Notes

Introduction

1. Jordan Sims, “Going for Broke,” in Rank and Rile: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers, ed. Staughton and Alice Lynd (Princeton, N.J., 1973), 261.

2. New York Times, 16 July 1970; Washington Post, 16 July 1970; Chicago Tribune, 16 July 1970; Time Magazine, 7 June 1971.

3. Several noted historians have illustrated the use of “microhistory”—viewing larger historical events through the lens of an individual, or reconstructing a historical moment around a personal narrative. On the uses of microhistory, see Carlo Ginzburg, “Microhistory: Two or Three Things I Know about It,” Critical Inquiry (Autumn 1993). For an example of how historians have blended micro with macro history, see Natalie Zemon Davis, The Return of Martin Guerre (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), or Sean Wilentz and Paul Johnson, The Kingdom of Matthias (New York, 1994).

4. The writings of Thomas Byrne and Mary D. Edsall, Tamar Jacoby, Alan Matusow, Charles Murray, Jonathan Rieder, Fred Siegel, and Jim Sleeper best articulate the tale of white urbanite disenchantment with the Great Society and illuminate—albeit with a critical gaze—the significance of black militancy in the 1960s.

5. For some of the best examples of this literature, see: Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. (Princeton, N.J., 1996); and Gary Gerstle, “Race and the Myth of Liberal Consensus,” Journal of American History, 82 (September 1995).

6. By the mid-1970s, in urban centers all over America, political power had shifted into the hands of African Americans. By 1973, there were 48 black mayors in the United States, and by 1990 there were 316. According to the Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, in 1991, African Americans headed 30 cities with populations of 50,000 or more, and 16 led cities with white majorities. See Frank McCoy, “Black Power in City Hall,” Black Enterprise, August 1990, 148–151, and Alex Poinsett, “The Changing Color of U.S. Politics,” Ebony, August 1991. See also David Cochran, The Color of Freedom: Race and Contemporary American Liberalism (Albany, N.Y., 1999).

7. The body of work that considers why the U.S. labor movement was in dire straits by the 1980s is vast. Some, such as the authors published in Staughton Lynd’s edited volume, “We Are All Leaders”:The Alternative Unionism of the Early 1930s (Urbana, Ill., 1996), debate with other scholars such as David Brody, “The CIO after 50 Years: A Historical Reckoning,” Dissent (Fall 1985), 457–72 whether excessive centralization and bureaucratization early on in the movement may be to blame. Others scholars, including Martin Glaberman, Nelson Lichtenstein, Ronald W. Schatz, Joshua B. Freeman, Martin Halpern, Herbert Hill, and Michael Goldfield, Ronald L. Filippelli and Mark McColloch, have instead called attention to the ill effects of redbaiting and racial discrimination on and within the labor movement. The works of Michael Piore, Charles Sabel, Steve Jefferys, Karl Klare, Katherine Van Wezel Stone, Judith Stein, and others have instead attributed the weakness or decline of the American labor movement to economic, legislative, or political events and forces largely external to organized labor.

8. A few other scholars have also rejected labor history’s recent tendency to minimize the relationship between postwar union choices and labor decline in the 1980s. The works of Michael Goldfield, Mike Davis, Kim Moody, Samuel Bowles, David Gordon, and Tom Weisskopf stand out in this regard.

9. Many have already narrated important parts of Detroit’s story. This book owes a tremendous debt to these scholars and draws generously on their work. Particularly valuable accounts of the city’s recent history have been advanced by Steve Babson, Kevin Boyle, John Bukowczyk, Joseph Darden, Dan Georgakas, James Geschwender, John Hartigan, Steve Jefferys, Christopher Johnson, Nelson Lichtenstein, Robert Mast, Jeffery Miral, Suzanne Smith, Mary Stolberg, Marvin Surkin, Thomas Sugrue, June Manning Thomas, and B. J. Widick.

