Index
Page numbers in italics indicate figures or tables.
Abadie, Jeannette d’, 140
absolutions, 37, 39, 49, 52–53, 81, 114
accusations: consequences of, xii, 2n4, 21, 36–37, 51, 56, 87, 172–73; as feature of witch panics, 10n30, 27; of herbs used for harmful effects, 4, 24–26; initiation of, 46; mala fama as basis of, 19, 29, 31–32, 37–38, 46, 48, 85–86, 98–99, 104, 132, 152; of murder, 24, 31, 34, 48–49, 52, 59, 74, 76, 88, 121–22, 128; of poisoning, 4, 25, 28–29, 34, 36, 54, 68, 72, 73, 75, 110n71, 145; of sexual deviance, 30, 36, 73, 76–77, 164n69; vengeful, 19, 38, 46n90, 47, 49, 165–69; women as predominant target of, 8, 24, 26, 28, 178–79
AGN. See Archivo General de Navarra
Aguinaga, Pedro, 129
Aguirre (licenciado), 72
akelarres (witches’ gatherings), xiii, 40, 134–37, 141, 143, 143n80, 175. See also witches’ gatherings
alcaldes (municipal magistrates), 30, 45, 46, 62, 84
Alcoberro, Agustí, 179n10
Alduy, Joan de, 100
Andueza, Fermín, 30, 82, 111, 133, 165
Anelieta, Juan de, 116
animals, destruction of, 4, 36, 76–77, 145, 155. See also crops, destruction of
Aniz, María de, 49
Anocíbar (village), 34–37, 76, 80–81, 92, 99, 110, 130, 146
antisemitism, 105
Aragon, 5, 13, 44n83, 45n85, 65, 79n76
Aragonès, Pere, 178n8
Araiz, Valley of, 82, 111, 133
Arana, María de, 121
Araquil, Valley of, 37
Archivo Diocesano de Pamplona (ADP), 15
Archivo General de Navarra (AGN), 11, 13–15, 38, 106
Archivo General de Simancas (AGS), 15
Archivo Histórico Nacional (AHN), 15
Arguello, María, 52
Arguello, María de, 48
Arista, Íñigo, 5
Aristotle, 122
Arlés y Andosilla, Martín de, 23–24, 97n22
Artabia, Catalina de, 99
Aspilcouette, Marie d’, 140
auto de fé (penitential ceremony), 39–43, 41n69, 41n72, 50, 74, 81, 84, 135, 140, 174. See also penances
Aycanoa, Graciana de, 152
ayuntamientos de brujas (witches’ gatherings), xiii, 161–62, 161n63. See also witches’ gatherings
bad Christians. See malas cristianas
Badostain, Pedro de, 31
bad reputation. See mala fama
Bailey, Michael, 147
Balanza, Pedro, 1, 32–34, 56, 68–69
Baldan, María, 129
Baldan, Sebastián, 114
banishment. See exile
Baquero, Martín, 157
Barandaian, José Miguel de, 175
Baraybar, Juana de, 133
Barcelona, 12
Basque language, 67, 78. See also Euskera
Battle of Noáin, 6
Battle of Roncevalles, 5
Beelzebub, 112, 112n78. See also devils; Satan
Behringer, Wolfgang, xi, 9, 26–27, 146n2, 177n6
beliefs in witchcraft, magic, and sorcery, 145–73; antisemitism evident in, 105; diabolism and, 161–65; diversity and plasticity of, 146, 163, 165, 169, 172; gender as factor in, 146–52; about generational transmission of witchcraft powers, 156–61; and mala fama, 152–56; persistence of, throughout early modern period, 31–32; role of, in the world of early modern Navarra, 21; scholarly approaches to, 3, 8–9, 17–18; secular trials as sources for studying, 13–18, 21; skepticism about, 66, 84n93, 85, 114, 145, 146, 169–72; truth of, for the believers, xii, 18; of villagers, 17–18, 21, 97. See also magical universe
Belza, Graciana, 29, 52, 55–56, 113, 145–46, 153–54, 163
Berrobi, Sancho de, 106
Berrueca, Valley of the, 37
blood purity. See limpieza de sangre
body. See corpus dilecti
Bosch, Hieronymus: The Garden of Earthly Delights, 126n20; The Haywain, 126n20; The Last Judgment, 126; The Temptation of St. Anthony, 126n20
Bourges Cathedral, 125
Brigante, María, 31, 104–5, 159–60
Brueghel, Pieter, the Elder, The Seven Deadly Sins, 125
