NOTES

Introduction

1. Crichton, Practical Observations, 50, 21.

2. Sydenham, Whole Works, 5, 6.

3. The work on cold diseases at the end of the century included Mudge, Radical and Expeditious Cure; and Beddoes, Observations on the Nature and Cure.

4. Among the instances when this argument appeared, see “Rondeau to Harrington,” 30 December 1738, TNA, SP 91/22, fols. 317–18; and “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 30 December 1771/10 January 1772, TNA, SP 91/89, fols. 21–27.

5. For a general history of scurvy, see Carpenter, History of Scurvy. For Russia specifically, Bartlett, “Britain, Russia, and Scurvy.”

6. Kupperman, “Fear of Hot Climates”; Kupperman, “Puzzle of the American Climate”; Harrison, Climates and Constitutions.

7. Rutman and Rutman, “Of Agues and Fevers”; Cates, “The ‘Seasoning’”; Merrens and Terry, “Dying in Paradise.”

8. Morgan, Laboring Women; Manen, “Preventative Medicine in the Dutch Slave Trade.”

9. On the Little Ice Age, see Appleby, “Epidemics and Famines”; Fagan, Little Ice Age; Parker, Global Crisis; Sundberg, Natural Disaster.

10. Pokrovskii, Tomsk 1648–1649 gg.; Kivelson, “Devil Stole His Mind.”

11. Brikner, “Chuma v Moskve.”

12. Charters, “Disease, Wilderness, Warfare”; Zilberstein, Temperate Empire; Zeheter, Epidemics, Empire, and Environments; Piper, When Disease Came to This Country.

13. For an introduction, see Bishop, “English Physicians in Russia.”

14. Boyle, New Experiments and Observations.

15. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy.

16. Romaniello, Enterprising Empires.

17. I have been influenced by Schiebinger, Plants and Empire; Cook, Matters of Exchange, esp. chap. 7; Gänger, “World Trade in Medicinal Plants.” On the process in Europe, see Cooper, Inventing the Indigenous.

18. Daston and Lunbeck, Histories of Scientific Observation; Pender and Struever, Rhetoric and Medicine.

19. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe; Pratt, Imperial Eyes; Dainotto, Europe (In Theory).

20. Bleys, Geography of Perversion; Cheek, Sexual Antipodes.

21. Raj, Relocating Modern Science; Wisecup, Medical Encounters; Gómez, Experiential Caribbean; Schiebinger, Secret Cures of Slaves; Kelton, Cherokee Medicine, Colonial Germs; Cagle, Assembling the Tropics; Barca, Yellow Demon of Fever; Küçük, Science Without Leisure; Kananoja, Healing Knowledge in Atlantic Africa.

22. Chaplin, Subject Matter; Kidd, Forging of Races; Earle, Body of the Conquistador; Curran, Anatomy of Blackness; Hogarth, Medicalizing Blackness; Block, Colonial Complexions; Seth, Difference and Disease.

23. Smith, “‘Freedom to Choose a Way of Life’”; and Smith, “Movement and the Transformation.”

24. On the European commentary, see Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe; and Poe, A People Born to Slavery.

25. Jones, Empire of Extinction; Vermeulen, Before Boas.

26. Historians of medicine who work on the modern era are often uncomfortable with the application of the term “public health” before the late nineteenth century, where it gained a particular meaning and framework. When historians of the early modern era discuss state actions to improve the general health and well-being of the population, however, they describe this as public health. See Blum, Strength in Numbers; Cody, Birthing the Nation; Bowers, Plague and Public Health; Chase-Levenson, Yellow Flag.

27. Alexander, Bubonic Plague in Early Modern Russia; Kuxhausen, From the Womb to the Body Politic; Robarts, Migration and Disease.

28. Griffin, Mixing Medicines.

29. The exceptions are Romaniello, “Humoral Bodies in Cold Climates”; Herzberg et al., Russian Cold.

30. Bentham, Fragment on Government, 93.

31. Guthrie, “Dissertation.”

32. Tansey, “Life and Works,” 251, 253.

1. Experiencing Climate, Observing People

1. Fletcher, Of the Russe Common Wealth, fols. B3–B3v.

2. Fagan, Little Ice Age; Parker, Global Crisis; Sundberg, Natural Disaster.

3. “William Prideaux to John Thurloe,” 16 September 1654, in Birch, Collection of the State Papers, vol. 2, 607.

4. “Prideaux to Thurloe,” 16 December 1654, in Birch, Collection of the State Papers, vol. 3, 26–27.

5. For an example, see Harrison, Medicine in an Age of Commerce and Empire; Chase-Levenson, Yellow Flag.

6. “Prideaux to Thurloe,” 16 September 1654, in Birch, Collection of the State Papers, vol. 2, 607–8.

7. Earle, Body of the Conquistador, 26–30; see also Harrison, Climates and Constitution, 25–57.

8. On the importance of climate, see Miller, “‘Airs, Waters, and Places’”; on the persistence of the nonnaturals in eighteenth-century medicine, see Riley, “The Medicine of the Environment”; and Emch-Dériaz, “The Non-Naturals Made Easy.”

9. This method of description facilitated diagnosing patients and providing care through correspondence rather than needing in-person examinations. Among the works on this topic, see Louis-Courvoisier and Mauron, “‘He found me very well.”

10. Ehninger, “On Systems of Rhetoric.”

11. The intersection of popular and medical knowledge is a well-trod subject; see for example, Cole, “In Search of a New Mentality.”

12. “Republic of Letters” is a long-established concept to describe correspondence networks among educated elites in early-modern Europe; see Daston, “Ideal and Reality.”

13. On Boyle's connection to Samuel Collins, see Loewenson, “Works of Robert Boyle”; and Hunter and Davis, “The Making of Robert Boyle's ‘Free Enquiry.’”

14. Boyle, New Experiments, 521, 529, 532.

15. Bay, Beriberi in Modern Japan.

16. Lomax, “Difficulties in Diagnosing Infantile Scurvy”; on Russian doctors early understanding of scurvy, see Petrov, “Tsinga i bor’ba.”

17. For a discussion of Glisson and his assistants, see Birken, “Dissenting Tradition in English Medicine”; for the broader context, see Newton, “Diagnosing Rickets in Early Modern England.”

18. Tikhomirov, Pravila o sposobe vrachevaniia. The “English disease” remained rickets common name in Russia throughout the nineteenth century; see Zhukovskii, Rakhit; Gal’perin and Tarkhanov, Angliiskaia boliezn’ rakhit.

19. Donkin, Manna, 98–103.

20. [Dr. Skinner], Some Observations, 4–5.

21. Dale's text was a supplement to his 1693 pharmacopoeia. Dale, Pharmacologiae, 252–53.

22. “Letter from D. Wolfe about Polish manna,” 1760, RSA, PR/GE/110/9/15.

