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Disciplining Democracy: How the Modern American University Transformed Student Activism: Notes

Disciplining Democracy: How the Modern American University Transformed Student Activism
Notes

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Notes

table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Title Page
  3. Dedication
  4. Epigraph
  5. Contents
  6. Acknowledgments
  7. Abbreviations
  8. Introduction: Disciplining
  9. Chapter 1. Howard University: Making the Campus into a Base for Social Action
  10. Chapter 2. Michigan State University: Evolving the Land Grant Philosophy of Service
  11. Chapter 3. San Francisco State College: Striking for Community
  12. Chapter 4. Harvard University–Radcliffe College: Educating for Action
  13. Chapter 5. Stanford University: Pursuing Objectivity
  14. Chapter 6. Brown University: Updating the Liberal Arts Tradition
  15. Chapter 7. Georgetown University: Redefining Jesuit Service
  16. Conclusion: “To Channel Off Discontent”
  17. Notes
  18. Index
  19. Copyright

Notes

Introduction

  1. 1.Mario Savio, Speech at Sit-In, Sproul Hall, September 30, 1964, in The Essential Mario Savio: Speeches and Writings That Changed America, ed. Robert Cohen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 114.
  2. 2.Mario Savio, Speech at FSM Rally, November 20, 1964, in The Essential Mario Savio: Speeches and Writings That Changed America, ed. Robert Cohen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 163.
  3. 3.“Kerr Condemns Politicking,” Daily Californian, September 28, 1964.
  4. 4.“Chancellor’s Committee for Community Service,” September 10, 1965, box 57, CU-149, University Archives, Bancroft Library, Berkeley, California.
  5. 5. “Chancellor’s Committee for Community Service,” September 10, 1965, box 57, CU-149, University Archives, Bancroft Library, Berkeley, California. A couple of months before the Meyerson report came out, Sargent Shriver, the director of the Peace Corps, visited the University of California. In his speech, he equated the campus activism at Berkeley to international volunteer work in the Peace Corps. The initials “FSM,” Shriver explained, stand for the “free service movement.” Speech by Sargent Shriver at the University of California, Berkeley, March 31, 1965, box 22, Personal Papers of Sargent Shriver, Subject File 1961–1966, series 2.1, John F. Kennedy Library and Archives, Boston, MA.
  6. 6.Savio, “Speech at FSM Rally on Sproul Plaza,” November 20, 1964, in The Essential Mario Savio, 164.
  7. 7.On the effects of traditional forms of disciplining on social movements, see Ellen Messer Davidow, Disciplining Feminism: From Social Activism to Academic Discourse (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002); Fabio Rojas, From Black Power to Black Studies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007); Roderick Ferguson, The Reorder of Things: The University and Its Pedagogies of Minority Difference (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012).
  8. 8.On education for the nation and leadership, see Bernard Bailyn, Education in the Forming of American Society: Needs and Opportunities (New York: Vintage, 1960); and Mark R. Nemec, Ivory Towers and Nationalist Minds: Universities, Leadership, and National Development (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006). On education and the liberal state, see Christopher P. Loss, Between Citizens and the State: The Politics of American Higher Education in the 20th Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014); and Andrew Jewett, “Naturalizing Liberalism in the 1950s,” in Professors and their Politics, ed. Neil Gross and Solomon Simmons (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014). Other historians have focused on the gender and racial components of citizenship. See Craig Steven Wilder, Ebony and Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of America’s Universities (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014); Andrea Turpin, A New Moral Vision: Gender, Religion, and the Changing Purposes of American Higher Education, 1837–1917 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016); Leigh Patel, No Study Without Struggle: Confronting Settler Colonialism in Higher Education (New York: Beacon, 2021).
  9. 9.Most work on the rise of the modern university argues that moral concern was marginalized on campus, but scholars disagree on factors that led to the marginalization of morality. Some scholars focus on the rise of industrial capitalism and the administrative state. See Clyde W. Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894–1928 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990). Others identify science’s naturalism as the source of value-neutrality in the university. See especially George M. Marsden, The Soul of the American University: From Protestant Establishment to Established Nonbelief (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); and Julie Reuben, The Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). Other historians argue that “value disengagement” was a result of shifting political cultures and ultimately the Cold War. See Andrew Jewett, Science, Democracy, and the American University: From the Civil War to the Cold War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012). This intellectual transformation was an important trend in the rise of what some call the “Cold War” university. On this, see Rebecca S. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). Ethan Schrum sees the Cold War university as a prominent offshoot of what he calls the instrumental university. Schrum, The Instrumental University: Education in Service of the National Agenda after World War II (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2019).
  10. 10.For conservative criticism of the university’s responses post-1960s, see Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today’s Students (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987); for its liberal response (and defense), see Lawrence Levine, The Opening of the American Mind: Canons, Culture, and History (New York: Beacon, 1997).
  11. 11.The notion of disciplining as an institutional logic takes inspiration from Pierre Bourdieu and Jean Claude Passeron’s idea of “pedagogic action.” See Bourdieu and Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture (New York: Sage, 1990).
  12. 12.I am indebted to the excellent scholarship on student activism in the 1960s, in particular the works that focus on Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and the Peace Corps. On SDS, see James Miller, Democracy in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987); Jennifer Frost, An Interracial Movement of the Poor: Community Organizing and the New Left in the 1960s (New York: New York University Press, 2002); and Martin Klimke, The Other Alliance: Student Protest in West Germany and the United States in the Global Sixties (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011). On SNCC, see Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Charles M. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); and Wesley Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart: SNCC’s Dream for a New America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007). On the Peace Corps, see Gerald T. Rice, The Bold Experiment: JFK’s Peace Corps (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985); Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffman, All You Need Is Love: The Peace Corps and the Spirit of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); Fritz Fischer, Making Them Like Us: Peace Corps Volunteers in the 1960s (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998); Molly Geidel, Peace Corps Fantasies: How Development Shaped the Global Sixties (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2015); and Jonathan Zimmerman, Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).
  13. 13.Some scholars defined this model as “modernist citizenship.” See William Talcott, “Modern Universities, Absent Citizenship? Historical Perspectives” (working paper 39, Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement, September 2005). An early iteration of this project employed a similar conceptual framing; see David S. Busch, “Service Learning: The Peace Corps, American Higher Education, and the Limits of Modernist Ideas of Development and Citizenship,” History of Education Quarterly 58, no. 4 (November 2018): 475–505.
  14. 14.The new general education curriculum was initially formulated by academic leaders and policy makers on the Truman Commission on Higher Education and popularized by scholars in the newly established Journal of General Education. Earl McGrath, a member of the Truman Commission and founding editor of the journal, articulated the core tenets of this vision when describing what a student needs to know to a citizen in a democracy. The new general education model outlined in the Truman Commission, wrote McGrath, “provides youth with a knowledge of the origins and meanings of the customs and political traditions” of American democracy. In the process, the curriculum introduces “the student to the moral problems which have perplexed men” and acquaints that student “with the solutions they have devised” as a way to “instill attitudes and understandings which form the essence of good citizenship.” McGrath, “The General Education Movement,” Journal of General Education 1, no. 1 (October 1946): 3–8. For more on the history of general education and its transformation, see Gary E. Miller, The Meaning of General Education: The Emergence of a Curriculum Paradigm (New York: Teachers College Press, 1988).
  15. 15.Tom Hayden and Students for a Democratic Society, The Port Huron Statement, 1962, 10, 61, Online Archive of California, California Digital Library.
  16. 16.For an excellent and honest overview of Dewey’s ideas, see Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy, 549.
  17. 17.The Peace Corps’ emphasis on community development represented the other side of Gandhian nonviolence. For more on Gandhi and community development, see Daniel Immerwahr, Thinking Small: The United States and the Lure of Community Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015). For more on Gandhi’s emphasis on both civil disobedience and constructive service, see Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
  18. 18.Due to the Peace Corps’ place within the US State Department, volunteers had to avoid certain forms of political advocacy, especially those efforts that ran counter to American foreign policy interests. The most prominent example was the Bruce Murray case. See Cobbs-Hoffman, All You Need is Love, 204–206. On community development and modernization theory, see Immerwahr, Thinking Small. On modernization, expert knowledge, and American exceptionalism, see Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and ‘Nation Building’ in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Bradley R. Simpson, Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and US-Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008); David Elkbadh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 2010); and Mark Solovey, Shaky Foundations: The Politics-Patronage-Social Science Nexus in Cold War America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2015).
  19. 19.In regard to the Peace Corps and SNCC, the historian Brenda Plummer argues that a “comparable implicit set of values underlay their respective missions.” Plummer, In Search of Power: African Americans in the Era of Decolonization, 1956–1974 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013). For more on parallels between SNCC and the Peace Corps, see Julia Erin Wood, “Freedom Is Indivisible: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Cold War Politics, and International Liberation Movements (PhD diss., Yale University, 2011). On community “development”
    and empowerment, see Alyosha Goldstein, Poverty in Common: The Politics of Community Action During the American Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press,
    2012).
  20. 20.This is part of the shift in what the historian Jon Shelton argues is the political formation and triumph of the “education myth” within American policy making. Shelton, The Education Myth: How Human Capital Trumped Social Democracy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2023).
  21. 21.These policy changes fall broadly under what scholars have defined as the making of the “neoliberal university.” See Christopher Newfield, Unmaking the Public University: The Forty Year Assault on the Middle Class (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); and Sheila Slaughter and Gary Rhoades, Academic Capitalism and the New Economy: Markets, State, and Higher Education (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009).
  22. 22.On the limitations of the Sullivan principles, see Zeb Larson, “The Sullivan Principles: South Africa, Apartheid, and Globalization,” Diplomatic History 44, no. 3 (June 2020): 479–503.