buena fama (good reputation): Christianity as source of, 48, 102; factors contributing to, 153; testimonies to, 151, 152
buenas cristianas (good Christians): acts and conduct of, 101–3, 108, 119, 153, 171; avoidance of magic and witchcraft by, 117–18; as defense against accusations, 48, 98, 100–109, 151; indulgences as sign of, 106–8; malas cristianas as opposite of, 98, 109–11; Old Christians linked to, 102, 104, 106. See also malas cristianas; Old Christians
Calle, Pedro de, 167
Cámera de Comptos, 62
Cameron, Euan, 97n21
Canon episcopi, 66, 84n93, 169, 171
Castell, Pau, 179n10
Castilla: legal system in, 61n5; and Navarran politics and government, 5–6, 43, 60–62; and witchcraft, 65, 71–72, 75. See also Council of Castilla
Cegema, Iñigo Ladronde, 170
chain trials: conceptions (craftings) of witches in, 19, 37; conformity of evidence and testimony in, 15; defined, 32; examples of, 32–40; features of, 32, 36, 38; isolated trials contrasted with, 27; jurisdictional disputes involving, 68–70, 73–81; toads as prominent feature in, 129–33; torture used in, 56. See also witch panic (1609–1614); witch panics/crazes/hunts
Charles V, King of Spain, 6, 69
children and infants: accused as witches, 30, 34n44, 40, 46n89, 74, 82; harming/killing of, 36, 48, 52, 59, 76, 88, 99, 110, 110n71, 122, 162, 166, 168; as instruments of witchcraft, 59, 73, 111; kidnapping of, 40–41; testimony from, 46, 46n89, 79–81, 84, 113–14, 114n88, 133; and witches’ gatherings, 34, 40, 75, 80, 111, 130, 134–35, 141–43, 142; and witch panic (1609–1614), 40–41, 41n72, 114n88, 114n89
Chorro, María Johan, 58
Christian, William, 97n23
Christianity: inversion of, 109–15, 118–19, 129, 130, 136, 140; performance of, 92–93, 98–109; toads in the thought of, 124–26. See buenas cristianas; malas cristianas; Old Christians; Reformations, Protestant and Catholic
Ciáurriz, María de, 76
Ciruelo, Pedro, Reprobación de las supersticiones y hechicerías, 116–17
Clark, Stuart, 8–9, 98n28, 109
confessions: coercion of, 82, 111; content of, 25, 30, 59, 82; as feature of witch panics, 10n30, 27–28, 40; as proof of guilt, 53–55; recanting of, 30, 40, 59, 82, 111; sentences modified in response to, 71. See also interrogation
consejo real. See royal council
conversos (converted Jewish populations), 64, 104n45
corporal punishment. See public humiliation/corporal punishment
corpus dilecti (body of the crime), 88, 88n115
cort general. See general court
cort real. See royal court
Council of Castilla, 15, 60, 69, 72, 74, 80
courts. See general court; legal system; royal court; royal tribunals; trials
Coy, Jason P., 51
crimen exceptum (exceptional crime), 54
crimen mixti (crime with secular and heretical concerns), 60, 65–66, 71, 74, 76–81, 85–86
cristianos viejos. See Old Christians
crops, destruction of, 1, 4, 30, 36, 59, 68, 73, 74, 75, 77, 110, 111, 121, 127, 136, 145. See also animals, destruction of
crucifixes, mistreatment of, 92, 110, 114
Cubeldra, Pedro de, 155
Cubieta, Miguel de, 151
Cuenca, 65
curia diocesana. See episcopal court
Darnton, Robert, 136n56
death: in prison, 38, 56–58, 81, 82, 87, 100, 167, 168; sentences of, 24–26, 33–35, 42, 49, 56–58, 64n18, 68, 75–76, 78, 85; toads associated with, 124–26. See also executions
defense attorneys. See procuradores
Delrío, Martín, Disquisitiones magicae, 116–18, 117n102, 118n106
demonologies, 115–20, 115n92, 139–43, 147
denunciations. See accusations