23. Collins, Present State, 13, 23, 13.

24. Collins, Present State, 35–37, 106, 67–68, 96–97.

25. Collins, Present State, 42–43.

26. Collins, Present State, 76–77.

27. Collins, Present State, 78.

28. Boterbloem, Fiction and Reality of Jan Struys, 53–103.

29. Struys, Perilous and most Unhappy Voyages, 117, 136, 137.

30. Struys, Perilous and most Unhappy Voyages, 139–40.

31. Struys, Perilous and most Unhappy Voyages, 136, 135, 140.

32. Avril, Travels Into divers Parts, 135.

33. Avril, Travels Into divers Parts, 116–17, 120, 126.

34. Avril, Travels Into divers Parts, 86.

35. Earle, Body of the Conquistador, 141–42.

36. Avril, Travels Into divers Parts, 163–64.

37. Avril, Travels Into divers Parts, 164.

38. Avril, Travels Into divers Parts, 85, 116.

39. On the operation of the Royal Society, see Porter, “Early Royal Society.”

40. Crull, Account of the Antient, 2, 146–47.

41. Crull, Account of the Antient, 139–40, 145.

42. Crull, Account of the Antient, 152; see also 132–33.

43. Crull, Account of the Antient, 15.

44. Crull, Account of the Antient, 41–42.

45. Crull, Account of the Antient, 79.

46. Crull, Account of the Antient, 80–81, 81.

47. Allison, Account of a Voyage.

48. “Journal of a voyage to Archangel and back under Capt. W. Baker, 1702,” BL, Sloane MS 3237, fols. 39–47b.

49. Romaniello, Enterprising Empires, 29–37.

50. Ssu-ming, “E-lo-ssu kuan”; Monahan, Merchants of Siberia, 55, 181–82.

51. Dmytryshyn, “Iurii Krizhanich”; and Slezkine, “Sovereign's Foreigners.”

52. Both men wrote narratives that were translated into English. Brand, Journal of the Embassy; Ides, Three Years Travels.

53. Ides, Three Years Travels, 75.

54. “Ostiak” was a broad label for several groups of distinct Siberian peoples, including Khanty, Selkup, or Ostiak-Samoyeds. Brand, Journal of the Embassy, 39.

55. Ides, Three Years Travels, 20.

56. Brand, Journal of the Embassy, 47. “Tungus” is another broad label for several groups of Siberian peoples, including Manchus, Evenks, and Evens.

57. Brand, Journal of the Embassy, 48.

58. Purdue, “Boundaries, Maps, and Movement.”

59. Brand, Journal of the Embassy, 48–49, 51.

60. Brand, Journal of the Embassy, 40–41.

61. European travelers’ expectations for sexual access to Indigenous populations was not specific to Russia. Bleys, Geography of Perversion, 63–109; Cheek, Sexual Antipodes, esp. chaps. 4–6.

2. Training Physicians, Exchanging Information

1. Among the works on this topic, see Debus, “Chemists, Physicians, and Changing Perspectives”; Cook, “History of Medicine.”

2. Chaplin, Subject Matter, 81. This discussion also reflects the idea of the conception of the body reflecting cultural constructions; see Butler, “Foucault and the Paradox of Bodily Inscriptions.”

3. On Russia's reliance on apothecaries and chemical experiments, see Griffin, Mixing Medicines.

4. Lindeboom, Herman Boerhaave, 4.

5. Emch-Dériaz, “Non-Naturals Made Easy,” 134–59.

6. Cook, Matters of Exchange, 149–51.

7. Cook, Matters of Exchange.

8. For a further discussion, see Rosner, Medical Education in the Age of Improvement, 2; Cunningham, “Medicine to Calm the Mind,” 49.

9. Sydenham, Whole Works. On nosology as a practice, see DeLacy, “Nosology, Mortality, and Disease Theory.”

10. Lindeboom, Herman Boerhaave, 8–9.

11. DeLacy, Germ of an Idea, 3.

12. Goslings, “Leiden and Edinburgh,” 10.

13. DeLacy discusses this turn in medical practice more broadly; see DeLacy, Germ of an Idea, 171.

14. Knoppers, “Visits of Peter the Great,” 66–67.

15. Cunningham, “Medicine to Calm the Mind,” 40–67. On the connection of the British to Göttingen, see Biskup, “University of Göttingen.”

16. Broman, Transformation of German Academic Medicine, 45.

17. Cunningham, “Medicine to Calm the Mind,” 57; Risse, “Clinical Instruction in Hospitals.”

18. Broman, Transformation of German Academic Medicine, 28–9.

19. Johnson, Guide for Gentlemen, 14; see also the discussion in Rosner, Medical Education, 38.

20. Bonner, Becoming a Physician, 41.

21. Gelfand, Professionalizing Modern Medicine, 132.

22. Rosner, Medical Education, 52. On Linnaeus's development of his taxonomy, see Larson, Reason and Experience, 6–49; and Lindroth, “The Two Faces of Linnaeus.”

23. Koerner, Linnaeus, 153; see also Stearn, “The Influence of Leyden.”

24. Headrick, When Information Came of Age, 29. On the tensions between the two men, see also Koerner, Linnaeus, 28–29; and Schiebinger, Nature's Body, 28, 46–47.

25. For the reception of Buffon's taxonomy in Germany, for example, see Sloan, “Buffon, German Biology.”

26. For a discussion of Linnaeus's taxonomy, see Cain, “Logic and Memory”; and Frängsmyr, Linnaeus.

27. Rowell, “Linnaeus and Botanists.”

28. This argument support Clare Griffin's evidence that Western practitioners willingly adopted local healing practices in Russia; see Griffin, “Russia and the Medical Drug Trade.” See also Griffin, Mixing Medicines; and Romaniello, “Commodities with Context.”

29. Savel’eva, Katalog knig. On the reorganization of its library, see also Boterbloem, Moderniser of Russia, 102–13.

30. For the history of the Grand Embassy, see Guzevich and Guzevich, Velikoe posol’stvo. Peter the Great was no less interested in medicine while in England, where he met the physician and chemist Moses Stringer. Loewensen, “People Peter Met in England,” 460–62.

31. Anemone, “Monsters of Peter the Great”; Gordin, “Importation of Being Earnest”; Mazierski, “Cabinet of Frederick Ruysch”; and Vermeulen, Before Boas, 47–63.

32. Natochin, “Stanovlenie fiziologii.”

33. Alexander, “Medical Developments,” 200–201; Driessen van het Reve, “Peter the Great,” 150–53.

34. Driessen van het Reve, “Peter the Great,” 153; Driessen van het Reve, “Hoe Nicolaas Bidloo (1673/4–1735).”

35. On Bidloo's plans for the hospital and his work in it, see Mirskii, “Moscow Hospital School”; Evangulova, “Rukopisi N. Bidloo”; Kirillov, “Moskva iauzskaia”; and Simonov, “Iatronauchnyi etap.”

36. Grmek, “History of Medical Education,” 305; Alexander, “Medical Developments,” 207–9.

37. By the nineteenth century, it would be more common to spell Areskine's last name as Erskine, but he and his family were Areskine in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. See “Letters and Documents relating to Robert Erskine,” NLS, MS 5163. For a brief biography, see Paul, “Scotsmen in Russian Service.”