1. Howard University

  1. 1.W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Talented Tenth,” in The Negro Problem: A Series of Articles by Representative Negroes of To-day (New York: James Pott and Company, 1903). On Howard University as an expression of Du Bois’s “Talented Tenth,” see Zachery R. Williams, In Search of the Talented Tenth: Howard University Public Intellectuals and the Dilemmas of Race, 1926–1970 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2009). On Howard University as a global institution and hub of transnational race politics, see Jason C. Parker, “‘Made-in-America Revolution’? The ‘Black University’ and the American Role in the Decolonization of the Black Atlantic,” Journal of American History 96, no. 3 (December 2009): 727–750.
  2. 2.Richard I. McKinney, Mordecai, the Man and His Message: The Story of Mordecai Wyatt Johnson (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1997), 60–61.
  3. 3.In its development in the twentieth century, Howard University depended on the financial support of the Rosenwald Fund, Phelps Stoke Fund, and Rockefeller Foundation, among many others. See Williams, In Search of the Talented Tenth, 52.
  4. 4.Henry “Hank” Thomas participated in the first sit-ins in Virginia. Thomas also joined fellow Howard Students Muriel Tillinghast, Jean Wheeler, Dion Diamond, John Moody Jr., and Stokely Carmichael as they risked their lives in the freedom rides in 1961. Other Howard students, like Courtland Cox, Charlie Cobb, Travis Britt, Michael Thelwell, and Bill Mahoney, were prominent figures both in the organizing of the 1964 Freedom Summer and the national chapter of SNCC in Washington, DC.
  5. 5.“Call Out for New Leadership,” The Hilltop, November 10, 1961.
  6. 6.“Demonstrators State Their Position on Rally: Ask Policy Clarification,” The Hilltop, March 23, 1962.
  7. 7.“Call Out for New Leadership.”
  8. 8.“1500 Hear Integration-Non Segregation Debate,” Tri-State Defender, November 18, 1961, 6.
  9. 9.“Address by Dr. James M. Nabrit, Jr., President of Howard University, Formal Opening Exercises, September 16, 1963,” 1–2, James M. Nabrit Papers, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, DC (hereafter, Howard University Archives).
  10. 10.For more on the roots of the policy and debates in the 1940s, see David S. Busch, “To the Students: Education for Nonviolence in the World,” in India in the World: 1500–Present, ed. Rajeshwari Dutt and Nico Slate (New York: Routledge Studies in Modern History, 2023).
  11. 11.Rayford Logan, Howard University: The First Hundred Years, 1867–1967 (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1968), appendix B, I, 589–591; Charles E. Williams, comp. The Howard University Charter: Upon the Centenary of Howard University (Washington DC: Howard University, 1967), 29–33.
  12. 12.Interview with Ekwueme Michael Thelwell by Emilye Crosby, August 23, 2013, Civil Rights History Project, Library of Congress.
  13. 13.Carl Edwin Anderson (The HistoryMakers A2003.278), interview by Larry Crowe, November 19, 2003, The HistoryMakers Digital Archive, session 1, tape 3, story 7.
  14. 14.Carl Edwin Anderson, interview.
  15. 15.As Geri Augusto later reflected, “The defining moments of my consciousness,” came when she “decided doing things as a student was not enough.” Geri Augusto, Toward a Black University, Internationalism: Pan-Africanism, SNCC Digital Gateway, SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University.
  16. 16.Phil Hutchings, “Let Us Build One Massive Protest,” The Hilltop, March 20, 1964.
  17. 17.On “truth” in Gandhian nonviolence, see Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi: Nonviolent Power in Action (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 10, 11, 34, and 44. Nico Slate translates satyagraha as “truth” and “holding firm.” Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).
  18. 18.Wesley Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart: SNCC’s Dream for a New America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 20.
  19. 19.“Nonviolence and the Achievement of Desegregation,” pamphlet, box 71, folder 15; SNCC meetings, October 14–16, 1960, Atlanta Conference, Highlander Research and Education Center Records, 1917–2005, part 1 (MSS, 265), Wisconsin Historical Society (hereafter, WHS).
  20. 20.“Disregard That Question,” The Hilltop, November 15, 1963.
  21. 21.“Demonstrators State Their Position on Rally.”
  22. 22.“Demonstrators State Their Position on Rally.”
  23. 23.“Demonstrators State Their Position on Rally.”
  24. 24.Ed Brown, “A Philosophy of Activism: An Escape from Apathetic Responses,” The Hilltop, November 19, 1962.
  25. 25.“A Philosophy of Activism: An Escape from Apathetic Responses.”
  26. 26.“Hilltop Position on Student Social Action,” The Hilltop, March 1, 1963.
  27. 27.“Hilltop Position on Student Social Action.”
  28. 28.“Hilltop Position on Student Social Action.”
  29. 29.“Hilltop Position on Student Social Action.”
  30. 30.“Hilltop Position on Student Social Action.”
  31. 31.Ella Baker, “Bigger Than a Hamburger,” The Southern Patriot, May 1960.
  32. 32.“Our Stories Your Legacy: A Dialogue with SNCC Veterans,” March 9, 2016, SNCC Digital Gateway, SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University.
  33. 33.For more on Baker and her political vision, see Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 95, 329, 263.
  34. 34.Baker, “Bigger Than a Hamburger.”
  35. 35.“Cleveland Sellers Oral History Interview Conducted by John Dittmer in Denmark, South Carolina,” March 21, 2013, video, US Civil Rights History Project, https://www.loc.gov/item/2015669180/.
  36. 36.Programs included a “self-help” project in Ruleville where local women made quilts and a syrup-making enterprise in Amite County.
  37. 37.“COFO Workshop,” November 11–17, 1963, Greenville, Mississippi, Highlander Records, (MSS, 265), box 41, folder 5, WHS; Minutes of the SNCC Executive Committee meeting, December 27–31, 1963, Highlander Records (MSS, 265), box 71, folder 18, SNCC, WHS.
  38. 38.“In-Service Education Program for Civil Rights Workers in the South,” June 17–22, 1964 box 72, folder 1, Highlander Research and Education Center Records, 1917–2005, part 1 (MSS, 265), WHS.
  39. 39.“In-Service Education Program for Civil Rights Workers in the South.”
  40. 40.SNCC pamphlet, box 47, Social Action Vertical Files, WHS.
  41. 41.Bill Mahoney to Muriel Tillinghast, November 1, 1963, SNCC Conference on Jobs and Food, Subgroup C, Washington Office, 1960–1968, SNCC Papers.
  42. 42.Ed Brown to the dean of Howard Law School, October 17, 1963, SNCC Conference on Jobs and Food, Subgroup C, Washington Office, 1960–1968, SNCC Papers.
  43. 43.“Workshop Leader,” SNCC Conference on Jobs and Food, Subgroup C, Washington Office, 1960–1968, SNCC Papers.
  44. 44.William Mahoney to Dean Evan Crawford, December 9, 1963, SNCC Conference on Jobs and Food, Subgroup C, Washington Office, 1960–1968, SNCC Papers.
  45. 45.“SNCC Conference: ‘Jobs and Food’ Report of the Washington Office,” Subgroup C, Washington Office, 1960–1968, Series I, Administrative Files, 1960–1968, SNCC Papers.
  46. 46.Gilbert A. Lowe Jr., “Howard University Students and the Community Service Project,” Journal of Negro Education 36, no. 4 (Autumn 1967): 368–369.
  47. 47.When Nelson sent him his 1958 article, “Satyagraha: Gandhian Principles of Non-Violent Non-Cooperation,” King wrote back that it was “one of the best and most balanced analyses of the Gandhian principles of nonviolent, noncooperation that I have read.” Martin Luther King Jr. to William Stuart Nelson, August 18, 1957, Martin Luther King Jr. Papers, 1954–1968, Boston University, Boston, MA. Nelson, “Satyagraha: Gandhian Principles of Non-Violent Non-Cooperation,” Journal of Religious Thought (Fall 1957/Winter 1958): 15–24.
  48. 48.“Dr. King Commends Clergy Voter Registration Drive,” The Hilltop, April 17, 1964.
  49. 49.For an overview of service programs developed by the Black Panther Party, see David Hilliard, The Black Panther Party: Service to the People Programs (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008).
  50. 50.“1967 Student Leadership Conference,” Student Assembly, 1967 Resolutions, Howard University Assembly Department Files, box 69, Office of Student Life/Activities—HUSA—Conference Files 1968, Howard University Archives.
  51. 51.“What Happened at Howard University: The Chronology of Crisis,” Howard University Assembly Department Files, box 69, Office of Student Life/Activities—HUSA—Conference Files 1968, Howard University Archives.
  52. 52.Janet Knight, “Notes from Key Note Addresses at the Towards a Black University Conference,” November 13–17, 1968, Howard University Assembly Department Files, box 69, Office of Student Life/Activities—HUSA—Conference Files 1968, Howard University Archives.
  53. 53.Knight, “Notes from Key Note Addresses at the Towards a Black University Conference.”
  54. 54.“SEI Challenges Idea of Black University,” The Hilltop, October 11, 1968.
  55. 55.“NET Journal; Color Us Black. Part 1,” September 14, 1970, Library of Congress, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (GBH and the Library of Congress), Boston, MA, and Washington, DC, accessed September 8, 2023, http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-512-f47gq6rz2w.
  56. 56.Michael Harris, student president, “Howard University Student Association Taking a New Direction: The Washington, D.C. Project,” 1969–1970, Howard University Assembly Department Files, box 69, Office of Student Life/Activities—HUSA—HUSA Project Files, 1969–1970, Howard University Archives.
  57. 57.Harris, “Howard University Student Association Taking a New Direction.” The tutoring program was tied to a research effort that focused on approaches in the school, in particular the Clark Reading Plan, which prioritized team teaching as a solution to raise student reading scores. Studying the new effort, Howard students and tutoring participants questioned the plan and presented their findings to the DC Board of Education.
  58. 58.Harris, “Howard University Student Association Taking a New Direction.”
  59. 59.Reginald Hildebrand, “Law Students to ‘Liberators,’” The Hilltop, September 25, 1970.
  60. 60.“Law Students Go Into Community,” The Hilltop, March 20, 1970.
  61. 61.“Students Journey to Miami to Help NWRO,” HUSA News, June 29, 1972.
  62. 62.Theoia Miller, “Intern Program Offers Service to Area,” The Hilltop, December 18, 1970.
  63. 63.James E. Cheek, “To Seek a New Direction,” Close Up: Howard University Magazine (Summer 1970).
  64. 64.Brenda Goss, “Billingsley ‘Faces the People,’” The Hilltop, October 16, 1970.
  65. 65.Iris Holiday, “Project Voice Seeks Volunteer Aids,” The Hilltop, October 22, 1971. Hall believed that “as an educational institution we must take the lead in bringing about change for the betterment of our community.” Holiday, “Volunteer Bureau Seeks Active Support,” The Hilltop, November 5, 1971.
  66. 66.“Volunteer Assistance Bureau Involves Howard,” The Hilltop, September 14, 1973.
  67. 67.D.C. Project Staff to The Hilltop, “Lack of Academic Credit, Funds Hamper D.C. Project,” The Hilltop, February 4, 1972.
  68. 68.“HUSA’s Evaluation of D.C. Project,” The HUSA Herald, March 1975, Howard University Assembly Department files, box 69, Office of Student Life/Activities—HUSA—HUSA Publications, Howard University Archives.
  69. 69.Anthony “Mawu” Straker, “D.C. Project: Daring to Struggle, Daring to Win,” The Hilltop, August 30, 1974. Mawu’s efforts to resurrect the D.C. Project were not unique. Other students in the mid- to late 1970s also called for a greater university commitment to “educational opportunities through working with members of the community.” Many argued that “community service efforts at Howard have often times been sporadic.” “Community Involvement a Must,” The Hilltop, September 16, 1977.
  70. 70.“Community Inspires, Aids Protest,” The Hilltop, October 7, 1977.
  71. 71.“D.C. Survival Conference Begins Today,” The Hilltop, February 9, 1979.
  72. 72.“Negro Students Seek Relevance,” New York Times, November 18, 1968.
  73. 73.“QT Jackson Defines HUSA’s Goals for Making Howard Truly Black,” The Hilltop, September 27, 1968.
  74. 74.“Community Inspires, Aids Protest.”

