Appendix A

France and the Mongols: Textual References, Diplomatic Contacts, and Select Objects, 1221–1422

This table gives an overview of the Mongol archive in late medieval France. It lists any text written or archived in France between 1221 and 1422 that makes a reference to the Mongols (“Tartars,” “Tartary”), embassies, and church councils. I do not include texts with words that derive from “Tartar,” such as variants of tartaire, which refers to silk cloth woven with gold (the famous nasij and pannus tartaricus).¹ This table does not list individual manuscripts aside from BL, Royal 19 D 1 (see chapter 3) and BnF, fr. 2810 (see chapter 5) because of their historical significance and importance to this book.

Item	Date	Title	Source/type	Author/sender	Location of sender/event	Ambassador/messenger	Recipient/audience	Location of recipient	Message/reason for item	Result/response
1	1221		Letter	Pope Honorius III	Rome		omnibus archiepiscopis Galliarum	France	Forwarding Pelagius’s message about King David
2	April 18, 1221	Relatio de Davide (carta I and carta II)	Seventh letter	Jacques de Vitry	Damietta		Various	Paris, French Flanders, etc.	Two Relationes on King David (see chapter 1)
3	1221?	Abbreviated version of Relatio de Davide (carta III)	Report	Jacques de Vitry?				Paris		Preserved in manuscript from third quarter of thirteenth century (see chapter 1)
4	1221–1227	Anonymous chronicle of Saint-Martin of Tours							Account of Fifth Crusade, mention of King David
5	1238		Letter mentioned in Chronica majora of Matthew Paris	“Old Man of the Mountain” (Grand Master of the Ismaili sect, or Assassins)	South of Caspian Sea		Kings of France and England		Requests alliance with western princes against Mongols	Treated with disdain in England
6	ca. 1240–1241		Sermon	Odo of Chateauroux					Sermon against the “Tartars”
7	1241?		Letter	Ponce d’Aubon, Master of the Templars in France	Hungary, Poland?		Louis IX	France	Mongol invasion, people taking cross	Inserted in anonymous chronicle for Alphonse of Poitiers
8	1241		Letter mentioned in Chronica majora of Matthew Paris	Henry II, Duke of Brabant			William of Auvergne, bishop of Paris		Forwarding warnings and requests for aid from Henry of Lorraine
9	March 10, 1241		Letter reproduced in Chronica majora of Matthew Paris	Henry Raspe, count of Lorraine, count palatine of Saxony			Henry II, Duke of Brabant		Requests help against Mongols	Henry II sends letter to William of Auvergne, bishop of Paris
10	April 1–9, 1241		Letter reproduced in Chronica majora of Matthew Paris	Henry Raspe, count of Lorraine, count palatine of Saxony			Henry II, Duke of Brabant		Requests help against Mongols
11	July 3, 1241		Letter reproduced in Chronica majora of Matthew Paris	Emperor Frederick II			All Christian princes (including Louis IX)		Requests help against Mongols
12	August–October 1241	Sermo in concilio pro negotio tartarorum	Sermon	Odo of Chateauroux	France		High-ranking clerics and lay lords		Council called by Pope Gregory IX in response to Mongol invasions
13	1241/1242?		Letter reproduced in Chronica majora of Matthew Paris	Yves de Narbonne			Archbishop of Bordeaux		Account of siege and rescue of Wiener Neustadt
14	April 10, 1242		Letter reproduced in Chronica majora of Matthew Paris	Hungarian bishop			William of Auvergne, bishop of Paris	Paris	Hungarian bishop has interrogated two Mongol captives
15	1244	Livre	Abridgment and translation into Old French of the Sefer Yosippon, the Hebrew adaptation of the first-century Antiquitates iudaicae and the Bellum iudaicum of Flavius Josephus	Moses ben Abraham	Paris		William of Auvergne, bishop of Paris	Paris	Argues that “Tartars” not Ten Lost Tribes but Alans, and not allied with Jews. Says former captive of “Tartars” spoke with duke of Brabant and went to Paris
16	November 25, 1244		Letter	Robert, patriarch of Jerusalem, and other prelates in Holy Land	Holy Land		Prelates of France and England	France and England	Sack of Jerusalem by Khwarazmians, defeat of Latins at La Forbie
17	January 3, 1245		Letter	Pope Innocent IV			Archbishop of Sens	Sens	Mentions need to find a remedy against the “Tartars” and other enemies of the faith
18	April 16, 1245		Departure of embassy	Pope Innocent IV	Lyon	John of Plano Carpini	Guyuk	Mongolia	Deliver papal letters	Accounts of embassy by Plano Carpini, Benedict the Pole, C. de Bridia
19	Spring 1245		Departure of embassy	Pope Innocent IV	Lyon	Andrew of Longjumeau	Mongols in Near East	Persia	Deliver papal letters	Partial account of embassy in Matthew Paris, letters from Simeon Rabban-ata
