 (June 1991): 782–85; idem, Workers’ Health, Workers’ Democracy: The Western Miners’ Struggle, 1891–1925 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 136, 162–69, 180–82; Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases, Report, 38; Christopher A. Eldridge, “Poisoned Painters: Organized Painters’ Responses to Lead Poisoning in Early 20th-Century America,” Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society 18, no. 4 (August 1998): 266–80; Angela Nugent, “Organizing Trade Unions to Combat Disease: The Workers’ Health Bureau, 1921–1928,” Labor History 26, no. 3 (Summer 1985): 426–37.

47. Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in the Smelting and Refining of Lead, 75; Tolman and Kendall, Safety, 277 (quotation); Selby, Studies of the Medical and Surgical Care, 10; Roberts, The New Immigration, 87.

48. Massachusetts State Board of Health, Thirty-Eighth Annual Report [for the fiscal year ended November 30, 1906] (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1907), 555; Hamilton, Lead Poisoning in the Smelting and Refining of Lead, 72–73, 76; idem, “Dangers Other Than Accidents in the Manufacture of Explosives,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 8, no. 11 (November 1916): 1066 (quotation), 1065–67; idem, Industrial Poisons Used or Produced in the Manufacture of Explosives, BLS Bulletin 219 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1917), 10–22, 96 (quotation); Hayhurst, A Survey of Industrial Health-Hazards, 228 (quotation), 227–28, 287, 293 (quotation), 121, 136, 183, 201, 206, 217, 219, 317, 319, 334–36, 341, 347, 349.

49. DeBlois, “Some Hazards of the Chemical Industry,” 108 (quotation); Hamilton, Exploring the Dangerous Trades, 131 (quotation), 139, 141; Hayhurst, A Survey of Industrial Health-Hazards, 206, 228.

50. Gordon Thayer (pseudonym of Lillian Erskine), “The Lead Menace,” Everybody's Magazine, March 1913, 331; Hamilton, “Lead Poisoning in Illinois,” ALLR, 19.

51. Alice Hamilton, “Occupational Diseases,” in National Conference of Charities and Correction, Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Annual Session, 1911 (Fort Wayne, IN: Fort Wayne Printing, 1911), 199 (quotation), 197–207.

2. WIDER USE OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE

Epigraph: Alice Hamilton, “Lead Poisoning in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) 4, no. 6 (June 1914): 477–78.

1. Christopher Sellers, “The Public Health Service's Office of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation and the Transformation of Industrial Medicine,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 65, no. 1 (Spring 1991): 42–73; William T. Moye, “BLS and Alice Hamilton: Pioneers in Industrial Health,” Monthly Labor Review, June 1986, 24–27; Barbara Sicherman, Alice Hamilton: A Life in Letters (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 357–58, 375.

2. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, “Research or Advocacy: Federal Safety and Health Policies during the New Deal,” Journal of Social History 18, no. 3 (Spring 1985): 365–81; Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, “More Than Economism: The Politics of Workers’ Safety and Health, 1932–1947,” Milbank Quarterly 64, no. 3 (1986): 331–54.

3. Ralph C. Williams, The United States Public Health Service, 1798–1950 (Washington, DC: Commissioned Officers Association of the United States Public Health Service, 1951), 279–86; S. C. Hotchkiss, “Occupational Diseases in the Mining Industry,” American Labor Legislation Review (ALLR), February 1912, 133 (quotation), 132 (quotation), 131–39

4. J. W. Schereschewsky, “The Educational Function of Industrial Physicians,” in American Association of Industrial Physicians and Surgeons,” First Annual Meeting, 1916 (n.p., n.d.), 34 (quotations); George Price, “Discussion [of Schereschewsky],” ibid., 35 (quotation); J. A. Watkins, Health Conservation at Steel Mills, Bureau of Mines Technical Paper 102 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office [GPO], 1916), 34 (quotation), passim throughout, esp. 31–34; Bernard J. Newman et al., Lead Poisoning in the Pottery Trades, Public Health Bulletin 116 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1921), 70–71, 76–77, 129–33, 171–72; A. J. Lanza, “Physiological Effects of Siliceous Dust on the Miners of the Joplin District,” in Edwin Higgins et al., Siliceous Dust in Relation to Pulmonary Disease among Miners of the Joplin District, Missouri, Bureau of Mines Bulletin 132 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1917), 63 (quotation). For the focus on disease-preventive personal behavior, see (besides the work of Thomas Darlington and others cited in chapter 1), Hibbert W. Hill, The New Public Health (New York: Macmillan, 1916). On the preliminary groundwork for the individualistic orientation, see Nancy Tomes, “The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870–1900,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64, no. 4 (Winter 1990): 509–39.

5. A. J. Lanza and J. H. White, How a Miner Can Avoid Some Dangerous Diseases, Bureau of Mines Miners’ Circular 20 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1916), 25 (quotation), passim throughout, esp. 24–25; US Surgeon General, Annual Report … for the Fiscal Year 1918 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1918), 43; Joseph S. Lawrence, “The Place of Venereal-Disease Control in Industry,” Public Health Reports 37, no. 42 (October 20, 1922): 2609–13.

6. John B. Andrews, “Phosphorus Poisoning in the Match Industry in the United States,” Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor 20 (January 1910): 31–146; David A. Moss, “Kindling a Flame under Federalism: Progressive Reformers, Corporate Elites, and the Phosphorus Match Campaign of 1909–1912,” Business History Review 68, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 255–56n20; Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job: From Industrial Disease to Environmental Health Science (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 121–35; Byron R. Newton to Chairman, Senate Committee on Education and Labor, February 3, 1914, RG 174: General Records of the Department of Labor, General Records, 1907–42, box 15, file 8/27, National Archives, Archives II, College Park, MD; Byron R. Newton to Secretary of Labor, February 7, 1914, ibid.; US House of Representatives, Committee on Labor, Bureau of Labor Safety, 63rd Congress, 2nd session, 1914, House of Representatives Report 167 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1914), 12 (Bremner quotation), 1–5, 11–14. On the deepening commitment of the PHS to scientific research at this time, see (besides the foregoing citation of Sellers) Allan M. Brandt and Martha Gardner, “Antagonism and Accommodation: Interpreting the Relationship between Public Health and Medicine during the 20th Century,” AJPH 90, no. 5 (May 2000): 710; Fitzhugh Mullan, Plagues and Politics: The Story of the United States Public Health Service (New York: Basic Books, 1989), 61–75.

7. J. W. Kerr, “Relation of the Public Health Service to Problems of Industrial Hygiene,” AJPH 7, no. 9 (September 1917): 782; Sellers, Hazards of the Job, 136; Alan Derickson, Black Lung: Anatomy of a Public Health Disaster (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 73–76; J. J. Bloomfield et al., Anthraco-Silicosis among Hard Coal Miners, Public Health Bulletin 221 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1935), 1; Newman et al., Lead Poisoning in the Pottery Trades, 14–15; C. D. Selby, “Physicians in Industry,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the Seventh National Safety Congress …, 1918 (n.p., n.d.), 329–30. On the extremely stable labor relations that facilitated the pottery workers’ investigation, see Marc J. Stern, “Industrial Structure and Occupational Health: The American Pottery Industry, 1897–1929,” Business History Review 77, no. 3 (Autumn 2003): 417–45. For managerial willingness to tell examinees of their diagnoses, see Charles F. Willis, “Physical Examination Previous to Employment,” Coal Age, August 21, 1919, 315; Harry E. Mock, Industrial Medicine and Surgery (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1919), 380–81; National Industrial Conference Board, Health Service in Industry (New York: The Board, 1921), 39, 41; W. Irving Clark, Health Service in Industry (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 82, 98–99; Frank L. Rector, “Physical Examinations in Industry,” Monthly Labor Review, April 1926, 768; Hart E. Fisher, “Periodic Medical Examinations,” Industrial Medicine 1, no. 1 (October 1932): 2, 4, 5.

8. Angela Nugent Young, “Interpreting the Dangerous Trades: Workers’ Health in America and the Career of Alice Hamilton, 1910–1935” (PhD diss., Brown University, 1982), 84–85; Grant Hamilton, “Uncle Sam's Industrial Doc: Working Conditions Service of the Department of Labor Prescribes for Ills in Industrial Plants,” New York Times, May 18, 1919, 48; F. C. MacDonald to Hywel Davies, January 23, 1925, RG 174, General Records, 1907–42, box 46, file 16/336; US House of Representatives, Committee on Labor, Division of Safety: Hearings … on HR 11886 and HR 12263, 69th Cong., 1st sess., 1926 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1926), 69–70.

9. US Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Minimum Requirements for the Health, Safety and Comfort of Workers in Manufacturing Industries,” February 19, 1934, 8 (quotation), RG 174, Office of the Secretary, General Subject File, 1933–1941, box 50, folder: Conference on Standards for Safety and Health of Workers; Committee on Safety and Health Standards for NRA Codes, “Minutes,” February 19, 1934, ibid.

10. James L. Gernon, “Necessity for Educating Employers and Employees in Factories and Mercantile Establishments,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of the First Industrial Safety Congress of New York State, 1916 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1917), 41 (quotation), 42 (quotation), 43, 46; “Industrial Diseases,” New York Labor Bulletin, March 1913, 64–65; New York Department of Labor, Annual Report for the Twelve Months Ended June 30, 1924 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1925), 124–26; Leland L. Cofer, “The Underlying Object of the Industrial Hygiene Bulletin,” Industrial Hygiene Bulletin (New York Division of Industrial Hygiene), July 1924, 1–3; “New Bulletin on Silicosis,” ibid., September 1925, 12; Lester Roos, “General Discussion,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of the Second Industrial Safety Congress of New York State, 1917 (n.p., n.d.), 33 (quotation), 33–34; “Industrial Hygiene Division,” Industrial Bulletin (New York Industrial Commission), November 1923, 58; “Foods for Energy and Warmth,” Industrial Hygiene Bulletin, April 1926, 37, 39.

11. Marian K. Clark, “The English for Safety Campaign by the State Industrial Commission,” Safety: Bulletin of the American Museum of Safety, February–March 1918, 34–38; New York Division of Industrial Hygiene, Dangers in Manufacture of Paris Green and Scheele's Green, Special Bulletin 83 (Albany, NY: New York Department of Labor [NYDoL], 1917), 16–17; idem, Health Hazards of the Chemical Industry, Special Bulletin 96 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1920), 33–34; William J. Burke, “Accidents and Health Hazards in the Chemical Industries,” in International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting …, 1929 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1930), 151 (quotation), 151–52; John Train, “Motion Pictures—the Universal Language,” in New York Industrial Commission, Proceedings of the Forth Industrial Safety Congress of New York State, 1919 (Albany, NY: NYDoL, n.d.), 235–40; Louis I. Dublin, “Conditions of Industry Which Unfavorably Affect the Health of Workers,” in idem, Proceedings of the Eighth Industrial Safety Congress of New York State, 1924 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1925), 206 (quotation), 206–7; Louis I. Dublin and Philip Leiboff, Occupation Hazards and Diagnostic Signs: A Guide to Impairments to Be Looked for in Hazardous Occupations, BLS Bulletin 306 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1922), 20 (quotation); May R. Mayers, “Preventive Medicine and Industrial Hygiene,” Industrial Hygiene Bulletin, December 1927, 23 (quotation).

12. “Discussion of Immediate Problems,” ALLR, January 1911, 74–76, 82–83; Josephine W. Bates, Mercury Poisoning in the Industries of New York City and Vicinity (New York: National Civic Federation, [1912]), 1 (quotation), 4, 9, 34, 90–129; Leonard W. Hatch, “Compulsory Reporting by Physicians,” ALLR, June 1912, 264, 279; F. L. Hoffman, “List of Recommendations Made by the Committee on Industrial Diseases,” December 28, 1912, American Association for Labor Legislation Records, reel 8, Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation, Catherwood Library, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY; Alice Hamilton to Charles Verrill, Alice Hamilton Papers, box 2, folder 29, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA; American Association for Labor Legislation (AALL), Uniform Reporting of Occupational Diseases (New York: The Association, [1913]), Section 3 [unpaginated]; Connecticut, Public Acts …, 1913 (Hartford: Connecticut Press, 1913), 1634; Ohio, Legislative Acts …, 1913 (Springfield, OH: Springfield Publishing, 1913), 185; New Hampshire, Laws …, 1913 (Concord: Ira C. Evans, 1913), 607; New Jersey, Acts of the One Hundred Forty-Eighth Legislature [1924] (Trenton, NJ: MacCrellish and Quigley, 1924), 403. For the reporting laws passed in 1911–1912, see note 18 in chapter 1.

13. New York, Laws …, 1913, 4 vols. (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1913), 1: 257; New York Department of Labor, Fourteenth Annual Report for the Year Ended September 30, 1914 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1915), 107–8; C. T. Graham-Rogers, “Occupational Diseases and the Physician,” Industrial Hygiene Bulletin, January 1926, 1; Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Annual Conference, 1914 (n.p., n.d.), 89, 276–77; May R. Mayers, “Industrial Diseases and Compensation,” in International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting, 1929, BLS Bulletin 511 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1930), 47–56, esp. 53.

14. NYDoL, Bureau of Statistics and Information, A Plan for Shop Safety, Sanitation, and Health, Special Bulletin 91 (Albany, NY: The Department, 1919), 6 (quotation), passim throughout, esp. 6–12, 18–24, 28, 32.

15. New York Division of Industrial Hygiene, Health Hazards of the Chemical Industry, 67 (quotation), 3, 9, 22; New York Industrial Commission, New York State Industrial Code, 1920 (n.p., n.d.).

16. “Symposium on Occupational Diseases in Chemical Trades,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 8, no. 10 (October 1916): 946; New Jersey Department of Labor, Report, 1916 (Trenton, NJ: MacCrellish and Quigley, 1917), 42–43; Andrew F. McBride, “Progress the State of New Jersey Has Made in Coping with Occupational Diseases,” in Association of Governmental Officials in Industry of the United States and Canada, Fifteenth Annual Convention, 1928, BLS Bulletin 480 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1929), 145–46 (quotation), 146 (quotation), 145–47; New Jersey Department of Labor, Report, July 1, 1924 to June 30, 1925 (n.p., n.d.), 9 (McBride quotation). On the tetraethyl lead disaster, see David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, “A ‘Gift of God’? The Public Health Controversy over Leaded Gasoline during the 1920s,” AJPH 75, no. 4 (April 1985): 345–46.

17. Donald W. Rogers, Making Capitalism Safe: Work Safety and Health Regulation in America, 1880–1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 153–57; Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, General Orders on Sanitation, Including Ventilation, Toilet Rooms, and General Sanitation, Revision Effective 1921 (n.p., [1921]), 22–23 (quotation), 23 (quotation), 22–33.

18. Massachusetts State Board of Labor and Industries, First Annual Report, January 1915 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1914), 10–11; idem, Rules and Regulations Suggested for the Prevention of Anthrax, Industrial Bulletin 6 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1916), 5 (quotation), 9–10; idem, Rules and Regulations Suggested for Safety in the Manufacture of Benzene Derivatives and Explosives, Industrial Bulletin 11 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1916); idem, Fifth Annual Report, January 1918 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1918), 55. Like New York, Massachusetts made physicians’ reports of occupational disease cases available for use in its workers’ compensation proceedings. See Massachusetts, Acts and Resolves …, 1913 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1913), 901. However, in 1935, state law denied any public access to the reports. See idem, Acts and Resolves …, 1935 (Boston: Jordan and More, 1935), 373.

19. Theodore L. Hazlett and William W. Hummel, Industrial Medicine in Western Pennsylvania, 1850–1950 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1957), 199; “Posters for Workrooms Where Lead Products Are Handled,” Monthly Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, October 1914, 39–40; “Benzol Poisoning,” ibid., February 1916, 14; Pennsylvania, Department of Labor and Industry, “Safety Standards …, Plants Manufacturing or Using Explosives,” ibid., May 1917, 52–54; Francis D. Patterson, “The Functions of the State in Enforcing Industrial Hygiene Legislation,” Public Health Reports 37, no. 42 (October 20, 1922): 2630; William B. Fulton et al., Asbestosis: Part II. The Nature and Amount of Dust Encountered in Asbestos Fabricating Plants, Part III: The Effects of Exposure to Dust Encountered in Asbestos Fabricating Plants on the Health of a Group of Workers, Special Bulletin 42 (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, 1935), esp. 3; Alice Hamilton, “The Fight against Industrial Diseases: The Opportunities and Duties of the Industrial Physician,” Pennsylvania Medical Journal 21, no. 6 (March 1918): 380 (quotation), 378.

20. William Graebner, “Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform,” Journal of American History 64, no. 2 (September 1977): 333; Alba M. Edwards, “The Labor Legislation of Connecticut,” Publications of the American Economic Association (3d ser.) 8, no. 3 (1907): 708–11; Duane Lockard, New England State Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959), 247, 286; Robert Asher, “Connecticut's First Workmen's Compensation Law,” Connecticut History 32 (November 1991): 25–44, esp. 25, 43; Connecticut, Public Acts, 1913, 1735–51, 1634 (quotation); idem, Public Acts, 1917 (Hartford, CT: The State, 1917), 2557–59.

21. John T. Black and E. K. Root, “Recommendations,” Connecticut Health Bulletin, January 1919, 7 (quotation), 7–8; Connecticut, Public Acts, 1923 (Hartford, CT: The State, 1923), 1923; idem, Public Acts, 1927 (Hartford, CT: The State, 1927), 4460–61; Connecticut State Department of Health, Forty-Third Report … for the Year Ending June 30, 1928 (Hartford, CT: n.p., 1928), 10, 35, 207–8; idem, Forty-Fourth Report … for the Year Ending June 30, 1928 (Hartford, CT: n.p., 1929), 409–35; idem, Forty-Fifth Report … for the Year Ending June 30, 1930 (Hartford, CT: n.p., 1930), 243–74; Connecticut, Public Acts, 1931 (Hartford, CT: The State, 1931), 174. On the PHS and Hooverian corporatism, see Alan Derickson, “‘On the Dump Heap’: Employee Medical Screening in the Tri-State Zinc-Lead Industry,” Business History Review 62, no. 4 (Winter 1988): 655–77; Rosner and Markowitz, “A ‘Gift of God’?,” 344–52.