Chapter 1

1. Box 5, Ronald Glotta Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

2. The marriage license of James Johnson and Edna Hudson Johnson, 16 May 1933, Marriage Licenses and Affidavits, Marriage Record Colored, 4 January 1930–22 December 1933, Book 7, Oktibbeha County Courthouse.

3. Testimony of Edna Hudson (p. 55) and memo from Kenneth Cockrel to Dr. Clemens Fitzgerald (based on interviews with the Johnson family, 9 May 1971); trial transcripts and summary of Case No. 70–04631, The People of the State of Michigan v. James Johnson, Jr., Box 5, Ronald Glotta Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

4. Marva was born on 16 October 1945.

5. Memo from Cockrel to Fitzgerald and testimony of Edna Hudson (p. 59), RGC.

6. Miscellaneous attorney notes (p. 4), RGC.

7. Even though members of the Johnson family were still discussing the horror of the lynching of Henry Foster as late as the 1970s, this event never made it into the local press. Perhaps it is not surprising that the local paper, the Starkville Daily News, did not report this event because very little black news ever made it into that paper. The same can be said of the neighboring Columbia Commercial Dispatch. But even the area’s two black newspapers, the Jackson Advocate and the Mississippi Enterprise, were silent despite their avowed commitment to reporting statewide black news. It is worthy of note, however, that during the same week that Johnson’s relative was lynched, the Detroit Race Riot of 1943 received front-page coverage in the Mississippi Enterprise. Clearly, racial violence in the “Promised Land” of the North was more shocking news than the all-too-common lynchings in the South.

8. On James Johnson’s emotional state during this period, see memo from Cockrel to Fitzgerald (p. 4), RGC. Ironically, James Junior’s own doctor was well connected to the same powerful white families in Starkville who consistently turned a blind eye to the very sort of racial violence that had so emotionally damaged James. Dr. Hunter Ledbetter Scales was married to Virginia Mills Saunders, first cousin to Johnson’s landlady, Elizabeth Saunders Gunn. For more on Johnson’s doctor, see the Hunter Scales Collection, Mitchell Memorial Library, Mississippi State University. See also M. Saunders, Saunders Family History, Mitchell Memorial Library, Mississippi State University.

9. Report from Fitzgerald to Cockrel, 15 February 1972, Box 5, RGC.

10. Testimony of James Johnson Jr., 11 May 1971, RGC.

11. Ibid.

12. Trial testimony in Michigan indicates that this woman’s name was Obera Powers. Research in Starkville, however, indicates that no one by that name lived in Starkville during this time. It is more likely that Edna worked for this woman, Obera Powell, as this name does appear in the record.

13. Memo from Cockrel to Fitzgerald (p. 6), Box 5, RGC.

14. Ibid.

15. Miscellaneous attorney notes, Box 5, RGC.

16. Johnson had repeated problems with getting to work on time because he had to ride the bus. When he finally saved enough money to buy a 1955 Buick Century for $1,200, he couldn’t afford the base parking sticker and had to walk two miles across the base to his job. See testimony of James Johnson Jr. (p. 62), Box 5, RGC.

17. Information gathered for these years of James Johnson’s life (in Mississippi, while in the army, and in Detroit) comes from an assortment of documents, letters, and miscellaneous notes found in RGC.

18. The Kerner Report: The 1968 Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, ed. Fred E. Harris and Tom Wicker (New York, 1988), 12; Marcus Jones, Black Migration in the United States with an Emphasis on Selected Cities (Saratoga, Calif., 1980); Daniel M. Johnson and Rex R. Campbell, Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History (Durham, N.C., 1981).

19. For more on the First Great Migration, see Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks’ Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916–1930 (Chicago, 1989); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago, 1989) ; Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900–1920 (Garden City, N.Y., 1975); Richard Thomas, Life for Us Is What We Make It: Building a Black Community in Detroit, 1915–1945 (Bloomington, Ind., 1992).

20. Harris and Wicker, 12.

21. Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Migration and How It Changed America (New York, 1991), 5.