38. For example, Burgess, “Thomas Garvine.”

39. For example, “Robert Areskine to Earl of Marr,” 29 October 1744, NLS, MS 5163, fols. 27–28; “David Aytoun to Alexander Aytoun,” 24 August 1713, NRS, GD1/42/1/23/1; and “George Mackenzie to Dr. Areskine,” 10 September 1714, NRS, GD24/1/449. The British government questioned Areskine's connection to the Jacobite rebellions and the influence this might have in Russia, see Dixon, Britain and Russia, letters 201, 202, and 205. For the broader history of the Jacobite diaspora, see Murdoch, Network North.

40. His family did protest his bequests but did not alter their disposition. “Henry Stirling to Charles Areskine,” 7 February 1720, NLS, MS 5163, fols. 57–60; and “Charles Goodfellow to Charles Areskine,” 17 February 1719, NLS, MS 5163, fol. 57.

41. Grmek, “History of Medical Education,” 306.

42. For example, Leiden had 120 Russian-born students in the eighteenth century, but this number includes students in all disciplines. Hans, “Russian Students at Leyden.”

43. Bogdanov, Materialy dlia biograficheskogo spravochnika russkikh vrachei. Bogdanov's index was originally published in the 1890s. The other indexes include Chistovich, Istoriia pervykh meditsynskikh shkol, and Brückner, Die Aerzte in Russland. John T. Alexander relied on Brückner in his Bubonic Plague, 37–40, which has a higher number of practitioners than Bogdanov's account.

44. Bonner, Becoming a Physician, 21.

45. Rosner, Medical Education, 62.

46. Broman, Transformation of German Academic Medicine, 28.

47. See for example, Dorwart, “Royal College of Medicine.”

48. Dorwart, “Royal College of Medicine”; Geyer-Kordesch, “German Medical Education”; Klein, “Laboratory Challenge.”

49. For the rare example of French influence on the academy, see Kuentzel-Witt, “Peter the Great's Intermezzo.”

50. On the connection between trade and diplomacy, see Romaniello, Enterprising Empires.

51. Hans, “Russian Students,” 532–33. The following theses were all written in Latin; I have translated the titles into English for ease of reading.

52. The academy began as the Slavo-Greco-Latin Academy in 1685, founded by two Greek monks who adopted a Jesuit-scientific curriculum. See Chrissidis, Academy at the Court of the Tsar.

53. Broman, Transformation of German Academic Medicine, 26.

54. Radvoskii, “U istokov anglo-russkikh nauchnykh sviazei”; Thomas, “Sir Hans Sloane”; Bryce, “Russian Collections.”

55. Belbourgo, Collecting the World.

56. For example, “Linnaeus to Sloane,” rec’d 20 December 1737, BL, Sloane MS 4054, fol. 190; and “Boerhaave to Sloane,” 17 July 1736, BL, Sloane MS 4054, fol. 248.

57. “Amman to Sloane,” 2 March 1736, BL, Sloane MS 4054, fols. 188–89.

58. Catesby in “Amman to Sloane,” August 1736, BL, Sloane MS 4054, fols. 297; Moyle and Petty in “Amman to Sloane,” 3 June 1738, BL, Sloane MS 4055, fols. 339–40; “Amman to Sloane,” 22 July 1739, BL, Sloane MS 4056, fol. 109.

59. This includes “Vigor to Sloane,” 21 July 1739, BL, Sloane MS 4056.

60. For context for this discussion, see Erikson, “Linnaeus the Botanist,” 63–77; and Schiebinger, Nature's Body, 11–39.

61. “Amman to Sloane,” August 1736, BL, Sloan MS 4054, fols. 298–99.

62. See the discussion in Larson, Reason and Experience, 6–49.

63. For a discussion of the text, see Koroloff, “‘In Imperio Rutheno.’”

64. “Amman to Sloane,” 22 April 1738, BL, Sloane MS 4055, fol. 315–16. The text was published the following year, Stirpium Rariorum in Imperio Rutheno.

65. “Amman to Sloane,” 2 March 1736, BL, Sloane MS 4054, fols. 188–89; “Amman to Sloane,” 6 September 1736, Sloane MS 4054, fols. 298–99.

66. “Amman to Linnaeus,” 15 September 1736, in Smith, Selection of the Correspondence, 2:191–92.

67. “Amman to Linnaeus,” 15 November 1737, in Smith, Selection of the Correspondence, 2:192–96.

68. On the Iran journey, see Stevens, “John Bell of Antermony.”

69. The British consul recommended Bell to the foreign office as a specialist on Eurasian trade in “Claudius Rondeau to Lord Harrington,” 17 August 1731, TNA, SP 91/12, fols. 127–28. In 1739, Bell temporarily assumed the role of consul in St. Petersburg following the death of the envoy, Claudius Rondeau, “John Bell to Lord Harrington,” 6 October 1739, TNA, SP 91/23, fol. 309.

70. Bell, Travels from St. Petersburg.

71. For example, “Letter from John Bell of Antermony,” 1 June 1765, NRS, GD253/144/5/1.

72. For Messerschmidt's fieldwork, see Vermeulen, Before Boas, 113–24.

73. Bryce, “Russian Collections.”

74. Griffin, Mixing Medicines, 141–46.

75. PSZ, vol. 6, no. 3778, April 1721, 383–87. On the translation project, see Griffin, “In Search of an Audience.”

76. PSZ, vol. 6, no. 3811, 14 August 1721, 412–13.

77. In 1722, the medical reforms expanded as part of the regulations introduced for the Admiralty that outlined the principles of military medical practice. Haigh, “Design for a Medical Service.”

78. Koroloff, “‘In Imperio Rutheno,’” 240–45.

79. Hoffmann, “Strahlenberg,” 464.

80. On the history of the two men, see Titova, “Puteshestvie po ukazu Petra I.” For Strahlenberg's work, see Strahlenberg, Das Nord-under Ostliche Theil, and translated into English as Historico-Geographical Description.

81. Some of Messerschmidt's field notes have been published for their ethnographic value, including Napol’skikh, Udmurtskie materialy.

82. Sloane, “Account of the elephants teeth,” 461, 468.

83. Breyne, “A letter from John Phil. Breyne.”

84. Lux and Cook, “Closed Circles or Open Networks?”; Easterby-Smith, “Reputation in a Box”; van den Heuvel et al., “Circles of Confidence.”

85. “Amman to Sloane,” 20 January 1739, BL, Sloane MS 4056, fols. 28–29.

86. Muller, “Manners and Customs,” 70.

87. For an overview of his work, see Vermeulen, Before Boas, 108–12.

88. Strahlenberg, Historico-Geographical Description, 180, 182.

89. Strahlenberg, Historico-Geographical Description, 184.

90. Most would argue that the reception of the physiocrats’ understanding of the economy was a later phenomenon, but the underlying principles were already at work. See Konczacki, “Economic and Social Thought”; Alimento, “Entre ‘les moeurs des Crétois et les loix de Minos’.”