22. Connecticut, Public Acts, 1929 (Hartford, CT: The State, 1929), 4487; Industrial Hygiene Committee, Conference of State and Provincial Health Authorities of North America, Industrial Hygiene Committee Reports (n.p.: [1937?], 59, 60, 62 (Thompson quotation), 62–63; Connecticut, State Department of Health, Forty-Eighth Report … for the Year Ending June 30, 1933 (Hartford, CT: n.p., 1933), 13, 105–6.

23. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the On-Going Struggle to Protect Workers’ Health, 2nd ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), 75–124; Martin Cherniack, The Hawk's Nest Incident: America's Worst Industrial Disaster (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986), 55–74; Derickson, Black Lung, 87–108.

24. Wesley M. Graff, “The Responsibility of the Health Department for Occupational Disease Control,” in Conference of State and Provincial Health Authorities of North America, Proceedings of the Forty-Ninth Annual Meeting, 1934 (n.p., n.d.), 100 (quotation), 104 (quotations), 99–105; Industrial Hygiene Committee, “Tentative Report, 1934,” in ibid., 127 (quotation), 127–32; “Discussion,” in ibid., 132–36; Connecticut State Department of Health, Forty-Ninth Report … for the Year Ending June 30, 1934 (Hartford, CT: n.p., 1934), 498 (Gray quotation), 497–98. For a PHS attempt to underscore to the public health community the value of the Connecticut program and its confidential reporting practices, see J. J. Bloomfield and W. Scott Johnson, “Potential Problems of Industrial Hygiene in a Typical Industrial Area,” AJPH 25, no. 4 (April 1935): 415–24, esp. 423–24. For a dramatic appeal to public health professionals to rescue industrial hygiene from the “mess” that labor bureaucrats had made of state programs, see Emery R. Hayhurst, “The Industrial Hygiene Section, 1914–34,” AJPH 24, no. 10 (October 1934): 1042 (quotation), 1041–42.

25. Judson E. MacLaury, “The Division of Labor Standards: Laying the Groundwork for OSHA,” Applied Industrial Hygiene 3, no. 12 (December 1988): F8–F11; Markowitz and Rosner, “More Than Economism,” 336–38. On Frances Perkins in Albany and her early work in Washington, see Kirstin Downey, The Woman behind the New Deal: The Life and Legacy of Frances Perkins—Social Security, Unemployment Insurance, and the Minimum Wage (New York: Anchor, 2009), 75–217.

26. Irving Bernstein, A Caring Society: The New Deal, the Worker, and the Great Depression (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), 59; US, United States Statutes at Large, vol. 49 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1936), 634–35; US House of Representatives, Committee on Ways and Means, Economic Security Act: Hearings … H.R. 4120, 74th Cong., 1st sess., 1935 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1935), 353; A. J. Chesley to William M. Graff, June 4, 1935 (quotation), Conference of State and Provincial Health Authorities of North America Archives (Modern Manuscripts Collection, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD), box 1, folder 11. On the Social Security system as a component of evolving federalism, see James T. Patterson, The New Deal and the States: Federalism in Transition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), 85–101.

27. R. R. Sayers and J. J. Bloomfield, “Industrial Hygiene Activities in the United States,” AJPH 26, no. 11 (November 1936): 1087–95, esp. 1094–95; H. F. Easom and M. F. Trice, “Development of an Industrial Hygiene Program in a State Health Department,” AJPH 28, no. 5 (May 1938): 610–15; Connecticut State Department of Health, Fifty-First Report … for the Year Ended June 30, 1936 (Hartford, CT: n.p., 1936), 221; US Surgeon General, Annual Report … Fiscal Year 1937 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1937), 45–46; William B. Fulton, Control of Occupational Diseases in Pennsylvania (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Department of Health, 1937), 9; Rosner and Markowitz, “Research or Advocacy,” 370.

28. Sayers and Bloomfield, “Industrial Hygiene Activities,” 1091; PHS, Division of Industrial Hygiene, But Flu Is Tougher (Washington, DC: GPO, 1941); idem, Leonard's Appendix and How It Burst (Washington, DC: GPO, 1941); idem, What You Don’t Know Can Hurt You (Washington, DC: GPO, 1943).

29. Rhode Island Department of Public Health, Division of Industrial Hygiene, Annual Report, 1937 (n.p., n.d.), 3 (quotation), 11 (quotation), 4, 11–12; Colorado State Board of Health, Evaluation of the Industrial Hygiene Problem of Colorado (Denver, CO: The Board, 1939), 11–13, 31; J. J. Bloomfield et al., A Preliminary Survey of the Industrial Hygiene Problem in the United States, Public Health Bulletin 259 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1940), 94 (quotation), 87–120.

30. PHS, Division of Industrial Hygiene and Utah State Board of Health, The Working Environment and Health of Workers in Bituminous Coal Mines, Nonferrous Metal Mines, and Nonferrous Metal Smelters in Utah (n.p., 1940), 3, 16–19, 21; J. J. Bloomfield and W. M. Gafafer, “The Public Health Administrator's Responsibility in the Field of Occupational Disease Legislation,” Public Health Reports 56, no. 42 (October 17, 1941): 2036 (quotation), 2033–41; Tennessee, Public Acts …, 1945 (Nashville: Rich, n.d.), 398–404, esp. 402.

31. Rogers, Making Capitalism Safe, 166; Harry A. Nelson, “The Administration of an Occupational Disease Law,” in International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, Discussion of Industrial Accidents and Diseases: 1937 Convention of the International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, Division of Labor Standards Bulletin 17 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1938), 55 (quotation), 54–56.

32. Frances Perkins to John B. Andrews, March 4, 1936 (quotation), AALL Records, reel 54; New York, Laws …, 1936, 2 vols. (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1936), 2: 1995; Rosner and Markowitz, Deadly Dust, 91–96; NYDoL, Annual Report of the Industrial Commissioner, 1936 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1937), 24, 67; Leonard Greenburg, “Some Aspects of the Problem of Occupational Disease Diagnosis,” in International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, Discussion of Industrial Accidents and Diseases: 1937, 100–4; Clara M. Beyer, “Memorandum on Training Courses for Factory Inspectors,” April 16, 1936, Clara M. Beyer Papers, box 13, folder 193, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA; Frieda S. Miller, Workers’ Health Hazards—Today and Tomorrow: Detection and Control of Silicosis and Other Occupational Diseases (Albany, NY: NYDoL, 1940), 9, 12, Appendix; NYDoL, Annual Report of the Industrial Commissioner, 1937 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1938), 36–38, 108; NYDoL, Annual Report of the Industrial Commissioner, 1938 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1939), 42–44, 47, 191; May R. Mayers and Minnie M. McMahon, Lead Poisoning in Industry and Its Prevention, Special Bulletin 195 (Albany, NY: NYDoL, 1938), 55 (quotation).

33. Rosner and Markowitz, “Research or Advocacy,” 365–81, esp. 368; Jean A. Flexner, The Work of an Industrial Hygiene Division in a State Department of Labor, DLS Bulletin 31 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1939), 13–21.

34. Division of Labor Standards (DLS), Arsenic Poisoning: Its Cause and Prevention (Washington, DC: GPO, 1935); DLS, Chromium Poisoning: Its Cause and Prevention (Washington, DC: GPO, 1935); DLS, Mercury Poisoning: Its Cause and Prevention (Washington, DC: GPO, 1935); DLS, Wood Alcohol Poisoning (Methyl Alcohol and Methanol): Its Cause and Prevention (Washington, DC: GPO, 1937), 3; DLS, Carbon Tetrachloride Poisoning: Its Cause and Prevention (Washington, DC: GPO, 1937), 3–4; DLS, The Causes and Prevention of Nitrous Fumes Poisoning (Washington, DC: GPO, 1939), 4; National Silicosis Conference, Report on Medical Control: Final Report of the Committee on the Prevention of Silicosis through Medical Control, DLS Bulletin 21, Part 1 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1938), 70–71; idem, Report on Engineering Control: Final Report of the Committee on the Prevention of Silicosis through Engineering Control, DLS Bulletin 21, Part 2 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1938), 57–58.

35. “Safety and Health [Discussion],” in National Conference on Labor Legislation, Proceedings of the Fourth Conference …, 1937, DLS Bulletin 18 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1938), 54–57; US Interdepartmental Committee to Coordinate Health and Welfare Activities, The Nation's Health: Discussion at the National Health Conference (Washington, DC: GPO, 1939), 24–26.

36. James E. Murray, “The National Health Bill,” ALLR, March 1940, 9–16; US Senate, Committee on Education and Labor, Subcommittee on S. 1620, To Establish a National Health Program: Hearings … on S. 1620, 76th Cong., 1st sess., 1939 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1939), 229–30, 256 (Greenburg quotation), 250–60, 315 (McCord quotation), 311–18, 445, 666, 868 (Zimmer quotation), 862–68. For the Michigan legislation sequestering records of investigations, see Michigan, Public and Local Acts …, 1937 (Lansing, MI: Franklin DeKleine, 1937), 335.

37. V. A. Zimmer to James E. Murray, February 8, 1940, James E. Murray Papers, box 352, folder 4, Archives and Special Collections, Mansfield Library, University of Montana, MT; Clara M. Beyer to Mr. [Marshall E.] Dimock, September 28, 1939, Beyer Papers, box 4, folder 52; Frances Perkins to Bureau of the Budget, April 25, 1940 (quotations), RG 90: Records of the Public Health Service, General Correspondence, 1936–44, box 88, file 0875–96, National Archives II, College Park, MD; W. F. Draper to Surgeon General, April 30, 1940, ibid., box 568, file [0875-]96.

38. Rosner and Markowitz, “Research or Advocacy,” 370–77; US Senate, Committee on Education and Labor, Subcommittee on S. 3461, Prevention of Industrial Conditions Hazardous to the Health of Employees: Hearings … on S. 3461, 76th Cong., 3rd sess., 1940 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1940), 59–61, 70, 100, 111, 117, 3, 14 (Gray quotation), 14–21. For the bitter-end phase of the turf war, see US House of Representatives, Committee on Labor, Subcommittee on H.R. 2800, To Establish Safe and Healthful Working Conditions in Industry: Hearings … on H.R. 2800, 78th Cong., 1st sess., 1943 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1943); International Association of Governmental Labor Officials, Labor Laws and Their Administration: Proceedings of the Thirty-Fourth Convention …, 1951, Bureau of Labor Standards Bulletin 155 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1952), 125–26.

39. Robert T. Legge, “Objectives of the Institutes of Wartime Industrial Health,” California and Western Medicine 57, no. 4 (October 1942): 233; James G. Townsend, “Industrial Health at the State's Level,” Pennsylvania's Health, April 1942, 23–28; Ohio Department of Health, Adult Hygiene Division, Industrial Survey of the State of Ohio: Evaluation of Industrial Hygiene Problems (Columbus, OH: The Department, 1940), 25; Carey P. McCord, “Industry's Manpower: Its Conservation,” California and Western Medicine 57, no. 4 (October 1942): 237 (quotation), 237–38; J. J. Bloomfield, “Teamwork for Industrial Health,” AJPH 36, no. 3 (March 1946): 261–68; Elna I. Perkins, “Worker Health Education: Present Outlook among Industrial Workers,” Industrial Medicine 13, no. 7 (July 1944): 577 (quotation), 575–77; [Editorial], “A Modern Concept of Industrial Hygiene,” Industrial Hygiene Newsletter, December 1946, 2 (quotations), 2–3; Leonard J. Goldwater, “The Future of Industrial Medicine,” AJPH 37, no. 10 (October 1947): 1247–55. For evidence that the industrial health communication strategy formed an integral part of the larger human relations movement in midcentury labor-management relations, see “Health Education in Industry,” Industrial Hygiene Newsletter (PHS), November 1948, 6–7; Caesar Branchini, “Health Education for Industrial Employees at the Hanford Atomic Products Operation,” Public Health Reports 69, no. 9 (September 1954): 883–88; Raymond J. Murray, “Effective Educational Techniques in Industrial Health Counseling,” in Industrial Hygiene Foundation of America, Twenty-First Annual Meeting …, 1956, Transactions Bulletin 30 (Pittsburgh, PA: The Foundation, n.d.), 95–102. On the human relations movement, see Robert Wood Johnson, “Human Relations in Modern Business,” Harvard Business Review 27, no. 5 (September 1949): 521–41; Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960).

40. Markowitz and Rosner, “More Than Economism,” 347–50; Rosner and Markowitz, “Research or Advocacy,” 368, 375–76. On union growth, see Leo Troy, Trade Union Membership, 1897–1962 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1965), 1.

41. Alice Hamilton, “Some New and Unfamiliar Industrial Poisons,” New England Journal of Medicine 215, no. 10 (September 3, 1936): 426 (quotation), 425–27; Alice Hamilton, Exploring the Dangerous Trades: The Autobiography of Alice Hamilton, M.D. (1943; Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1985), 387–94; Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Occupational Disease Prevention Division, Survey of Carbon Disulphide and Hydrogen Sulphide Hazards in the Viscose Rayon Industry (Harrisburg, PA: The Department, 1938); Alice Hamilton, Occupational Poisoning in the Viscose Rayon Industry, DLS Bulletin 34 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1940), esp. vii; DLS, Carbon Bisulphide Poisoning (Carbon Disulphide): Its Cause and Prevention (Washington, DC: GPO, 1937), 3 (quotations); “Workers’ Education as a Legislative and Administrative Aid [Discussion],” in National Conference on Labor Legislation, Proceedings, 1937, 116 (Beyer quotation). For an uncharacteristic endorsement of worker education that may well have reflected the influence of the rival DLS, see PHS Division of Industrial Hygiene, “Carbon Disulfide: Its Toxicity and Potential Dangers,” Public Health Reports 56, no. 12 (March 21, 1941): 579. For the engineering controls implemented as a result of this government-union initiative, see “Develop Methods to Check Poison,” Textile Labor (Textile Workers Union of America), December 1939, 5. For the comprehensive history of this hazard, see Paul D. Blanc, Fake Silk: The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016).

3. THE PATH OF SELF-CORRECTION

Epigraphs: W. L. Chandler, “Report of the Subcommittee on Universal Danger Sign,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the National Safety Council Fifth Annual Safety Congress, 1916 (n.p., n.d.), 147–48; Labels and Precautionary Information Committee (LaPIC), Manufacturing Chemists’ Association (MCA), “Minutes of Meeting,” May 17, 1944, L-5 (Granch quotation), Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/6nbVrpmr279RbNxJ1p5wrqqm, Center for the History and Ethics of Public Health, Columbia University and the Graduate Center, City University of New York.

1. David Egilman and Susanna Rankin Bohme, “A Brief History of Warnings,” in Handbook of Warnings, ed. Michael S. Wogalter (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, 2006), 11 (quotation); Edwin A. Jaggard, Hand-Book of the Law of Torts, 2 vols. (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1895), 2: 1007 (quotation), 990–91, 1002–7; William B. Hale, Handbook of the Law of Torts (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1896), 504, 509–10; William L. Prosser, Handbook of the Law of Torts (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1941), 509; “General Discussion,” American Labor Legislation Review (ALLR), March 1913, 78; C. G. Farnum, “The Ideal Industry from the Standpoint of Health and Safety,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the National Safety Council Sixth Annual Safety Congress, 1917 (n.p., n.d.), 223–31; Charles Baskerville, “Report of the Committee on Occupational Diseases in the Chemical Trades,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 12, no. 5 (May 1920): 440; National Industrial Conference Board, Health Service in Industry (New York: The Board, 1921), 39–41; Louis I. Dublin, “The Effect of Physical Examinations on the Health and Welfare of Employees,” in National Safety Council, Proceedings of the National Safety Council Twelfth Annual Safety Congress, 1923 (n.p.: The Council, 1924), 366–67. On the assumption-of-risk rule, see John F. Witt, The Accidental Republic: Crippled Workmen, Destitute Widows, and the Remaking of American Law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 50–51.

2. US, United States Statutes at Large, vol. 36 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office [GPO], 1910), 333; Minnesota, General Laws …, 1905 (Minneapolis, MN: Harrison and Smith, 1905), 56; Massachusetts, Acts and Resolves …, 1905 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1905), 149; New Hampshire, Laws …, 1911 (Concord, NH: John B. Clarke, 1911), 17; Connecticut, Public Acts …, 1917 (Hartford, CT: The State, 1917), 2338; W. Gilman Thompson, “Occupational Poisoning in Chemical Trades,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 4, no. 6 (June 1912): 457 (quotation), 454–57; New York Factory Investigating Commission, Second Report, 4 vols. (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1913), 1: 254, 297, 393–94, 4: 1589; New York Division of Industrial Hygiene, Dangers in the Manufacture and Industrial Uses of Wood Alcohol, Special Bulletin 86 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1917), 3 (quotation), passim, esp. 17. By 1895, thirty-one states mandated labeling pharmaceutical products deemed poisonous. See George B. Griffenhagen and Mary O. Bogard, History of Drug Containers and Their Labels (Madison, WI: American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1999), 93.

3. US, United States Statutes at Large, vol. 44 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1927), 1406–10; Grace M. Burnham, “Proposed Safeguards for the Protection of Workers in Shop Trades,” in Workers’ Health Bureau of America, First National Labor Health Conference, 1927 (New York: The Bureau, [1927]), 33–34; Executive Committee, Workers’ Health Bureau of America, “The Failure of Existing Legislative Machinery to Control Industrial Accidents and Diseases and Trade Union Demands for Safeguarding the Health of Workers,” in Workers’ Health Bureau of America, First National Labor Health Conference, 1927 (New York: The Bureau, [1927]), 124; US Senate, Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, Volatile Poisons: Hearing … on S. 3853, 72nd Cong., 1st sess., 1932 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1932), 18, 31, 35, 43; Massachusetts, Acts and Resolves …, 1933 (Boston: Jordan and More, 1933), 480 (quotation), 479–81.