2. Michigan State University

  1. 1.Char Jolles, “John A. Hannah on Education,” The Paper, November 17, 1966, MSU Paper Archives, http://msupaper.org/issues/The_Paper_1966-11-17.pdf.
  2. 2.Ivanhoe Donaldson, interview by Rachel Reinhard, September 20, 2003, Center for Oral History and Cultural Heritage, University of Southern Mississippi.
  3. 3.“Human Rights,” State News, March 9, 1960.
  4. 4.Interview with Maxie Jackson, conducted by author, December 18, 2018.
  5. 5.“Why We Sat In,” State News, May 28, 1965.
  6. 6.Kenneth J. Heineman, Campus Wars: The Peace Movement at American State Universities in the Vietnam Era (New York: New York University Press, 1994), 24. The regulatory response was an extension of John Hannah’s institutional politics. In the mid-1950s, Hannah shaped an institution culture at MSU that defined certain activities and political beliefs outside the realm of a good civic education. In 1954, he threatened to fire any faculty who pleaded the Fifth when called before the House Unamerican Activities Committee.
  7. 7.“‘The Movement’ Bucks the System,” State News, June 3, 1965.
  8. 8.“‘Real’ Education?,” State News, June 7, 1965.
  9. 9.“Hannah Addresses Seniors,” State News, June 8, 1965.
  10. 10.“Rights in Our Own Backyard,” State News, May 26, 1965.
  11. 11.“Rights in Our Own Backyard.”
  12. 12.Heineman, Campus Wars, 24.
  13. 13.Interview with Mary Ann Shupenko Ehinger, June 2, 2006, and October 23, 2006, in “The Whole Story: The 1960s Collaboration between MSU and Rust College and the Challenge of Dr. King’s Legacy,” Personal Archives of John S. Duley. Interview with Mary Ann Shupenko, box 5468, folder 46, UA 17.371, John Duley Papers, MSU Archives.
  14. 14.Freedom Schools, folder 1, Pamela P. Allen Papers, 1967–1974 (M85-013), Wisconsin Historical Society (hereafter, WHS).
  15. 15.Liz Fusco to Elizabeth Moos, December 21, 1964, reel 67, SNCC Papers.
  16. 16.Staughton Lynd to Bob Moses, reel 68, microfilm, SNCC Papers. Mary Rothschild, A Case of Black and White (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1982), 403.
  17. 17.Mary Varela to Lois Chaffee, October 5, 1964, “Reports and Letters from the Field,” Civil Rights Movement Veterans website, Tougaloo College; Lois Chaffee to Ernest T. Smith, October 5, 1964, “Reports and Letters from the Field,” Civil Rights Movement Veterans website, Tougaloo College.
  18. 18.“A Movement Changes and So Does a Man,” State News.
  19. 19.“King Fires Out Three Challenges in Speech before 4,000 Students,” State News, February 12, 1965.
  20. 20.John Duley, “Marginality as Lifestyle,” box 5468, folder 9, UA 17.371, John Duley Papers, MSU Archives.
  21. 21.Student Educational Program, box 2470, folder 23, Associated Students MSU Records, 12.1.1, MSU Archives.
  22. 22.“STEP Summer, 1966,” Wayne Albertson, Fall 1966, box 5468, folder 44, UA 17.371, John Duley Papers, MSU Archives.
  23. 23.Memo to STEP Volunteers, box 1, folder 11, MSS 290, Special Collections, MSU Archives.
  24. 24.Interview with Kathy Wolterink, box 5468, folder 50, UA 17.371, John Duley Papers, MSU Archives.
  25. 25.“The Summer of the Work-In,” State News, June 24, 1965; “No Martyrs from MSU,” State News, August 17, 1965.
  26. 26.Jim Krathwohl, “Short History of STEP,” box 1, folder 16, MSS 290, Special Collections, MSU Archives.
  27. 27.Sargent Shriver to John Hannah, June 1, 1961, folder 66, box 67, John A. Hannah Papers, UA 2.1.12, MSU Archives.
  28. 28.Sargent Shriver, “Report to the President on the Peace Corps,” February 22, 1961, 18. John F. Kennedy Digital Library, http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKPOF-085-014.aspx, 6–7, accessed May 1, 2024.
  29. 29.Michigan State Youth Corps Proposal, March 16, 1961, folder 56, box 205, University of Nigeria Program Records, MSU Archives.
  30. 30.Case Studies 4, 9, folder 56, box 205, University of Nigeria Program Records, MSU Archives.
  31. 31.David Schickele, “When the Right Hand Washes the Left,” Peace Corps Volunteer 3, no. 4 (February 1965): 17.
  32. 32.Schickele, “Draft of the Education Task Force,” December 30, 1965, box 23, Subject Files of the Office of the Director, 1961–1966, Records of the Peace Corps, RG 490, US National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter: NARA).
  33. 33.Eugene Jacobson to Sargent Shriver, January 14, 1965, box 67, folder 66, John A. Hannah Papers, UA 2.1.12, MSU Archives.
  34. 34.George Axin to John Simons, January 10, 1962, box 205, folder 71, University of Nigeria Program Records, MSU Archives.
  35. 35.“Who’ll Greet Peace Corps,” State News, August 9, 1961.
  36. 36.Training Evaluation Report, Michigan State University, box 2, Training Evaluation Reports, 1964–1969, NARA.
  37. 37.“A Discussion of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers,” March 3, 1965, Returned Volunteers Conference, box 5, Personal Papers Gerald Bush, John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, MA.
  38. 38.“A Discussion of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers.”
  39. 39.Roger Harrison and Richard L. Hopkins, “The Design of Cross-Cultural Training: An Alternative to the University Model,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences 3, no. 4 (December 1967): 438–439.
  40. 40.“Justin Morrill College Field Study Program,” Michigan State University, pamphlet, folder 6, Justin Morrill College Records UA 12.12, MSU Archives.
  41. 41.Duley became a key figure of the “experiential learning” movement in the 1970s, playing a vital role in the establishment of the National Society for Experiential Education.
  42. 42.Frank Blanco and Robin Ruhf, “Student Education Corps Year-End Report,” box 65, folder 77, John Hannah Papers UA 2.1.12, MSU Archives.
  43. 43.Blanco and Ruhf, “Student Education Corps Year-End Report.”
  44. 44.Blanco and Ruhf, “Student Education Corps Year-End Report.”
  45. 45.Blanco and Ruhf, “Student Education Corps Year-End Report.”
  46. 46.Vietnam Summer Organizers’ Manual, box 6, Vietnam Summer Records, DG067, Peace Collection, Swarthmore College Special Collections.
  47. 47.“Hannah Defends Dissent,” State News, April 26, 1965.
  48. 48.Response by Hannah to 1966 Ramparts Article on MSU involvement in Vietnam, box 2727, Center for Latin American Studies, UA 2.9.3.9, MSU Archives.
  49. 49.Stu Dowty, “The Academic Quagmire,” box 49, Social Action Vertical File, WHS.
  50. 50.Linda Knibbs, “‘U’ Committee Demands Abolishment of ROTC,” State News, April 28, 1970; Helen Clegg and Ginger Sharp, “Protesters Deaf to Wharton,” Lansing State Journal, May 11, 1972; “Statement from Anti-War Protestors,” May 11, 1972, Media Communication Records, UA 8.1.1, MSU Archives.
  51. 51.James Tanck, “The Volunteer Action Effort at Michigan State University: A Report on the Initial Effort of the M.S.U. Office of Volunteer Programs,” 1968, folder 6, Center for Service Learning Records, UA 7.15, MSU Archives.
  52. 52.Tanck, “The Volunteer Action Effort at Michigan State University.”
  53. 53.“Wharton Urges Unity to Make a Better World,” State News, April 29, 1970.
  54. 54.“Mrs. Nixon Skips ‘U’ to Go Where Action Is,” State News, March 4, 1970.
  55. 55.“HEW Secretary Asks for New ‘Volunteerism,’” State News, January 4, 1973.
  56. 56.Some administrators were aware of the efforts to use the office to deflect other forms of activism. Mary Edens, the associate director of the office in the 1970s, noted that Michigan State University officials “milked the publicity it got from students’ doing good in the community.” Timothy K. Stanton, Dwight E. Giles, Jr., and Nadinne I. Cruz, Service-Learning: A Movement’s Pioneers Reflect on Its Origins, Practice, and Future (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 75.
  57. 57.Proposal for an All-University Committee to investigate the role of academic field placement and its relationship to the Offices of Volunteer Programs, Center for Service Learning Records, UA.7.15, MSU Archives.
  58. 58.“Educational Tokenism at MSU,” State News, January 9, 1968.
  59. 59.For more on “organized research units,” see Ethan Schrum, The Instrumental University: Education in Service of the National Agenda after World War II (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2019).
  60. 60.Robert L. Green and Lawrence W. Lezotte, “Unresolved Issues in Community-Based Research,” Journal of Non-white Concerns (April 1973).
  61. 61.Robert Green, “Philosophy of C.U.A. and E.O.P., Draft,” September 17, 1969, box 5744, College of Urban Develop/Urban Affairs Program records, UA 15.20, MSU Archives.
  62. 62.“Colleges Should Act on Poverty—Wharton,” State News, January 23, 1970.
  63. 63.“Service Learning Program Guidelines,” box 5744, College of Urban Develop/
    Urban Affairs Program records, UA 15.20, MSU Archives.
  64. 64.Green, At the Crossroads.
  65. 65.“White Investigating CUA Finances, Actions,” State News, March 3, 1970.
  66. 66.“Advisor Council Working Paper on Community Outreach and College Structure,” February 2, 1972, box 5772, Faculty Meeting Minutes, College of Urban Develop/Urban Affairs Program records, UA 15.20, MSU Archives.
  67. 67.“Urban Service Programs,” box 5774, College of Urban Develop/Urban Affairs Program records, UA 15.20, MSU Archives.
  68. 68.“Demonstrators Can Represent the Cheapest Form of Involvement for Some Picketers,” State News, May 27, 1965.
  69. 69.“Students Still Care, but in a Realistic Way,” State News, October 25, 1975.