91. Strahlenberg, Historico-Geographical Description, 334.

92. Strahlenberg, Historico-Geographical Description, 380–81, 382.

93. Strahlenberg, Historico-Geographical Description, 402–6.

94. Bernard, Relation of Grand Tartary, WL, MS 1143.

95. Bernard, Recueil du voyages au Nord.

96. Bernard, Relation of Grand Tartary, WL, MS 1143, 6, 7, 8.

97. Bernard, Relation of Grand Tartary, WL, MS 1143, 35, 35–36.

98. “Johann Amman to Sloane,” 20 January 1739, BL, Sloane MS 4056, fols. 28–29.

99. “Amman to Sloane,” 2 March 1736, BL, Sloane MS 4054, fols. 188–89.

100. “Amman to Sloane,” 24 January 1741, BL, Sloane MS 4056, fols. 355–56.

101. O’Neill, Opened Letter, 4–6.

102. Porter, “Was There a Medical Enlightenment.”

103. DeLacy, Germ of an Idea, 127.

104. Broman, Transformation of German Academic Medicine, 85.

105. On the medical discussion in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, see Porter, “Early Royal Society”; and Rusnock, “Correspondence Networks.”

3. Describing Kamchatka, Documenting Scurvy

1. For the expedition's contribution to environmental studies, see Jones, Empire of Extinction, 21–59. For the expedition's contribution to ethnography, see Vermeulen, Before Boas, 131–218. In addition, see also Gibson, Feeding the Russian Fur Trade, 13–24; and Black, “G-.F. Müller and the Russian Academy.”

2. Koerner, Linnaeus, 82–94; Hodacs, “Linnaeans Outdoors,” 183–209; Skott, “Human Taxonomies.”

3. There was additional pressure to compete with ongoing British efforts in the North Pacific; see Grinëv, “Anglo-Russian Rivalry.”

4. PSZ, vol. 8, no. 6023, April 17, 1732, 749. The Senate followed this initial ukaz with further guidance for the mission on Kamchatka, PSZ, vol. 8, no. 6193, September 26, 1732, 932–33.

5. PSZ, vol. 8, no. 6041, May 2, 1732, 770–74. See also the instructions from the Senate on the same day: PSZ, vol. 8, no. 6042, May 2, 1732, 774–75.

6. PSZ, vol. 8, no. 6291, December 28, 1732, 1002–13; Louis Delisle de la Croyère's instructions are article 16, 1012–13.

7. PSZ, vol. 9, no. 6351, March 16, 1733, 63–69.

8. PSZ, vol. 9, no. 6376, April 21, 1733, 91–92. Other Senate instructions on trade regulations followed involving Okhotsk and Kamchatka, including PSZ, vol. 9, no. 6460, July 26, 1733, 190. On the Treaty of Kiakhta, see Foust, Muscovite and Mandarin, 24–67.

9. On the exploration of the northern passage, see Küntzel-Witt, “Eisfrei über den Nordpol?”

10. For the early years of the expedition, see Okhotina-Lind and Meller, Vtoraia kamchatskaia ekspeditsiia.

11. Vermeulen focuses on Müller's fieldwork and contribution to ethnography; see Vermeulen, Before Boas, 171–94.

12. On Krasheninnikov's contributions, see Shishilov, “K istorii izucheniia materialov S. P. Krasheninnikov.”

13. On the scholarly production of the expedition, see Wortman, “Texts of Exploration,” 253–56.

14. Rowell, “Linnaeus and Botanists,” 17–18.

15. Broman, Transformation of German Academic Medicine, 40.

16. Frost, “Vitus Bering and Georg Steller,” 3–16; Frost, “Georg Steller and Stepan Krasheninnikov;” Vermeulen, Before Boas, 194–96.

17. Steller, Journal of a Voyage with Bering, 50.

18. Kuentzel-Witt, “Peter the Great's Intermezzo.”

19. For example, de L’Isle, “Extract of a Letter”; and de L’Isle, “Proposal for the measurement.”

20. Steller, Journal of a Voyage with Bering, 85–86.

21. Gouzévitch, “Delisle Brothers in Russia.” The tensions with French philosophes will be further discussed in chapter 4.

22. Gibson, Feeding the Russian Fur Trade, 72–104; Monahan, Merchants of Siberia, 117–23, 202–6; Smith, “Movement and the Transformation,” 47–49.

23. Waxell, American Expedition, 56.

24. Gibson, Feeding the Russian Fur Trade, 46–56.

25. Waxell, American Expedition, 70–71, 71.

26. The disastrous ocean voyages of the expedition were detailed in Waxell, American Expedition. For an overall assessment, see Grinëv, “Reflections on the Fate”; and Grinëv, “Russian Maritime Catastrophes.”

27. “Amman to Sloane,” 2 March 1736, BL, Sloane MS 4054, fols. 188–89.

28. “Amman to Sloane,” 22 April 1738, BL, Sloane MS 4055, fols. 315–16.

29. “Amman to Sloane,” 7 November 1739, BL, Sloane MS 4056, fol. 132.

30. For example, “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 4 February 1746, LCR.

31. For example, “Linnaeus to Gmelin,” 15 April 1744, LCR; “Linnaeus to Gmelin,” 2 August 1744, LCR; “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 3 September 1744, LCR; “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 20 August 1745, LCR; “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 18 February 1746, LCR; and “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 30 December 1746, LCR. Sexing plants remained a controversial topic across Europe; see, for example, Alston, “Dissertation on the Sexes of Plants,” 205–83.

32. For example, “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 3 September 1744, LCR; “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 30 December 1746, LCR; see also Rowell, “Linnaeus and Botanists.”

33. Euler, “Extract of a Letter.”

34. These include Black, Russians in Alaska; Grinëv, Tlingit Indians in Russian America; Miller, Kodiak Kreol; Vinkovetsky, Russian America; and Jones, Empire of Extinction.

35. See the discussion in Znamenski, “History with an Attitude.”

36. On Linnaeus and Gmelin, see Rowell, “Linnaeus and Botantists.” For contemporary reactions to Flora Sibirica, see Fothergill, “Account of the Some Observations and Experiments”; and Watson, “Account of the Treatise.”

37. Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien; Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie.

38. For example, Gmelin's discussion of Ides's observations, Voyage en Sibérie, 2:156–57.

39. “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 4 September 1744, LCR.

40. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, 1:232.

41. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, 2:183.

42. Skott, “Human Taxonomies,” 218–19. Translation by Skott. See also Broberg, “Homo Sapiens, Linnaeus's Classification of Man,” 165–70, 193–4.

43. Mattson, “Nation-State Science,” 321.

44. This includes Sloan, “Buffon, German Biology”; Hudson, “From ‘Nation’ to ‘Race’”; Shoemaker, “How Indians Got to be Red”; Gascoigne, “Royal Society”; Kowner, From White to Yellow, esp. chaps. 9–10.