devils: interactions with, xi, 30, 36, 59, 71, 75–76, 82, 87, 92, 111–12, 134; Jews associated with, 105; marks of, 133, 138, 140–41; toads linked to, 121, 125, 134, 136; witches’ powers attributed to, 88, 138; worshiping of, 49n96, 50, 76, 111–12. See also Beelzebub; diabolism; Satan
diabolism: absence of, in witch trials, 12–13, 29–30, 86–87, 163; the Inquisition and, 66; presence of, in witch trials, xi, 8, 12–13, 26, 30, 34, 36–37, 66, 76, 80–81, 101, 109–15, 133, 161–65; southern vs. northern Spanish attitudes toward, 66–67, 66n29. See also demonologies; devils
Diputación del Reino (legal institution), 6, 62
discourse analysis, 18
Ecala, María de, 100
Echayde, Domingo de, 99
Echeberria, Catalina de, 154
Edict of Expulsion (Spain, 1492), 94
Egybel, María, 156
Elcarte, Francisco de, 116
England, witchcraft in, 137
English witchcraft, 137
episcopal court (curia diocesana), 44, 62–63, 96n17, 105, 113–15, 128–29
Errores gazariorium, 139
Esaian, Pedro, 81
Esparza, Lope, 34, 73, 110, 128, 145, 157–58, 170–72
Esparza, María, 31–32, 50–51, 88–90, 116, 155, 175
Estermiguel, María de, 154
Etzeberena, Pedro, 98
Euskera, 16. See also Basque language
executions: commemorations of, 174; Inquisition death sentences and, 64n18; mass, 33–34; in medieval Navarra, 24–26; as outcome of chain trials, 33–35, 68, 75–76, 78; of Protestants, 94n6; rarity of, 49, 56–57, 85; in witch panic (1609–1614), 42; women subject to, 24, 146. See also death
exile, 9, 29n26, 31, 32, 36–37, 49, 51–52, 56, 81, 88, 90, 104, 145
fama (reputation): intergenerational, 156–61; in other cultures, 153n33; public creation of, 37; role of, in witch trials, 29, 45–46, 54, 87–88, 128, 146, 152–53, 153n34; social significance of, 50, 151. See also buena fama; mala fama
Fargua, Beltrana de la, 135
fields. See crops
fiscales (prosecutors): charges brought by, 100, 110, 128, 132, 153–54, 157–58, 162–63, 166; duties and practices of, 31, 35, 43–44, 46, 48, 51, 58, 108; finances of, 78; jurisdictional arguments made by, 78, 86–87; monetary demands by, from the accused, 25; records of, 14, 24, 51; sentences conferred by, 36, 49–50, 52, 56, 104; torture advocated by, 49n98, 54–56, 56n121, 145
flying, 82, 127. See also night flights
Foucault, Michel, 50, 179, 180n15
Franks, 5
gatherings. See witches’ gatherings
gender, and witchcraft, 8, 24–26, 28, 146–52, 176. See also male witches
general court, 5
Germany: banishment sentences in, 51n104; fama and witch trials in, 153n34, 156n47; modern apologies for witch persecutions, 178
God, disavowals of, 59, 73, 76, 110n71, 113–14, 128, 162
good Christians. See buenas cristianas
good reputation. See buena fama
Gorriti, María de, 152
Goya, Francisco, El conjuro, 148
Goyena, María, 156
Gracieta, María, 113
Henningsen, Gustav, xiii, 10n30, 11–12, 27, 66n29
herbs, witches’ and other evil-doers’ use of, 4, 24–26, 105, 127, 145
heresy: disavowals of God and other Christian figures, 59, 73, 75, 76, 92, 110, 110n71, 113–14, 128, 130, 133; Inquisition trials based on acts of, 31, 64–66, 70n41, 71–74, 76, 79, 81–83, 86–90; secular crimes in conjunction with, 60, 65–66, 71, 74, 76–81, 85–86; witchcraft’s relationship to, 19, 66, 70n42
hidalgos/as (men and women of nobility), 166–69, 166n72
Hildegard of Bingen, 123
Homza, Lu Ann, 12, 41, 114n89, 150n19
Horace, 124
Huarte, Francisco de, 112n79
Huici Goñi, María Puy, 6
humiliation. See public humiliation/corporal punishment
Hutton, Ronald, xin
imprisonment: after arrest, 47; as sentence for witchcraft, 70–71, 70n44
infants. See children and infants