3. San Francisco State College

  1. 1.Herbert Wilner, “Zen Basketball, etc.,” in Academics on the Line: The Faculty Strike at San Francisco State (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1970), 18.
  2. 2.“Official Statement Position Paper,” folder 19:163, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  3. 3.“A Proposal for a Center For Educational Innovation at San Francisco State College,” box 6, folder 51, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  4. 4.For more on Black power and education, see Russell Rickford, We Are an African People: Independent Education, Black Power, and the Radical Imagination (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016).
  5. 5.This is not Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas.
  6. 6.Martha Biondi, The Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 57.
  7. 7.Karen Duncan, “Progress Report on Community Action Curriculum Project,” October 15, 1967, box 121, US Student Association Records, 1946–1971, WHS.
  8. 8.Elizabeth Sutherland, ed., Letters from Mississippi (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), 228.
  9. 9.“Conversation on Community Education Program, SFS,” July 30, 1965, box 2, Jo Ann Ooiman Robinson Papers, 1960–1965, MSS 191, WHS.
  10. 10.“Conversation on Community Education Program, SFS.”
  11. 11.Reel 21, SNCC Papers; Daniel Peter Hinman-Smith, “Does the Word Freedom Have a Meaning? The Mississippi Freedom Schools, the Berkeley Free Speech Movement, and the Search for Freedom through Education” (PhD diss., UNC, 1993), 121.
  12. 12.Duncan, “A Place to Start From,” June 13, 1966, Experimental College Collection, box 1, folder 14, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  13. 13.“A Proposal for a Center for Educational Innovation at San Francisco State College,” box 6, folder 51, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  14. 14.Jimmy Garrett and Fred Thalheimer, “Center for Educational Innovation,” box 6, folder 51, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  15. 15.John Summerskill, President Seven (New York: World Publishing Company, 1971), 103.
  16. 16.Summerskill, President Seven, 23.
  17. 17.Sharon Gold, Community Service Institute in the Center for Educational Innovation, box 6, folder 51, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  18. 18.Gold, Community Service Institute.
  19. 19.“Rationale for a Bachelor of Arts Program in Community Service,” draft, Equal Opportunity Program Archive, box 1, folder 2, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library. In its initial proposal, it was called the Community Involvement Program.
  20. 20.Wendy Alfsen, interview with the author, Ann Arbor, MI, December 18, 2018.
  21. 21.For more on the election of Reagan and the broader grassroots conservative movement in California, see Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).
  22. 22.Students were also concerned because the program had also helped combat the effects of California’s 1960 Master Plan of Education. The plan implemented a tracking system in its three tiers of higher education. Although this opened access to the university, Black students were overwhelmingly relegated to junior colleges. The plan reduced the percentage of those admitted to state colleges from the top 70 percent of high school graduates to the top 33 percent. San Francisco State had larger numbers of Black students before the master plan and the introduction of standardized entrance tests in 1965. In just four years, Black student enrollment plunged from 10 to 4 percent of the student body.
  23. 23.Minutes of a Meeting with College President Robert Smith, October 29, 1968, Administration Files, President Hayakawa, Associated Students, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  24. 24.“Back to ‘in loco parentis,’” November 6, folder 121, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  25. 25.Summerskill, President Seven, 26.
  26. 26.Summerskill, President Seven, 198.
  27. 27.Minutes of a Meeting with College President Robert Smith.
  28. 28.Minutes of a Meeting with College President Robert Smith.
  29. 29.“Who’s Being Violent,” box 11, folder 102, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  30. 30.“Press Statement: S.F.S.C. Student Programs,” box 7, folder 8, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  31. 31.Arlene Kaplan Daniels, “From Lecture Hall to Picket Line,” in Academics on the Line, 43.
  32. 32.Theodore Kroeber, “Confronting Irreconcilable Issues,” in Academics on the Line, 120.
  33. 33.Kroeber, “Confronting Irreconcilable Issues,” 121.
  34. 34.David West, “Educational Opportunity Program,” box 1, folder 3, EOP Archive, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  35. 35.Robert Smith, “Why I Resigned,” in By Any Means Necessary (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1970), 187.
  36. 36.Daniels, “From Lecture Hall to Picket Line,” in Academics on the Line, 46.
  37. 37.Summerskill, President Seven, 68.
  38. 38.Smith, “Why I Resigned,” 193.
  39. 39.S. I. Hayakawa, “The F.S.M. Demonstrations,” December 8, 1964, Administration Files, box 5, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  40. 40.“Public Statement by President S.I. Hayakawa,” November 30, 1968, box 15, folder 15, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  41. 41.“The State of the College,” January 20, 1969, a statement from the Academic Senate Ad Hoc Committee, box 2, folder 1, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  42. 42.“The State of the College.”
  43. 43.“Letter,” box 11, folder 102, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  44. 44.“Testimony Given by Dr. S.I. Hayakawa Before Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations,” May 13, 1969, box 16, folder 137, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  45. 45.“Testimony Given by Dr. S.I. Hayakawa.”
  46. 46.“Welcome to San Francisco State University,” Daniel Feder Papers, folder 3, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  47. 47.“Community Service Fund,” Administration Files (Hayakawa), box 2, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  48. 48.“The Death of the Experimental College,” Administration Files, box 4, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  49. 49.Statement on Plans and Policies, March 21, 1969, On the Record, box 16, folder 137, SFSU Strike Collection, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  50. 50.Glen Elsasser, “Compulsory National Youth Service for Youth Urged,” Chicago Tribune, July 16, 1970.
  51. 51.Timothy K. Stanton, Dwight E. Giles Jr., and Nadinne I. Cruz, Service-Learning: A Movement’s Pioneers Reflect on Its Origins, Practice, and Future (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 58.
  52. 52.“Associated Students Handbook, ’73–’74,” J. Paul Leonard Library.
  53. 53.Morley Safer, 60 Minutes Report on SFSC, transcript, Daniel Feder Papers, folder 3, University Archives, J. Paul Leonard Library.
  54. 54.“Summer Volunteers Sought,” Zenger’s, May 7, 1975.
  55. 55.“Volunteer Bureau Works,” Zenger’s, December 4, 1974.
  56. 56.Nathan Hare, “The Battle for Black Studies,” Black Scholar 3, no. 9 (May 1972): 33–34.
  57. 57.“Community Work Stressed in Urban Indian Program,” Zenger’s, September 11, 1974.
  58. 58.Nancy McDermid, “Strike Settlement,” in Academics on the Line, 230.
  59. 59.“Community Work Stressed in Urban Indian Program.”
  60. 60.Safer, 60 Minutes Report on SFSC.
  61. 61.“Hayakawa Blasts Black Studies,” Daily Gater, November 4, 1969.
  62. 62.“Conversation on Community Education Program, SFS.”