20	Spring 1245		Departure of embassy	Pope Innocent IV	Lyon	Ascelin of Cremona, Simon of Saint-Quentin	Baiju	Persia	Deliver papal letters	Partial account of embassy by Simon of Saint-Quentin (preserved in Speculum historiale)
21	June 28–July 17, 1245	First Council of Lyon (Lyon I)			Lyon				To address church corruption, Muslims, Frederick II, Mongols, schism with Greeks
22	1247		Letter	“King of the Tartars”			Louis IX	Paris	Order of submission (reported by Matthew Paris)
23	November 1247	Ystoria Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus	Account of papal embassy	John of Plano Carpini			Pope Innocent IV	Lyon	Account of his embassy and scholastic description of Mongols (see chapter 2)	Included in Speculum historiale
24	ca. 1248	Historia Tartarorum	Account of papal embassy	Simon of Saint-Quentin					Account of Ascelin of Cremona’s embassy to Mongols in Persia (see chapter 2)	Excerpts included in Speculum historiale
25	1248		Embassy	Pope Innocent IV		John of Plano Carpini	Louis IX	Paris	Possibly to ask Louis to join papal crusade against Frederick II
26	1248		Letter	Smbat, constable of Armenia and brother of King Hethoum	Samarkand	Smbat’s two sisters and their husbands, King Henry I of Cyprus and John of Ibelin, count of Jaffa	Louis IX	Cyprus	Claims Guyuk and his people are Christian	Letter forwarded by Odo of Chateauroux, papal legate, to Pope Innocent IV; included in Speculum historiale, Grandes chroniques, Miroir historial
27	August 1248		Louis IX departs on Seventh Crusade
28	December 20, 1248		Embassy/letter	Eljigidei	Persia	David and Mark (Christians from Mosul)	Louis IX	Cyprus	Claim Eljigidei and Guyuk Christian, wish Louis success	Louis sends Eljigidei’s letter to Queen Blanche, she forwards it to King Henry III; included in Speculum historiale, Grandes chroniques, Miroir historial
29	January 1249		Embassy/letter	Louis IX, Odo of Chateauroux	Cyprus	Andrew of Longjumeau et al.	Intended for Eljigidei and Guyuk; meet with Guyuk’s widow, Oghul Qaimish	Eljigidei in Persia; Oghul Qaimish near Ili River/Emil-Tarbagatai region	Letters encouraging conversion, liturgical gifts, relic of true cross, tent-chapel (see chapter 2)	Oghul Qaimish replies with demand for tribute; Louis IX regrets embassy (as reported by Joinville in the Vie de saint Louis)
30	March 31, 1249		Letter	Odo of Chateauroux	Cyprus		Pope Innocent IV		Report on crusade, includes letters of Eljigidei and Smbat	Source for Speculum historiale, Grandes chroniques, Miroir historial
31	June 23, 1249		Letter	Jean Sarrasin, chamberlain of Louis IX	Damietta		Nicolas Arrode	Paris	Summary of crusade, mention of embassy to Mongols
32	ca. 1250	Chanson de Guillaume	Chanson de geste						Mentions “Tartarin,” a pagan god	Text originally from twelfth century, so “Tartar” reference a later addition if inspired by Mongols and not “Tartarus”
33	ca. 1250	Les Enfances Vivien	Chanson de geste						“Tartarie”; “roi de Tartarie” named Aarofle/ Esrofle	Text originally 1205–1210 or 1205–1225, so “Tartar” reference a later addition
34	1251		Return of embassy	Oghul Qaimish	Ili River/Emil-Tarbagatai region	Andrew of Longjumeau and William?	Louis IX	Caesarea	Demands similar tribute every year in future	Joinville apparently met the friars, and mentions their report in the Vie de saint Louis
35	ca. 1252		Completion of chronicle	Alberic of Trois-Fontaines
36	Early 1252	De triumphis ecclesiae	Historical and autobiographical poem about John’s era	John of Garland	Paris				“Tartars” are punishment for Christians’ sins; lists lands they conquer	Professor of Roger Bacon; contemporary and likely associate of Jacques de Vitry
37	1253 (last datable reference)	Speculum historiale	Encyclopedia	Vincent of Beauvais					Excerpts from Plano Carpini and Simon of Saint-Quentin	Major source for later histories of the Mongols; translated by Jean de Vignay as Miroir historial (1315–1332)
38	Early 1253		Mission	None official	Departure from Acre	William of Rubruck et al.	Sartach intended recipient; he sends embassy to his father Batu; he to Great Khan Mongke	Camps of Sartach, Batu, Mongke; Karakorum	Preaching, intelligence gathering	Account of journey by William for Louis IX, cited by Roger Bacon in Opus Maius
39	February 20, 1253		Letter	Louis IX			Pope Innocent IV		Louis IX proposes that mendicants be promoted to vacant sees in caliph’s territory for needs of new Mongol converts	Pope Innocent IV entrusts this to Odo of Chateauroux, without result
40	1254		Embassy/letter	King Béla IV of Hungary			Louis IX		Requests aid against Mongols	Apparently no response from Louis IX (see no. 41)
41	November 11, 1254		Letter	King Béla IV of Hungary			Pope Innocent IV		Requests aid against Mongols in event of a new invasion; says that he has already sent requests for aid to pope, emperor, and Louis IX with no response