4. “Safety Program for Manufacturing Chemists’ Association,” Chemical and Engineering News, November 20, 1934, 416; C. Joseph Stetler and Bernard E. Conley, “The Labeling of Dangerous Household Chemicals,” Food, Drug, Cosmetic Law Journal 12, no. 12 (December 1957): 753; Thomas Parran to H. H. Schrenk, July 12, 1941, RG 90: Records of the Public Health Service, General Classified Records, 1936–1944, box 658, folder [0875-]096 Industrial Hygiene 1940–1944, Archives II, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD; Warren W. Watson to J. G. Townsend, February 24, 1944 (quotation), Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/dYnKKz8menwdvzK7b60pOgXGq.

5. W. N. Watson to E. W. Webb, March 23, 1939 (quotation), Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/108N9bLQjrrkp3r8N4kqQE92a; MCA, Guide to Precautionary Labeling of Hazardous Chemicals: Manual L-1, 6th ed. (Washington, DC: The Association, 1961), 6 (quotation); James D. Kittelton, “Industry's Views on the Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act,” Food, Drug, Cosmetic Law Journal 15, no. 2 (December 1960): 788; Executive Committee, MCA, minutes, May 9, 1944, unpaginated, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/Xjva5OOr0n4ronvV3xvDgnZR.

6. MCA, Product Caution Labels (Washington, DC: The Association, 1945); MCA, “A Guide for the Preparation of Warning Labels for Hazardous Chemicals,” Chemical and Engineering News, June 10, 1945, 992 (quotation), 992–94. On employer acceptance of responsibility for providing hazard information, see David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, “‘Educate the Individual … to a Sane Appreciation of the Risk’: A History of Industry's Responsibility to Warn of Job Dangers before the Occupational Safety and Health Administration,” American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) 106, no. 1 (January 2016): 28–35.

7. MCA, “Guide to Precautionary Labeling,” 992 (quotations), 994 (quotation); Alice Hamilton, Industrial Poisons in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1925), 1 (quotation); Alice Hamilton, Industrial Toxicology (New York: Harper, 1934); Christopher C. Sellers, Hazards of the Job: From Industrial Disease to Environmental Health Science (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 155–86. Undercutting its narrow definition of poison, the initial compilation of model labels designated as dangerous poisons many substances that entered the body via the skin or respiratory system. See MCA, Product Caution Labels, 2 (acrylonitrile), 4 (aniline), 5 (benzene, calcium cyanide), 6 (carbon disulfide), 12 (liquid hydrocyanic acid, inorganic cyanides).

8. MCA, Product Caution Labels, 8 (quotations); Ludwig Teleky, “Occupational Cancer of the Lung,” Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 19, no. 2 (February 1937): 75–76; J. A. Campbell, “Cancer of the Human Lung and Animal Experiment,” Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 19, no. 8 (October 1937): 455; W. C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1942), 410 (quotation), 415 (quotation), 410–15; W. C. Hueper, “Industrial Management and Occupational Cancer,” JAMA 131, no. 9 (June 29, 1946): 740 (quotation), 738–41; James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 97–98, 111–13.

9. Dohrman H. Byers, “Solvent Sleuths at Work,” Occupational Health, March 1953, 43; Industrial Hygiene Newsletter, September 1948, 16; California Division of Industrial Safety, Danger Wears This Label: Labeling Orders for Hazardous Substances (San Francisco: The Division, 1948), n.p.

10. MCA, Warning Labels, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: The Association, 1946), 2, 5; MCA, Warning Labels: A Guide for the Preparation of Warning Labels for Hazardous Chemicals, 3rd ed. (Washington, DC: The Association, 1949), 5 (quotation), 14–15.

11. MCA, Guide to Precautionary Labeling of Hazardous Chemicals, 7th ed. (Washington, DC: The Association, 1970), 52–61; Willard Machle and Frederick Gregorius, “Cancer of the Respiratory System in the United States Chromate-Producing Industry,” Public Health Reports 63, no. 35 (August 27, 1948): 1114–27; T. F. Mancuso and W. C. Hueper, “Occupational Cancer and Other Health Hazards in a Chromate Plant: A Medical Appraisal, I. Lung Cancers in Chromate Workers,” Industrial Medicine and Surgery 20, no. 8 (August 1951): 358–63; Willard S. Randall and Stephen D. Solomon, Building 6: The Tragedy at Bridesburg (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977). On the wealth of evidence that forced the recognition of the carcinogenicity of benzidine and beta naphthylamine, see David Michaels, “Waiting for the Body Count: Corporate Decision Making and Bladder Cancer in the U.S. Dye Industry,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 2, no. 3 (September 1988): 215–32. For promotion of the MCA system as authoritative without acknowledgment of any need to warn about carcinogenicity, see Thomas W. Nale, “Label Statements for Hazardous Chemicals,” Archives of Environmental Health 6, no. 2 (February 1963): 235–38.

12. “New Safety Manuals Prepared,” Industrial Hygiene Newsletter, February 1947, 10; LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” April 21–22, 1947, L-156, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/x5JGJ5rqo4rzypXLagv7N31rE; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” February 8–9, 1949, L-224, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/zJOXND2wkaoNZL04N​DvX7Yzn; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” May 7–8, 1952, L-22-23, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/aBY9jynGwkK9xV7y7JxYkw1pY; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” March 12–13, 1953, L-38, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/4QB23j43OLm9​BYBVdNgR31KDR; “Chemical Labeling Committee Reactivated,” Public Health Reports 68, no. 1 (January 1953): 66–67.

13. LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” February 8–9, 1949, L-221 (emphasis in original), Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/zJOXND2wkaoNZL04NDvX7Yzn; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” March 28–29, 1946, L-139, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/4ajynXLbn82qxNRrbMN6aMB8R; Legal Advisory Committee, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” January 6, 1950, 2–3, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/8R9xwnGB0eQmBw2wjQw0dbMJd; Manfred Bowditch, “State and Territorial Warning Label Laws,” January 1952, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/JNwnaMYj​Vxj5y87pLOkKO45z6; LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” May 7–8, 1952, L-15, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/aBY9jynGwkK9xV7y7JxYkw1pY.

14. LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” April 21–22, 1947, L-160, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/x5JGJ5rqo4rzypXLagv7N31rE; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” November 15–16, 1948, L-216 (quotation), Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/LJ4wJ3gDZrd5Jq8RRearxrNg3; “State and Local News: Massachusetts,” Industrial Hygiene Newsletter, April 1950, 8; California Division of Industrial Safety, Danger Wears This Label; LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” October 13 and 14, 1953, L-60, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/xzNmY3zoNd1dqdkZ4pay0V0n6; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” September 27–28, 1950, 1, 4 (quotation), Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/NEBaoqXn261MjdEbYvQdj63Ew; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” May 7–8, 1952, L-15, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/aBY9jynGwkK9xV7y7JxYkw1pY.

15. “Panel on Industrial Health and Safety,” in International Association of Governmental Labor Officials, Labor Laws and Their Administration: Proceedings of the Thirty-Sixth Convention of the International Association of Governmental Labor Officials …, 1953, Bureau of Labor Standards Bulletin 169 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1954), 33 (Hill quotations), 33–34; Sanford Hill, “Report of the Subcommittee on Labeling Dangerous Substances,” in International Association of Governmental Labor Officials, Labor Laws and Their Administration: Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Convention of the International Association of Governmental Labor Officials …, 1955, Bureau of Labor Standards Bulletin 184 (Washington, DC: GPO, [1956]), 121–24; Massachusetts, Acts and Resolves …, 1955 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1955), 386–88.

16. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), Transactions of the Fourteenth Annual Meeting, 1952 (n.p., n.d.), 102–4; ACGIH, Transactions of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting, 1955 (n.p., n.d.), 70–71; Sanford J. Hill, “The Manufacturing Chemists’ Association Labeling Program,” AMA Archives of Industrial Health 12, no. 4 (October 1955): 382 (quotation), 378–82; LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” October 10–11, 1957, L-196, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/82dopkq2JydjEV​MRb6BNqKOjo; Hervey B. Elkins, “Labeling Requirements for Toxic Substances—The Governmental Industrial Hygienists’ Viewpoint,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Twentieth Annual Meeting, 1958 (n.p., n.d.), 72 (quotation), 72–78; Thomas W. Nale, “The Chemical Industry and Precautionary Labeling,” in ibid., 79–87; Committee on Standard Labeling Procedures, “Report,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Twenty-First Annual Meeting, 1959 (Cincinnati, OH: The Conference, 1959), 110 (quotation), 107–15; idem, “Report,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Twenty-Second Annual Meeting, 1960 (n.p., n.d.), 57; idem, “Report,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Twenty-Eighth Annual Meeting, 1966 (n.p., n.d.), 160.

17. US, United States Statutes at Large, vol. 36 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1911), 333; ibid., vol. 61 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1948), 165 (quotation),163–73; Christopher J. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 10–11, 58–59; Marion Moses, “Farmworkers and Pesticides,” in Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots, ed. Robert D. Bullard (Boston: South End, 1993), 169 (quotation).

18. A. Gordon Ball and Earl O. Heady, “Trends in Farm and Enterprise Size and Scale,” in Size, Structure, and Future of Farms, ed. Ball and Heady (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1972), 40–58; Charles V. Moore and Gerald W. Dean, “Industrialized Farming,” in ibid., 214–31; Michelle Mart, Pesticides, a Love Story: America's Enduring Embrace of Dangerous Chemicals (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2015), 11–56; David D. Vail, Chemical Lands: Pesticides, Aerial Spraying, and Health in North America's Grasslands since 1945 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2018), 1–109.

19. LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” October 4–5, 1945, L-63, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/5L3aYG3w1GMJp8DnkyrN5pz3e; US Department of Agriculture, Production and Marketing Administration, “Regulations for the Enforcement of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act,” Federal Register 12, no. 193 (October 2, 1947): 6495–97; idem, “Regulations for the Enforcement of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act: Interpretation with Respect to Warning, Caution and Antidote Statements Required to Appear on Labels of Economic Poisons,” Federal Register 14, no. 223 (November 18, 1949): 6985–91; idem, “Regulations for the Enforcement of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act: Exemption of Certain Economic Poisons,” Federal Register 13, no. 15 (January 22, 1948): 309; Chester L. French, “Report of the Labels and Precautionary Information Committee,” March 14, 1961, 2, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/RGXV6NG5L25OxJp6JVxOvkza; LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” September 27–28, 1950, 3, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/NEBaoqXn261MjdEbYvQdj63Ew; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” September 18–19, 1951, L-6, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/ZBrBJe6zodDMY​20JXea664DrL; Pete Daniel, Toxic Drift: Pesticides and Health in the Post-World War II South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 5 (quotation), 7, 130–34, 145.

20. [Albert B. Heagy], “Report of the Secretary,” in Association of Economic Poison Control Officials, Report …, 1948 (n.p., 1948), 1 (quotation), 28 (quotation), 1–2, 9–29.

21. Albert B. Heagy to All Economic Poison Control Officials, September 20, 1949, in Association of Economic Poison Control Officials, Report …, 1949 (n.p., 1949), 1; Executive Committee, Association of Economic Poison Control Officials, “Report,” in ibid., 36; “Persons in Attendance,” in ibid., 81–84; John D. Conner, “Statement,” in Association of Economic Poison Control Officials, Report …, 1951 (n.p., 1951), 48 (quotation), 48–49; John D. Conner and George A. Burroughs, Manual of Chemical Products Liability: An Analysis of the Law Concerning Liability Arising from the Manufacture and Sale of Chemical Products (Washington, DC: MCA and National Agricultural Chemical Association, 1952), 37–47.

22. Walter J. Murphy, “Labels—An Ounce of Prevention,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 1, no. 5 (May 27, 1953), 353 (quotation); Floyd Roberts, “Preface,” in Association of American Pesticide Control Officials, Pesticide Official Publication and Condensed Data on Pesticide Chemicals, 1955 (College Park, MD: The Association, 1955), n. p.; idem, “Address of the President,” in ibid., 35 (quotation), 31, 33.

23. Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, American Medical Association, “Report of the Council: Committee on Pesticides,” JAMA 142, no. 13 (April 1, 1950): 989–90; Bernard E. Conley, “The Relationship of Health and Regulatory Agencies in the Control of Economic Poisons,” in Association of Economic Poison Control Officials, Report …, 1950 (n.p., 1950), 56–59; Bernard E. Conley, “Incidence of Injury with Pesticides,” JAMA 163, no. 15 (April 13, 1957): 1338–40; Bernard E. Conley, “Principles for Precautionary Labeling of Hazardous Chemicals,” JAMA 166, no. 17 (April 26, 1958): 2154 (quotations), 2154–57; Bernard E. Conley, “Labels, Legislation and Our Expanding Chemical Environment,” The Sanitarian 21, no. 4 (January–February 1959): 197 (quotations), 195–99. On the flight of government professionals to better-paying jobs in industry, see J. G. Townsend, “Industrial Hygiene for All Workers: Evaluation of Present Facilities,” Industrial Medicine 16, no. 6 (June 1947): 282; PHS, State Occupational Health Programs, PHS Publication 605 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1958), 2.

24. Frederick R. Davis, Banned: A History of Pesticides and the Science of Toxicology (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 120; [Ira P. McNair], “The Editor Comments,” Agricultural Chemicals, October 1948, 19 (quotation); LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” April 20–22, 1955, L-119-20, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/bOx9ZeBzk2xv6Rje954wjMNz6; Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., “Agricultural Chemicals and Public Health,” Public Health Reports 69, no. 10 (October 1954): 895 (quotations); Vail, Chemical Lands, 100; L. S. Hitchner, “Remarks,” in Association of American Pesticide Control Officials, in Pesticide Official Publication and Condensed Data on Pesticide Chemicals, 1958 (College Park, MD: The Association, 1958), 14–15.

25. L. C. McGee in “Health Problems Involved in the Manufacture, Sale, and Use of Toxic Materials: A Panel Discussion,” in Industrial Hygiene Foundation of America, Twenty-First Annual Meeting, 1956, Transactions Bulletin 30 (Pittsburgh, PA: The Foundation, n.d.), 268; Paul H. Leach, “Organic Phosphorus Poisoning in General Practice,” California Medicine 78, no. 6 (June 1953): 491–95; Bernard E. Conley, “Morbidity and Mortality from Economic Poisons in the United States,” AMA Archives of Industrial Health 18, no. 2 (August 1958): 126–33; US House of Representatives, Select Committee to Investigate the Use of Chemicals in Food Products, Chemicals in Food Products: Hearings … Pursuant to H. Res. 323, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 1950 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1951).

26. LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” April 29–May 1, 1958, L-232-34, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/gbbEKgBeJZ1Xkab4Eman261k3; William C. Wilentz to Philip Muccilli, September 2, 1958, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/85EM82​z2NVzNVaM1mYenXZvKm; “AMA Bill Hit,” Chemical and Engineering News, August 4, 1958, 23 (quotation); Board of Directors, MCA, “Minutes,” January 13, 1959, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/k6VVJmavjZkr8Q97JdzOBV5dE.

27. LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” January 27–28, 1959, L-270-71, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/G6dmQVGqrRn93bBNKK1o8E8oq; J. T. Fuess, “The American Medical Association Proposed Act for Labeling Hazardous Substances: An Industry Look at the Proposed Act,” AMA Archives of Industrial Health 19, no. 3 (March 1959): 275 (quotations), 274–77.

28. US Senate, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Hazardous Substances for Household Use: Hearing … on S. 1283, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1960), 28 (Walker quotation), 8–30, 50–53.

29. US House of Representatives, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Subcommittee on Health and Safety, Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act: Hearing … on H.R. 5260, 86th Cong., 2nd sess., 1960 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1960), 62 (Hunter quotation), 70 (Brown quotation), 43, 56–57, 62–64, 69–70.

30. US, United States Statutes at Large, 1960, vol. 74 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1961), 372–81; James D. Kittelton, “Industry's Views on the Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act,” Food, Drug, Cosmetic Law Journal 15, no. 12 (December 1960): 790, 792.

31. Raymond J. Murray, “Effective Educational Techniques in Industrial Health Counseling,” in Industrial Hygiene Foundation of America, Twenty-First Annual Meeting, 1956, 101 (quotations); Richard J. Sexton, “Health Information for Employees: Utilization of One of the Methods of Health Education and Its Application to Employees of a Chemical Plant,” AMA Archives of Industrial Health 20, no. 4 (October 1959): 309 (quotation), 313 (quotation), 303–22; Margaret Hart, “Health Education in Industry,” Occupational Health 13, no. 4 (April 1953): 57–58. It is unclear the extent to which managerial transparency reflected a sense of moral obligation and the extent to which it reflected, as David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz have maintained, a calculated attempt to preempt government intervention. See Rosner and Markowitz, “Educate the Individual,” 28–35.

32. Committee on Industrial Hygiene Education, “Interim Report,” in ACGIH, Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting, 1946 (n.p., n.d.), 49 (quotations), 49–50; Committee on Worker Health Information, “Report,” in ACGIH, Transactions, 1955, 56 (quotation—emphasis in original); Committee on Worker Health Information, “Report,” in ACGIH, Transactions, 1959, 153.

33. ACGIH, “Proposed Uniform Industrial Hygiene Code,” Industrial Hygiene Newsletter, October 1948, 16 (quotation); Resolutions Committee, “Report,” in International Association of Governmental Labor Officials, Labor Laws and Their Administration: Proceedings of the Thirty-Second Convention of the International Association of Governmental Labor Officials …, 1949, Bureau of Labor Standards Bulletin 120 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1950), 126–27; Victoria M. Trasko, Occupational Health and Safety Legislation: A Compilation of State Laws and Regulations, PHS Publication 357 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1954).