Inquisition: definition of witches in, xii; dissolution of, 64, 85; establishment of, 64, 94; in Navarra and environs, 6, 11, 64, 66–67; overview of, 64; and the Protestant Reformation, 94, 94n6; Relaciones de las causas, 10n32, 12, 15, 60n3, 87, 135; secular courts’ relationship with, 20, 31, 34, 44, 60–61, 65–91; sentences conferred by, 52, 52n107, 64n18, 74, 74n58; as source of information on witches and witchcraft, 2, 9–13; toads in the trials of, 134–43; torture rarely used in, 54, 54n113; transfer of witchcraft cases to, 31, 34, 37, 39–40, 52, 67, 79–83, 86; and witchcraft, 64–67, 69–70, 70n42, 83–84, 90, 143n80; and witch panic (1609–1614), 40–43, 84–85. See also witches’ panics/crazes/hunts
interrogation: language of, 47; processes of, 14, 15, 45–46; for purposes of witch-hunting, 39; scholarly approaches to, 17; torture used in, 30, 35, 52–56, 56n121, 59, 76, 112, 127, 132, 145. See also confessions; procesos
Inza (village), 30, 52, 57–58, 82–83, 133
Iráizoz, Graciana de, 81, 92–93, 99–100
Irissari, Jordana de, 25
Islam and Muslims, 4, 6, 66, 157. See also Moors
isolated trials: chain trials contrasted with, 27; defined, 27; examples and features of, 28–32
Isturiz, Juanes, 38
Iturmendi, Miguel de, 103
Jenda, Juan de, 50
Jews: crimes imputed to, 105; as impure, 102, 104–5, 157; Spanish persecution of, 6, 94; witches likened to, 105, 105n48. See also antisemitism; conversos
Joana la Christiana, 25
Johan, María, 34, 56, 75–76, 78, 81, 92, 112, 112n79, 130, 146
Juana II, Queen, 43
Juvenal, 124
Labayen, Graciana, 168
Lancre, Pierre de, xiii; Tableau de l’inconstance des mauvais anges et demons, 116, 118, 119n108, 138, 139–43, 142
Larner, Christina, 153n31
Larramendi, Pedro, 79–80, 101–3
Larraun, Valley of, 81, 133, 158
lashings. See public humiliation/corporal punishment
Lecumberri, Pedro, 105–6, 113–15, 128–29
legal system, 61–64, 63, 115. See also royal tribunals
Leiza, Juan de, 116
Levack, Brian, 9, 26–27, 98n26
limpieza de sangre (purity of blood), 104–5, 156–60
livestock. See animals
Livy, 4
Logroño, 18, 23, 40–43, 42, 64, 66, 79–80, 82, 85, 90, 94, 135, 137, 175n2
Lopez, Martín, 100
Lozana, Juana, 121
Luther, Martin, 94
Machielsen, Jan, 11n37, 115n92, 118, 118n106, 178n8
magic, 12–13, 21, 21n66, 24, 66, 117–18. See also beliefs in witchcraft, magic, and sorcery; magical universe; witchcraft
magical universe, 21, 21n66, 31, 146n2, 172. See also beliefs in witchcraft, magic, and sorcery
Majaferrero, Joanot de, 154
mala fama (bad reputation): accusations based on, 19, 29, 31–32, 37–38, 46, 48, 85–86, 98–99, 104, 132, 152–56; significance of, in witchcraft accusations, 29, 29n25, 37, 46n90, 56, 98–99; as social liability, 51–52; toads as factor in, 130
malas cristianas (bad Christians): accusations of being, 8, 19, 28–29, 46, 92–93, 127; buenas cristianas as opposite of, 98, 109–11; Catholic Reformation’s effect on perceptions of, 95, 100; Christian performativity as measure of, 92–93, 98–109; defenses against being, 48, 98, 100–109; demonologies’ warnings against, 117; and the inversion of Christianity, 109–15; labeling of, xii, 3, 98–100; witches identified as, 8, 19, 20, 93, 97–100, 110, 119. See also buenas cristianas
male witches, 28, 38, 147, 149, 159n57. See also gender, and witchcraft
Manrique, Alonso, 69
Martínez, Graciana, 36, 103–4, 131
Mary. See Virgin Mary
Mass, inversions of. See Christianity: inversion of
medical experts, as trial witnesses, 32, 53, 88, 104, 116
Memoria de las Brujas, 177
men. See male witches
Mongastón, Juan, 43
Montaigne, Henri, 109