42	After 1254		Chronicle	Richer de Sens					Account of Mongol invasion of Hungary and Poland; speculates on Mongols’ origins
43	Spring 1255		Report on visit to Great Khan Mongke in Mongolia	William of Rubruck	Holy Land	Gosset	Louis IX	Paris	Account of William’s mission, with Mongke’s ultimatum (see chapter 2)
44	1256		Circular letter	Humbert of Romans					Reports that missionaries among “Tartars” have favorable reports
45	1257?		Visit of William of Rubruck			William of Rubruck	Roger Bacon; Louis IX?	Paris	Oral report to king and university faculty?	Documented by Roger Bacon in his Opus Maius; says he saw William’s report and spoke with him
46	ca. 1260	Sermo XI, de invitatione ad crucem	Sermon	Odo of Chateauroux				Italy	Delivering Christians from “Tartars”
47	ca. 1260	Sermo sex de sancto Dominico	Sermon	Odo of Chateauroux			Dominicans	Italy	Crusade against “Tartars”
48	March 1, 1260		Letter	Thomas Agni di Lentino (papal legate and bishop of Bethlehem)	Acre	A Templar	Louis IX (presumably, among others; letter addressed to all Christian princes)	Paris?	Appeal for defense of Holy Land; relates fall of Muslim realms, arrogant letter sent by khan demanding submission
49	April 22, 1260		Letter	Written on behalf of Thomas Agni di Lentino, and bishops, lords, and all people of kingdom of Jerusalem			Charles of Anjou		Appeal for assistance in defending Holy Land
50	November 17, 1260		Papal bull	Pope Alexander IV			Louis IX and other sovereigns		Calls for march against “Tartars” in Europe and in Asia	See no. 52
51	1260 or 1261		Embassy	Berke			Louis IX	Paris	In 1260, or early in 1261, Berke followed up the attack on Poland by sending an embassy to Paris to demand the submission of Louis IX
52	April 10, 1261		Assembly	Louis IX	Paris				Assembly of prelates and lords in Paris called by Louis IX on April 10, 1261, in response to bull from Pope Alexander IV; various forms of penance ordered
53	1262		Letter/ embassy?	Hulegu	Maraga (about 60 miles south of Tabriz)		Louis IX	Paris	Requests alliance against Mamluks	Letter from Hulegu survives, but it is not certain that it reached Louis IX
54	April 18, 1262		Letter	Pope Urban IV			Provincial of Dominicans in France	France	Asks that Dominicans preach crusade against “Tartars”
55	1262–1263	Bonum universale de apibus	Moral allegory with historical references	Thomas of Cantimpré					Mentions meeting Dominicans who had been sent to Mongols in 1249, and recounts story similar to that in Joinville of Mongol prince’s vision of Christ
56	ca. 1263	“Complainte de Constantinople”	Poem	Rutebeuf	Paris				Mongols threaten Latin holdings in Holy Land; if they knew how weak and poorly governed France is, they would attack it too
57	June 20, 1263		Letter	Pope Urban IV	Orvieto		Alphonse of Toulouse		Urges Alphonse to encourage his brother Charles of Anjou to help the Holy Land threatened by Greeks and Mongols
58	August 20, 1263		Letter	Pope Urban IV			Louis IX		The pope includes the Mongols among the threats he sees to the Holy Land
59	September 6, 1263		Letter	Pope Urban IV	Orvieto		Alphonse of Toulouse		Urges Alphonse to aid defense of Holy Land, evokes threat of Mongols and Mamluks
60	1266		Safe-conduct	Charles of Anjou					For merchant from Marseille going to ilkhan in Persia
61	1267		Letter/ embassy?	Abaqa	Persia		Pope Clement IV		Letter surmised to have existed	See no. 62
62	1267		Letter	Pope Clement IV			Abaqa	Persia	Pope Clement IV’s reply to preceding, lost letter of 1267 from Abaqa; thanks Abaqa for his congratulations on defeat of Manfred, speaks of preparations being made for crusade by kings of France and Navarre
63	1267	Opus Maius	Encyclopedia	Roger Bacon			Pope Clement IV		Includes discussion of Mongols and information from William of Rubruck
64	1248–1267		Chinese sword carved on tomb effigy of Jean or Hugues VI d’Aluye							Effigy was in monastery of La Clarté-Dieu, today at the Met Cloisters
65	Easter 1268		Quodlibet	Gerard of Abbeville	Paris			University of Paris	On whether the pope could grant dispensation to consecrated virgin from her vow of chastity, if a pagan tyrant were going to destroy the faithful unless she married him; probably response to marriage of ilkhan Abaqa with daughter of Byzantine emperor in 1265
66	1269		Embassy	Abaqa	Persia		Louis IX, Charles of Anjou	Paris, Sicily	Probably to discuss common attack against Mamluks, who had taken Antioch in May 1268
67	1269		Embassy; mentioned in bas de page of a Greek New Testament given as a gift by Michael VIII Paleologus to Louis IX	Emperor Michael VIII Paleologus			Louis IX	Paris	Contemporary note in manuscript mentions marriage of Michael’s daughter to Abaqa