45. Skott, “Human Taxonomies,” 219. The tenth edition also gendered the taxonomic system. See Schiebinger, “Why Mammals Are Called Mammals.”

46. Koerner, Linnaeus, 87. Related to this was their debate over classifying apes; see “Gmelin to Linnaeus,” 3 December 1745, LCR.

47. See Geertz, Interpretation of Cultures.

48. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, 1:327–28.

49. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, 1:329.

50. Bleys, Geography of Perversion, 63–109; Cheek, Sexual Antipodes, esp. chaps. 4–6.

51. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, 1:32.

52. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, 2:97, 2:98.

53. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, 1:129, 1:136.

54. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, 2:193, 2:193–94.

55. Cheek, Sexual Antipodes, 128–31; Reis, “Impossible Hermaphrodites.”

56. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 189, 225.

57. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 191.

58. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 218, 227.

59. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 161, 188.

60. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 218, 219, footnote.

61. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 227–28.

62. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 263, 274.

63. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 218, footnote.

64. This anxiety was common across Europe in the eighteenth century; see Blum, Strength in Numbers; Cody, Birthing the Nation.

65. “Rondeau to Harrington,” 25 June 1737, TNA, SP 91/21, fols. 123–25.

66. “Rondeau to Harrington,” 9 September 1738, TNA, SP 91/22, fols. 205–7.

67. “Rondeau to Harrington,” 28 October 1738, TNA, SP 91/22, fols. 264–65.

68. “Rondeau to Harrington,” 11 November 1738, TNA, SP 91/22, fols. 278–83.

69. “Rondeau to Harrington,” 30 December 1738, TNA, SP 91/22, fols. 317–18.

70. For the broader context of Russian views of the Ottomans in this period, see Taki, “Orientalism on the Margins.”

71. Sydenham, Whole Works, 4–10.

72. “Rondeau to Harrington,” 29 September 1739, TNA, SP 91/23, fols. 295–96..

73. “John Bell to Harrington,” 6 October 1739, TNA, SP 91/23, fol. 309.

74. “Philip Lernoult to Harrington,” 6 October 1739, TNA, SP 91/23, f. 313.

75. “Carmichael to Newcastle,” 23 January 1749, TNA, SP 91/49, fol. 59v.

76. “Carmichael to Newcastle,” February 1749, TNA, SP 91/49, fols. 150–57; 153r.

77. “Carmichael to Newcastle,” 5 June 1749, TNA SP 91/50, fols. 9–17, 13v.

78. For an overview of Russia's history with scurvy in the eighteenth century, see Bartlett, “Britain, Russia, and Scurvy.”

79. Carpenter, History of Scurvy, 173–97.

80. Chaplin, “Earthsickness.”

81. On the diagnostic challenge, see Carpenter, History of Scurvy, 40–42.

82. Fresh air was a frequent cure, see Chaplin, “Earthsickness,” 532–33, 541.

83. Waxell, American Expedition, 71, 108, 121–22.

84. On scurvy and melancholy, see Carpenter, History of Scurvy, 33–37; Lamb, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner”; Lamb, Preserving the Self, 114–31.

85. Waxell, American Expedition, 127, 129, 128.

86. Waxell, American Expedition, 137, 141, 142.

87. Gmelin, Voyage en Sibérie, vol. 1:364, 1:365–67.

88. Steller, Steller's History of Kamchatka, 227, 274.

89. Steller, Journal of a Voyage with Bering, 77, 89, 93.

90. Steller, Journal of a Voyage with Bering, 156–57.

91. Waxell, American Expedition, 199.

92. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy, 41–42.

93. Lind, Treatise of Scurvy, 335–36, 336–37, 337–38.

94. Lind, Treatise of the Scurvy, 338–39.

95. Cook, Voyages and Travels, 2:609–10, 2:531.

96. Cook, Voyages and Travels, 2:38.

97. See Crellin, “Early Settlements in Newfoundland”; Charters, “Disease, Wilderness, Warfare.”

98. von Manstein, Contemporary Memoirs of Russia, 171.

99. Florinova ekonomiia, 339–40. I thank Clare Griffin for this reference.

100. Krafft, Description et representation, A2; see also Herzberg, “Nature of Cold,” 53–59.

101. “Mr. Miller's letter on incouragement of agriculture, May 17, 1760,” RSA, PR/GE/110/9/7.

4. Improving Health, Inoculating Smallpox

1. The academy's results were published in London; see Himsel, “Account of Artificial Cold.”

2. Strahlenberg, Historico-Geographical Description, 436.

3. Among the works on this topic, see Blum, Strength in Numbers; and Cody, Birthing the Nation.

4. On the efforts to increase the birth rate, see Kuxhausen, From the Womb to the Body Politic.

5. John Alexander focuses on Catherine's government in terms of its intervention to preserve population. In this chapter, I see Catherine's public health policies as an extension of ongoing changes since the 1740s. See Alexander, “Catherine the Great and Public Health.”

6. For a discussion of climate determinism in Russia, see Herzberg, “Climate Ideas,” 20–24.

7. Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, particularly chaps. 14–17. For a brief discussion of his views of Russia, see Okenfuss, “Catherine, Montesquieu, and Empire,” 322–29; and Herzberg, “Climate Ideas,” 20–24.

8. All translations are from Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, 1:317–18.

9. Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, 319.

10. Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, 326–27.

11. It was first published as Rulhière, Anecdotes sur la revolution, in 1762; and translated into English as Anecdotes of the Revolution in 1797.

12. Rulhière, History or Anecdotes of the Revolution, 32, 79.

13. Chappe d’Auteroche, Journey into Siberia.

14. For example, Chappe d’Auteroche, Journey into Siberia, 158–60, which references all the previous authors in assessing Siberia's geography.

15. Chappe d’Auteroche, Journey into Siberia, 349.

16. Chappe d’Auteroche, Journey into Siberia, 350, 37.

17. Chappe d’Auteroche, Journey into Siberia, 353, 351, 351–52.

18. Chappe d’Auteroche, Journey into Siberia, 57, 54, 68.

19. Dunlap, “Problem of Syphilitic Children”; Winston, “Medicine, Marriage, and Human Degeneration.”

20. The response to his text was the anonymously published Antidote ou Réfutation. For a discussion of the Russian reaction to this text, see Levitt, “Antidote to Nervous Juice.”

21. “Catherine to Voltaire, 23 January/3 February 1771,” in Lentin, Voltaire and Catherine the Great, no. 58, 97.

22. “Voltaire to Catherine, 10 July 1771,” in Lentin, Voltaire and Catherine, no. 70, 111.

23. Romaniello, Enterprising Empires, esp. chap. 4.

24. “Macartney to Grafton,” 11/22 February 1766, TNA, SP 91/77, fols. 25–34, 25r.

25. “Macartney to Grafton,” 11/22 February 1766, TNA, SP 91/77, fols. 25–34, 32v–33r.