Monteano, Peio, 16
Monter, William, 10, 26, 54n113, 66n27
Morelli, Giovanni, 19
murder: accusations of, 24, 31, 34, 48–49, 52, 59, 74, 76, 88, 121–22, 128; of children/infants, 36, 48, 52, 59, 76, 88, 99, 110, 110n71, 122, 162, 166, 168; defense arguments against, 48–49; jurisdictional dispute involving, 63n14; by poison, 24, 34, 110n71; toads implicated in, 121–22, 128, 136
Muslims. See Islam and Muslims
Nalle, Sara, 95
Navarra: Catholic Reformation in, 95–96, 102; history of, 3–6; the Inquisition in, 6, 11, 64, 66–67; institutional structure of, 5–6, 43, 115; map of, 4; medieval trials in, 24–25; modern response to witch persecutions, 179. See also royal tribunals; Vasconia
Nicander, 122
Nider, Johannes, Formicarius, 147n9, 169
Ochoa, Juanot, 157
Olagüe, María de, 49
Olagüe, Martín de, 80
Olalde, María Perez de, 57
Olazagutia, Francisco de, 116
Old Christians (cristianos viejos), 43, 66–67, 95, 102, 104–6, 153. See also buenas cristianas
Ollo, Teresa de, 38, 57, 130, 168
Oroquieta, Graciana, 101–2, 158
Ostling, Michael, 150n21
Pamplona: documents in, 15; episcopal court of, 105, 113, 128–29; executions in, 35, 37–38, 75, 94n6; history of, 4–5; the Inquisition and, 64, 74; papal nepotism in, 94n9; Protestantism in, 94, 94n6; royal prisons in, 29, 33, 47, 56–58, 75–76; royal tribunals in, 23, 43–46, 51, 56, 68–69, 73–76, 111; secular courts in, 139; synod held in, 96; torture used in, 59, 132
Peña, Francisco, 41
Peña, María de la, 121
penances, 37, 74, 74n58. See also auto de fé
Perez de Olalde, María, 38, 166–67
Phillip II, King of Spain, 77, 96n20
Picodella Mirandola, Gianfrancesco, Strix, 169
Pimoulier, Amaia Nausia, 150
plenary indulgences, 108
Pliny the Elder, 122
Podemos (political party), 174
poisoning: accusations of, 4, 25, 28–29, 34, 36, 54, 68, 72, 73, 75, 82, 110n71, 145; of animals, 4, 36, 73, 77; of crops, 4, 36, 68, 73, 75, 77, 121, 127; Jews associated with, 105; of people, 25, 29, 34, 36, 110n71; toads as means of, 122–24, 127–28, 130, 134. See also toads
Poska, Allyson, 95
primera instancia (court of the first instance), 62, 62n9
prisons: conditions of, 57; deaths in, 38, 56–58, 81, 82, 87, 100, 167, 168
procesos (trial records), 15, 38, 48, 82, 86. See also interrogation
procuradores (defense attorneys): actions on behalf of clients by, 47, 52, 58, 90; defense arguments made by, 31, 48–49, 52–53, 82, 88–89, 98, 100–109, 114, 119, 131, 154, 159–60, 166–67, 168; duties and practices of, 44; jurisdictional arguments made by, 20, 31, 79, 86, 89; qualifications of, 44
Ptolemy, 4
public humiliation/corporal punishment, 49–51, 56, 88, 90, 145, 158–59
punishment. See public humiliation/corporal punishment; sentences
Ralde, Marie de la, 139
reconciliations, 70, 70n44, 74, 74n58
Reformations, Protestant and Catholic, 93–97, 100, 102, 119
A Rehearsall both Straung and True, of Hainous and Horrible Actes Committed by Elizabeth Stile, 132
reputation. See fama
Robisheaux, Tom, 151n21
Rojas y Sandoval, Bernardo, 96
Roncal, Valley of, 29, 33–34, 68, 158
Roper, Lyndal, 150n21
Rowlands, Alison, 153n34, 156, 156n47
royal council: institutional role of, 5, 6, 43–44, 62; investigations of witchcraft ordered by, 32–33, 68; and jurisdictional disputes, 63n14, 75–80, 79n76, 89. See also royal tribunals
royal court: institutional role of, 6, 43–44, 62; and jurisdictional disputes, 63n14, 88–89; and witch trials, 59, 97–98. See also royal tribunals