4. Harvard University–Radcliffe College

  1. 1.Harvard University Committee, General Education in a Free Society, Report of the Harvard Committee, with an introduction by James Bryant Conant (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 50.
  2. 2.i.e., The Cambridge Review, no. 1–5 (1956): 15; 98; 9–22.
  3. 3.Bob Moses, interview with Clayborne Carson, March 29,1982; Laura Visser-Maessen, Robert Parris Moses: A Life in Civil Rights and Leadership at the Grassroots (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 22–23.
  4. 4.Debbie Louis, And We Are Not Yet Saved: A History of the Movement As People (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970), 57.
  5. 5.“General Letter, 1965,” Series: Subgroup C, Washington office, 1960–1968, Series II, Subject Files, 1963–1968, SNCC Papers, WHS.
  6. 6.Moses to Phillip Stern, July 15, 1963, Series: Subgroup A, Atlanta office, Series X, Education Department, 1960–1967, SNCC Papers.
  7. 7.Moses, “Letter from Magnolia,” Harvard Crimson, January 22, 1962; “Bob Moses to Speak on Situation in Miss.,” Harvard Crimson, December 1, 1964.
  8. 8.“Program Outline for Campus Friends of SNCC Groups,” Lucile Montgomery Papers, 1963–1967; Historical Society Library Microforms Room, micro 44, reel 3, segment 48.
  9. 9.“Program Outline for Campus Friends of SNCC Groups.”
  10. 10.“You Can Help: Support Programs for SNCC,” n.d., Civil Rights Movement Veterans website, Tougaloo College.
  11. 11.“Friends of SNCC Sending Supplies to Help Mississippi Sharecroppers,” Harvard Crimson, February 7, 1964.
  12. 12.Open Letter from Aaron Henry, Robert Moses, and David Dennis introducing Mississippi Summer Project Prospectus, April 8, 1964, CORE—Mississippi Summer Project (COFO, SNCC, CORE)—memoranda and reports, 1964, Congress of Racial Equality, Mississippi 4th Congressional District records, 1961–1966, micro 793, reel 3, segment 72.
  13. 13.“SNCC Faculty Fund,” n.d., Civil Rights Movement Veterans website, Tougaloo College.
  14. 14.Gail Falk, letter, September 1964, box 16, folder 7, SAVF–Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) papers, Social Action vertical file, circa 1930–2002, archives main stacks, Mss 577, WHS.
  15. 15.Ellen Lake to parents, August 12, 1964, SC 3057, folder 1, Ellen Lake Papers, WHS.
  16. 16.Elizabeth Sutherland, ed., Letters from Mississippi, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), 229.
  17. 17.Paul Cowan, The Making of an Un-American: A Dialogue with Experience (New York: Viking, 1967), 10.
  18. 18.Cowan, The Making of an Un-American, 25.
  19. 19.Cowan, The Making of an Un-American, 15.
  20. 20.Cowan, The Making of an Un-American, 24.
  21. 21.Philadelphia Tutorial Project, December 1962 to April 1963 (SNCC files); “Guidelines for Social Change: The Tutorial Project,” box 11, folder 3, City Projects Files, Northern Student Movement Records, Schomburg Center.
  22. 22.“Tutorials: To Be Or Not To Be,” Philadelphia Summer Tutorials 1962, box 6, folder 1, Central Office Files, Northern Student Movement Records, Schomburg Center.
  23. 23.William Strickland, NSM, n.d., SNCC Files on the Northern Student Movement, Subgroup A. Atlanta Office, Series IX. Northern Coordination Department, Correspondence with Other Organizations, 1963–1966, SNCC Papers, Black Freedom Struggle in the 20th Century: Organizational Records and Personal Papers, Part 2, ProQuest History Vault.
  24. 24.“College Does Not Plan to Act in Perdew Case; Monro Asks Fund Drive,” Harvard Crimson, October 7, 1963.
  25. 25.“Harvard’s Responsibility to Mississippi,” box 16, folder 11, CORE Southern Regional Office—Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, May 1964–August 1965, Congress of Racial Equality, Southern Regional Office records, 1954–1966, Mss 85, WHS.
  26. 26.“College Does Not Plan to Act in Perdew Case; Monro Asks Fund Drive.”
  27. 27.Mary I. Bunting to Lyndon B. Johnson, January 17, 1966, box 30, folder 469, records of Radcliffe College President Mary Ingraham Bunting-Smith, 1960–1972, RG II, series 4, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  28. 28.J. Dennis Huckabay to Mary I. Bunting, July 22, 1968, box 41, folder 601, records of Radcliffe College President Mary Ingraham Bunting-Smith, 1960–1972, RG II, series 4, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  29. 29.James P. Dixon, “The Peace Corps in an Educating Society,” excerpts from a discussion at the Brookings Institute, July 22, 1965.
  30. 30.Roger Landrum to Mary Bunting, September 19, 1966, records of Radcliffe College President Mary Ingraham Bunting-Smith, 1960–1972, RG II, series 4, box 34, folder 522–523, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  31. 31.Dixon, “The Peace Corps in an Educating Society,” 7.
  32. 32.E4A Report, 1969, box 44, folder 669, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  33. 33.“Report on the First Year of E4A,” August 1967, box 37, folder 580, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  34. 34.“Report on the First Year of E4A.”
  35. 35.Radcliffe College Education for Action Records, 1966–2000; “Ford Foundation Application,” 1966, box 1, folder 6, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, Radcliffe College archives, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  36. 36.Maria Montamat, letter, July 19, 1968, box 41, folder 635, records of Radcliffe College President Mary Ingraham Bunting-Smith, 1960–1972, RG II, series 4, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  37. 37.“Evaluation of the Political Nature of Social Service: Implications for the Volunteer,” box 8, folders 63–77, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, misc., Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  38. 38.“Evaluation of the Political Nature of Social Service.”
  39. 39.“Evaluation of the Political Nature of Social Service.”
  40. 40.“Evaluation of the Political Nature of Social Service.”
  41. 41.Stefan M. Bradley, “Black Studies the Hard Way: Fair Harvard Makes Curricular Changes,” in Upending the Ivory Tower: Civil Rights, Black Power, and the Ivy League (New York: New York University Press, 2018).
  42. 42.E4A Meeting with Charles Whitlock, May 11, 1972, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, box 1, folder 20, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  43. 43.Laurie Oliver, “Comments on the Student Center,” October 10, 1972, carton 1, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, R2002-CR19, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  44. 44.David Riesman was a prominent advocate of the Peace Corps and the ideas of education that emerged from the agency in the 1960s. He participated in the 1965 Returned Peace Corps Conference and the Brookings Institution Conference where Bunting first began to formulate the E4A program. In its first couple years of operation, Riesman was on the Board of E4A. Riesman saw volunteerism as a means to combat the “other-directed” character that he identified in The Lonely Crowd. Riesman participated in the Peace Corps discussions that created the Great Books training program at St. John’s. He believed that the Peace Corps represented a “great educative experience” because a “volunteer is faced with impossible tasks which he discovers are not quite impossible.” Notes on UYA, box 8, 70, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  45. 45.Funding in 1976 came from Vinmont Foundation and individual donors like Bunting. The total budget was $2,910. Annual Report 1976–1977, carton 1, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, R2002-CR19, annual reports, 1970–1978, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  46. 46.“Application for the Student Board,” box 1, 19, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, student board, 1971–1972, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  47. 47.“Education for Action Annual Report, 1972–3,” carton 1, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, R2002-CR19, annual reports, 1970–1978, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  48. 48.In the academic year 1975–1976, the fourteen-member board was 50 percent women and 50 percent minority students. Report 1975–1976, carton 1, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, R2002-CR19, annual reports, 1970–1978, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  49. 49.“Education for Action: Philosophy of Funding,” carton 1, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, R2002-CR19, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  50. 50.“A New Style for Student Social Action,” Harvard Crimson, March 31, 1971.
  51. 51.Annual Report, 1976–1977, carton 1, records of Radcliffe College Education
    for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, R2002-CR19, annual reports, 1970–1978, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  52. 52.“Education for Action: Not PBH, Not Vista, Not the School of Hard Knocks, It Struggles to Do Its Own Thing,” Harvard Bulletin 75, no. 2 (October 1972).
  53. 53.“Education for Action.”
  54. 54.“Thanks but No Thanks,” Harvard Crimson, January 26, 1976.
  55. 55.Eddie Quiñonez, “What is E4A? Why E4A? Etc.,” February 5, 1977, carton
    1, records of Radcliffe College Education for Action, 1966–2000, RG XXVII, R2002-CR19, 1978 including Agassiz struggle, 1980, and move, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.
  56. 56.Quiñonez, “What is E4A?”
  57. 57.Bunting to Howard Dressner, box 44, 699, papers of President Bunting, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute.