34. Donald E. H. Frear to Lea S. Hitchner, April 10, 1947 (quotation), Donald Frear Papers, box 1, folder: Aa-American Cyanamide, Special Collections Library, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; L. Gordon Utter to Frear, June 25, 1947, ibid.; Donald E. H. Frear to Charles L. Smith, May 28, 1948 (quotation), ibid.; Charles L. Smith to Donald E. H. Frear, June 1, 1948, ibid.; Donald E. H. Frear, Pesticide Handbook: Entoma (State College, PA: College Science Publishers, 1949); Donald E. H. Frear, Pesticide Handbook: Entoma, 20th ed. (State College, PA: College Science Publishers, 1968).

35. Joint Committee on Pesticides, American Medical Association (AMA), “Exploratory Meeting,” October 26, 1949, Frear Papers, box 1, folder: Af-Az; Donald E. H. Frear to Bernard E. Conley, March 18, 1950 (quotation), ibid.; Donald E. H. Frear, Newer Pesticides: Formulations, Hazards, Precautions and Compatibility (State College: Pennsylvania State College, Agricultural Experiment Station, 1950).

36. Paul Scharrenberg and Wilton L. Halverson, “Plan of Integration and Definition of Responsibilities of the Departments of Industrial Relations and of Public Health with Respect to the Health and Safety of Industrial Workers in California,” November 24, 1947, in International Association of Governmental Labor Officials, Labor Laws and Their Administration: Proceedings of the Thirty-Third Convention of the International Association of Governmental Labor Officials …, 1950, Bureau of Labor Standards Bulletin 145 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1951), 203–5; “California's Industrial Health Activities,” Industrial Hygiene Newsletter, April 1948, 4–5. For a more complete account of Abrams's activities, see Alan Derickson, “Inventing the Right to Know: Herbert Abrams's Efforts to Democratize Access to Workplace Health Hazard Information in the 1950s,” AJPH 106, no. 2 (February 2016): 237–45.

37. Herbert K. Abrams, “Adult Health—An Opportunity in Public Health,” California's Health 5, no. 24 (June 30, 1948): 381 (Rosenau quotation), 381–86. On the rise of rights-based politics and policy, see Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995); Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America's Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge. MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005); Alan Derickson, “‘Health for Three-Thirds of the Nation’: Public Health Advocacy of Universal Access to Medical Care in the United States,” AJPH 92, no. 2 (February 2002): 180–90.

38. Herbert K. Abrams, “Health Hazards Associated with Agricultural Chemicals,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Eleventh Annual Meeting, 1949 (n.p., n.d.), 12 (quotations); Herbert K. Abrams, “Occupational Illness Due to Agricultural Chemicals, 1949,” California's Health, September 15, 1950, 36 (quotation), 35–36; Conley, “Morbidity and Mortality from Economic Poisons,” 126.

39. Herbert K. Abrams, “Labor, Management, and the Official Agency—Relationships Illustrated by a Plant Study,” AJPH 42, no. 1 (January 1952): 40 (quotations), 41 (quotation), 38–43; Victoria M. Trasko, “The Work of State and Local Industrial Hygiene Agencies,” Public Health Reports 64, no. 15 (April 15, 1949): 471–84; Trasko, Occupational Health and Safety Legislation, 17, 34, 36, 56, 87, 92, 125, 131, 132, 143, 153, 169, 214, 217, 224, 246, 249, 256, 264.

40. Robert T. Legge and Esther Rosencrantz, “Observations and Studies on Silicosis by Diatomaceous Silica,” AJPH 22, no. 10 (October 1932): 1055–60; Herbert K. Abrams, “Some Hidden History of Occupational Medicine,” Environmental Research 59, no. 1 (October 1992): 28–30; Lewis J. Cralley, “Occupational Health Study in the Diatomite Producing Industry: Environmental Aspects,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting, 1955 (Cincinnati, OH: The Conference, 1955), 18; Herbert K. Abrams, “Diatomaceous Earth Silicosis,” American Journal of Industrial Medicine 18, no. 5 (1990): 592; Herbert K. Abrams, “Practicing Social Medicine: Memoirs from the Neighborhoods,” ca. 2003, Abrams family papers (copy in author's possession), 9, 161, 533. For the accumulating evidence on the risks of exposure to this silicious dust, see, among others, Enrico C. Vigliani and Giacomo Mottura, “Diatomaceous Earth Silicosis,” British Journal of Industrial Medicine 5, no. 3 (July 1948): 148–60; Arthur J. Vorwald et al., “Diatomaceous Earth Pneumoconiosis,” The Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress on Industrial Medicine, 1948 (Bristol, UK: John Wright, 1949), 725–41.

41. Abrams, “Some Hidden History of Occupational Medicine,” 30–32; [Robert Goe], “Death by Dust,” Search Magazine, January 1952, 111 (quotation), 109–11; Nate Hale, “The Story of a Strange and Dangerous Dust,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 13, 1952, 1, 15.

42. “Johns-Manville Employees Strike for Their Lives,” East Bay Labor Journal (Oakland, CA), July 4, 1952, 8; Herbert K. Abrams, “Chemical Workers Face ‘Death by Dust’: Medic Report Proves Case for Local 146,” East Bay Labor Journal (Oakland, CA), July 4, 1952, 8; John McReynolds, “Strike Looms after Twenty-Six Years of Labor Peace,” Lompoc Record, March 4, 2007, http://lompocrecord.com/news/local/strike-looms-after-years-of-labor-peace/article/38f0df50-8792-5429-9236-1d2748b76136.html; “Strike at Johns-Manville Continues,” International Chemical Worker, July 1952, 1, 8; H. A. Bradley, “An Urgent Appeal,” International Chemical Worker, August 1952, 1; “Local 146 Wins Objectives in Strike Settlement,” International Chemical Worker, December 1952, 5; International Chemical Workers Union (ICWU), Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Convention, 1952 (n.p., n.d.), 46 (Rodrigues quotation), 45–50.

43. ICWU, Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Convention, 1952, 56–66, 89–91; Abrams, “Practicing Social Medicine,” 535; Herbert K. Abrams, “Motivating Employees for Health,” International Chemical Worker, July 1953, 3 (quotation); Johns Manville Products Corporation, Lompoc Plant, and Local 146, ICWU, “Agreement, 1953–54,” International Chemical Workers Union Records, box F-55, microfilm roll E-10, Archival Services, University Libraries, University of Akron, Akron, OH. On the paucity of occupational health expertise for the unions, see “The New Activism on Job Health,” Business Week, September 18, 1978, 146–50; Health Research Group, Survey of Occupational Health Efforts of Fifteen Major Labor Unions (Washington, DC: Health Research Group, 1976).

44. Herbert K. Abrams, “Motivating Employees for Industrial Health,” AMA Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 8, no. 3 (September 1953): 246 (quotation), 247 (quotation), 246–49.

45. ICWU, Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Convention, 1953 (n.p., n.d.), 62; Arch F. Blakey, The Florida Phosphate Industry: A History of the Development and Use of a Vital Mineral (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 51–52; Harvey Baker to Herbert K. Abrams, October 30, 1954 (quotation), ICWU Records, box I-6, folder: ICB2baa Educational Programs—Local Unions—1954; ICWU, Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Convention, 1956 (n.p., n.d.), 65.

46. Herbert K. Abrams, “ICWU Tackles Health Problems,” International Chemical Worker, September 1954, 3; ICWU, Proceedings of Convention, 1956, 65; Harold J. Magnuson to Edward Moffett (with copy to Herbert K. Abrams), August 22, 1956, RG 90, Records of the Bureau of State Services, 1948–1963, Records of the Division of Special Health Services, Occupational Health Subject Files, 1955–1957, box 43, folder: In; Harold J. Magnuson to Edward Moffett, November 7, 1956, ibid.; Henry Doyle to Abrams, March 4 and 14, 1957, ibid.; PHS and Florida State Board of Health, Industrial Hygiene Survey of the Phosphate Industry in Polk County, Florida (Washington, DC: PHS, 1958); Walter Mitchell to Henry Doyle, August 19, 1958 (quotations), reprinted in ICWU, Proceedings, Fifteenth Annual Convention, 1958 (n.p., n.d.), 335; Herbert K. Abrams, “Labor Due Lion's Share Credit for Health Progress,” International Chemical Worker, November 1962, 8; Wilhelm C. Hueper, “Adventures of a Physician in Occupational Cancer: A Medical Cassandra's Tale,” 1976, 235 (quotation), W. C. Hueper Papers, box 1, folder 20, Archives and Modern Manuscripts Program, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.

47. “Plan Phosphate Health Drive,” International Chemical Worker, January 1959, 8; “Phosphate Planning Conference Charted,” International Chemical Worker, February 1959, 6; “Phosphate Locals Plan Tactics, Point Up Health Hazards,” International Chemical Worker, March 1959, 6; “Excessive Fluoride, Silica,” International Chemical Worker, March 1959, 6; “Teamsters Pull Raid,” International Chemical Worker, September 1960, 12; ICWU, Proceedings, Sixteenth Annual Convention, 1959 (n.p., n.d.), 62, 183; ICWU, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Convention, 1960 (n.p., n.d.), 60, 265–67; H. O. Grant, “Pollution Control in a Phosphoric Acid Plant,” Chemical Engineering Progress, January 1964, 53–55. On regulation of environmental pollution, see Scott H. Dewey, “The Fickle Finger of Phosphate: Central Florida Air Pollution and the Failure of Environmental Policy, 1957–1970,” in Other Souths: Diversity and Difference in the U.S. South, Reconstruction to the Present, ed. Pippa Holloway (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008), 344–80.

48. “Doctor Abrams to Write Series of Articles on Health and Safety,” International Chemical Worker, March 1953, 3; Herbert K. Abrams, “You and the Oath of Hippocrates,” International Chemical Worker, October 1953, 4 (quotation); Herbert K. Abrams, “Diatomaceous Earth Pneumoconiosis: Some Sociomedical Observations,” AJPH 44, no. 5 (May 1954): 597. On the distended prerogatives of capital in post–World War II employment relations, see Howell J. Harris, The Right to Manage: Industrial Relations Policies of American Business in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982). On subsequent objectionable behavior by Monsanto Corporation, see David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, “‘Ashamed to Put My Name on It’: Monsanto, Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, and the Use of Fraudulent Science, 1969–1985,” AJPH 113, no. 6 (June 2023): 661–66.

49. Herbert K. Abrams, “Needed: Better Labelling of Poisonous Chemicals,” International Chemical Worker, December 1958, 9 (quotation); Herbert K. Abrams, “Cancer at Work,” International Chemical Worker, August 1954, 4 (quotation), 3–4; Herbert K. Abrams, “The ‘Toxic Department’ and Aniline,” International Chemical Worker, May 1954, 5; Herbert K. Abrams, “Occupational Cancer of the Bladder,” International Chemical Worker, November 1954, 3; Herbert K. Abrams, “Health Hazards in the Munitions Industry,” International Chemical Worker, December 1954, 3.

50. “Safety Pamphlet Out, Praised by Local Officials,” International Chemical Worker, April 1958, 8; Herbert K. Abrams to W. C. Hueper, July 9 and July 15, 1954, ICWU Records, box I-11, folder: IVD6 Chicago—1954; Herbert K. Abrams to Mr. Moffett et al., February 24, 1955, ICWU Records, box F-56, roll M-3; ICWU, Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Convention, 1955 (n.p., n.d.), 31 (Abrams quotations), 32–33 (Abrams quotation), 31–33, 155, 291–93. The booklet distributed at the 1954 convention was Wilhelm Hueper, Environmental Cancer (Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute, n.d. [1953?]).

51. ICWU, Proceedings, 1959, 187; Herbert K. Abrams, “Twin Problems: Health in the Plant, in Community,” International Chemical Worker, December 1959, 9; Herbert K. Abrams, “A New Four-Point Program for Growth and Strength,” International Chemical Worker, May 1960, 3; Herbert K. Abrams, “Medical Ignorance, Faulty Laws, Scanty Research Hit,” International Chemical Worker, June 1960, 7; ICWU, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Convention, 1960 (n.p., n.d.), 59–61; Herbert K. Abrams, “Lung Cancer and Chemical Workers,” International Chemical Worker, February 1961, 9; Herbert K. Abrams, “How to Solve an Occupational Health Problem,” International Chemical Worker, August 1962, 10 (quotation).

52. Abrams, “Practicing Social Medicine,” 9–10; Herbert K. Abrams, “Comprehensive Plan Is Union Health Goal,” Local 25 Voice (Chicago), June 11, 1953, 4; Herbert K. Abrams, “X-Rays, Solvents among Blood Hazards,” Local 25 Voice, July 14, 1953, 4; Herbert K. Abrams, “Health Hazards on Janitor's Job,” Local 25 Voice, September 22, 1953, 4; Herbert K. Abrams, “Labeling Will Help Prevent Chemical Poisonings,” Local 25 Voice, December 1958, 4 (and on p. 2 in Polish as “Nalepki Pomoga Chronic Od Zatruc Chemicznych”); Herbert K. Abrams, “Health Resolutions for 1962,” Local 25 Voice, January 1962, 4.

4. A MATTER OF INCREASINGLY PUBLIC RECORD

Epigraph: “Workers’ Right to Know Is Law,” 1557 Labor Journal (Clairton, PA), August 1971, 4.

1. Frank Burke, “What Organized Labor Wants from Industrial Hygiene,” in American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), Transactions of the Twelfth Annual Meeting, 1950 (n.p., n.d.), 12 (quotations), 13 (quotations), 12–15.

2. Round Table Discussion, “Plant Conditions: To What Extent Should Official Findings Regarding Them Be Made Available to Workers?,” in National Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Transactions of the Seventh Annual Meeting, 1944 (n.p., n.d.), 25 (Bloomfield quotation), 23 (West quotation), 22–25; Herbert T. Walworth, “Worker Health Education: From the Viewpoint of the Engineer,” National Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Transactions of the Seventh Annual Meeting, 1944, 11 (quotation), 9–11. On the influence of private parties over the ACGIH, see Jacqueline K. Corn, Protecting the Health of Workers: The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1938–1988 (Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, 1989), 181. On the role of the Public Health Service (PHS) in the founding and early development of the ACGIH, see Ad Hoc Committee on Occupational Health Programs, “Report,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Twenty-Ninth Annual Meeting, 1967 (n.p., n.d.), 87.

3. Leonard Woodcock, “Where Are We Going in Public Health? A Labor Leader's Appraisal,” American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) 46, no. 3 (March 1956): 278; Victoria M. Trasko, Occupational Health and Safety Legislation: A Compilation of State Laws and Regulations, PHS Publication 357 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office [GPO], 1954), 17, 34, 36, 56, 87, 92, 125, 131, 132, 143, 153, 169, 214, 217, 224, 246, 249, 256, 264; PHS, Occupational Health and Safety Legislation, rev. ed., PHS Publication 357 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1971), 12, 22, 38, 48, 50, 58, 127, 147, 153, 154, 176, 194, 238, 246, 248, 272, 283, 299, 305; Tennessee, Public Acts, 1945 (Nashville: Rich Printing, n.d.), 402; Texas, General and Special Laws, 1967 ([Austin]: The State, n.d.), 443; Charles D. Yaffe, “Role of the Local Health Department in Occupational Health,” in PHS, The Local Health Officer in Occupational Health (Washington, DC: GPO, 1959), 75 (quotation), 76 (quotation), 73–78.

4. Michael Schudson, The Rise of the Right to Know: Politics and the Culture of Transparency, 1945–1975 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2015), 6 (quotation), 1–102; David M. O’Brien, The Public's Right to Know: The Supreme Court and the First Amendment (New York: Praeger, 1981), passim, esp. 179–82; Pennsylvania, Laws …, 1957 (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania General Assembly, 1957), 391.

5. Barry Commoner, Science and Survival (New York: Viking, 1966); Michael Egan, Barry Commoner and the Science of Survival: The Remaking of American Environmentalism (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007), 56–57, 75–78, 86–90; Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 13 (Rostand quotation); Jean Rostand, “Popularization of Science,” Science 131, no. 3412 (May 20, 1960): 1491 (quotation).

6. Carson, Silent Spring, 12 (quotation), 12–13, 18, 22, 26, 27, 36, 197–98, 229–30; US President's Scientific Advisory Committee, Use of Pesticides: A Report of the President's Scientific Advisory Committee (Washington, DC: GPO, 1963), 20 (quotation), 9–10, 23; US Senate, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations, Interagency Coordination on Environmental Hazards (Pesticides): Hearings …, Coordination of Activities Relating to the Use of Pesticides, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963–64 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1964), 1028 (Smith quotation), 1036 (Smith quotation), 560, 687, 699, 2401. On the influence of Carson's book and the reaction to it, see Mark H. Lytle, The Gentle Subversive: Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, and the Rise of the Environmental Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Christopher J. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 115–33.

7. Alan Derickson, Black Lung: Anatomy of a Public Health Disaster (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 128–36; unidentified Pennsylvania Bureau of Industrial Hygiene employee, “Field Activity Report,” August 14, 1957 (quotation), RG-43: Records of the Department of Environmental Resources, Bureau of Occupational Health, Investigative Reports (after Plant Closures) of Health Hazards in Industrial Plants, ca. 1941–1973, microfilm roll 7745, Pennsylvania State Archives, Harrisburg; Joseph L. Cohen and Thomas D. McBride to C. L. Wilbar, Jr., December 5, 1958, ibid.; Alan Derickson, “Leslie Falk: Oral History Interview on Coal Miners’ Respiratory Diseases,” July 12, 1991, Alan Derickson Research Interviews Concerning Black Lung Disease, box 2, folder 3, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, University Libraries, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. Lorin Kerr, the United Mine Workers of America (UMW) fund's authority on black lung issues, reportedly opposed informing the family doctors of those men found to have pneumoconiosis about their plight. Kerr worried that mining-town physicians would reveal this sensitive information to mine managers, and the worker-patient would lose his job. See Jan Lieben to C. L. Wilbar, Jr., August 5, 1959, RG-11: Records of the Department of Health, Office of the Secretary, General Correspondence and Related Records, 1930–1976, 1995–2001, carton 9, folder: Occupational Health, Pennsylvania State Archives, Harrisburg.