26. “Shirley to Weymouth,” 28 February/10 March 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fols. 97–101, 97r–v.

27. “Shirley to Weymouth,” 28 February/10 March 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fols. 97–101, 100v.

28. PSZ, vol. 9, no. 6852, 24 December 1735, 662–82.

29. PSZ, vol. 9, no. 6852, 24 December 1735, 668.

30. “Claudius Rondeau to Secretary Townshend,” 18 May 1730, TNA, SP 91/11, fols. 111–12.

31. Another Scottish physician in Russia, Dr. John Cook, was friendly with L’Estocq throughout the decade. See Cook, Voyages and Travels, 2:555–60.

32. Kuxhausen, From the Womb to the Body, 33–54.

33. Reichardt produced “De uturi connexione cum mammis,” and Lindemann “De partu praeternaturali, quem sine matris aut foetus sectione absolvere non licet operatori.”

34. Epatko, “James Mounsey,” 7–9.

35. Appleby, “‘Rhubarb’ Mounsey,” 139.

36. Thomas, “Some Correspondence of Dr. James Mounsey,” 12–13.

37. For the Royal Society for Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, see “Letter by Dr. Daniel Dumaresq,” 12 July 1760, RSA, PR/GE/110/9/24. For the Royal Society, see Mounsey, “Part of a Letter”; Mounsey, “Strange Effects”; and Weymarn, “Account of an Earthquake.”

38. For a contemporary discussion, see “Letter from James Inglis,” 22 November 1769, RSA, PR/GE/110/26/110; and “Letter from James Inglis,” 11 April 1770, RSA, PR/GE/110/27/140. For a historical assessment, see Appleby, “‘Rhubarb’ Mounsey”; and Romaniello, “Could Siberian ‘Natural Curiosities’ Be Replaced?,” 260–64.

39. Mounsey and Baker, “Abstract of the Remarkable Case.”

40. Mounsey and Baker, “Abstract of the Remarkable Case,” 134–35.

41. Mounsey and Baker, “Abstract of the Remarkable Case,” 137.

42. Cross, “Chaplains to the British Factory,” 130–22; Appleby, “Daniel Dumaresq,” 41. The British government received the request for Dumaresq's service to the Russian government early in 1766. See “Letter to Ambassador Vorontsov,” 22 April 1766, TNA, SP 100/54.

43. Dumaresq, “Account of that Part of America.”

44. PSZ, vol. 17, no. 12,785, November 16, 1766, 1050–62.

45. Ukazy vsepresteleishei, 111–16.

46. Grombakh, Russkaia meditsinskaia literatura, 273–74.

47. “Letter from James Mounsey,” 18 June 1762, NRS, GD24/1/846.

48. Timonius, “Account, or History, of the Procuring,” 72–73.

49. For an overview, see Miller, Adoption of Inoculation, 70–79.

50. On the problems diffusing variolation, see Arnold, “Smallpox and Colonial Medicine”; and Bennett, “Smallpox and Cowpox.”

51. Vigor, Eleven Additional Letters, 29–30.

52. Bennett, War Against Smallpox, 34–35.

53. See a contemporary defense for the value of inoculation, Gilchrist, “Answer to the Objection Against Inoculation.”

54. The entire treatment is outlined by Sutton in a letter in John Hope's files in Edinburgh; see “Sutton's directions to one of his pupils,” NRS, GD253/143/11/2, fol. 1–12.

55. Weightman, Great Inoculator, 59–60.

56. Weightman, Great Inoculator, 66–67.

57. Bennett, War Against Smallpox, 36–43; Miller, Adoption of Inoculation, 237.

58. Clendenning, “Dr. Thomas Dimsdale”; Bartlett, “Russia in the Eighteenth-Century”; Dimsdale, “Mixed Blessing.”

59. “Shirley to Weymouth,” 6/17 May 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fols. 117–18, 117v.

60. “Shirley to Weymouth,” 17/28 May 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fol. 119.

61. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 3.

62. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 4, 7–8.

63. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 17–18.

64. “Cathcart to Weymouth,” 5/16 September 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fols. 206–7.

65. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 19. Schulenius was likely Martin Staehelin (or Shtelin in Russian), who was born 1729 in Riga and died 1792. He completed his medical doctorate at Jena in 1758 with a “Thesis exhibens nonnulas de inflammationebus, in genere consideratis.” Shtrenge (Strénge) Andrei Khristian, born Prussia, moved to Russia in 1763; doc med “De inflammatione parium, tam solidarum quam fluidarum in corpore humano” (Erfurt, 1768).

66. Tooke, View of the Russian Empire, 1:589.

67. Dimsdate, Tracts on Inoculation, 20–21, 23.

68. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 27–30.

69. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 27–30.

70. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 33–34.

71. “Cathcart to Weymouth,” 17/28 October 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fols. 290–92, 290v.

72. There was a debate about the consequence on the bania on inoculation; see Bartlett, “Russia in the Eighteenth-Century,” 198–200.

73. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 35–37.

74. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 38–40.

75. “Cathcart to Weymouth,” 7/18 October 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fols. 258–61.

76. “Cathcart to Weymouth,” 21 October/1 November 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fols. 293–94, 293v.

77. “Catherine to Voltaire,” 6/17 December 1768, in Lentin, Voltaire and Catherine, no. 18, 53–54.

78. Voltaire, Letters Concerning the English, 73-82.

79. Enish, Izvestiia o nailuchshem sposobe.

80. PSZ, vol. 19, no. 13,445, 30 March 1770, 47–52

81. Dimsdal’, Nyneshnii sposob privivat’ ospy; Kratkoe i iasnoe nastavlenie. For a discussion of the triumph of Dimsdale's method in Russia, see also Alexander, “Communicable Disease,” 194–95.

82. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 102–3, 103.

83. “Opisanie i nastavlenie privivanii ospy.”

84. Coxe, Account of the Prisons and Hospitals, 20.

85. Bentham Papers, BL, Add MS 33,552, 244v.

86. PSZ, vol. 20, no. 14,695, 12 January 1778, 587–88.

87. The official state instruction to Irkutsk is PSZ, vol. 19, no. 13,755, 1 February 1772, 444–46; for the remainder, see Tooke, View of the Russian Empire, 1:591. The spread of smallpox hospitals is briefly discussed in Bartlett, “Russia in the Eighteenth-Century,” 196–97.

88. “Cathcart to Weymouth,” 1/12 November 1768, TNA, SP 91/79, fols. 300–11, 302r.

89. Dimsdale, Tracts on Inoculation, 118–20.

90. “Letters Patent of Baronage,” 13 February 1769, WL, MS 9189/1, fols. 1–2.

91. “Letters Patent of Baronage,” 13 February 1769, WL, MS 9189/1, fols. 2–3.

5. Surviving Plague, Mixing Races

1. “Cathcart to Halifax,” 24 May/4 June 1771, TNA, SP 91/87, fol. 259–62, 261v.