royal tribunals: inquisitorial tribunal’s relationship with, 20, 31, 34, 44, 60–61, 65–91; overview of, 43–46, 62; strength and autonomy of, 5–6, 60, 61, 66–67. See also legal system; royal council; royal court; trials
sabbaths, xiii, 138, 139–40, 142, 142, 164. See also witches’ gatherings
Sagardoy, María, 28–29, 98, 127–28
saints, disavowals of, 59, 73, 92, 110, 110n71, 130
Salazar, Valley of, 33–34, 68, 73–74, 128, 157, 162
Salazar y Frías, Alonso, 12, 35n48, 41–42, 169
Salem, Massachusetts, 178
Salvatierra (inquisitor), 76
sanbenitos, 158–59, 159n54, 160
Sancho VI (the Wise), 5
Sancho VII, 5
San Juan, María de, 121
San Roman, Juan de, 167
San Roman, Pedro de, 166–67, 167n76
Sanz, María, 132
Sapiens (journal), 178
Sara, Alamana de, 25
Sarasa, María de, 31
Satan, 118, 140. See also Beelzebub; devils
Schwartz, Stuart, 172
Scotland: fama and witch trials in, 153n31, 159n57; modern apologies for witch persecutions, 178
Scott, Amanda, 96, 115n91, 150
Seitz, Jonathan, 79n76
sentences, 49–58; absolution, 37, 39, 49, 52–53, 81, 114; death, 24–26, 33–35, 42, 49, 56–58, 64n18, 68, 75–76, 78, 85; exile, 9, 29n26, 31, 32, 36–37, 49, 51–52, 56, 81, 88, 90, 104, 145; harshness of, 31, 32, 36, 45, 104; imprisonment, 47, 70–71, 70n44; penance, 37, 74, 74n58; for Protestants, 94n6; public humiliation/corporal punishment, 49–51, 56, 88, 90, 145, 158–59; reconciliation, 70, 70n44, 74, 74n58
sexual deviance, 30, 36, 68, 73, 76–77, 82, 111–12, 114, 133, 134, 136, 164n69
Sharpe, James, 137n59
skepticism, 66, 84n93, 85, 114, 145, 146, 169–72
slander, 12, 41, 150n19, 151–52, 166, 175
Smail, Daniel, 165n
sorcery. See witchcraft
Soria, Madalena, 159
souls: conceptions of, 60, 60n2; Inquisition’s concern for, 76
Spain, modern apologies for witch persecution, 178–79
spells, as instrument of witchcraft, 29, 31, 36, 131, 155
St. Pierre Abbey, Moissac, 125
Strabo, 4
Sturgeon, Nicola, 178
Subica, Martin de, 168
Supersticiones, 10n31, 12–13, 31, 31n32, 64–65, 75, 81n84, 85, 85n99, 175n2
Tausiet, María, 12–13, 13n42, 67n31, 79n76, 113n80
Taylor, Scott, 151n22
toads, 121–44; Christian conceptions of, 124–26; in demonologies, 139–43; devils linked to, 121, 125, 134, 136; dressed, 121, 134, 136–37, 136n56, 139–43; eating of, 128–29; feeding of, 130–31, 132, 136; fluids of, 124, 134, 137–38, 142; hanging, 3, 19, 99, 121; the Inquisition and, 134–43; as instruments of witchcraft, 4, 29, 34, 36, 37, 68, 73, 82, 87, 99, 110n71, 111, 121–22, 124, 126–34, 138, 139–44; keeping of, 132, 134–35; medicinal uses of, 122–23, 127n25; poison associated with, 122–24, 127–28, 130, 134; positive associations with, 122–23, 125n17; prominence of, in witchcraft accusations, 122, 129–33; value of studying, 19–20; as witches’ familiars, 135–39, 141–42; and witches’ gatherings, 121–22, 126–28, 128n31, 130, 132–37, 138, 141–43, 142. See also poisoning
Torena, Martín Joan, 37
torture: chain trials’ use of, 56; criticisms of, 53, 79; the Inquisition and, 54, 54n113; judicial use of, 35, 52–56, 56n121, 59, 76, 112, 127, 132, 145; as punishment for witchcraft, 26, 49; villagers’ use of, 41
trials: conceptions of witches and witchcraft influenced by type of, 19, 37; conduct of, 48; defense strategies in, 48–49; factors in, 8; geographical locations of, 33–34, 33, 35, 36, 39; inquisitorial vs. accusatorial models of, 45; jurisdictions for, 44; in medieval Navarra, 24–25; modern apologies for past, 177–78; postmortem, 167; records of, 48; secular, 2–4, 6, 9, 9n29, 13–16; types of, 19, 20, 27–28, 28. See also accusations; chain trials; Inquisition; isolated trials; procesos; royal council; royal court; royal tribunals; sentences; witch panics/crazes/hunts