8. Jan Lieben to D. E. Hartman, May 12, 1959, RG-43, Bureau of Occupational Health, Investigative Reports (after Plant Closures) of Health Hazards in Industrial Plants, ca. 1941–1973, roll 7751; Roger J. Howell, “Dust Study Program by Pennsylvania Department of Mines and Mineral Industries,” in Mine Inspectors’ Institute of America, Proceedings of the Fifty-First Convention, 1961 (n.p., n.d.), 89 (quotation), 93; Gordon E. Smith, “Coordination of Dust Conditions in Anthracite Mines,” in Pennsylvania Governor's Conference on Pneumoconiosis (Anthraco-Silicosis), Proceedings, 1964 (Harrisburg, PA: Department of Health, Department of Labor and Industry, and Department of Mines and Mineral Industries, 1964), 132 (quotation), 131–32.

9. Derickson, Black Lung, 133–39; US PHS, Division of Occupational Health, “Summary Report: Chest Diseases in Bituminous Coal Miners,” n.d. [ca. November 1962], 22 (quotation), 10, 21–22, Russellton Miners’ Clinic Records, box 1, folder 5, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, University Libraries, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Alan Derickson, “Lorin Kerr: Oral History Interview on Coal Miners’ Respiratory Diseases,” June 26, 1989, Derickson Interviews Concerning Black Lung, box 2, folder 10.

10. Jan Lieben to C. Earl Albrecht, March 23, 1962, RG-11, Office of the Secretary, General Correspondence and Related Records, 1930–1976, 1995–2001, carton 9, folder: Occupational Health; C. Earl Albrecht to Jan Lieben, April 6, 1962 (quotation), ibid.; Marlin L. Brennan to Jan Lieben, March 11, 1965 (quotation), ibid.; Jan Lieben to C. L. Wilbar, Jr., March 22, 1965, ibid.; Rachel Scott, Muscle and Blood (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974), 33–34. The published work in question may well have included Jan Lieben and Franz Metzner, “Epidemiological Findings Associated with Beryllium Extraction,” American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 20, no. 6 (December 1959): 494–99; Franz Metzner and Jan Lieben, “Respiratory Disease Associated with Beryllium Refining and Alloy Fabrication: A Case Study,” Journal of Occupational Medicine 3, no. 7 (July 1961): 341–45. On the public relations campaign of the beryllium firms and their efforts to cultivate Jan Lieben and others, see David S. Egilman et al., “The Beryllium ‘Double Standard’ Standard,” International Journal of Health Services 33, no. 4 (2003): 791–92. For a similar pattern of unhelpful behavior by state administrators in Massachusetts in the 1940s, see Craig Zwerling, “Salem Sarcoid: The Origins of Beryllium Disease,” in Dying for Work: Workers’ Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America, ed. David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 103–18, esp. 110–13, 115.

11. Frank Burke to Haven Williams, May 5, 1966, RG-43, Bureau of Occupational Health, Investigative Reports (after Plant Closures) of Health Hazards in Industrial Plants, ca. 1941–1973, roll 7693; Haven Williams to Frank Burke, May 13, 1966, ibid.; Frank Burke to Haven Williams, May 16, 1966 (quotation), ibid.; Haven Williams to Frank Burke, May 26, 1966, ibid.; E. J. Baier to Frank Burke, August 9, 1967, ibid.; Jan Lieben to Frank Burke, June 8, 1966, ibid.; Ralph Dwork to Frank Burke, July 25, 1966, ibid.

12. Alan Derickson, “‘Gateway to Hell’: African American Coking Workers, Racial Discrimination, and the Struggle against Occupational Cancer,” Journal of African American History 101, nos. 1–2 (Winter–Spring 2016): 126–49; Dennis C. Dickerson, Out of the Crucible: Black Steelworkers in Western Pennsylvania, 1875–1980 (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1986), 17, 37, 121, 154, 188; E. W. Kenworthy “U.S. Steel Forced into Vast Antipollution Program,” New York Times, August 27, 1972, F3.

13. W. C. Mawhinney, “Field Activity Report,” October 18, 1967, RG-43, Bureau of Occupational Health, Investigative Reports (after Plant Closures) of Health Hazards in Industrial Plants, ca. 1941–1973, roll 7745; W. C. Mawhinney, “Investigation: U.S. Steel Corporation, Clairton Works,” November 1, 1967, 2 (quotation), 1–3, ibid.; D. A. Tyler to R. R. Campbell, November 21, 1967, ibid. and in United Steelworkers of America, Local 1557 Records, box 1, folder 1, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, University Libraries, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.

14. A. W. Thomas, N. L. Fannick, and N. R. Brown, “Field Activity Report,” n.d. [ca. May 7, 1969], RG-43, Bureau of Occupational Health, Investigative Reports (after Plant Closures) of Health Hazards in Industrial Plants, ca. 1941–1973, roll 7745; E. J. Baier to James L. Plasterer, June 13, 1969 (quotations), with Pennsylvania, Division of Occupational Health, “Coal Tar Pitch Volatile Concentrations,” ibid.; E. J. Baier, “Relationships between Occupational Health Programs and Other State Agencies,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Thirty-First Annual Meeting, 1969 (n.p., n.d.), 72 (quotation), 76. On the inadequacy of the ACGIH threshold limit value (TLV), see Alan Derickson, “Surviving a ‘Carcinogen Rich Environment’: Steelworkers’ Democratic Intrusion into the Regulation of Coke-Oven Emissions,” Journal of Policy History 27, no. 4 (2015): 561–91.

15. US Steel Corporation, Clairton Works, Joint Safety Committee, “Memorandum Minutes of Meeting,” June 19, 1969 (quotation), USW Local 1557 Records, box 1, folder 28; Frank Rudman, “Safety Committee Report,” 1557 Labor Journal, May 1969, 3; J. L. Plasterer to Fellow Employee, June 20, 1969 (quotation), USW Local 1557 Records, box 1, folder 2.

16. Daniel Hannan to Edward Zemprelli, July 3, 1969 (quotation), USW Local 1557 Records, box 1, folder 2.

17. Daniel Hannan to Edward Zemprelli, July 3, 1969, USW Local 1557 Records, box 1, folder 2 (quotations); Edward Zemprelli to Daniel Hannan, July 24, 1969, ibid.; Daniel Hannan, “My Labor Diary,” 1557 Labor Journal, July 1969, 1 (quotation), 2; “Results of Survey on Batteries,” ibid., 1–2; Legislative Committee of Pennsylvania, USW, “Facing the Seventies: Legislative Report,” January 1970, 1, USW Legislative Department Records, box 111, folder 26, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, University Libraries, Pennsylvania State University, University Park.

18. W. C. Hueper, A Quest into the Environmental Causes of Cancer of the Lung, Public Health Monograph 36 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1955), 20, 32–33; Emerson Venable, “Inspection Trip—Clairton Works Coke By-Product Plant,” August 10, 1960 (quotation), Emerson Venable Papers, box 14, folder 8, Detre Library and Archives Division, Heinz History Center, Pittsburgh, PA; Daniel Hannan, “My Labor Diary,” 1557 Labor Journal, November 1967, 1, 4; Daniel Hannan, “My Labor Diary,” ibid., July 1969, 2; Daniel Hannan, “Testimony before the Allegheny County Commissioners,” ibid., October 1969, 1, 3; US House of Representatives, Committee on Education and Labor, Subcommittee on Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1969: Hearings … on HR 843, HR 3809, HR 4294, HR13373, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 1969 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1970), 1004 (Hannan quotation), 1004–6; Howard Holmes, “On the Batteries,” 1557 Labor Journal, December 1969, 4 (quotation); Charles L. Stokes, “Ovens Zone 4,” 1557 Labor Journal, July 1968, 5.

19. J. William Lloyd and Antonio Ciocco, “Long-Term Mortality Study of Steelworkers: I. Methodology,” Journal of Occupational Medicine 11, no. 6 (June 1969): 299–310; J. William Lloyd et al., “Long-Term Mortality Study of Steelworkers: IV. Mortality by Work Area,” Journal of Occupational Medicine 12, no. 5 (May 1970): 151–57; J. William Lloyd, “Long-Term Mortality Study of Steelworkers: V. Respiratory Cancer in Coke Plant Workers,” Journal of Occupational Medicine 13, no. 2 (February 1971): 53–68, esp. 62; Carol K. Redmond et al., “Long-Term Mortality Study of Steelworkers: VI. Mortality from Malignant Neoplasms among Coke Oven Workers,” Journal of Occupational Medicine 14, no. 8 (August 1972): 621–29; Daniel Hannan, untitled autobiographical notes, n.d., Daniel W. Hannan Papers and Photographs, box 2, folder: United Steelworkers of America, Detre Library and Archives Division, Heinz History Center, Pittsburgh, PA.

20. Michael J. Zahorsky, USW Local 1211 meeting minutes, December 17, 1969, Minute Book 11, 61–62, USW Local 1211 Records, box 16, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, University Libraries, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; “Bills Introduced and Referred,” Legislative Journal (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania), September 24, 1969, 612; Pennsylvania, Laws …, 1957, 391 (quotation); Legislative Committee of Pennsylvania, United Steelworkers (USW), “Facing the Seventies,” January 1970, 1–3, USW Legislative Department Records, box 111, folder 26; Julius Uehlein to All Members of the Senate of Pennsylvania, December 4, 1969 (quotations), USW Local 1557 Records, box 1, folder 2.

21. Legislative Committee of Pennsylvania, USW, “Minutes of the Twelfth Annual Conference,” January 30, 1970, 5, USW Legislative Department Records, box 111, folder 27; Pennsylvania, General Assembly, “Bill Information—History: House Bill 2408, Regular Session 1969–1970,” https://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/billinfo/bill_history.cfm?syear=1969&sind=0&body=H&type=B&bn=2408; “Bills Introduced and Referred,” Legislative Journal (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania), January 26, 1971, 53; “Steelworkers Pressed Successful Fight for State Safety Inspections,” Steel Labor, August 1971, 17 (Shapp quotation); Pennsylvania, Laws …, 1971 (Harrisburg, PA: By Authority [of the General Assembly], 1971), 160 (quotation), 160–61; “Workers’ Right to Know Is Law,” 1557 Labor Journal, August 1971, 4 (quotation).

22. “Landmark Compensation Award to Steelworker for Coke Oven Lung Disease,” Steel Labor, October 1971, 4; Joseph Odorcich et al., “Memorandum of Agreement—Clairton Works, November 6, 1974, USW Safety and Health Department Records, box 23, folder: Daniel Hannan, 1977, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, University Libraries, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; US Steel Corporation, Clairton Works, Coking Department, “Door Repairs,” January 13, 1975, ibid., box 13, folder 11; “Make a Coke Oven Work without Killing People,” Steel Labor, February 1975, 7; Lawrence S. Bacow, Bargaining for Job Safety and Health (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1980), 68–74.

23. John Gregory Dunne, Delano, rev. ed. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1971); Miriam Pawel, The Union of Their Dreams: Power, Hope, and Struggle in Cesar Chavez's Farm Worker Movement (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009), 5–65; Marshall Ganz, Why David Sometimes Wins: Leadership, Organization, and Strategy in the California Farm Worker Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 119–228.

24. Robert T. Legge, “Occupational Hazards in the Agricultural Industries,” AJPH 25, no. 4 (April 1935): 462 (quotation), 461–62; Bernard E. Conley, “Morbidity and Mortality from Economic Poisons in the United States,” AMA Archives of Industrial Health 18, no. 2 (August 1958): 126; H. K. Abrams, “Increased Use of Agricultural Chemicals Serious Problem for Industrial Hygienists,” Industrial Hygiene Newsletter, July 1950, 3–4, 16; H. K. Abrams, “Occupational Illness Due to Agricultural Chemicals,” California's Health, September 15, 1950, 35–36; Irma West, “Occupational Disease of Farm Workers,” Archives of Environmental Health 9, no. 1 (July 1964): 93 (quotations), 92–97; California Department of Public Health, Bureau of Adult Health, Reports of Occupational Disease Attributed to Pesticides and Other Agricultural Chemicals, California, 1957 (Berkeley, CA: The Department, n.d.); Irma West, “Statement,” in US Senate, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards (Pesticides): Hearings …, Agency Coordination Study, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1964), 623, 625, 638; Irma West, “Public Health Problems Are Created by Pesticides,” California's Health, July 1965, 12 (quotation), 11–18; California Department of Public Health, Occupational Disease in California Attributed to Pesticides and Other Agricultural Chemicals, 1965 (n.p.: The Department, n.d.), 21; Robert Z. Rollins, “Federal and State Regulation of Pesticides,” AJPH 53, no. 9 (September 1963): 1427–31, esp. 1428, 1430; California Governor Edmund G. Brown's Special Committee on Public Policy Regarding Agricultural Chemicals, Report on Agricultural Chemicals and Recommendations for Public Policy (Sacramento, CA: n.p., 1960), 26 (quotation), 30–31.

25. Pawel, The Union of Their Dreams, 31–39; Dunne, Delano, 127–36; Eugene Nelson, Huelga: The First Hundred Days of the Great Delano Grape Strike (Delano, CA: Farm Worker Press, 1966), 120; Frank Bardacke, Trampling Out the Vintage: Cesar Chavez and the Two Souls of the United Farm Workers (New York: Verso, 2011), 324.

26. US Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Subcommittee on Migratory Labor, Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker Powerlessness: Hearings … on Pesticides and the Farmworker, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 1969 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1970), 3011–13, 3027–30, 3059–63. The union met the same opposition when it sought records in Riverside County, California, in 1969. But in this instance, its appeal of an adverse judicial decision won access by demonstrating that the county officials had not chosen to protect supposed trade secrets when growers or insurance companies wanted to see pesticide records. See “DDT Poisoning Becomes National Concern,” El Malcriado (Delano, CA), April 15–30, 1969, 2; “New Attempt to See Poison Records,” El Malcriado, August 15–September 15, 1969, 7, 15; Jerry Cohen, David Averbuck, and Chuck Farnsworth, “Audio Interview: Jerry Cohen/David Averbuck/Chuck Farnsworth Discuss Legal Cases, 1960s,” May 19, 2009, in Farmworker Movement Documentation Project, University of California, San Diego Library, https://libraries.ucsd.edu/farmworkermovement/ufwarchives/ufwlegal/Lawyers2LeRoy.mp3.

27. Miriam Pawel, The Crusades of Cesar Chavez: A Biography (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), 191 (quotations); Pawel, The Union of Their Dreams, 51–52; Robert van den Bosch, The Pesticide Conspiracy: An Alarming Look at Pest Control and the People Who Keep Us Hooked on Deadly Chemicals (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978), 76 (quotation), 76–79.

28. “Court Questions Poison Injunction,” El Malcriado, September 15, 1968, 6; “What Are They Hiding?,” El Malcriado, February 1, 1969, 4 (quotation), 5, 11; “Economic Poisons: A Threat to Workers and Consumers,” El Malcriado, January 15, 1969, 1; “Rain of Death and Sickness,” El Malcriado, March 1–15, 1970, 11 (Chavez quotation). On Jose Guadalupe Posada's radical perspective and his legacy for Chicano/a activists, see Carlos F. Jackson, Chicana and Chicano Art: ProtestArte (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009), 29–34, 67–68. On Posada and the Mexican iconography of death, see Stanley H. Brandes, Skulls to the Living, Bread to the Dead: The Day of the Dead in Mexico and Beyond (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006), 43–66, esp. 61–66. For further use of skull images, see “Don’t Eat Grapes,” El Malcriado, June 1–30, 1969, 1; “Data on DDT and Parathion,” El Malcriado, July 1–15, 1969, 11; “Senator George Murphy Is Back in Show Business,” El Malcriado, September 15–October 1, 1969, 1.

29. “Growers Spurn Negotiations on Poisons,” El Malcriado, January 15, 1969, 3; “Pesticide Training Should Take Eight Weeks for Safety,” El Malcriado, March 15–31, 1969, 10; US Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Subcommittee on Labor, Agricultural Labor Legislation: Hearings … on S. 8 … [and] S. 1808, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 1969 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1970), 29 (Huerta quotation); US Senate, Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker Powerlessness, 3406 (Cohen quotation), 3030 (Cohen quotation), 3393, 3716, 3806 (Mizrahi quotation), 3806–8; Laura Pulido, Environmentalism and Economic Justice: Two Chicano Struggles in the Southwest (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996), 112–19; Laura Pulido and Devon Pena, “Environmentalism and Positionality: The Early Pesticide Campaign of the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee, 1965–71,” Race, Gender and Class 6, no. 1 (1998): 42–45.

30. Victoria M. Trasko, “Present Status of Occupational Health Programs,” in ACGIH, Transactions of the Thirtieth Annual Meeting, 1968 (n.p., n.d.), 53 (quotation), 51–55; [Ad Hoc Committee on Occupational Health Programs], “A Look at Occupational Health as a State Activity,” ibid., 171–75; Nicholas A. Ashford, Crisis in the Workplace: Occupational Disease and Injury: Report to the Ford Foundation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976), 51 (quotation), 49–51, 72–88; US Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Subcommittee on Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1970: Hearings … on S. 2193 … and S. 2788, 91st Cong., 1st and 2nd sess., 1969–70 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1970), 1080 (Selikoff quotation); Joseph A. Page and Mary-Win O’Brien, Bitter Wages: Ralph Nader's Study Group Report on Disease and Injury on the Job (New York: Grossman, 1973), 69–85.

31. PHS Division of Occupational Health, Protecting the Health of Eighty Million Americans: A National Goal for Occupational Health: Special Report to the Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service (Washington, DC: GPO, 1965), passim, esp. 12, 36; Ashford, Crisis in the Workplace, 57 (quotation).