22. Ibid., 287.

23. Harris and Wicker, 240.

24. Ibid., 239.

25. Neil McMillen, Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow (Urbana, Ill., 1990), 155.

26. For the history of the first wave of southern blacks to the Motor City, see Thomas, Life for Us Is What We Make It.

27. Ford traditionally used the black churches, the NAACP, and the Detroit Urban League as “hiring halls” in the black community, which added to his popularity among African Americans. See Njeru Wa Murage, “Organizational History of the Detroit Urban League, 1916–1960,” Ph.D. diss. (Michigan State University, 1993); August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979), 9 and 85; Joyce Peterson Shaw, “Black Automobile Workers in Detroit, 1910–1930,” Journal of Negro History 64, no. 3 (Summer 1979). Shaw points out that in addition to functioning as an employment agency, the Detroit Urban League also “served the interest of the Employers Association (to which all companies belonged) by instructing black workers in acceptable work habits, from proper clothing to suitable docility and anti-unionism” (178).

28. Joseph Darden, Richard Child Hill, June Thomas, and Richard Thomas, Detroit: Race and Uneven Development (Philadelphia, 1987), 67.

29. For statistics on the ethnic composition of Detroit in the 1950s, see “The Foreign-Born White Population by Country of Birth: Detroit and Twelve Major Urbanized Areas in 1950,” United Community Services Research Department, 1955, Box 2, United Community Services Studies and Reports Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit. Large groups of immigrants also came from Scotland, Hungry, Austria, Asia, Belgium, Yugoslavia, Greece, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden. On these groups, see John J. Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me: A History of the Polish-Americans (Bloomington, Ind., 1987), and Steve Babson, Building the Union: Skilled Workers and Anglo-Gaelic Immigrants in the Rise of the UAW (New Brunswick, 1991). Historian Peter Friedlander captures the work lives of ethnic Detroiters and illustrates the ways in which ethnic identity existed even while a collective working-class identity was being forged in the auto plants (The Emergence of a UAW Local [Pittsburgh, 1975]).

30. Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York, 1982), and The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York, 1995); Leslie Tender, Seasons of Grace: A History of the Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit (Detroit, 1990); Ed Pintzuk, Reds, Racial Justice, and Civil Liberties: Michigan Communists during the Cold War (Minneapolis, 1997).

31. Detroit’s most notable right-wing demagogue was Father Charles Coughlin, who gained a large following via his radio broadcasts. Ronald Carpenter, Father Charles E. Coughlin: Surrogate Spokesman for the Disaffected (Westport, Conn., 1998).

32. Carl O. Smith and Stephen B. Sarasohn, “Hate Propaganda in Detroit,” Public Opinion Quarterly (Spring 1946).

33. “The Cobo-Edwards Choice,” in Detroit Perspectives: Crossroads and Turning Points, ed. Wilma Hendrickson (Detroit, 1991), 458.

34. Smith and Sarasohn, 37

35. “The Cobo-Edwards Choice,” in Hendrickson, 458.

36. For a detailed account of these battles, see Martin Halpern, UAW Politics in the Cold War Era (Albany, N.Y., 1988).

37. Roger Keeran, “‘Everything for Victory,’ Communist Influence in the Auto Industry during World War II,” Science and Society Quarterly (Spring 1979): 8–9.

38. Ibid., 10.

39. Douglas P. Seaton, Catholics and Radicals: The Association of Catholic Trade Unionists and the American Labor Movement, from Depression to Cold War (Lewisburg, Pa., 1981); John Barnhard, Walter Reuther and the Rise of the Autoworkers Union (Boston, 1983); Nelson Lichtenstein, The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (New York, 1995).

40. For one of the most interesting accounts of how every local union did not alter its radical course after the Reuther ascendancy, see Nelson Lichtenstein, “Life at the Rouge: A Cycle of Workers’ Control,” in On the Line: Essays in the History of Auto Work, ed. Nelson Lichtenstein and Stephen Meyers (Urbana, Ill., 1989)

41. Keeran, 2.

42. Dominic Capeci, Race Relations in Wartime Detroit: The Sojourner Truth Housing Controversy of 1942 (Philadelphia, 1984), and Dominic Capeci and Martha Wilkerson, Layered Violence: The Detroit Rioters of 1943 (Jacksonville, Miss., 1991), 146.