68	1270s	Lost chronicle of Primat	Chronicle	Primat of Saint-Denis					Mongols mentioned in partial translation by Jean de Vignay (preserved in London, BL, Royal 19 D 1—see chapter 3)
69	1270		Embassy	Abaqa and king of Armenia	Persia, Armenia		King Philip III, but intended for Louis IX	Near Tunis		None; French forced to withdraw
70	1270		Visit to Hungary to arrange marriages	Bernard, abbot of Montecassino			Charles of Anjou		Bernard had traveled to the Hungarian court to arrange marriages between two of King Stephen V’s children and the offspring of Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily; he commented favorably on Hungarian military strength	Charles of Anjou’s son Charles II of Naples married Mary of Hungary, daughter of Stephen V and Elizabeth the Cuman; Charles II and Mary were the maternal grandparents of King Philip VI of France (see chapter 3)
71	1268–1271		Conclave of Viterbo	Odo of Chateauroux					Odo argued that the new pope should be ready to begin a dialogue with eastern Christians, Muslims, and Mongols
72	1271	De statu Saracenorum	Crusade treatise	William of Tripoli			Written at request of Tedaldo Visconti, future Pope Gregory X (who gave a letter for Kublai Khan to the Polos)		In BnF, fr. 7470 (see chapter 3), this text mentions Hulegu’s conquest of Baghdad, and includes Mongols in historical overview of Holy Land
73	ca. 1274	Grandes chroniques de France	French royal chronicle	Various, including monks of Saint-Denis					Includes references to Mongol attacks in Europe and Holy Land, French contact with Mongols	Continued until ca. 1381
74	1274 (before Second Council of Lyon, held May 8–July 17 [Lyon II])	Les faits des Tartars	Description of Mongols	David of Ashby			Pope Gregory X and Second Council of Lyon		Probably written to provide ethnographic information and to prepare joint Latin-Mongol military action
75	1274 (before Lyon II)		Report	Friar Richard (Latin secretary of Hulegu and Abaqa)			Pope Gregory X and Second Council of Lyon		Expresses ilkhans’ desire to coordinate with Latins against Mamluks
76	1274 (before Lyon II)	Opus Tripartitum	Crusade and conversion treatise	Humbert of Romans			Pope Gregory X and Second Council of Lyon		Latin Christians must continue to hope for conversion of Mongols
77	May 8–July 17, 1274	Lyon II		Abaqa	Persia	Sixteen people, probably Mongols and eastern Christians, and David of Ashby and Richard	Pope Gregory X and council	Lyon	Offer of perpetual alliance and peace treaty to all the faithful of the Roman Church; Abaqa’s envoys reiterate claim made earlier by Hulegu (see nos. 53, 75) that Mongols aid Christians and want alliance	Baptism of Mongol ambassadors; later rumors had the “king of the Tartars” attending in person, being baptized, and receiving a crown at the pope’s hands
78	After Lyon II	Dit du concile de Lyon	Poem	Anonymous Frenchman					Incomplete poem summarizing Lyon II, mentions “Tartars”
79	ca. 1276	Majus chronicon Lemovicense	Chronicle						Mentions embassy from Mongols to Saint Louis on Cyprus
80	Easter 1277		Embassy	Abaqa	Persia	John and James Vassalli, who were probably Greeks	Papal, French, and English courts	Rome, Paris, London	Appeal for help against Muslims	See no. 81
81	1277 (after Easter)		Embassy	Charles of Anjou		Envoys accompanying John and James Vassalli	Abaqa	Persia	Charles presumably sought an alliance against the Mamluks to defend the kingdom of Jerusalem
82	1278		Embassy	Charles of Anjou			Abaqa	Persia	Unknown
83	1280s?	Floriant et Florete	Arthurian romance		Composed in Sicily or southern Italy?		Charles of Anjou?		“Tartars” are allies of emperor of Constantinople	The sole surviving manuscript was produced in the Ile-de-France
84	ca. 1283	Blanquerna	Biographical novel on spirituality and church reform	Ramon Lull	Montpellier				Envisions “Tartars” and mendicants learning each others’ languages; mass conversion of Mongols
85	Before 1285	Gesta Ludovici Regis Franciae	Biography of Louis IX	Guillaume de Nangis (d. 1300)			Philip III		Louis IX’s contact with Mongols
86	1285		Embassy/ Letter	Arghun	Persia		Pope Honorius IV		Requests alliance, mentions kings of France and Sicily
87	1287		Embassy	Arghun	Persia	Rabban Sauma	Charles II of Anjou	Naples	Appeal to ally against Mamluks
88	1287		Embassy	Arghun	Persia	Rabban Sauma	Philip IV	Paris	Appeal to ally against Mamluks; embassy stays a month in Paris; Rabban Sauma visits Saint-Denis and Sainte-Chapelle	See nos. 89, 90
89	1288		Expense account for envoys sent by Philip IV to accompany Rabban Sauma to Arghun’s court in 1288
90	1288		Embassy	Philip IV	Paris		Arghun	Persia		Arghun sends reply embassy (see no. 91)