32. US Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Subcommittee on Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1970: Hearings … on S. 2193 … and S. 2788, 91st Cong., 1st and 2nd sess., 1969–70 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1970), 182–83, 685.

33. Ibid., 905, 922, 940 (Hannan quotation), 926, 935–41, 956.

34. Ibid., 632 (Nader quotations), 635–36. On the secrecy-related difficulties that the Nader Study Group experienced in investigating enforcement activities in 1969, see Page and O’Brien, Bitter Wages, 95–99.

35. US House of Representatives, Committee on Education and Labor, Select Subcommittee on Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1969: Hearings … on H.R. 843, H.R. 8309, H.R. 4294, [and] H.R. 13373, 91st Cong., 1st and 2nd sess., 1969–70 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1970), 940 (Burke quotation), 928, 940–99, 1006 (Hannan quotation), 1006–7, 1013–14, 1194 (Mazzocchi quotation). For the retaliatory transfer of Daniel Hannan, see Daniel Hannan to Dominick Daniels, December 5, 1969, USW Local 1557 Records, box 1, folder 2. On the failure of state and federal inspectors to provide reports to the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union, see Les Leopold, The Man Who Hated Work and Loved Labor: The Life and Times of Tony Mazzocchi (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2007), 247–48, 284.

36. US House, Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1969, 582 (Triggs quotation), 581–93, 1338–45. On the denial of social rights to workers in agriculture, domestic service, and other areas of the economy where people of color were concentrated, see Dona C. Hamilton and Charles V. Hamilton, The Dual Agenda: Race and Social Welfare Policies of Civil Rights Organizations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Robert C. Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998). For a fatal poisoning of an uninstructed sixteen-year-old California worker, see Ruth Harmer, “Poisons, Profits, and Politics,” Nation, August 25, 1969, 134.

37. US House, Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1969, 1347–49, 1354, 1366, 1372, 1374, 1376–82, 1388 (Milby quotations).

38. US, United States Statutes at Large, vol. 84 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1971), 1590 (quotation), 1595 (quotation), 1596, 1599. In both their compliance and standard-setting work, US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) personnel were compelled to protect the confidentiality of trade secrets. See ibid., 1606.

39. Ibid., 1601 (quotations).

40. Ibid., 1611 (quotations), 1611–12.

5. NO NEED TO ALARM EMPLOYEES

Epigraph: US House of Representatives, Committee on Government Operations, Manpower and Housing Subcommittee, Control of Toxic Substances in the Workplace: Hearings, 94th Cong., 2nd sess., 1976 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office [GPO], 1976), 73 (Finklea quotation).

1. Ibid., 55–61; National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), National Occupational Hazards Survey, 3 vols. (Washington, DC: GPO, 1974–77), esp. vol. 3: iv, 7; US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), “Hazard Communication: Notice of Proposed Rule Making,” Federal Register 47, no. 54 (March 19, 1982): 12093–94; Neal Q. Herrick and Robert P. Quinn, “The Working Conditions Survey as a Source of Social Indicators,” Monthly Labor Review, April 1971, 16–18.

2. James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 231–94; Joseph K. Wagoner, “Occupational Carcinogenesis: The Two Hundred Years since Percivall Pott,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 271 (May 1976): 2 (quotation), 1 (quotation), 1–4; “Let Workers Know of Hazards,” Steel Labor, October 1977, 20 (quotations).

3. Joseph A. Page and Mary-Win O’Brien, Bitter Wages: Ralph Nader's Study Group Report on Disease and Injury on the Job (New York: Grossman, 1973), 198–99, 222; Rachel Scott, Muscle and Blood (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974), 93–95, 102–3; Paul Brodeur, Expendable Americans (New York: Viking, 1974), 42, 47–63; Michael Alaimo, “Union on the Move: The Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers’ Efforts in Health and Safety,” Job Safety and Health, November 1978, 28; Charles Stokes, “Request for Health Hazard Evaluation,” August 18, 1976, Daniel Hannan Papers, box 2, folder 4, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, University Libraries, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; Steven Wodka, “The Effects of an Informed Work Force,” in Public Information in the Prevention of Occupational Cancer: Proceedings of a Symposium, ed. Thomas P. Vogl (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences Press, 1977), 179.

4. Nicholas A. Ashford, Crisis in the Workplace: Occupational Disease and Injury (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976), 263–65; Page and O’Brien, Bitter Wages, 204 (quotation), 199–200.

5. OSHA Office of Training and Education, “Summary of Occupational Cancer Information and Alert Program,” in Public Information in Prevention, ed. Thomas P. Vogl, v (quotation); “Discussion of What Is a Carcinogen,” ibid., 41–42, 45 (Van Duuren quotation); Joseph Fletcher, “The Right to Know,” ibid., 55 (quotation); Andrea M. Hricko, “The Right to Know,” ibid., 69 (quotations), 68–72; David A. Wegman, “The Right to Know,” ibid., 75 (quotation), 77 (quotation), 74–77.

6. Paul Kotin, “The Right to Know,” in Public Information in Prevention, ed. Thomas P. Vogl, 62–65; Andrea M. Hricko, “The Right to Know,” ibid., 68–69; Herbert W. Simons, “Educational Programs,” ibid., 118 (quotation), 117–19; “Discussion of Educational Programs,” ibid., 141, 144 (Simons quotation), 139 (Cornely quotation); Richard Marco, “How to Inform the Non-Union and Small Plant Workers,” ibid., 154–55; Committee on Public Information in the Prevention of Occupational Cancer, National Research Council, Informing Workers and Employers about Occupational Cancer (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences Press, 1977), 7 (quotation) and throughout.

7. OSHA, “National Consensus Standards and Established Federal Standards,” Federal Register 36, no. 105 (May 29, 1971): 10503–6, 10519–20, 10523; David P. McCaffrey, OSHA and the Politics of Health Regulation (New York: Plenum, 1982), 72–73, 94; Charles H. Powell and Herbert E. Christensen, “Development of Occupational Standards,” Archives of Environmental Health 30, no. 4 (April 1975): 171–73.

8. Labels and Precautionary Information Committee (LaPIC), Manufacturing Chemists’ Association (MCA), “Minutes of Meeting,” June 20–21, 1972, L-729, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/wgewdL86q3az8LGrV89d723gV, Center for the History and Ethics of Public Health, Columbia University and the Graduate Center, City University of New York; LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” September 13–14, 1972, L-737-38, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/N2gaGbvNg3MKLyyKkZ8GZ9b9w; G. Robert Sido, “Report to the Board of Directors of MCA on the Activities of the Labels and Precautionary Information Committee,” January 9, 1973, 7 (quotations), Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/6eY2XVweL3GNVQ0n6qnY3x8g; LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” February 21–22, 1973, L-744-45, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/Qg1q6vvxDnQ3dJgDD8Ew4L7K5; Occupational Health Committee, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” March 23–24, 1972, OHC-60, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/VJ0d48O9x6OpqxxxM5a1BOg7w; LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” June 14–15, 1973, L-754, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/Ne87j0o07E​0OmrvOO5JRQ6n68; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” January 30–31, 1974, L-771, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/bYavKOebpw49Vx14MB1wMB1wBYM1.

9. NIOSH, An Identification System for Occupationally Hazardous Materials: A Recommended Standard, US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW) (NIOSH) Publication 75–126 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1974), 7–8 (quotation), vi.

10. Ibid., 13–46; OSHA Advisory Committee on Hazardous Materials Labeling, “Report,” June 6, 1975, 3 (quotations), 3–4, 6–7, 38–39, Document ID OSHA-H022A-2006-0869-0143, https://www.regulations.gov.

11. Idem, “Proceedings,” April 22, 1975, 55–69, Document ID OSHA-H022A-2006-0869-0120, https://www.regulations.gov; idem, “Report,” June 6, 1975, 20–21, 24–26, IIa, IIm, Document ID OSHA-H022A-2006-0869-0143, ibid. For the MCA's resistance to the United Nations warning images, see LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” June 18, 1953, L-50, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/QkzmwnQdeQMNagJrymzg5OLRo; idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” October 13–14, 1953, L-55, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/xzNmY3zoNd1dqdkZ4pay0V0n6. For an early case in which the MCA endorsed application of the skull-and-bones marking for carbon tetrachloride, at least in part to meet “a public relations problem,” see idem, “Minutes of Meeting,” February 15–16, 1956, L-140 (quotation), L-139-40, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/Lqkw1w35Z6Yk9OQ3EjRJMeZq.

12. OSHA Advisory Committee on Hazardous Materials Labeling, “Report,” June 6, 1975, 21–24, IIa-IIs, Document ID OSHA-H022A-2006-0869-0143, https://www.regulations.gov; Joseph A. Patterson et al. to Assistant Secretary of Labor, June 13, 1975, enclosed with Document ID OSHA-H022A-2006-0869-0143, https://www.regulations.gov.

13. OSHA, “Hazardous Materials Labeling: Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking,” Federal Register 42, no. 19 (January 28, 1977): 5373 (quotation), 5372–74; OSHA, “Hazards Identification: Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Public Hearings,” Federal Register 46, no. 11 (January 16, 1981): 4412–53; McCaffrey, OSHA and the Politics of Health Regulation, 123–25.

14. Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, “‘Unleashed on an Unsuspecting World’: The Asbestos Information Association and Its Role in Perpetuating a National Epidemic,” American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) 106, no. 5 (May 2016): 834–40; OSHA, “National Consensus Standards and Established Federal Standards,” Federal Register 36, no. 105 (May 29, 1971): 10506; OSHA, “Emergency Standard for Exposure to Asbestos Dust,” Federal Register 36, no. 234 (December 7, 1971): 23207–8; George H. Taylor to James D. Hodgson, November 4, 1971, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0003, https://www.regulations.gov. On the estimated cumulative mortality, see William J. Nicholson, George Perkel, and Irving J. Selikoff, “Occupational Exposure to Asbestos Exposure: Population at Risk and Projected Mortality—1980–2030,” American Journal of Industrial Medicine 3, no. 3 (1982): 259–311; D. E. Lilienfeld et al., “Projections of Asbestos Related Diseases in the United States, 1985–2009: I. Cancer,” British Journal of Industrial Medicine 45, no. 5 (May 1988): 283–91. For the scientific evidence of carcinogenicity, see Irving J. Selikoff, Jacob Churg, and E. Cuyler Hammond, “Asbestos Exposure and Neoplasia,” JAMA 188, no. 1 (April 6, 1964): 142–46; Irving J. Selikoff, Jacob Churg, and E. Cuyler Hammond, “Relation between Exposure to Asbestos and Mesothelioma,” New England Journal of Medicine 272, no. 11 (March 18, 1965): 560–65; Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Law and Business, 1990), 39–130. On the broader regulatory issues and trends, see John F. Martonik, Edith Nash, and Elizabeth Grossman, “The History of OSHA's Asbestos Rulemakings and Some Distinctive Approaches That They Introduced for Regulating Occupational Exposure to Toxic Substances,” American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal 62, no. 2 (March–April 2001): 208–17.

15. OSHA, “Standard for Exposure to Asbestos Dust: Notice of Proposed Rule Making,” Federal Register 37, no. 7 (January 12, 1972): 468 (quotation), 466–68.

16. NIOSH, Occupational Exposure to Asbestos: Criteria for a Recommended Standard (Washington, DC: GPO, 1972), I-5 (quotation), I-5-6; Textile Workers Union of America, “Statement,” February 10, 1972, 5, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0106, https://www.regulations.gov; OSHA Advisory Committee on Asbestos Dust, “Official Report of Proceedings,” February 15, 1972, 117 (Weaver quotations, Baliff quotation), 117–24, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0015, https://www.regulations.gov; OSHA Advisory Committee on Asbestos Dust, “Official Report of Proceedings,” February 22, 1972, 110–11, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0016, https://www.regulations.gov; OSHA Advisory Committee on Asbestos Dust, “Official Report of Proceedings,” February 23, 1972, 121 (Weaver quotation), 117–22, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0017, https://www.regulations.gov.

17. OSHA Advisory Committee on Asbestos Dust, “Official Report of Proceedings,” February 3, 1972, 19–20, 23, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0013, https://www.regulations.gov; OSHA Advisory Committee on Asbestos Dust, “Official Report of Proceedings,” February 22, 1972, 112–18, 132–34, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0016, https://www.regulations.gov; OSHA Advisory Committee on Asbestos Dust, “Official Report of Proceedings,” February 23, 1972, 122–27, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0017, https://www.regulations.gov.

18. OSHA Advisory Committee on Asbestos Dust, “Recommendations Regarding the Proposed Standard for Exposure to Asbestos Dust,” February 25, 1972, 4, 9–12, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0011, https://www.regulations.gov; Isaac H. Weaver to George C. Guenther, February 25, 1972 (quotations), Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0012, ibid.

19. OSHA, “Official Report of Proceedings …,” March 14, 1972, 77 (Wolfe quotation), 76–77, 85 (Mazzocchi quotation), Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0153, https://www.regulations.gov; Norbert J. Roberts, “Statement,” March 16, 1972, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0136, ibid.; Lain Tetrick, “Statement,” March 14, 1972, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0072, ibid.

20. Bruce J. Phillips, “Views and Arguments,” March 14, 1972, 5 (quotations), Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0101, https://www.regulations.gov; OSHA, “Official Report of Proceedings …,” March 14, 1972, 70 (Neumann quotation), 70–71, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0153, ibid.; E. M. Fenner, “Statement,” March 14, 1972, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0095, ibid. For the evidence of carcinogenicity and its estimated toll, see the source cited in note 14.

21. OSHA, “Official Report of Proceedings …,” March 15, 1972, 186 (Swetonic quotation), 191 (Swetonic quotations), 186–88, 199, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0154, https://www.regulations.gov; OSHA, “Official Report of Proceedings …,” March 16, 1972, 309 (Pundsack quotation), 307–13, 330, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0155, ibid.; Bruce J. Phillips, “Views and Arguments,” March 14, 1972, 6, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0101, ibid.; OSHA, “Official Report of Proceedings …,” March 17, 1972, 421–27, 446, 458–59, 515, 527–28, 535, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0156, ibid.

22. OSHA, “Standard for Exposure to Asbestos Dust,” Federal Register 37, no. 110 (June 7, 1972): 11319 (quotation), 11321 (quotations), 11319 (quotation), 11318–22; Elliott Bredhoff et al., “Brief for Petitioners … for Review of the Secretary of Labor's Standard for Exposure to Asbestos Dust under the Occupational Safety and Health Act,” n.d., 71 (quotation), 71–72, Document ID OSHA-H033A-2006-0818-0106, https://www.regulations.gov; Asbestos Study Committee, Friction Materials Standards Institute, “Minutes of Meeting,” February 16, 1973, 3 (quotation), Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/kDOpJ2zne5O7GJ7V0JwO8o01b.

23. OSHA, “Occupational Exposure to Asbestos: Notice of Proposed Rulemaking,” Federal Register 40, no. 197 (October 9, 1975): 47658–59, 47663. This proposed reform, which also contemplated identifying asbestos as a carcinogen and expanding employees’ access to their medical records, fell victim to the business community's deepening antagonism to OSHA. On the antiregulatory drive, see Ashford, Crisis in the Workplace, 253; Charles Noble, Liberalism at Work: The Rise and Fall of OSHA (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 99–120.

24. OSHA, “Emergency Temporary Standard on Certain Carcinogens,” Federal Register 38, no. 85 (May 3, 1973): 10929 (quotation), 10930 (quotation); LaPIC, MCA, “Minutes of Meeting,” June 14–15, 1973, L-753, Toxic Docs, https://www.toxicdocs.org/d/Ne87j0o07E0OmrvOO5JRQ6n68; OSHA, “Emergency Temporary Standard on Certain Carcinogens,” Federal Register 38, no. 144 (July 27, 1973): 20074, 20075 (quotation); OSHA, “Standards Advisory Committee on Carcinogens: Notice of Receipt of Recommendations of the Committee and of Their Availability for Public Inspection,” Federal Register 38, no. 173 (September 7, 1973): 24376–78; OSHA, “Occupational Safety and Health Standards: Carcinogens,” Federal Register 39, no. 20 (January 29, 1974): 3759–97; McCaffrey, OSHA and the Politics of Health Regulation, 83–85. On OSHA's reticence to recognize carcinogenicity during this period, see David Michaels, Doubt Is Their Product: How Industry's Assault on Science Threatens Your Health (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 97–99, 127–30. As applied to vinyl chloride, some industrial representatives objected even to the weaker phrase “cancer-suspect agent.” See Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 200.

25. US House of Representatives, Committee on Government Operations, Deficiencies in the Administration of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, 91st Cong., 1st sess., House Report 91–637 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1969), 7, 9, 15, 16, 18; Rodolfo N. Salcedo et al., Improving the Communication Adequacy of Pesticide Labels: Phase I Summary Report (Urbana: Office of Agricultural Communications, University of Illinois, 1971), esp. 4; OSHA, “Emergency Temporary Standard for Exposure to Organophosphorous Pesticides,” Federal Register 38, no. 83 (May 1, 1973): 10716 (quotations), 10716–17; Ashford, Crisis in the Workplace, 183–84, 527–28; US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Worker Protection Standards for Agricultural Pesticides: Restatement of Certain Existing Standards,” Federal Register 39, no. 92 (May 10, 1974): 16889–91.

26. NIOSH, Occupational Exposure to Inorganic Mercury: Criteria for a Recommended Standard (Washington, DC: GPO, 1973), 3 (quotation); NIOSH, Occupational Exposure to Inorganic Arsenic: Criteria for a Recommended Standard (Washington, DC: GPO, 1974), 3; OSHA, “Standard for Exposure to Inorganic Arsenic: Notice of Proposed Rulemaking,” Federal Register 40, no. 14 (January 21, 1975): 3398, 3402; OSHA, “Occupational Exposure to Inorganic Arsenic” [Final Standard], Federal Register 43, no. 88 (May 8, 1978): 19628; NIOSH, Occupational Exposure to Benzene: Criteria for a Recommended Standard (Washington, DC: GPO, 1974), 7 (quotation), 13; OSHA, “Occupational Exposure to Benzene” [Permanent Standard], Federal Register 43, no. 29 (February 10, 1978): 5966; NIOSH, Occupational Exposure to Chromium (VI): Criteria for a Recommended Standard (Washington, DC: GPO, 1975), 8 (quotation), 7; Michaels, Doubt Is Their Product, 99.