43. For statistics on new housing units in Detroit during the 1950s, see “New Detroit Memo: ‘Change in Number of Housing Units in Detroit over a 15 Year Period, 1951–1966,’” in the New Detroit Collection, Box 22, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

44. Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, N.J., 1996).

45. Detroit Free Press, 7 January 1993.

46. John Frederick Cohassey, “Down on Hastings Street: A Study of Social and Cultural Changes in a Detroit Community,” M.A. thesis (Wayne State University, 1993).

47. “Death from All Causes: The Distribution of Total Deaths in the City of Detroit by Subcommunity and Census Tract: 1950,” United Community Services Research Department, 1954, and “Infant Deaths: The Distribution of Infant Deaths in the City of Detroit by Subcommunity and Census Tract: 1950,” United Community Services Research Department; Boxes 2 and 3, UCSSRC.

48. “Social Ratings of Community Areas in Detroit (1950): A Classification of the Subcommunities Based on Indices of Economic Development and Community Problems,” United Community Services Research Department, 1955, Box 6, UCSSRC.

49. Interview with Bernard O’Dell, in Elaine Latzman Moon, Untold Tales, Unsung Heroes: An Oral History of Detroit’s African American Community, 1918–1967 (Detroit, 1994), 346.

50. Interviews with Charles Digg Sr., Shelton Tappes, and Hodges Mason, in Moon, 53, 108, and 136.

51. June Manning Thomas, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit (Baltimore, 1997), 25.

52. Ibid., 60.

53. “A Brief Analysis of Housing Incidents,” 21 February 1955, Part 3, Box 2, Folder 18, Detroit Commission on Community Relations Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

54. Miscellaneous notes, Part 3, Box 2, Folder 18, CCRC.

55. Smith and Sarasohn, 36.

56. Ultimately, Mayor Cobo demolished 700 buildings in the Black Bottom. The area was vacant for many years until a nonprofit organization finally erected a new housing development, called Lafayette Park, there. This new housing was rented out at a rate “four to ten times higher than what the original residents of the area had paid.” See Steve Babson, Working Detroit: The Making of a Union Town (New York, 1984.), 158.

57. Harold Norris, “Dislocation without Relocation,” in Hendrickson, 476.

58. Babson, Working Detroit, 158.

59. Robert Sinclair and Bryan Thompson, Metropolitan Detroit: An Anatomy of Social Change (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 31.

60. Harris and Wicker, 90.

61. Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit, 1952), 63. This is an invaluable survey of 593 men and women, black and white, between May and August 1951. The group chosen came from a mathematically based representative cross-section of the Detroit population. The majority of interviewees were between the ages of 35 and 44. Eighty-nine percent of the respondents were white, and 11 percent were black. White respondents were questioned by white interviewers, and black respondents were questioned by black interviewers. See Kornhauser’s introduction and appendix for survey guidelines and controls.

62. Shaw, 178.

63. Michigan Chronicle, 31 August 1946. Regarding how the Chrysler Corporation requested “white workers” from outside of Detroit for its operations at the Chevy Gear and Axle Plant when it contacted the U.S. Employment Service, see “Recruit Outsiders but Ignore Local Workers,” Michigan Chronicle, 31 August 1946, Series 1, Box 6, Folder 11, CCRC. See also the Pittsburgh Courier, 12 April 1947, Series 1, Box 15, Folder 7, CCRC.

64. Keeran, 26.

65. Ibid., 26.

66. Meier and Rudwick, 125–34; Halpern, 33–34, and 212; Philip Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker (New York, 1981), 265–66, and 280.

67. Kornhauser, 91.

68. Ibid., 91.

69. Scholars are beginning to recognize this fundamental truth. Steven Gregory, for example, escapes the black victim paradigm and takes black struggle, resistance, and politics seriously (Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community [Princeton, N.J., 1998]).