91	1289		Embassy	Arghun	Persia	Buscarello Ghisolfi of Genoa was head of embassy	Philip IV	Paris; Buscarello went to Rome first, and from Paris to London	Mongolian text of Arghun’s letter survives (or at least text of copy addressed to Philip the Fair); requests rendezvous outside Damascus in February 1291
92	1287–1289	Epistola Raimundi ad Studium Parisiensem	Letter	Ramon Lull			University of Paris		Advocates teaching oriental languages including “Tartar”
93	1287–1289	Liber Tartari et Christiani	Conversion treatise	Ramon Lull					Imaginary dialogue about conversion of non-Christian peoples involving a learned “Tartar”
94	1287–1289	Fèlix o Llibre de meravelles	Doctrinal treatise	Ramon Lull					Expresses need to convert “Tartars,” an alliance with whom would enable Christians to conquer “Saracens”
95	1287–1289	Epistola Raimundi ad regem Francorum	Letter	Ramon Lull					Advocates teaching oriental languages including “Tartar”
96	1287–1289	Ad quendam praelatum consiliarum regis Francorum	Treatise on reforms and initiatives	Ramon Lull			French clergy; Philip IV		Advocates teaching oriental languages including “Tartar”
97	1290–1291		Crusade treatise	Fidenzio of Padua			Pope Nicholas IV		Discusses Mongol alliance
98	1268–1291	Claris et Laris	Arthurian romance						Mentions Antioch’s surrender to the Mongols
99	1298		Letter	Pope Boniface VIII	Rome		Philip IV, Edward I	Paris, London	Since the elimination of Latin Syria, Lesser Armenia (tributary to the ilkhanate) was on the front lines of Mamluk attack
100	1298	The Description of the World	Description of Yuan Empire and other realms	Marco Polo; Rustichello da Pisa	Genoa, Venice					See no. 119 and chapter 3
101	1299		Letter	Gazan			Heads of military orders and king of Cyprus		Gazan had invaded Syria and calls on Latins to join him
102	late thirteenth century	Galien le restoré	Chanson de geste						Tartaire is name of a “Saracen” king
103	1229–1244 or end of thirteenth century	Octavien	Chanson de geste						King of “Tatellie” (Tartary)
104	Last third of thirteenth century	Livre de Sydrac	Encyclopedia						Mongols figure in apocalyptic prophecy (see chapter 4)
105	ca. 1300	Conseil du roi Charles	Crusade treatise	Charles II of Anjou?					Counsels against crusade against Egypt, since sultan’s prestige and power great after victories over Christians and Mongols
106	ca. 1300		Embassy	Gazan; kings of Armenia and Georgia		Two Franciscans	Pope Boniface VIII	Rome	News of recovery of Jerusalem by Mongols	News sent to kings of France and England
107	ca. 1300		Crusade preaching and propaganda	Franciscan Bernard Gui of Tiel	Brabant				In response to news of Mongols taking Jerusalem in 1300
108	ca. 1300			John of Brittany					Takes cross in response to news of Mongol capture of Jerusalem
109	1300		Letter	Gazan			Heads of military orders and king of Cyprus		Gazan had withdrawn from Syria but promised Latins he would return
110	May 4, 1300		Letter	Hospitaller from region of Nantes					Announces recovery of Holy Land by Mongols and his own plan to depart with his master and fellow knights to Syria the following August
111	1301		Embassy	Gazan	Persia	Buscarello Ghisolfi and two Mongols	Pope Boniface VIII	Rome	Proposed coordinated attacks against Mamluks; not clear if embassy went anywhere besides Rome
112	December 5, 1301	“Asculta fili”	Papal bull	Pope Boniface VIII			Philip IV		Accuses Philip of indifference to state of Holy Land; shameful that Mongols succor the Holy Land even though they are unbelievers
113	Easter 1303		Embassy	Ilkhan?	Persia?		Philip IV	Paris	Continuator of Guillaume de Nangis records embassy requesting alliance against Mamluks
114	1305		Embassy/ letter	Oljeitu			Philip IV (presumably Pope Clement V and Edward I of England too)		Call to unite forces against common enemies; oral offer of horses and grain when Christians arrived in Armenia	Philip’s response unknown; Hayton’s Flower of the Histories possibly inspired by this embassy
115	1306		Crusade treatise	Fulk of Villaret			Pope Clement V		Argues for alliance with Mongols
116	after September 1306	Devise des chemins de Babylone	Geographical and crusade treatise	Hospitallers			Pope Clement V		Christians should invade Egypt if Mongols attack the Mamluks
117	1305–1307	De recuperatione Terre sancte	Crusade treatise	Pierre Dubois	Paris		Philip IV		Favorably discusses Mongol military tactics and government
118	1307	Flower of the Histories	Chronicle	Hayton of Gorigos	Poitiers		Pope Clement V		Crusade treatise, history of Mongols and Turks, eyewitness accounts of their battles, strategy to be adopted in joint operations with ilkhans