5. Stanford University

  1. 1.“Truth and Service,” Stanford University Board of Trustees, meeting records, 1898–2015 (SC1010), Stanford University Archives.
  2. 2.Letter to George E. Crothers, October 17, 1907, Stanford University Board of Trustees, meeting records, 1898–2015 (SC1010), Stanford University Archives.
  3. 3.“A Night in Milpitas,” Stanford Daily, May 11, 1977.
  4. 4.Chris Hables Gray, representative, Stanford Committee for Responsible Investments, “Letter to Board of Trustees,” May 5, 1977, carton 8, SC0315 1983-177, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Stanford University Archives.
  5. 5.Keith Archuletta, interview with the author, April 17, 2019.
  6. 6.“Guidelines for Research at Stanford,” A3M, Stanford University, Historical Archive, https://dynamics.org/Altenberg/ARCHIVES/STANFORD/A3M/.
  7. 7.“What is SWOPSI?,” pamphlet, Stanford Student Demonstrations Collection, 1970, SC0376, Stanford University Archives.
  8. 8.Lawrence Litvak, Robert DeGrasse, and Kathleen McTigue, South Africa: Foreign Investment and Apartheid (Washington, DC: Institute for Policy Studies, 1978).
  9. 9.“President Lyman to the Faculty Senate,” Campus Report, May 18, 1977.
  10. 10.Stanford Committee for a Responsible Investment Policy (SCRIP), “The University As Institutional Investor,” carton 8, SC0315 1983-177, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Stanford University Archives.
  11. 11.Joann Lublin, “Stanford’s Recipe for Relevance,” Change 3, no. 6 (October 1971): 13–15.
  12. 12.“President Lyman to the Faculty Senate.”
  13. 13.Ad Hoc Faculty Committee, “Letter and Memo to the Board of Trustees,” November 15, 1977, carton 4, SC0315 1994-132, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Stanford University Archives.
  14. 14.Rodney Adams, “Social Responsibility and Investment,” Campus Report, July 26, 1978, carton 4, SC0315 1994-132, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Stanford University Archives.
  15. 15.Mark Funk, “A Night in Milpitas,” Stanford Daily, May 11, 1977.
  16. 16.Samuel was the chairperson of a council of South African students studying under the International Institute of Education and Aurora scholarship programs. Mary Yuh, “Groups to Rally for Divesture,” Stanford Daily, May 9, 1986.
  17. 17.Stephen Kasierski, “Panel Clashes Over Divestment,” Stanford Daily, March 6, 1985.
  18. 18.Stanford African Students Association, “Statement on Azania,” box 22, folder 318, South African Apartheid Collection, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Archives.
  19. 19.“Revolution Is the Only Solution,” Stanford Daily, February 10, 1983.
  20. 20.Stanford African Students Association, “Statement on Azania,” box 22, folder 318, South African Apartheid Collection, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Archives.
  21. 21.“Noon Rally Decries Apartheid,” Stanford Daily, January 18, 1985.
  22. 22.Phillip J. Ivanhoe to Donald Kennedy, May 28, 1987, carton 24, Sullivan Prin./Corresp. w/Board G 5.3 9/86-8/1987, SC0315 1992-179, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Stanford University Archives.
  23. 23.“Up Close in South Africa,” Stanford Daily, May 1, 1986.
  24. 24.Marcus Marby, “BSU Leader Carries Big Ideals and Captivates Crowds,” Stanford Daily, February 18, 1987.
  25. 25.Stanford Out of South Africa, “A Stanford Divestment Primer,” pamphlet, box 22, folder 318, South African Apartheid Collection, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Archives.
  26. 26.“Statement by President Donald Kennedy,” April 17, 1985, carton 25, SC0315 1989-267, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University.
  27. 27.Technology from both Hewlett-Packard and IBM was used widely by the South African government.
  28. 28.“South Africa Conference, Notes,” August 27, 1985, carton 25, Special SC0315 1989-267, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Collections and University Archives, Stanford University.
  29. 29.“Statement by President Donald Kennedy.”
  30. 30.“Statement by President Donald Kennedy.”
  31. 31.“Stanford and South Africa,” booklet, box 22, folder 318, South African Apartheid Collection, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Archives.
  32. 32.“‘Stanford and South Africa’ Book Not Objective,” The Stanford Daily, October 9, 1985.
  33. 33.“Panel Pummels Booklet,” Stanford Daily, October 16, 1985.
  34. 34.“Kennedy Coloured?,” Stanford Daily, n.d.
  35. 35.“Revised Proposal for Student Examination of Congressional Anti-Apartheid Legislation—Summer 1985,” carton 24, South Africa G 5.3 9/87-8/88, SC0315 1992-179, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Stanford University Archives.
  36. 36.“Divestment Still Solution to Liberate South Africa,” Stanford Daily, October 3, 1985.
  37. 37.Bill King and Amanda Kemp to Donald Kennedy, October 26, 1987, box 24, SC015-1992-179, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University.
  38. 38.“1988 Guide to Public Service at Stanford University,” carton 18, SC0315 1991-141, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University.
  39. 39.“University Needs to Act,” Stanford Daily, February 24, 1986.
  40. 40.Ibid.
  41. 41.“Make a Difference, Not Just Noise,” Stanford Daily, March 5, 1986.
  42. 42.“‘Noise’ Needed to Implement Change,” Stanford Daily, March 7, 1986.
  43. 43.“Rockefeller Foundation Seminar on Public Service,” October 18–19, 1990, SC541, box 4, HASS Center for Public Service, Series: Volunteer Coordinator, Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University.
  44. 44.“Rockefeller Foundation Seminar on Public Service.”
  45. 45.Jonathan Jensen, interview with the author, October 23, 2018.
  46. 46.Jensen, interview with the author, October 23, 2018. Jensen expanded on the notion of “two faces” in his book Knowledge and Power in South Africa: Critical Perspectives Across the Disciplines (Johannesburg: Skotaville, 1991).

6. Brown University

  1. 1.“From a Poor College to a Hot College Brown,” Brown Daily Herald, August 30, 1985.
  2. 2.Brown Trustees Release Proxy Issues Votes, April 17, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, 1.OF-1C-15 Swearer, Howard R., Files, Dates: 1977–1990 OC15A (hereafter Swearer Papers), Brown University Archives.
  3. 3.“UCS Endorses U. Divestiture of Holdings Tied to S. Africa,” Brown Daily Herald, April 14, 1978.
  4. 4.In 1978 alone, IBM’s South African sales jumped 250 percent, with total annual sales amounting to approximately $300 million in 1982.
  5. 5.IBM technology played a critical role in South Africa. The IBM computer was vital to South African’s population registry, which was used to print passes, transmit fingerprints, and monitor the movements of Black citizens. For more on the history of computer technology in South Africa, see NARMIC/America Friends Service Committee, Automating Apartheid—U.S. Computer Exports to South Africa and the Arms Embargo (Philadelphia: Omega Press, 1982).
  6. 6.“Statement on Investment Policy,” 1971, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  7. 7.“Statement on Investment Policy: The Advisory and Executive Committee,” box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  8. 8.“Statement on Investment Policy: The Advisory and Executive Committee.”
  9. 9.“Statement on Investment Policy: The Advisory and Executive Committee.”
  10. 10.Walter Freiberger to Swearer, May 5, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  11. 11.David Buchdahl to Swearer, May 1, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  12. 12.Monica Ladd to Swearer, May 8, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives. Other alumni went a step further and refused financial pledges to Brown. In a letter to Swearer, Elizabeth Sweeney wrote, “In support of the campus divestiture campaign, I am withholding my pledge to the Brown fund. . . . I support their efforts, and urge you, the President of the College, and the members of the Corporation to consider concrete and responsible policies which will end Brown University’s complicity in the apartheid regime.” Sweeney to Swearer, June 1, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  13. 13.Dean E. McHenry to the Advisory Committee on Corporate Responsibility in Investments, December 10, 1980, Southern Africa Collection, Michigan State University Libraries Special Collections.
  14. 14.Text of Remarks by Swearer, April 17, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  15. 15.Swearer to South African Solidarity Committee, May 11, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  16. 16.“Students Call for U. Divestiture at Rally,” Brown Daily Herald, April 18, 1978.
  17. 17.“Students Call for U. Divestiture at Rally.”
  18. 18.“SASC Denies Swearer Chance to Address Protesting Ugrads,” Brown Daily Herald, April 18, 1978.
  19. 19.“Unfair Tactics,” Brown Daily Herald, April 18, 1978.
  20. 20.Brown University memo, from Richard A. Marker to Swearer, “Re, South Africa Business,” April 5, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  21. 21.“Council Grants Ad Hoc Status to Group Opposing Disinvestment,” Brown Daily Herald, April 18, 1978.
  22. 22.Julie A. Shapiro to Swearer, April 20, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  23. 23.Brown University memo, from Swearer to Shaun Brown and Ruben Cordova, April 25, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  24. 24.“SASC Denies Swearer Chance to Address Protesting Ugrads.”
  25. 25.“SASC Denies Swearer Chance to Address Protesting Ugrads.”
  26. 26.“Guidelines for the Use of University Resources for Political Activity on the Brown University Campus,” box 37, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  27. 27.Swearer to Pedro Noguera, December 14, 1979, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  28. 28.“Guidelines for the Use of University Resources for Political Activity on the Brown University Campus.”
  29. 29.Swearer to Noguera, December 19, 1979, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  30. 30.Cordova, Sharon Smith, and Ahmed Sehrawy to Swearer, December 6, 1978, box 41, S.A. Investment Policy, S.A. General, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  31. 31.James Forman Jr., phone interview with the author, Ann Arbor, MI, November 6, 2018.
  32. 32.“Exploring Names and Faces Behind Pro-Divest,” Brown Daily Herald, November 14, 1985.
  33. 33.“Students Strike, Sit-In to Support TWC,” Brown Daily Herald, April 15, 1985.
  34. 34.“Stressing Education,” Brown Daily Herald, October 24, 1985.
  35. 35.“Swearer on Divestment,” Brown Daily Herald, September 19, 1985.
  36. 36.Eric Widmer to members of the Free Southern Africa Coalition, February 25, 1986, South Africa—1985–86, file 2, from March 1, 1986, VI.79, box 98, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  37. 37.“Students Rally for End of Apartheid,” Brown Daily Herald, April 8, 1985.
  38. 38.“Brown Divest Refutes Bray,” Brown Daily Herald, October 28, 1985.
  39. 39.“Political Role of Endowment,” Brown Daily Herald, November 6, 1985.
  40. 40.Advisory Committee on Corporate Responsibility in Investment, meeting minutes, October 9, 1980, box 49, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  41. 41.“Brown Corporation Votes for Limited, Phased Divesture of U.S. Companies in South Africa,” Brown News Bureau, February 15, 1986.
  42. 42.“W. Duncan MacMillan, ‘Trustee Speaks Out,’” Brown Daily Herald, February 12, 1986.
  43. 43.“Finger-Wagging Stirs Outrage,” Brown Daily Herald, February 13, 1986.
  44. 44.“Finger-Wagging Stirs Outrage.”
  45. 45.“A Visit With A South African Student,” Brown Daily Herald, August 28, 1985.
  46. 46.“Brown Corporation Votes for Limited, Phased Divestiture of U.S. Companies in South Africa,” February 15, 1986, box 98, South Africa—1985–86, file 2, from March 1, 1986, VI.79, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives; “Excerpts from the Minutes of the Corporation Meeting,” February 15, 1986, box 99, South Africa—1985–86, file 1, to February 28, 1986, VI.80, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  47. 47.STARR National Service Fellowship at Brown University, box 58, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  48. 48.“We Are Involved, James,” Brown Daily Herald, November 11, 1987.
  49. 49.“On Political Action,” Brown Daily Herald, September 23, 1986.
  50. 50.“A Semester of Change for Divest Coalition,” Brown Daily Herald, May 8, 1986.
  51. 51.“A Semester of Change for Divest Coalition.” In response to the decision by the Brown University Corporation, Paul Zimmerman and two other members fasted, a technique originally employed by students at Stanford University in the late 1970s. University officials threatened expulsion. Widmer, the dean of students, stated: “Unless you are promptly admitted to the care and supervision of a licensed physician in an appropriate setting, I must . . . reassess your continued eligibility for enrollment at Brown. We cannot continue to be responsible for your well-being in an environment over which we have no control.” Andi Feron responded: “They’re not morally concerned with our health, they’re legally concerned with our health.” “Widmer Tells Fasters Disenrollment Possible,” Brown Daily Herald, March 6, 1986.
  52. 52.“Swearer to Award 9 Starr Fellowships,” Brown Daily Herald, September 9, 1986.
  53. 53.Swearer, “The Academy and Public Service,” March 13, 1987, box 106, Center for Public Service, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.
  54. 54.Susan Stroud, “Report to the Education Commission of the States and Campus Compact,” March 12, 1987, box 106, Center for Public Service, 1986–88, VII.28, Swearer Papers, Brown University Archives.