27. Alan Derickson, “Surviving a ‘Carcinogen Rich Environment’: Steelworkers’ Democratic Intrusion into the Regulation of Coke-Oven Emissions,” Journal of Policy History 27, no. 4 (2015): 561–91, esp. 571–78. On the reshaping of social regulatory procedures, see Sidney M. Milkis, “Remaking Government Institutions in the 1970s: Participatory Democracy and the Triumph of Administrative Politics,” in Loss of Confidence: Politics and Policy in the 1970s, ed. David B. Robertson (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 51–74. On the organizational conservativism of the United Steelworkers (USW), see Lloyd Ulman, The Government of the Steelworkers Union (New York: John Wiley, 1962); John Hinshaw, Steel and Steelworkers: Race and Class Struggle in Twentieth-Century Pittsburgh (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2002), 55–213.

28. Daniel Hannan, “Minutes of [USW] Coke Oven Advisory Committee Meeting,” August 1, 1973, USW District 31 Records, box 30, folder 1, Research Center, Chicago History Museum; USW, “Evaluation of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's Criteria for a Recommended Standard on Occupational Exposure to Coke Oven Emissions,” n.d. [ca. July 10, 1973], 14, 16, USW Safety and Health Department Records, box 12, folder 9, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, University Libraries, Pennsylvania State University, University Park; James Smith, “Presentation of the United Steelworkers of America …,” March 4, 1975, 54 (quotation), 54–56, ibid., box 23, folder: Coke Oven; OSHA, “Exposure to Coke Oven Emissions: Proposed Standard,” Federal Register 40, no. 148 (July 31, 1975): 32278, 32280; USW, “Position of United Steelworkers of America on Proposed Coke Oven Regulations,” September 30, 1975, 67, Hannan Papers, box 1, folder 5.

29. OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing on Proposed Standard for Coke Oven Emissions,” December 17, 1975, 3028 (Tompkins quotation), 3030, 3042, 3100 (Robinson quotation), 3091–3103, Docket H-017, document 153.17, OSHA Technical Data Center, Perkins Building, Washington, DC; OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing on Proposed Standard for Coke Oven Emissions,” December 18, 1975, 3196–99, 3246, 3231 (Pughsley quotation), 3131–32, ibid., document 153.18; OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing on Proposed Standard for Coke Oven Emissions,” December 19, 1975, 3381 (Chapman quotation), 3413–23, 3437, 3446–49, ibid., document 153.19. For Pughley's suggestion to NIOSH, see Daniel Hannan, “Minutes of [USW] Coke Oven Advisory Committee Meeting,” August 1, 1973, USW District 31 Records, box 30, folder 1.

30. OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing on Proposed Standard for Coke Oven Emissions,” December 16, 1975, 2978 (Buchanan quotation), 2978–80, Docket H-017, document 153.16, OSHA Technical Data Center, Perkins Building, Washington, DC; OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing,” December 17, 1975, 3017, ibid., document 153.17; OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing,” December 18, 1975, 3243, ibid., document 153.18; OSHA, “Informal Public Hearing,” December 19, 1975, 3384, ibid., document 153.19.

31. OSHA, “Occupational Safety and Health Standards: Exposure to Coke Oven Emissions,” Federal Register 41, no. 206 (October 22, 1976): 46779–81, 46783, 46788–90; Daniel Hannan to Anthony Manguso, December 22, 1976 (quotation), USW Safety and Health Department Records, box 25, folder: Daniel Hannan—Miscellaneous.

32. Larry Ahern, “The Need for Worker Hazard Identification,” in American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), Labeling and Warning Systems: Proceedings of a Topical Symposium, 1977 (Cincinnati, OH: The Conference, 1978), G-1 (quotation), G-1-3.

6. NEW WORKER-ORIENTED COUNTER-INSTITUTIONS

Epigraph: Peter Greene, Sidney Wolfe, and Andrew Maguire to Morton Corn, September 27, 1976, in US House of Representatives, Committee on Government Operations, Manpower and Housing Subcommittee, Performance of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Hearings, 95th Cong., 1st sess., 1977 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office [GPO], 1977), 137.

1. Daniel Berman, “Guide to Worker-Oriented Sources in Occupational Health and Safety,” Occupational Health Project Report (Medical Committee for Human Rights), August 1974, 2 (quotation); untitled item, Safer Times (Philadelphia Area Project on Occupational Safety and Health), January–February 1977, 2. On the emergence of alt-labor groups, see, among others, Steve Early and Larry Cohen, “Jobs with Justice: Mobilizing Labor-Community Coalitions,” Working USA 1, no. 4 (November–December 1997): 49–57; Janice Fine, Worker Centers: Organizing Communities at the Edge of the Dream (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press of Cornell University Press, 2006); Janice Fine, Victor Narro, and Jacob Barnes, “Understanding Worker Center Trajectories,” in No One Size Fits All: Worker Organization, Policy, and Movement in a New Economic Age, ed. Janice Fine et al. (Champaign, IL: Labor and Employment Research Association, 2018), 9–38; Celeste Monforton and Jane M. Von Bergen, On the Job: The Untold Story of Worker Centers and the New Fight for Wages, Dignity, and Health (New York: New Press, 2021). On the first generation of alternative organizations, albeit those composed mainly of retired workers, that dealt with occupational health, see Barbara E. Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 76–200; Alan Derickson, Black Lung: Anatomy of a Public Health Disaster (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 151–62; Robert E. Botsch, Organizing the Breathless: Cotton Dust, Southern Politics, and the Brown Lung Association (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993).

2. Sidney G. Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 3rd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 199 (quotation), 195–214. On the general surge in activism in this period, see, among many others, Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin, America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); David Chalmers, And the Crooked Places Made Straight: The Struggle for Social Change in the 1960s, 2nd ed. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012); Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American History 91, no. 4 (March 2005): 1233–63; Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008); Tom Wells, The War Within: America's Battle over Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); James Miller, “Democracy Is in the Streets”: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Vintage, 1980). On the four movements most directly related to the right to know, see Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, DC: Island, 1993); Adam Rome, The Genius of Earth Day: How a 1970 Teach-In Unexpectedly Made the First Green Generation (New York: Hill and Wang, 2013); John Dittmer, The Good Doctors: The Medical Committee for Human Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice in Health Care (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009); Lily M. Hoffman, The Politics of Knowledge: Activist Movements in Medicine and Planning (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989); Peter B. Levy, The New Left and Labor in the 1960s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Aaron Brenner, Robert Brenner, and Cal Winslow, eds., Rebel Rank and File: Labor Militancy and Revolt from Below during the Long 1970s (New York: Verso, 2010); Paul F. Clark, The Miners’ Fight for Democracy: Arnold Miller and the Reform of the United Mine Workers (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press of Cornell University Press, 1981); Smith, Digging Our Own Graves; Derickson, Black Lung, 143–82.

3. On the evolution of rights discourse and politics, see Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Vintage, 1996), 3–14; T. H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), 1–85; Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, “Contract versus Charity: Why Is There No Social Citizenship in the United States?,” Socialist Review 22, no. 3 (July–September 1992): 45–67; John D. Skrentny, The Minority Rights Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002); Edward D. Berkowitz, Something Happened: A Political and Cultural Overview of the Seventies (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 133–57; Sophia Z. Lee, “Rights in the New Deal Order and Beyond,” in Beyond the New Deal Order: U.S. Politics from the Great Depression to the Great Recession, ed. Gary Gerstle, Nelson Lichtenstein, and Alice O’Connor, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019), 110–23. On health rights, see Thomas Bole III and William Bondeson, Rights to Health Care (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991); Alan Derickson, Health Security for All: Dreams of Universal Health Care in America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005).

4. On cross-class collaboration, see, among others, Barbara Ehrenreich and John E. Ehrenreich, “The Professional-Managerial Class,” Radical America 11, no. 2 (March–April 1977): 7–31; John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, “Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory,” American Journal of Sociology 82, no. 6 (May 1977): 1212–41. On the Workers’ Health Bureau, see David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, “Safety and Health on the Job as a Class Issue: The Workers’ Health Bureau of America,” Science and Society 47, no. 4 (Winter 1984–1985): 466–82; Angela Nugent, “Organizing Trade Unions to Combat Disease: The Workers’ Health Bureau, 1921–1928,” Labor History 26, no. 3 (Summer 1985): 423–46.

5. On the blended strategy of progressive reform, see Paul Burstein, “Legal Mobilization as a Social Movement Tactic: The Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity,” American Journal of Sociology 96, no. 5 (March 1991): 1201–25, esp. 1203–5; Max Felker-Kantor, “‘A Pledge Is Not Self-Enforcing’: Struggles for Equal Employment Opportunity in Multiracial Los Angeles, 1964–1982,” Pacific Historical Review 82, no. 1 (February 2013): 63–94, esp. 73.

6. On business unionism, see Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988), 24–69; Nelson Lichtenstein, State of the Union: A Century of American Labor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 141–56.

7. Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union (OCAW), Proceedings, Ninth Constitutional Convention, 1967 (n.p., n.d.), 61 (Nader quotation), 58–61, 64–65; Les Leopold, The Man Who Hated Work and Loved Labor: The Life and Times of Tony Mazzocchi (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2007), 230–38.

8. Leopold, The Man Who Hated Work, 247–48, 283–89; Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 158–59; US House of Representatives, Committee on Education and Labor, Select Subcommittee on Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1969: Hearings … on HR 843, HR 3809, HR 4294, HR 13373, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 1969 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1970), 1179–307, esp. 1181–93, 1201, 1206, 1252, 1280–81, 1288–89, 1297–99.

9. Ibid., passim, esp. 1200–1, 1204, 1213–15; OCAW, Hazards in the Industrial Environment: A Conference Sponsored by District 8 Council (n.p., n.d. [1969]), reprinted in ibid., 1305 (Mazzocchi quotation), 1233–1307; Leopold, The Man Who Hated Work, 240–42, 245–55.

10. Ibid., 268–71, 302–11; Ray Davidson, Challenging the Giants: A History of the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union (Denver, CO: The Union, 1988), 325–27; Robert Gordon, “‘Shell No’: OCAW and the Labor-Environmental Alliance,” Environmental History 3, no. 4 (October 1998): 460–87; Daniel M. Berman, Death on the Job: Occupational Health and Safety Struggles in the United States (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978), 191.

11. Leopold, The Man Who Hated Work, 292–94; Jeanne M. Stellman and Susan M. Daum, Work Is Dangerous to Your Health: A Handbook of Health Hazards in the Workplace and What You Can Do About Them (New York: Vintage, 1973), xxii (quotation), passim, esp. xxiii, 363–64; Jeanne M. Stellman, “A Strong and Militant Union: Key to Job Health Gains,” OCAW Union News, October 1975, 4; Jerianne Heimendinger, A Primer on Occupational Safety and Health Legislation (Washington, DC: OCAW, n.d. [ca. 1974], 4, 17; Phyllis Lehmann, “A Long Hard Struggle,” Job Safety and Health, September 1975, 30 (Mazzocchi quotation), 32 (Mazzocchi quotation).

12. Ray Davidson, Peril on the Job: A Study of Hazards in the Chemical Industries (Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press, 1970), 15 (quotation), 15–17, 66, 54–55, 70, 72, 20, 146–48, 160–61, 180.

13. Franklin Wallick, The American Worker: An Endangered Species (New York: Ballantine, 1972), 1 (quotation), 3, 9, 18–19, 21, 17 (quotation), 15–17, 110 (Sellers quotation), 110–13, 140–48.

14. Joseph A. Page and Mary-Win O’Brien, Bitter Wages: Ralph Nader's Study Group Report on Disease and Injury on the Job (New York: Grossman, 1973), 120 (quotation), 128 (quotation), 129 (quotation), 115–36, 221–26, 243 (quotation), 242–51, 185–89, 256 (quotation). On the scorched-earth politics of Nader and his followers, see Paul Sabin, Public Citizens: The Attack on Big Government and the Remaking of American Liberalism (New York: Norton, 2021).

15. Rachel Scott, Muscle and Blood (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974), 60–61, 91–97, 238, 290–91.

16. Paul Brodeur, Expendable Americans: The Incredible Story of How Tens of Thousands of American Men and Women Die Each Year of Preventable Industrial Disease (New York: Viking, 1974), esp. 30, 55–73, 163, 180–83.

17. Howard Kohn, “Malignant Giant: The Nuclear Industry's Terrible Power and How It Silenced Karen Silkwood,” Rolling Stone, March 27, 1975, 42–46, 58–62; B. J. Phillips, “The Case of Karen Silkwood: Mysterious Death of a Nuclear Plant Worker,” Ms., April 1975, 59–66; Leopold, The Man Who Hated Work, 312–35, esp. 332; Howard Kohn, “The Case of Karen Silkwood,” Rolling Stone, January 13, 1977, 30–39. For David Burnham's reporting in the New York Times, see, among his other articles, “Death of Plutonium Worker Questioned by Union Official,” November 19, 1974, 28; “Plutonium Plant under Scrutiny,” November 20, 1974, 19; “FBI to Study Plutonium Factory Critic's Death,” November 21, 1974, 30; “Atom Case Death Linked to a Second Car,” December 24, 1974, 4.

18. Willard S. Randall and Stephen D. Solomon, “54 Who Died,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 26, 1975, Today sec., 13 (unidentified workers’ quotation), 12–50; Willard S. Randall and Stephen D. Solomon, Building 6: The Tragedy at Bridesburg (Boston: Little, Brown, 1976). For the provocative Naderite discoveries, see US Senate, Committee on Commerce, Subcommittee on the Environment, Toxic Substances Control Act: Hearings … on S. 776, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 1975 (Washington, DC: GPO), 58–69, 343–50 (Health Research Group, “Cancer in the Workplace—A Report on Corporate Secrecy at the Rohm and Haas Co., Philadelphia, Pa.”).

19. Vincent K. Pollard, “Nixon, the Business Community and the 1970 Job Safety Law,” Weekly News Letter (Illinois State Federation of Labor), March 25, 1972, 2; “OSHA's Failure,” Health Rights News (Medical Committee for Human Rights [MCHR]), December 1972, 11; Dave Kotelchuck, “Industrial Health and the Chemical Worker,” Science for the People, May 1972, 10–14, 26; Frank Mirer, “Occupational Health: Time for Us to Get to Work,” Science for the People, November 1972, 4–7.

20. Ben Wisner, “Advocacy and Geography: The Case of Boston's Urban Planning Aid,” Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography 2, no. 1 (August 1970): 25–29; David H. Wegman, Leslie Boden, and Charles Levenstein, “Health Hazard Surveillance by Industrial Workers,” American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) 65, no. 1 (January 1975): 26–30; David H. Wegman, Gilles P. Theriault, and John M. Peters, “Worker-Sponsored Survey for Asbestosis: Detection of Occupational Lung Disease without a Control Group,” Archives of Environmental Health 27, no. 2 (August 1973): 105–9.

21. Industrial Health and Safety Project, Urban Planning Aid, A Unionist's Guide to the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (Cambridge, MA: Urban Planning Aid, 1971), 6 (quotation), 6–8; Industrial Health and Safety Project, Urban Planning Aid, How to Look at Your Plant (Cambridge, MA: Urban Planning Aid, 1972), 3 (quotation), 13, 25–33; “Union Wins Health Clauses,” Survival Kit, December 1972, 2; “Worker's Noise Meter Brings Results,” Survival Kit, ibid., 1, 7; “Editorial,” Survival Kit, April 1974, 2 (quotation); Occupational Health and Safety Project, Urban Planning Aid, Solvents (Cambridge, MA: Urban Planning Aid, n.d. [ca. 1973]); Peter Orris, “Frank Wallick UAW CACOSH 1972 [sic, ca. April 1973] Medical Committee for Human Rights,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JezeaxKuNj0; Industrial Health and Safety Project, Urban Planning Aid, Contract Clauses for Occupational Health and Safety (Cambridge, MA: Urban Planning Aid, n.d. [1976]).

22. Donald Whorton, “Overview of Labor Occupational Health Project,” LOHP Monitor, October 1974, 1 (quotation); Bob Fowler, A Guidebook for Local Union Health and Safety Committees (Berkeley, CA: Labor Occupational Health Project, 1974), esp. Appendix: “Health and Hygiene,” 5 (Gary Sellers, “A Worker's Bill of Health Rights”); Morris Davis, California Negotiated Clauses for Occupational Health and Safety (Berkeley, CA: Labor Occupational Health Project, 1975); Andrea Hricko, “Cal/OSHA Developments: The Workers Right to Know,” LOHP Monitor, August–September 1975, 3; Andrea Hricko, “Worker's Rights under the Asbestos Standard,” LOHP Monitor, January 1976, 1–2; Sidney Weinstein, “Health and Safety Conference Draws Local Trade Unionists,” LOHP Monitor, February 1976, 4; Andrea Hricko, Working for Your Life: A Woman's Guide to Job Health Hazards (Berkeley, CA: Labor Occupational Health Project and Public Citizen's Health Research Group, 1976), E-6-9; Jeanne Mager Stellman, Women's Work, Women's Health: Myths and Realities (New York: Pantheon, 1977).

23. Daniel M. Berman and Teamsters Local 688, “A Union Program on Job Health and Safety,” August 24, 1971, 11 (quotation), 1 (quotation), Medical Committee for Human Rights Records, box 41, folder 469, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Book and Manuscripts Library, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Daniel M. Berman, “A Program on Job Health and Safety on a Limited Budget,” December 1971, ibid., folder 468. On Teamsters Local 688, see Robert Bussel, Fighting for Total Person Unionism: Harold Gibbons, Ernest Calloway, and Working-Class Citizenship (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015), esp. 45–46, 166, 168–69.