2. “Cathcart to Halifax,” 27 May/7 June 1771, TNA, SP 91/87, fol. 263–65, 264v–265r.

3. On the outbreak of the plague, see Alexander, Bubonic Plague, 101–24.

4. Mertens, Account of the Plague.

5. “Cathcart to Halifax,” 1/12 April 1771, TNA, SP 91/87, fol. 167–69.

6. “Cathcart to Halifax,” 5/16 April 1771, TNA, SP 91/87, fol. 170–77, 170r.

7. “Cathcart to Halifax,” 28 June/9 July 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 49–52, 49r–v.

8. “Cathcart to Halifax,” 1/12 July 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 53–55, 53r.

9. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 5/16 July 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 58–62, 58r.

10. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 8/19 July 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 65–67, 65r–v.

11. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 12/23 July 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 68–72, 68r and 71v.

12. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 15/26 July 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 73–74, 73r.

13. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 26 July/6 August 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 81–84, 81r.

14. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 12/23 July 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 68–72, 68r.

15. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 19/20 July 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 75–78, 75r.

16. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 2/13 August 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 89–93.

17. Mertens, Account of the Plague, 14.

18. Sydenham, Whole Works, 5–6.

19. Mertens, Account of the Plague, 15.

20. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 26 August/6 September 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 117–20, 120r–v.

21. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 20 September/1 October 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 157–59, 157r.

22. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 20 September/1 October 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 157–59, 157r–v.

23. “Declaration of Count Orloff, Her Imperial Majesty's Adjutant General and Master of the Ordnance,” TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 209–210.

24. For a detailed account from Russian sources, see Alexander, Bubonic Plague, 177–228; and Kowal, “Danilo Samoilowitz,” 434–46.

25. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 27 September/8 October 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 175–78, 175r–176r.

26. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 27 September/8 October 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 175–78, 177r.

27. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 4/13 October 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fol. 202–6.

28. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 11/22 October 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fols. 207–8, 207r.

29. “Catherine to Voltaire,” 6/17 October 1771, in Lentin, Voltaire and Catherine, no. 79, 121–22.

30. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 22 November/3 December 1771, TNA, SP 91/88, fols. 260–63, 260r–261r.

31. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 30 December 1771/10 January 1772, TNA, SP 91/89, fol. 21–27, 21r–v.

32. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 30 December 1771/10 January 1772, TNA, SP 91/89, fol. 21–27, 22r.

33. “Ukase or Edict of Her Imperial Majesty, Sovereign of all the Russians from the directing Senate,” issued 19 January 1772, TNA, SP 91/89, fol. 103–04.

34. “Recette de la Poudre de fumigation contre la Peste inventeé par la Commission a Moscou, 1771,” TNA, SP 91/89, fol. 162–66.

35. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 16/27 March 1772, TNA, SP 91/89, fol. 159–61, 159r.

36. “Ukase, printed at the Senate on 18 March 1772,” TNA, SP 91/89, fol. 198–99.

37. “Cathcart to Suffolk,” 17/28 April 1772, TNA, SP 91/89, fol. 194–95, 194r.

38. Jones, Empire of Extinction, 111–19. On Pallas's later career in Russia, see Jones, “Peter Simon Pallas.”

39. Peter Simon Pallas originally published in three volumes in German, between 1771 and 1776. He later published a complete record of all of his travels across the empire in French, Voyages de M. P. S. Pallas, in 5 volumes between 1788 and 1793. Johann Gottlieb Georgi published his account in German in 1775, which was translated into English, as Russia: or, a compleat historical account.

40. Cross, “Chaplains to the British Factory,” 125–42.

41. Skott, “Human Taxonomies,” 218–19.

42. The section begins in Georgi, Russia, 3:45.

43. Georgi, Russia, 1:7–8, 1:23, 1:23–24, 1:22–23.

44. Georgi, Russia, 1:35–36 and 45, 1:54, 1:70, 1:95, 2:228.

45. Georgi, Russia, 1:117, 2:88, 3:24.

46. Georgi, Russia, 2:39, 2:43–44.

47. Georgi, Russia, 1:178; 1:191; 3:297, 1:191, 3:297.

48. Georgi, Russia, 2:115, 4:22, 4:39, 2:145.

49. Georgi, Russia, 3:78, 3:80, 3:116.

50. Georgi, Russia, 3:132–33, 3:158, 3:158–59.

51. Georgi, Russia, 4:132, 3:151–52.

52. Pallas, Voyages de M. P. S. Pallas, 1:499, 1:629.

53. On the importance of racialized bodies, see Curran, Anatomy of Blackness; Block, Colonial Complexions; Seth, Difference and Disease; among others.

54. “Richard Oakes to William Eden,” 3/14 January 1777, TNA, SP 91/101, fol. 7–9.

55. Marbault, Essai sur le commerce, 28–29.

56. Venechanskii, Sposoby i nastavleniia; it was reprinted in Moscow in 1802.

57. Venechanskii, Sposoby i nastavleniia, 10.

58. Bakherakht, O neumerennosti. See the discussion in Kuxhausen, From the Womb to the Body Politic, 18, 88–9.

59. Weisser, “Treating the Secret Disease,” 685–86.

60. Coxe, Account of the Prisons, 14–15, 15–16.

61. Coxe, Account of the Prisons, 14–15, 15.

62. Coxe, Account of the Prisons, 23.

63. For his bibliographic details, see Papmehl, “Matthew Guthrie”; and Appleby, “St. Petersburg to Edinburgh.”

64. Guthrie, “Medical News.”

65. Guthrie, “Part of a Letter,” 623.

66. Guthrie, “Part of a Letter,” 626–34, 634–35, 635, 636.

67. Mertens, “Observations on the Scurvy,” 668–69, 667–8.

68. King, “Letter to the Right Reverend,” 7.

69. King, “Letter to the Right Reverend,” 9, 11, 22.

70. Guthrie, “Account of the Manner,” 328–29, 331.

71. “Samuel to Jeremy Bentham,” 8 April 1780, BL, Add. MS 33,557, 188–94, 191–92.

72. “Samuel to Jeremy Bentham,” 8 April 1780, BL, Add. MS 33,557, 193.

73. “Samuel to Jeremy Bentham,” 19 April 1780, BL, Add. MS 33,557, 196–99, 196.

74. “Samuel to Jeremy Bentham,” 19 April 1780, BL, Add. MS 33,557, 198–99.

75. “Samuel to Jeremy Bentham,” June 1781, BL, Add. MS 33,557, 301–6, 303.

76. “Harris to Stormont,” 17/28 November 1780, TNA, SP 91/106, fol. 182.

77. “Harris to Stormont,” 3/14 August 1781, TNA, FO 65/4, no. 113.

78. “Harris to Stormont,” 31 August/11 September 1781, TNA, FO 65/4, no. 125.

79. “Harris to Stormont,” 21 September/2 October 1781, TNA, FO 65/4, no. 138.

80. “Harris to Stormont,” 28 September/9 October 1781, TNA, FO 65/4, no. 141.