tribunals. See royal tribunals
truth: discourse analysis and, 18; inquisitorial process and torture as means of discovering, 45, 53–55, 127; of people’s beliefs, xii, 18; proofs of, 53
United States, modern apologies for witch persecutions, 178
Urani family, 168
Urdiain, Gaspar de, 103
Urritzaga, Condesa de, 25
Valdes (licenciado), 71
Valencia, 12
Vasconia, 3–5, 16, 23–24. See also Navarra
Vasques, Montanya de, 25
Vassberg, David, 97n24
Vaulx, Jean del, 117n102
vengeance, accusations used for, 19, 38, 46n90, 47, 49, 165–69
villagers/villages: accusations and testimony by, xii, 12–18, 45–46, 48, 58, 88–89, 92–93; beliefs and worldview of, 17–18, 21, 97; and the Catholic Reformation, 96–97, 96n20, 97n21, 97n22, 97n24; conceptions (craftings) of witches by, 61; dispute resolution in, 62; and isolated trials, 27–32; languages spoken by, 16–17, 47, 67; power wielded by, 18–19; royal tribunals’ responsibility for, 78–79; skepticism expressed by, 169–71; torture used by, 41; and witch panics/chain trials, 12, 27, 32–39, 68–69, 75–80, 82, 84–85
Villanueva, Johan de, 151
Virgin Mary, 59, 92, 111, 113–14
Visigoths, 4
Voltmer, Rita, 45
Weyer, Johann, De praestigiis daemonum, 169
witchcraft: ambiguous conceptions of, 20, 44, 60, 67, 71, 74, 79, 81, 83, 88; conceptions (craftings) of, 18–19, 83, 152 (see also ambiguous conceptions of); diversity and plasticity of, 179; in early modern Europe, 8–9; in early modern Spain, 10–13; English, 137; French, 139–40; gender and, 146–52, 176; hereditary, 156–61; heresy’s relationship to, 19, 66, 70n42; the Inquisition and, 64–67, 69–70, 70n42, 83–84, 90; legal guidance lacking for, 44–45; local contexts for, 8–9; in modern times, 174–80; reality of, xii, 70, 84n93, 114, 169–72, 172; reform efforts aimed at, 23–24; religious writings on, 115–20; scholarship on, 6–13, 180; terminology pertaining to, xi–xiii. See also beliefs in witchcraft, magic, and sorcery; witches
witches: as bad Christians, 8, 19, 20, 93, 97–100, 110, 119; conceptions (craftings) of, xi, 3, 4, 26, 37, 115, 119, 146–47, 174–80; confessions of, 59; deceitfulness of, 105; detection of, 1–2, 133; devils linked to, 88, 138; familiars of, 135–39, 137n60, 141–42; fear of, 29; healing/helpful practices of, 29, 32, 85–87; likened to Jews, 105, 105n48; marks of, 133, 138, 141; as “others,” 105, 177, 180; reality of, xii; self-identifying, 175–77; terminology pertaining to, xi–xiii. See also male witches; witchcraft
witches’ gatherings: accusations involving, xi, 29, 34, 36, 73, 82, 87, 109, 110–11, 121–22, 126–28, 132–37, 161–62; activities of, 1, 34, 68, 73, 110n71, 111, 121–22, 126–27, 133, 162; children at, 34, 40, 75, 80, 111, 130, 134–35, 141–43, 142; mala cristiana associated with, 112; reality of, xii, 66, 70, 84, 109n70; terminology pertaining to, xiii; toads associated with, 121–22, 126–27, 128n31, 130, 132–37, 138, 141–43, 142; and witches’ marks, 133; Ziarnko’s engravings of, 138, 142, 164. See also akelarres; night flights
witch panic (1609–1614), 2, 9–13, 28, 40–43, 42, 84–85. See also witch panics/crazes/hunts
witch panics/crazes/hunts, 10n30, 26–28, 27, 40–43, 84–85. See also chain trials
women: Christian/early modern attitudes about, 147–49; as preponderance of the accused, 8, 24, 26, 28, 178–79; social status/reputation cultivated by, 149–51. See also feminism; gender, and witchcraft