24. Daniel M. Berman to Pat[ricia Murchie], October 9, 1971, MCHR Records, box 41, folder 469; Patricia Murchie to Daniel M. Berman, October 17, 1971, ibid.; Joe Goodman, “Medical Committee Meets in Kentucky,” Guardian, November 24, 1971, 8; Occupational Health Project Report (MCHR), no. 1, December 22, 1971; MCHR, Occupational Safety and Health (Chicago: The Committee, n.d. [1971]); [MCHR], “Occupational Health Task Force,” n.d. [ca. January 1972], n.p. (quotation), MCHR Records, box 41, folder 471. On earliest interest in occupational health at MCHR and the politics of those interested, see MCHR, “Organizational Newsletter,” August 19, 1971, MCHR Records, box 41, folder 468; Daniel M. Berman to author (email), December 29, 2021, copy in author's possession; Ronda Kotelchuck and Howard Levy, “MCHR: An Organization in Search of an Identity,” Health/PAC Bulletin 63 (March–April 1975): 20, 23.

25. University of Illinois School of Medicine, United Auto Workers, and MCHR, “Health in the Workplace: A Working Conference,” January 7–8, 1972, MCHR Records, box 41, folder 468; “On-the-Job Health Needs Get New Breed Priority,” UAW Washington Report, January 17, 1972, 2; Gregg Downey, “Occupational Health Issue May Be Rallying Point for Doctors and Unions,” Modern Hospital, February 1972, 40 (Jordan quotation), 39–42; Dan Berman, “Organizing for Job Safety,” Science for the People, July–August 1980, 11; “Chicago Conference,” Occupational Health Project Report, no. 2, n.d. [ca. January 1972].

26. Phyllis Cullen, “You Might Give Me Five More Years of Life,” Health Rights News, March 1972, 9 (Williams quotation); “MCHR Meets Labor,” Health Rights News, March 1972, 10 (Buff quotation); United Steelworkers Local 1865 et al., “Health in the Workplace: A Working Conference in Ashland, Kentucky,” March 3–4, 1972, MCHR Records, box 41, folder 468.

27. Donald Whorton, “Occupational Health,” Health Rights News, March 1972, 12 (quotation); Dittmer, The Good Doctors, 248–49; Daniel M. Berman, A Job Health and Safety Program on a Limited Budget (Chicago: MCHR, 1972); [Daniel Berman], “Urban Planning Aid, Inc.,” Occupational Health Project Report no. 4, n.d. [ca. March 1972], n.p. (quotation); [Daniel Berman], “Pamphlets,” Occupational Health Project Report no. 4, n.p.; [idem], “Available Materials,” Occupational Health Project Report no. 5, n.d. [ca. April 1972], n.p.; [Daniel Berman], “Report on the MCHR convention,” Occupational Health Project Report no. 6 (June 1972): 2–3, 4–6; Daniel Berman, “On the Importance of Money (or We’re Broke),” Occupational Health Project Report no. 6 (June 1972): 11; Wallick, The American Worker, 163 (quotation), 162–63; Peter Orris, “Dan Berman MCHR CACOSH Conference 1972 [sic, ca. April 1973] Medical Committee for Human Rights,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkHDfH5ldPc.

28. [Daniel M. Berman], “How to Organize an Occupational Health Conference,” 1972, n.p. (quotations), Daniel M. Berman Papers, box 2, folder 63, Archives and Special Collections, University of California, San Francisco, Library; Allegheny County Labor Council et al., “Health in the Workplace: A Working Conference on Occupational Health and Safety,” December 1–2, 1972, MCHR Records, box 41, folder 472; “Occupational Health: The Mounting Militancy of Medical Activists,” Occupational Hazards, March 1973, 55 (quotation), 57 (quotation), 55–57; John Bradley, “Meeting Notice: Pittsburgh Area Committee on Occupational Safety and Health,” n.d. [ca. January 9, 1973], Political and Social Activist Movements Collection, box 1, folder 7, Archives Service Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA.

29. [Daniel M. Berman], “Collective Bargaining Demands on Health and Safety,” Occupational Health Project Report, December 1972, 1 (quotations); District 12, Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen, “Amalgamated Meat Cutters’ Resolution on Health and Safety,” Occupational Health Project Report, December 1972, 1–5; Will Shortell, “How to Run an Occupational Health and Safety Task Force,” Occupational Health Project Report, March 1973, 3 (quotation, emphasis in original).

30. Daniel M. Berman, “The Worker's Right to Know,” Health Rights News, April 1973, 12 (quotations); untitled item, Occupational Health Project Report, August 1973, 2; Daniel M. Berman, untitled editorial, Occupational Health Project Report, February 1974, 2; [Daniel M. Berman], “List of Projects and Continuing Information Sources,” Occupational Health Project Report, 7; Daniel M. Berman, “Guide to Worker-Oriented Sources in Occupational Health and Safety,” Occupational Health Project Report, August 1974, 1–29. On the involvement of radical elements in the legal profession in movement work, see Luca Fulciola, Up Against the Law: Radical Lawyers and Social Movements (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2022). On MCHR's demise, see Dittmer, The Good Doctors, 251–64.

31. Phyllis Lehmann, “The Worker's Right to Know,” Job Safety and Health, June 1974, 10 (quotations), 9–10; Don Whorton, Byssinosis (Chicago: MCHR, n.d. [ca. 1973]), 7 (quotation).

32. Daniel M. Berman, “Report on MCHR's National Occupational Health Project,” October 15, 1974, MCHR Records, box 42, folder 473; “Pittsburgh Area Committee on Occupational Safety and Health,” April 1973, Berman Papers, box 4, folder 117; Charles Grese, “Meeting Highlights,” 1557 Labor Journal (USW Local 1557, Clairton, PA), September 1973, 1; Pittsburgh Area Committee on Occupational Safety and Health, “Red Lung: Lung Diseases of Steelworkers,” n.d. [ca. January 16, 1974], Political and Social Activist Movements Collection, box 1, folder 7; Daniel Hannan to Adolph Schwartz, January 22, 1974, Hannan Papers, box 2, folder 7; Berman, Death on the Job, 190–91; Berman, “Organizing for Job Safety,” 13 (quotation).

33. Philadelphia Chapter, MCHR, “Minutes, Meeting,” February 23, 1975, MCHR Records, box 50, folder 579; Rick Engler to author (email), January 30, 2022, with attachment “Engler interview,” January 21, 2022, as revised,” in author's possession; Philadelphia Committee on Occupational Safety and Health, “An Introduction to Occupational Safety and Health,” n.d. [ca. June 19, 1975], MCHR Records, box 50, folder 579; Engler to Steering Committee et al., July 1, 1975, Berman Papers, box 4, folder 115; PhilaPOSH, “Health and Safety Problems in Your Plant,” n.d. [ca. October 2, 1975], MCHR Records, box 50, folder 580; Berman, “Organizing for Job Safety,” 11–12.

34. Richard Engler, Oil Refinery Health and Safety Hazards: Their Causes and the Struggle to End Them (Philadelphia: PhilaPOSH, 1975), 27 (quotation), 2, 9–10, 23–30; “Who We Are,” Safer Times, March–April 1976, 1 (quotation), 1–2; “Briefs,” Safer Times, March–April 1976, 7; PhilaPOSH, “It's Your Right to Know,” n.d. [ca. 1976] (quotation), Rick Engler Collection on New Jersey Worker and Community Right to Know Act, box 1, folder 5, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick, NJ.

35. “A Conference on Job Health,” Safer Times, March–April 1976, 8 (quotation); “Workers Confront OSHA,” Safer Times, May–June 1976, 1; “Workers Speak Out at PhilaPOSH Conference,” Safer Times, May–June 1976, 6; [Engler?], “Background on the Philadelphia Area Project on Occupational Safety and Health,” n.d. [ca. April 1976], 1 (quotation), 1–3, Berman Papers, box 4, folder 113.

36. Jim Moran, “Birth of a Safety Committee,” Safer Times, May–June 1976, 5; “Area Chemical Workers Force Plant Cleanup,” Safer Times, April–May 1977, 1, 6, 7; “OSHA Task Force Will Report,” Safer Times, March 1977, 2.

37. Engler, Oil Refinery Health and Safety Hazards, 22–24, 26; Engler to author, January 30, 2022, with attachment; untitled item, Safer Times, January–February 1977; Jim Rensen, “Lee Workers Fight to Know,” Safer Times, January 1978, 3, 8; “OSHA Task Force Will Report,” Safer Times, March 1977, 2; Jim Moran, Rick Engler, and Mary Aull, “1977 PhilaPOSH Annual Report,” January 22, 1978, 3, Berman Papers, box 4, folder 113.

38. Engler to author, January 30, 2022, with attachment; Moran, Engler, and Aull, “1977 PhilaPOSH Annual Report,” 3, 8, Berman Papers, box 4, folder 113; Dudley Burdge, “An Action Proposal on Our Right to Know,” n.d. [ca. May 23, 1977] (quotations), Engler Right to Know Collection, box 1, folder 5; PhilaPOSH, “It's Our Right to Know!,” n.d. [mid-1977], ibid.; Rensen, “Lee Workers Fight to Know,” 8; Jim Moran to Dave Snapp, July 14, 1977, Rhode Island Committee on Occupational Safety and Health Records, box 1, folder: COSH Conference #1, Manuscripts Division, Rhode Island Historical Society, Providence, RI. On Moran's firing, see “What's What in PhilaPOSH,” Safer Times, November 1976, 4.

39. [Dave Snapp], “COSH Meetings—Philadelphia,” July 29–31, 1977, RICOSH Records, box 1, folder: COSH Conference #1; Bob Holt to All Coordinating Committee Members, August 17, 1977 (quotation), RICOSH Records, box 4, folder: Right to Know Outreach.

40. [Dave Snapp], “COSH Meetings—Philadelphia,” July 29–31, 1977, RICOSH Records, box 1, folder: COSH Conference #1; Jim Moran, Jim Bessen, and Dudley Burdge to Health and Safety Activists, n.d. [ca. August 1977], RICOSH Records, box 1, folder: COSH Conference #1; Moran to Trade Unionist, August 10, 1977, RICOSH Records, box 4, folder: Right to Know Outreach; Debby Levenson, “Minutes of PhilaPOSH Membership Meeting,” November 15, 1977, Berman Papers, box 4, folder 116; Jane Diamond to COSH Groups, August 17, 1977, RICOSH Records, box 4, folder: Right to Know Outreach; MassCOSH, “Is Your Job Making You Sick?,” n.d. [ca. November 1977] (quotation), RICOSH Records, box 3, folder: COSH Work on Right to Know; Diamond, “Minutes from COSH group meeting,” April 29, 1978, RICOSH Records, box 3, folder: COSH Work on Right to Know; Moran to All COSH Groups, October 14, 1977, RICOSH Records, box 3, folder: COSH Work on Right to Know; Joseph O’Brien and Moran to Ray Lederer, September 16, 1977, RICOSH Records, box 4, folder: Right to Know Outreach; James J. Florio, “Florio Feels OSHA Action Can Help Protect Workers from Exposure to Dangerous Chemicals,” October 24, 1977 (quotation), Engler Right to Know Collection, box 1, folder 5.

41. Jim Moran, Jim Bessen, and Dudley Burdge to Health and Safety Activists, n.d. [ca. August 1977], RICOSH Records, box 1, folder: COSH Conference #1; Peter A. Greene to Eula Bingham, November 3, 1977, RICOSH Records, box 4, folder: Right to Know Outreach; Greene to Moran and Rick Engler, November 28, 1977, RICOSH Records, box 3, folder: COSH Work on Right to Know; PhilaPOSH, “It's Our Right to Know!,” Berman Papers, box 4, folder 113.

EPILOGUE

Epigraph: Eula Bingham, “The ‘Right-to-Know’ Movement,” American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) 73, no. 11 (November 1983): 1302 (quotation).

1. Ibid.; Harriet Applegate, “The Cincinnati Story,” in Caron Chess, Winning the Right to Know: A Handbook for Toxics Activists (Philadelphia: Delaware Valley Toxics Coalition, 1984), 69–75.

2. Tim Morse, “Dying to Know: A Historical Analysis of the Right-to-Know Movement,” New Solutions 8, no. 1 (1998): 117–45; James C. Robinson, Toil and Toxics: Workplace Struggles and Political Strategies for Occupational Health (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 108–46; Susan G. Hadden, A Citizen's Right to Know: Risk Communication and Public Policy (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991); Brian Mayer, Blue-Green Coalitions: Fighting for Safe Workplaces and Healthy Communities (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press of Cornell University Press, 2009), 98–132; Brian Mayer, Phil Brown, and Rachel Morello-Frosch, “Labor-Environmental Coalition Formation: Framing and the Right to Know,” Sociological Forum 25, no. 4 (December 2010): 746–68.

3. Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Deindustrialization of America: Plant Closings, Community Abandonment, and the Dismantling of Basic Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982); John P. Hoerr, And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (New York: Verso, 1988); B. I. Castleman and V. Navarro, “International Mobility of Hazardous Products, Industries, and Wastes,” Annual Review of Public Health 8 (1987): 1–19; Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan (New York: Norton, 2009), 150–262; David Vogel, Fluctuating Fortunes: The Political Power of Business in America (New York: Basic Books, 1989), 148–289, esp. 140–41, 158–59, 269; Charles Noble, Liberalism at Work: The Rise and Fall of OSHA (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 99–206.

4. David Burnham, “Agency Lists but Does Not Notify Workers Exposed to Carcinogens,” New York Times, April 25, 1977, 18; Editorial, “The Government's Deadly Omission,” New York Times, April 25, 1977, 22; Ronald Bayer, “Notifying Workers at Risk: The Politics of the Right-to-Know,” AJPH 76, no. 11 (November 1986): 1352–56; Daniel M. Berman, Death on the Job: Occupational Health and Safety Struggles in the United States (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978), 1–4; Paul Brodeur, Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial (New York: Pantheon, 1985); Silkwood, directed by Mike Nichols (1983; New York: ABC Motion Pictures); Sanjoy Hazarika, “In Hospitals of Bhopal, the Suffering Goes On,” New York Times, December 5, 1984, A12; William Robbins, “Near West Virginia Plant, the Talk Is of Escape,” New York Times, December 9, 1984, 22; Stuart Diamond, “The Disaster at Bhopal: Workers Recall Horror,” New York Times, January 30, 1985, A1, A6; Steven R. Weisman, “Bhopal a Year Later: An Eerie Silence,” New York Times, December 5, 1985, 5. For the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, of which Title III was Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know, prompted by the Bhopal disaster, see US, United States Statutes at Large, vol. 100 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office [GPO], 1989), 1613–782, esp. 1728–58. Other notable exposés of this period include Samuel S. Epstein, The Politics of Cancer, rev. ed. (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1979), 76–150; Song of the Canary, directed by Josh Hanig and David Davis (1979; San Francisco: Manteca Films).

5. Seth Frazier, “Right to Know: A Winning Campaign,” Safer Times, January–February 1981, 3; Mayer, Brown, and Morello-Frosch, “Labor-Environmental Coalition Formation”; Chess, Winning the Right to Know, esp. 2, 37–67; Charles E. Ellison, “What You Don’t Know Can Hurt You: The Politics of Right-to-Know in Cincinnati,” Social Policy 14, no. 3 (Winter 1984): 20, 23, n10.

6. US House of Representatives, Committee on Government Operations, Manpower and Housing Subcommittee, Performance of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Hearings, 95th Cong., 1st sess., 1977 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1977), 75 (Bingham quotation), 79; Noble, Liberalism at Work, 134; Sidney M. Wolfe and Lori Abrams, 1983 Survey of Fourteen Union Safety and Health Programs: Comparisons with 1976 Survey (Washington, DC: Health Research Group, 1984); James C. Robinson, “Labor Union Involvement in Occupational Safety and Health, 1957–1987,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 13, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 453–68, esp. 458–61.

7. Anita Kaplan, “Labor and Community Demand the Right to Know,” Safer Times, October–November 1980, 3, 10; Chess, Winning the Right to Know, 4–5, 38, 71, 74, 81, 86–88.

8. US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), “Access to Employee Exposure and Medical Records,” Federal Register 45, no. 102 (May 23, 1980): 35212–303; OSHA, “Hazards Identification: Notice of Public Rulemaking and Public Hearings,” Federal Register 46, no. 11 (January 16, 1981): 4412–53; OSHA, “Hazards Identification: Withdrawal of Proposed Rules,” Federal Register 46, no. 30 (February 13, 1981): 12214; OSHA, “Hazard Communication: Final Rule,” Federal Register 48, no. 228 (November 25, 1983): 53280–348; Hadden, A Citizen's Right to Know, 22–23; OSHA, “Hazard Communication: Final Rule,” Federal Register 52, no. 163 (August 24, 1987): 31852–86; Daniel M. Berman, “Workers’ Initiatives for Occupational Health and Safety in the United States: The COSH Groups and the Unions,” January 1990, 31 (quotation), 31–32, Staughton and Alice Lynd Papers, box 72, folder 869, Archives, Youngstown Historical Center of Industry and Labor, Youngstown, Ohio. For another case of this reform process, see Charles R. Shipan and Craig Volden, “Bottom-Up Federalism: The Diffusion of Antismoking Policies from U.S. Cities to States,” American Journal of Political Science 50, no. 4 (October 2006): 825–43. On the right-to-act movement, see, among others, Rick Engler, A Job Safety Bill of Rights (Philadelphia: PhilaPOSH, 1984); Rick Engler, Fighting for the Right to Act in New Jersey (Trenton: New Jersey Right-to-Know and Act Coalition, 1992); Craig Slatin, “Health and Safety Organizing: OCAW's Worker-to-Worker Health and Safety Training Program,” New Solutions 11, no. 4 (February 2001): 349–74.

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