70. Historian Joe Trotter rightly warns scholars not to contribute to what he calls a “ghetto synthesis” interpretation of urban black communities because doing so “camouflages the dynamics of class divisions within the black population.” This study in no way minimizes the import of class divisions and economic inequity in urban black communities. It merely suggests that white racial hostility, in turn, fueled black racial alliances. See Trotter, “Afro-American Urban History: A Critique of the Literature,” in Black Milwaukee, ed. Trotter (Chicago, 1985), 275. See also Kenneth Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870–1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1978).

71. For an invaluable discussion of this concept of “racialized class consciousness,” see Robin D. G. Kelley, ‘“We Are Not What We Seem’: Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South,” Journal of American History 80 (June 1993): 75–113. Regarding how racial consciousness informs struggles against oppression, see Gregory, Black Corona, and Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class and Power in 20^th-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, Calif., 1991).

72. Manning Thomas, 106–108.

73. Dr. Remus Robinson, “Statement to Board of Education,” Box 5, Folder 14, Detroit Public Schools Commission on Community Relations Division Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

74. Wilbur C. Rich, Coleman Young and Detroit Politics: From Social Activist to Power Broker (Detroit, 1989), 75.

75. See interviews with Arthur Johnson and Clyde Cleveland in Detroit Lives, ed. Richard Mast (Philadelphia, 1994), 199 and 202.

76. Kornhauser, 21.

77. Ibid., 122.

78. Ibid., 122.

79. Interview with Arthur Johnson, in Mast, 199.

80. Capeci and Wilkerson, 89.

81. Foremen such as Herbert W. Sundermeyer and Michael Kolops found their way into the DPD after World War II, as did auto plant inspectors Ronald W. Wilson and Allan J. Brady and security officers Joseph Jakubezak and James Lustig. See “Police Force Roster GG,” 20 November 1951–31 January 1955, Detroit Police Archives, Detroit Police Department.

82. As historian Rebecca Reed points out in her detailed study of the DPD between 1880 and 1918, Detroit’s police officers had come more from the ranks of the skilled working class than the unskilled and thus were homogeneous with regard to ethnicity and race. The low ethnic diversity of the DPD also dates back to this earlier period as well. Between 1910 and 1918, for example, 93 percent of Detroit’s police officers were “native-born” when “native-born” Detroiters constituted only 66 percent of the city. See Reed, “Regulating the Regulators: Ideology and Practice in the Policing of Detroit, 1880–1918,” Ph.D. diss. (University of Michigan, 1991), 100 and 105.

83. Burton Levy, “Changing the Police System,” discussion paper for the Detroit Public Safety Committee of the Charter Revision Commission, Box 3, Charter Revision Commission Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.