7. Georgetown University

  1. 1.Leslie M. Harris, James T. Campbell, and Alfred L. Brophy, eds., Slavery and the University: Histories and Legacies (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2019); and Rachel L. Swarms, The 272: The Families Who Were Enslaved and Sold to Build the American Catholic Church (New York: Penguin Random House, 2023).
  2. 2.Franklin J. Pearl, “Timothy S. Healy, 69, Dies; President of Public Library,” New York Times, January 1, 1993.
  3. 3.“Does Anyone Care About Apathy?,” Georgetown Voice, December 1, 1981.
  4. 4.“The University Seen from the Top,” Georgetown Voice, December 1, 1981.
  5. 5.Transcripts of Proceedings, First Meeting of the Coalition of College Presidents for Civic Responsibility, Washington, DC, January 16, 1986, Campus Compact Library, Boston, MA.
  6. 6.“The University Seen from the Top.”
  7. 7.“Meet the Less Fortunate,” Hoya, August 30, 1980.
  8. 8.Lisa Ferdette, “The New Activism,” Georgetown Voice, September 10, 1985.
  9. 9.“Where Did the Activism Go?,” Georgetown Voice, November 9, 1982.
  10. 10.“‘You Had to Be There,’” Georgetown Voice Magazine, April 1973.
  11. 11.“Where Have the Activists Gone?,” Georgetown Today, September 1976.
  12. 12.“Protesting ’80s-Style,” Georgetown Voice, February 2, 1985.
  13. 13.“The Establishment Protesting Itself,” Georgetown Voice, February 12, 1985.
  14. 14.“South Africa Liberation Week Planned,” Hoya, January 26, 1979.
  15. 15.“Stu-Senate Wants Discussion of ‘Questionable’ Investments,” Hoya, February 3, 1978.
  16. 16.Richard McSorely, “South African Investments,” Hoya, February 3, 1978.
  17. 17.“Anti-Apartheid at GU,” Georgetown Voice, April 3, 1984.
  18. 18.“Students Call on the University to Divest,” Hoya, April 11, 1986.
  19. 19.“Report of the Policy and Budget Subcommittee to the Board of Trustees,” October 19, 1985.
  20. 20.“Report on the Committee on Investments and Social Responsibility,” Georgetown University and South Africa, n.d., box 2, folder 26, Secretary (Board Minutes), Georgetown University Archives.
  21. 21.Suzy Gallager, “Law Center Boycott Succeeds; Marriot Signs Sullivan Code,” September 29, 1981, Unknown, Reference File 1, Georgetown University Archives.
  22. 22.“Richard McSorely, South African Investments,” Hoya, February 3, 1978.
  23. 23.In the early meetings, older members of the Black-nationalist All African Peoples’ Revolutionary Party talked a lot about the importance of Black students needing to lead the coalition. Marty Ellington wrote in the constitution of SCAR that the organization must be led by students of color.
  24. 24.SCAR, “Why American Youth and Students Should Oppose Apartheid and Fight for the Total Isolation of South Africa,” February 1, 1985, Kathleen McShea Erville Papers, African Activist Archive, Michigan State University.
  25. 25.“The Need for Change . . .,” Georgetown Voice, April 3, 1984.
  26. 26.“Rally Highlights South Africa Issue,” Georgetown Voice, April 16, 1985.
  27. 27.“With an Eye to the Future, GU Grads Teach in Africa,” Hoya, n.d.
  28. 28.“With an Eye to the Future, GU Grads Teach in Africa”; “Georgetown Volunteers Await South African Visas,” Hoya, August 28, 1987.
  29. 29.“A Report On: The Harvard University South African Internship Program,” box 21, folder 310, South African Apartheid Collection, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Archives.
  30. 30.Interview; “Volunteering in DC Schools for the Love of the Children” (Cesie, Jesuit Service Mission); “Service: A Bargain at Twice the Price,” Hoya, September 1, 1989.
  31. 31.“DC SCAR Plans Protest of Barriers to Education,” Hoya, October 11, 1988.
  32. 32.“Corporate Actions Cloud Jesuit Identity,” Hoya, n.d.
  33. 33.“Report on the Committee on Investments and Social Responsibility.”
  34. 34.Rob Nau, “SCAR, PSU Rally Against University,” Hoya, April 18, 1986.
  35. 35.“SCAR, PSU Rally Against University.”
  36. 36.Phillip Inglima to William C. Schuerman, May 2, 1985, box 35, folder 27, President’s Office (O’Donovan), Georgetown University Archives.
  37. 37.“DeGioia Orders Student Arrests,” Hoya, May 2, 1986.
  38. 38.“DeGioia Orders Student Arrests.”
  39. 39.“Shanty Raid Shatters Ideal,” Hoya, May 2, 1986.
  40. 40.Statement to the Adjudication Board, May 2, 1986, box 14, folder 25, President’s Office (Healy), Georgetown University Archives.
  41. 41.“University Shuts Down Freedom College Protest,” Hoya, May 2, 1986.
  42. 42.“Resolutions Passed at the Faculty Meeting,” May 14, 1986, box 2, folder 25, Secretary (Board Minutes), Georgetown University Archives. Although it was not cited in the meeting, Seidman likely was referring to the Edwards v. South Carolina case, 372 U.S. 229 (1963).
  43. 43.“Resolutions Passed at the Faculty Meeting.”
  44. 44.John Pfordresher to Timothy Healy, April 30, 1986, box 14, folder 24, Papers of the President’s Office (Healy), Georgetown University Archives.
  45. 45.John Glavin to Father Healy, April 25, 1986, box 14, folder 24, President’s Office (Healy), Georgetown University Archives.
  46. 46.“Freedom to Dissent: The University As a Public Forum,” Hoya, May 27, 1983.
  47. 47.“Resolutions Passed at the Faculty Meeting.”
  48. 48.Open Letter, Rev. Robert J. Rokusek, Rev. Dr. Bruce G. Epperly, Rev. Joseph Currie, S.J., Rev. Dr. Katherine G. Epperly, Rabbi Harold S. White, Sr. Dorinda Young, Sr. Mary Himens, May 2, 1986, box 14, folder 25, President’s Office (Healy), Georgetown University Archives.
  49. 49.“Catholic Group to Shed South African Investments,” Washington Post, June 6, 1987.
  50. 50.“250 Held in Rallies Against Apartheid,” Associated Press, May 3, 1985.
  51. 51.“A U.S Policy Toward South Africa: The Report of the Secretary of State’s Advisory Committee on South Africa,” January 1987, 891110, box 176, South Africa, President’s Office (Healy), Georgetown University Archives.
  52. 52.Twiggs Xiphu to Father Healy, April 21, 1986, box 14, folder 23, President’s Office (Healy), Georgetown University Archives.
  53. 53.“SCAR Disciplining Actions Dropped,” Hoya, August 29, 1986.
  54. 54.“DeGioia Discusses Student Service in DC Area,” Hoya, October 24, 1988.
  55. 55.“New Committee Proposes Speech and Protest Guidelines,” Hoya, September 18, 1987.
  56. 56.“DeGioia Bungles Protest Policy,” Hoya, September 18, 1987.
  57. 57.Maria R. Rodriguez and Beth Knight, “Freedom College Revisited,” Georgetown Voice, September 30, 1986.