81. Cross, English Lady, 77–78, 78.

6. Analyzing Catarrh, Overcoming Climate

1. Cullen, Nosology, 91, 92.

2. See also the nosological categories for catarrhs in Duncan, Heads of Lectures, 163–64.

3. Gagliardi, Parere sopra l’influenza catarrale; Sassi, Due lettere filosofiche Intorno alla Catarrale Influenza.

4. Mudge, Radical and Expeditious Cure, 85–88, 4, 1–2.

5. “Letter from Samuel Bentham to Jeremy Betham,” October 20/31, 1781 BL, Add. MS 33,557, fol. 318–24.

6. Bentham Papers, BL, Add. MS 33,552, 111r–v.

7. “Harris to Murray,” 24 December 1781/4 January 1782, TNA, FO 65/6, no. 189 (of 1781).

8. “Harris to Murray,” 21 January/1 February 1782, TNA, FO 65/6, no. 8 (of 1782).

9. “Harris to Murray,” 28 January/8 February 1782, TNA, FO 65/6, no. 9 (of 1782).

10. “Harris to Murray,” 4/15 February 1782, TNA, FO 65/6, no. 11 (of 1782).

11. Metzger, Beytrag zu Geschichte, 38–39, 40.

12. “Extrait des prima mensis,” 170, 172, 173–74.

13. Gunther, “Edward Whitaker Gray.”

14. Gray, “Account of the Epidemic Catarrh,” 2, 3–4.

15. Toropitsyn, “Vliiane karantinnykh meropriiatii.”

16. Gray, “Account of the Epidemic Catarrh,” 4.

17. Gray, “Account of the Epidemic Catarrh,” 14, 18–19, 22.

18. Gray, “Account of the Epidemic Catarrh,” 45–46, 62.

19. Mertens, Observationes medicae.

20. Mertens, Observationes medicae, 2:34–35, 2:35.

21. Mertens, Observationes medicae, 2:38–39, 2:46.

22. “Harris to Grantham,” 19/30 September 1782, BA, L29/559/21. His health complaints continued throughout the fall. See also “Harris to Grantham,” 1/12 November 1782, BA, L29/559/34; “Harris to Grantham,” 6/17 December 1782, BA, L29/559/39/1.

23. For example, Mouritz, “Flu”: A Brief History of Influenza, 9.

24. Guthrie, Nouvelles experiences.

25. Guthrie, “Letter to Dr. Duncan,” 367–73.

26. Guthrie, “Letter from Dr. Matthew Guthrie,” 328–29.

27. Lesseps, Travels in Kamtschatka, 128–29.

28. Guthrie, “Dissertation on the Climate,” 214, 215, 222.

29. Guthrie, “Dissertation on the Climate,” 225, 226.

30. Guthrie, “Dissertation on the Climate,” 218–219, 220, 230.

31. “Rainfall/Precipitation in Saint Petersburg, Russia,” Climate.top, accessed December 21, 2020, http://www.saint-petersburg.climatemps.com/precipitation.php.

32. Mertens, Observationes medicae, 2:131–32.

33. Mertens, Observationes medicae, 2:84, 2:86, 2:93, 2:96.

34. For Tooke's career, see Cross, “Reverend William Tooke's Contribution,” 106–15.

35. Tooke, View of the Russian Empire, 1:21–22.

36. Tooke, View of the Russian Empire, 2:1, 1:21.

37. “Stormont to Harris,” 14 January 1780, TNA, SP 91/104, fol. 6–7.

38. “Admiralty to Stormont,” 31 January 1780, TNA, SP 91/104, fol. 12.

39. “Stormont to Harris,” 11 April 1780, TNA, SP 91/104, fol. 209.

40. “Russian Project for opening the Amoor &c., S. and J. Bentham,” sent to Lord Carmarthen, TNA, FO, 97/340, fol. 202–7. On his career, see Alekseev, “Joseph Billings.”

41. Sauer, Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition; Merck, Siberia and Northwestern America.

42. “Character and Manners of the Russians,” [1787], box 1, folder 8, BRB, George Macartney Papers, Yale University, 3v–4r.

43. Binney, “Writing the Northern Expedition.”

44. “Information concerning Mr Billings Expedition to the North East Part of the Russian Empire and the Coast of America,” [1796], fols. 212–215, NLS, MS 1075, fols. 212r–v., 213r., 213r–v.

45. Sauer, Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition, 40, 41.

46. Sauer, Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition, 124.

47. Guthrie, “Medical News,” 434–36.

48. Skott, “Human Taxonomies,” 218–19.

49. Sauer, Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition, 176.

50. Sarytschew, Account of a Voyage, 22.

51. Merck, Siberia and Northwestern America, 107.

52. Sauer, Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition, 208–9. Merck included a longer version; see Siberia and Northwestern America, 142.

53. Sauer, Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition, 263, 263–64, 271.

54. Merch, Siberia and Northwestern America, 136–37.

55. Sarytschew, Account of a Voyage, 31.

56. Krusenstern, Voyage Round the World, I, 61–69, 78, 100. Vinkovetsky makes this argument in his article, “Circumnavigation, Empire, Modernity,” 197–99.

57. Krusenstern, Voyage Round the World, 1:12–13, 1:39, 1:191.

58. Krusenstern, Voyage Round the World, 1:108–9.

59. Langsdorff, Voyages and Travels, 27, 53.

60. Langsdorff, Voyages and Travels, 94.

61. Langsdorff, Voyages and Travels, 96–97, 310.

62. Noctes Russicae, BL, Add. MS 14,390, 4v.

63. Noctes Russicae, BL, Add. MS. 14,390, 140v.

Epilogue

1. On the business relationship, see “John Rogerson to John Clerk,” August 23, 1792, NRS, GD18/5121/1.

2. For Crichton's biography, see Tansey, “Life and Works”; and Appleby, “Sir Alexander Crichton.”

3. Crichton, Inquiry into the Nature and Origin.

4. Tansey, “Life and Works,” 248.

5. Crichton et al., Russische Sammlung.

6. Beddoes, Observations on the Nature and Cure.

7. Beddoes, “Observations on the nature,” 67–86.

8. Beddoes, “Observations on the nature,” 68.

9. Beddoes, “Observations on the nature,” 85.

10. Crichton, Account of Some Experiments, 10.

11. N.'s case is recorded in Crichton, Account of Some Experiments, 11–15.

12. Beddoes, “Observations on the nature,” 79–80.

13. Crichton, Account of Some Experiments, 15–18.

14. Crichton, Account of Some Experiments, 18–19, 46.

15. Crichton, Practical Observations, xxix, xxix–xxx.

16. Crichton, Practical Observations, 50–51, 52, 21, 52.

17. Tansey, “Life and Works,” 251, 253.

18. Mauricheau-Beaupré, Treatise on the Effects, xvii–xviii, 82, 83.

19. Mauricheau-Beaupré, Treatise on the Effects, 93.

20. Larrey, Surgical Memoirs, 81, 80.