119	1307	The Description of the World		Marco Polo	Venice	Thibaut of Chepoy	Charles of Valois	Venice	Thibaut receives copy of the Description from Polo while in Venice	Thibaut’s son John of Chepoy had copies made for Charles of Valois and others in France (see chapter 3)
120	1289–1308	Via ad Terram Sanctam	Crusade treatise						Argues for alliance with Mongols
121	1289–1308	Memoria Terre Sancte	Crusade treatise						Adaptation of Via ad Terram Sanctam, but opposes an alliance with the Mongols
122	1308	Anonymi descriptio Europae Orientalis	Survey of southeastern Europe	Anonymous Dominican	France		Charles of Valois		Advocates crusade against Byzantium; states that Bulgaria tributary to “Tartars” and men no longer accustomed to fighting
123	October 1309	Vie de saint Louis	Biography of Louis IX with autobiographical details	Jean de Joinville	France		Dedicated to King Louis X	Paris	Includes account of Louis IX’s embassy to Mongols of 1249 and Mongol response; “Tartar” prince’s vision of court of heaven
124	1310	Quae sunt advertenda pro passagio	Crusade treatise	William of Nogaret	Council of Vienne				Argues for alliance with Mongols; kept in “trésor des chartes” (part of royal archive) in Paris
125	1311	Informatio	Crusade treatise	Henry II of Cyprus and his council					Mamluks fear attack by “Tartars”; Mamluk numbers diminished by war with Mongols
126	1316–1318	How to Defeat the Saracens	Crusade treatise	William of Adam					Several mentions of Mongols, including long discussion of alliance between emperor of northern “Tartars” (i.e., Golden Horde) and Mamluk sultan
127	after 1320	Anonymum S. Martialis Chronicon ad annum M.CCC.XX. continu-atum	Chronicle	Anonymous	Limoges				Reports that in 1307, six “Tartari” sent by king of “Tartars” to Pope Clement V, who was in Poitiers, passed through Limoges
128	1316–1322	Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis	Crusade treatise and chronicle	Marino Sanudo Torsello			Philip V, Charles IV,Philip VI	Paris	Advocates alliance with Mongols; gives history of Mongols drawn from Hayton
129	after 1322	Memoriale historiarum	Chronicle	Johannes Parisiensis, canon at Saint-Victor	Paris				Reports that in 1299–1300, “Charzan, king of the Tartars,” with kings of Armenia and Georgia, attacked the Mamluk sultan in Syria
130	1322–1323		Visit to Avignon and French kingdom	Marino Sanudo Torsello	France		Pope John XXII, King Charles IV, French lords	Avignon, Paris	Torsello spends several months in Avignon and in courts and noble households of France, including six months at royal court; gives copy of Liber Secretorum to King Charles IV and maps to Louis of Clermont
131	Before 1327	Cronice ab origine mundi	Universal history	Gonzalo of Hinojosa					Recounts Mongol conquests in Asia and the Middle East, embassy to Louis IX in Cyprus, describes territorial extent of the four khanates in the early fourteenth century (see chapter 4)	Translated 1373–1379 by Jean Golein for King Charles V as Croniques d’Espaigne or Croniques de Burgues (Burgos)
132	1323–1328		Crusade treatise	Garcias de Ayerbe, bishop of Leon			Probably for King Charles IV		Argues that Mongols will ally with Christians against Mamluks
133	after 1329		Commentary on Judith	Pierre de la Palud	Paris?				Judith’s display of reverence to Holofernes reminds Pierre that the French king’s messengers to the Mongol khan were asked to show reverence
134	1330	Directorium ad faciendum passagium transmarinum	Crusade treatise	Anonymous Dominican	Italy?		Addressed to King Philip VI	Paris	“Tartars” have enslaved many Greeks; Mongol-Muslim enmity; Louis IX’s embassy in 1249; France could defeat all major non-Christian powers including “Tartars”	Translated ca. 1335 by Jean de Vignay and included in London, BL, Royal 19 D 1 (see chapter 3)
135	1306–1331	Flores chronicarum	Universal chronicle	Bernard Gui			Charles V	Paris	Charles commissions a translation in 1368 which appears in the inventory as the Chronique martinienne; contains brief account of Louis IX’s embassy to the Mongols
136	1315–1332	Miroir historial, translation of Speculum historiale	Encyclopedia	Jean de Vignay (translator/ adapter)	France				Part IV, book XXXII, chapters 90-94 are on Louis IX’s contacts with the Mongols	Mongol passages included in London, BL, Royal 19 D 1 (see chapter 3)
137	April 4, 1332		Letter	Marino Sanudo Torsello	Venice		Philip VI	Paris	Writes that he gave Liber Secretorum to “many others especially of your kingdom”; fears “Tartars” spreading further into Europe
138	October 13, 1334		Letter	Marino Sanudo Torsello	Venice		Philip VI	Paris	“Tartars” rule sultanate of Iconium; many Greeks (Orthodox Christians) in ilkhanate; Russia and part of Georgia are subject to the Mongols