Conclusion

  1. 1.Student Leadership Seminar Prospectus, box 109, US Student Association Records (hereafter USNSA Records), 1946–1971 (M70-277), WHS; “Report: USNSA Civil Rights Leadership Institute,” Interdenominational Theological Center, Atlanta, GA, July 15–August 12, 1963, box 109, USNSA Records (M70-277), WHS.
  2. 2.“A Statement by Paul Potter . . . submitted for the consideration of the SDS 1964 National Convention in Pine Hill,” Richard Flacks Papers, Department of Special Collections, UC Santa Barbara Library, University of California, Santa Barbara.
  3. 3.Paul Potter, letter to Rennie Davis, June 3, 1965, reel 11, SDS Papers.
  4. 4.Southern Regional Education Board, “Atlanta Service-Learning Conference Report” (1970), Conference Proceedings, 2.
  5. 5.Paul Lauter and Florence Howe, The Conspiracy of the Young (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1970), 10.
  6. 6.Lauter and Howe, The Conspiracy of the Young, 13.
  7. 7.Lauter and Howe, The Conspiracy of the Young, 5.
  8. 8.The Report of the President’s Commission on Campus Unrest (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1970), 193.
  9. 9.National Student Volunteer Program, Directory of College Student Volunteer Programs, Academic Year 1972–1973 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1973).
  10. 10.Frank Newman, William Cannon, Stanley Cavell, Audrey Cohen, Russel Edgerton, James Gibbons, Martin Kramer, Joseph Rhodes, and Robert Singleton, Report on Higher Education (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1971), 21.
  11. 11.Newman, Higher Education and the American Resurgence (Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation, 1985).
  12. 12.“Transcripts of Proceedings, First Meeting of the Coalition of College Presidents for Civic Responsibility,” January 16, 1986, Washington, DC, Campus Compact Library, Boston, MA.
  13. 13.“Public Service by Students Is Promoted,” Boston Globe, October 17, 1985.
  14. 14.During his opening address, Newman encouraged everyone to read the COOL resource book as a model for the Campus Compact. Wayne Meisel, Robert Hackett, and COOL, Building A Movement: A Resource Book for Students in Community Service (St. Paul, MN: Cool Press, 1986).
  15. 15.“The Durham Statement,” from the participants of the Campus Outreach Opportunity League’s Summit, Duke University, August 12, 1987, carton 14, Donald Kennedy Presidential Papers, SC0315 1989-267, Stanford University Archives.
  16. 16.William F. Buckley Jr., “Common Service,” Universal Press Syndicate, January 28, 1986. Buckley also supported calls for national service and volunteerism. See Buckley, Gratitude: Reflections on What We Owe to Our Country (New York: Random House, 1990).
  17. 17.James S. Coleman, “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital,” American Journal of Sociology 94 (1988), supplement S95–S120; Robert D. Putnam, “Bowling Alone: America’s Decline Social Capital,” Journal of Democracy 6 (1995): 65–78.
  18. 18.Carole Levine, “Campus Compact, Members’ Report, 1988–89,” Campus Compact Library, Boston, MA.
  19. 19.Martha Prescod Noonan, “Experiencing the Sixties at the Intersection of SDS and SNCC,” in A New Insurgency: The Port Huron Statement and Its Times, ed. Howard Brick and Gregory Parker (Ann Arbor: Maize Books, Michigan Publishing, 2015).
  20. 20.Edward Zlotkowski, “Linking Service-Learning and the Academy,” Change 28 (January/February 1996): 20–27.
  21. 21.John W. Eby, “Why Service-Learning Is Bad.” Service Learning, General (1998): 27.
  22. 22.Timothy K. Stanton, Dwight E. Giles, Jr., and Nadinne I. Cruz, Service-Learning: A Movement’s Pioneers Reflect on Its Origins, Practice, and Future (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 171–172.
  23. 23.Kathryn Forbes, Linda Garber, Loretta Kensinger, and Janet Trapp Slagter, “Punishing Pedagogy: The Failings of Forced Volunteerism,” Women’s Studies Quarterly 27, no. 3/4 (Fall/Winter 1999): 158–168.
  24. 24.Italics in original quote. Harry C. Boyte, “Community Service and Civic Education,” Phi Delta Kappan (June 1991): 766. Boyte has become a strong advocate for “civic politics” in higher education. See Boyte, Stephen Elkin, Peter Levine, Jane Mansbridge, Elinor Ostrom, Karol Soltan, Rogers Smith, “The New Civic Politics: Civic Theory and Practice for the Future,” Good Society 23, no. 2 (2014): 206–211.
  25. 25.Tania D. Mitchell, “Traditional vs. Critical Service-Learning: Engaging the Literature to Differentiate Two Models,” Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning (Spring 2008): 50–65. Sociologist Randy Stoecker also developed a similar “ideal type” framework in his discussion on community based research, an extension of service learning. Stoecker, “Community-Based Research: From Practice to Theory and Back Again,” Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning (Spring 2003): 35–46.
  26. 26.Anne Colby, Elizabeth Beaumont, Thomas Ehrlich, and Josh Corngold, Educating for Democracy: Preparing Undergraduates for Responsible Political Engagement (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007). As other political scientists have noted, this is part of a broader trend in American public life. On the relationship between shifting economic policy and volunteerism, see Nina Eliasoph, The Politics of Volunteering (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2013).
  27. 27.Despite the fact that many service learning pioneers cite the influence of mass student politics in the 1960s on the emergence of service learning, students have been notably absent in histories of service learning. Most histories of service learning focus on either foundational ideas or the policy frameworks that enabled its growth in American higher education. On the pioneers, see Timothy K. Stanton, Dwight E. Giles, and Nadinne Cruz, Service-Learning: A Movement’s Pioneers Reflect on Its Origins, Practice and Future (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999). The historian David Scobey, in making his argument for the 2000s as a “Copernican Moment” for civics, claims that the beginning of the civic education movement started in the 1980s with the Campus Compact. See Donald W. Harward, ed., Civic Provocations (Washington, DC: Bringing Theory to Practice, 2012). Scholars have started to look at alternative roots of service learning. See Matthew Countryman and Timothy K. Eatman, “Connecting Civil Rights and Community Engagement,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Service Learning and Community Engagement, ed. Corey Dolgon, Tania D. Mitchell, and Timothy K. Eatman (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2017); Nicholas Longo, “The Highlander Folk School,” in Why Community Matters: Connecting Education with Civic Life (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007); and Kecia Hayes, “Critical Service-Learning and the Black Freedom Movement,” in Critical Service Learning as a Revolutionary Pedagogy: An International Project of Student Agency in Practice, ed. Brad J. Portfillio and Heather Hickman (Charlotte, NC: Information Age, 2011). Interestingly, some service learning scholars, academic leaders, and policy makers have returned to the frameworks of the Truman Commission. See National Task Force on Civic Learning and Democratic Engagement, A Crucible Moment: College Learning and Democracy’s Future (Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2012).
  28. 28.Although not focused on the university per se, the scholarship of Wesley Hogan is a rare exception. See “Who’s the Expert? An Essay on Evidence and Authority,” in On the Freedom Side: How Five Decades of Youth Activists Have Remixed American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019).
  29. 29.On free speech, see “Report of the Committee on Freedom of Expression,” accessed August 2014, https://provost.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/documents/reports/FOECommitteeReport.pdf. On justice as antithetical to the pursuit of truth and the psychology of contemporary student activism, see Greg Lukianoff and Jonathan Haidt, The Coddling of the American Mind: How Good Intentions and Bad Ideas Are Setting Up a Generation for Failure (New York: Penguin Press, 2008). For a more balanced overview of the central issues, see Jonathan Zimmerman, Campus Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). Peter Levine, “Another Time for Freedom? Lessons from the Civil Rights Era for Today’s Campus,” Liberal Education 105, no. 1 (Winter 2019).
  30. 30.“Kalven Committee: Report on the University’s Role in Political and Social Action, Report of a faculty committee, under the chairmanship of Harry Kalven, Jr. Committee appointed by President George W. Beadle,” Record I, no. 1 (November 11, 1967), https://provost.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/documents/reports/KalvenRprt_0.pdf.
  31. 31.Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, “The Wisdom of the University of Chicago’s ‘Kalven Report,’” October 12, 2023, https://www.thefire.org/news/wisdom-university-chicagos-kalven-report; Board of Trustees of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, “Resolution on the Affirmation of Academic Freedom and Freedom of Speech,” July 27, 2022. https://bot.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/160/2022/07/Meeting-Book-University-Affairs-Committee_Strategic-Initiatives-Committee-July-27-PUBLIC.pdf; Daniel Diermier, “The Need For Institutional Neutrality At Universities,” Forbes, December 20, 2023. For a broader discussion of the uses of the Kalven report, see Jennifer Ruther, “The Uses and Abuses of the Kalven Report,” Chronicle of Higher Education, October 23, 2023. For a critique, see Robert Post, “The Kalven Report, Institutional Neutrality, and Academic Freedom,” July 20, 2023, in Revisiting The Kalven Report: The University’s Role In Social And Political Action, ed. Keith E. Whittington and John Tomasi (Johns Hopkins Press, forthcoming), Yale Law School, Public Law Research Paper, available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=4516235.
  32. 32.Mario Savio, “Response to Assistant Dean Thomas Barnes,” September 30, 1964, in The Essential Mario Savio: Speeches and Writings That Changed America, ed. Robert Cohen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 119.

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