139	October 22, 1334		Letter	Marino Sanudo Torsello	Venice		Louis, duke of Bourbon, grand treasurer of France		If Turks ally with Mongols, Christendom is in danger
140	ca. 1336	London, BL, Royal 19 D 1	Manuscript	Illuminated by Montbastons	Paris		Philip VI	Paris	Crusade compilation in French; includes Mongol excerpts in Miroir historial (Plano Carpini, Simon of Saint-Quentin), Polo (earliest surviving copy in langue d’oïl), Pordenone, Directorium (see chapter 3)
141	1336		Letter	Philip VI	Paris		Pope Benedict XII		Describes Philip VI’s crusade preparations, mentions letter Philip sent to ilkhan of Persia
142	August 1340		Letter	Pope Benedict XII			Philip VI	Paris	Reproaches Philip VI for war with England when Christendom threatened by the king of Morocco, the Turks, and the “Tartars”
143	1340–1341	Huon d’Auvergne	Chanson de geste		Probably originally in langue d’oïl, but only survives in Franco-Italian version and in later prose version in Italian				“Tartaire” (i.e., Tartary)
144	1351	Works of Odoric of Pordenone, Hayton, Riccoldo da Montecroce, Wilhelm von Boldensele, L’Estat et la gouvernance du Grant Kaan, Papal letters re: Mongols	Translations into Middle French	Jean le Long d’Ypres						Used by the author of the The Book of John Mandeville; aside from the translation of Hayton, they also appear in The Book of Marvels (BnF, fr. 2810; see chapter 5)
145	1352	Chronique	Chronicle	Gilles le Muisis	Tournai				Mentions conversion of “rex Tartarorum” in 1337 after child born half white and half Black is baptized and becomes all white; mentions “Tartars” bringing the plague to Christian city they were besieging in 1348
146	1355–1356	Le Chevalier au Cygne and Godefroi de Bouillon	Prose versions of thirteenth-century chansons de geste						“Tartars,” “Tartary”
147	ca. 1360	The Book of John Mandeville	Imaginary travelogue	Anonymous	England or France				Draws extensively on earlier works on Mongols, including Speculum historiale, Hayton, Odoric of Pordenone	Most successful work in Mongol archive by number of surviving manuscripts; shaped European view of Mongols for generations
148	after 1361	Theseus de Cologne	Chanson de geste						Aerofle is “king of Tartary”
149	before 1359 or ca. 1375	Dieudonné de Hongrie	Chanson de geste						“Tartarien” (i.e., a “Tartar”)
150	ca. 1375	Catalan Atlas	Mappa mundi	Elisha ben Abraham Bevenisti Cresques and workshop	Majorca		Charles V	Paris	First, or oldest surviving, European map to incorporate Marco Polo’s geography (see chapter 4)
151	ca. 1350–1380	Tristan de Nanteuil	Chanson de geste						Includes characters named “Tartaire(s),” a giant and the brother of the sultan of Babylon; and “Tartaire d’Allemaigne”
152	1380		Inventories of library of King Charles V						Mongols figure (if in some cases only briefly) in around forty documents listed (see chapter 4)
153	1384		King Levon V of Cilicia in exile after kingdom falls to Mamluks			Levon V, king of Cilicia	Charles VI	Paris	Levon comes to Europe seeking aid	Charles VI and Levon discuss forces of Turks and “Tartars”; Charles promises to help him regain his throne
154	1389	Songe du Viel Pelerin	Allegory on reform and conversion	Philippe de Mézières			Charles VI		Praises Mongol government (see chapter 5)
155	1384–1393	Chronique d’Arménie	Chronicle	Jean Dardel					Dardel was a Franciscan and a confessor of King Levon V of Cilicia; mentions Armenian alliances with Mongols against Mamluks
156	1394	Ballad 169		Eustache Deschamps					He has traveled the world, including to “Tartarie,” but “Riens ne se peut comparer a Paris [Nothing can be compared to Paris]”
157	1396	Chevalerie de la Passion de Jesus-Christ	Treatise for a new chivalric order of crusaders	Philippe de Mézières					Argues crusaders should imitate Mongols’ portable cities (see chapter 5)
158	1397	Une epistre lamentable et consolatoire	Letter of comfort and treatise on spiritual and social reform	Philippe de Mézières			Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy		Argues crusaders should imitate Mongols’ portable cities (see chapter 5)
159	1398–1399		Embassy	Tamerlane		Dominican friars Franciscus Ssathru to France, and John, archbishop of Sultaniyeh, to England, and possibly Genoa and Venice	Charles VI of France, Henry IV of England		Letters do not survive, but most likely requesting alliance against Ottomans and requesting free movement of merchants	Both kings sent reply letters; Franciscus probably reached Tamerlane with letters from French king in 1399 or 1400; Tamerlane’s son Miran Shah’s letter of 1402 says Franciscus also came to him from Charles VI (see chapter 5)
160	ca. 1400	Ciperis de Vignevaux	Chanson de geste						Characters include a “Tartare” and Herembron, king of “Tartary”
161	ca. 1400	Trésor des histoires	Chronicle						Contains brief account of Louis IX’s embassy to Mongols (same as Chronique martinienne)
162	ca. 1390–1400	Chronique de Jean d’Outremeuse: Ly Mireur des Histors	Universal chronicle	Jean d’Outremeuse					Draws on Mandeville; references to “Tartars”
163	1400–1402		Embassy	Emperor Manuel II of Byzantium	Paris, London				Manuel sought European assistance against the Ottomans	His entourage included Asians, among whom may have been Mongols, whose costume was depicted by Parisian illuminators in subsequent years
164	1402		Report	Byzantine ambassadors					While in Paris, Emperor Manuel II receives word that Tamerlane has offered to restore to Manuel II territories lost to Bayezid
165	1402–1403	Le chemin de longue estude	Dream allegory and moral commentary	Christine de Pizan					Christine mentions the “grant kam,” “Tartarie,” and the “isle de Cathay”; the sultan of Cairo is at war with Tamerlane
166	1403		Embassies/letter	Jean le Maingre, Maréchal de Boucicaut, governor of Genoa on behalf of King Charles VI	Genoa		Tamerlane (among many others)		Goal to enter into contact with Tamerlane in furtherance of the Republic of Genoa’s interests	Genoa, Venice, John VII (nephew and regent of Byzantine emperor Manuel II), Hospitallers of Rhodes enter instead into treaty with Bayezid’s son Suleyman Celebi
167	1403	Mémoire sur Tamerlan et sa cour	Firsthand description of Timur, his family, realm, and conquests	John of Sultaniyeh	Written in Paris for King Charles VI and his court				Aims to show that Tamerlane, although a Muslim, is a “Tartar” and thus an enemy of the Ottomans with whom the French can treat (see chapter 5)	Composed in French, translated into Latin, incorporated into the Chronographia regum Francorum
168	1403		Accounts of the duke of Burgundy	Philip the Bold			John of Sultaniyeh		Payment of 100 ecus from Philip to John
169	May 1403		Embassy/letters	Tamerlane and his son Miran Shah		John of Sultaniyeh	Charles VI	Paris	Goal to counter hostile perceptions of Tamerlane in West, and to boost John of Sultaniyeh’s standing in Europe and with Tamerlane (see chapter 5)	Letter to Tamerlane from Charles VI dated June 15, 1403, and presents, which never reached him owing to John’s remaining in Europe and Tamerlane’s death in 1405
170	1405	Le livre du Chevalier Errant	Moral allegory	Tommaso III de Saluzzo					Section titled “Du Grant Can”
171	1409	Le livre des fais du bon messire Jehan Le Maingre dit Bouciquaut	Biography of Boucicaut						Mentions “Tamburlan,” “un grant prince de Tartarie” and “scourge of God” who would not have been any better for Christendom than Bajazet
172	ca. 1410	The Book of Marvels	Paris, BnF, fr. 2810	Commissioned by John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy	Produced in Paris				Likely the largest textual and visual compendium in a European vernacular onMiddle East and Asia (see chapter 5)	Given by John the Fearless to his uncle John, Duke of Berry, as New Year’s gift in 1413
173	1410	Imago mundi	Encyclopedia	Pierre d’Ailly					Two brief mentions of “Tartars”: one on independence from “Tartars” of “Abeas,” the second on the river Ethilie (the latter is taken from Roger Bacon’s Opus Maius and removes reference to William of Rubruck)
174	1410 (death of Froissart)	Chroniques	Chronicle	Jean Froissart					Mentions Levon V, who speaks of Mongols; Tamerlane
175	before 1416		“Tartar” tapestries	Duke John of Berry
176	ca. 1400–1422	Histoire de Charles VI (Chronique du Religieux de Saint-Denis)	Chronicle	Michel Pintoin	Saint-Denis				Recounts arrival of news of Tamerlane’s victory over Bayezid in 1402, embassy of John of Sultaniyeh in 1403
177	1421–1422		Report on embassies	Ghillebert de Lannoy			Philip the Good		Several mentions of Mongols in northeastern Europe
178	1415–1429	Chronographia regum Francorum	Chronicle						Contains a rearranged, slightly abridged version of John of Sultaniyeh’s biography of Tamerlane, in Latin

1. On derivations from “Tartar,” see Godefroy, Dictionnaire, 7:651. It should be noted that Old French “tartaire/tartre,” meaning the deposit left during fermentation, is believed to derive from a Latin word that predates the Mongols (see the etymology of “tartar” in the Oxford English Dictionary). On textiles, see chapter 2; Allsen, Commodity and Exchange; Kinoshita, “Reorientations,” 43–46; Rosati, “Panni tartarici”; Wardwell, “Panni Tartarici”; Watt et al., When Silk Was Gold.

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Appendix A

France and the Mongols: Textual References, Diplomatic Contacts, and Select Objects, 1221–1422

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