84. NAACP, Detroit Chapter, “White Police in Black Communities,” in Hendrickson, 451.

85. Ibid., 452.

86. Ibid., 452.

87. Ibid., 452–53.

88. Ibid., 456.

89. Foner, 410; Charles Denby, Indignant Heart: A Black Autoworker’s Journal (Boston, 1978), 174.

90. Foner, 410–11.

91. Rich, 76.

92. Schoolcraft Gardens Association, “History of Schoolcraft Gardens,” in Hendrickson, 459.

93. Ibid., 459.

94. Ibid., 461–62n.

95. Ibid., 462.

96. Ibid., 461.

97. Christopher H. Johnson, Maurice Sugar: Law, Labor, and the Left in Detroit, 1912–1950 (Detroit, 1988).

98. Kornhauser, 102.

99. Ibid., 100.

100. Ibid., 62.

101. Ibid., 84.

102. Regarding postwar migration to the suburbs, see Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbs of the United States (New York, 1985); Jon Teaford, City and Suburb: The Political Fragmentation of Metropolitan America (Baltimore, 1979); Gregory Weiher, Fractured Metropolis: Political Fragmentation and Metropolitan Segregation (Albany, N.Y., 1991); Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias (New York, 1987); Margaret Marsh, Suburban Lives (New Brunswick, N.J., 1990); Michael Ebner, Creating Chicago’s North Shore: A Suburban History (Chicago, 1988), Michael Ebner, “Re-Reading Suburban America: Population Decentralization, 1810–1980,” American Quarterly 37, no. 1 (1985); Sharon Zukin, “The Hollow Center: United States Cities in the Global Era,” in America at Century’s End, ed. Alan Wolfield (Berkeley, Calif., 1991); Thomas Sugrue, “Crabgrass-roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940–1960,” Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (September 1995): 551; Frederick Wirt, Benjamin Walter, Francine Rabinowitz, and Deborah Hensler, On the City’s Rim: Politics and Policy in Suburbia (Lexington, Mass., 1972).

103. Thomas Sugrue, in the Detroit Free Press, 1 June 1997.

104. Ibid., 2.

105. Kornhauser, 38.

Chapter 2

1. “To Fulfill These Rights—in the Area of Police-Community Relations and Effective Law Enforcement,” remarks by Police Commissioner Ray Girardin before the Dexter Boulevard Redevelopment, Inc., 28 July 1966, Box 10, Ray Girardin Papers, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.

2. Kenneth Cockrel to Dr. Clemens Fitzgerald, p.10. Memo, May 9,1971. Box 5, Ron Glotta Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

3. James Johnson Jr., interview with attorney, 8 May 1971, Box 5, RGC.

4. Detroit Free Press, 9 November 1961.

5. Detroit Free Press, 5 November 1961.

6. Detroit News, 8 November 1961.

7. Ibid.

8. Detroit Free Press, 7 November 1961.

9. Michigan Chronicle, 4 November 1961.

10. Detroit News, 8 November 1961; Detroit Free Press, 8 November 1961.

11. Detroit News, 8 November 1961.

12. Ibid.

13. “TAP Projects Index,” memo, Box 6, Folder 24, United Community Services Planning Department Collection, the Walter Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

14. “Project Head Start: Questions and Answer Fact Sheet,” Series 1, Part 2, Box 26, Folder 1, NAACP Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

15. “Program Index TAP,” 30 June 1966, Series 2, Box 2, Folder 12, Commission on Community Relations Collections, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

16. “EOA Proposals and TAP Report,” Box 45, UCSPDC.

17. “Progress Report of the Western Community Action Center, TAP,” 1 November 1965, Series 7, Part 1, Box 30, NAACP Collection, Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

18. “Available Programs and Services,” flyer, 14 January 1965, Box 243, Folder 8, Jerome P. Cavanagh Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

19. “TAP Projects Index,” UCSPDC.

20. “Project Summaries June, 1966,” City of Detroit Mayor’s Committee Total Action against Poverty, Box 6, Folder 24, UCSPDC.

21. Regarding how OEO funds were distributed from 1 December 1964 to 31 August 1965, see “Total Action against Poverty Policy Advisory Committee,” meeting notes, 15 February 1965, Series 5, Box 243, Folder 8, JPCC.

22. “The Detroit Low-Income Family,” Detroit Urban League Report, April 1966, Series 1, Part 2, Box 13, Folder 17, NAACP Collection.

23. Ibid., 33.

24. Ibid., 11.

25. “Detroit Urban League in Action,” newsletter, December 1967, Series 1, Part 2, Box 13, Folder 18, NAACP Collection.

26. See Series 1, Part 2, Box 26, Folder 21, NAACP Collection.

27. “Operation Bootstrap: A Project Designed by Region 9 Building Chairman, Detroit Public School System,” Series 1 Part 2, Box 23, Folder 31, NAACP Collection.

28. “Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. Community Action Program Proposals,” TAP, City of Detroit, 1964, Box 45, UCSPDC.

29. “Detroit Metropolitan Area Employment and Income by Age, Sex, Color, and Residence,” Detroit Commission on Community Relations, May 1963, Series 1, Part 2, Box 10, Folder 5, NAACP Collection.

30. Ibid.

31. Albert J. Mayer and Thomas F. Hoult, “Race and Residence in Detroit,” in Leonard Gordon, ed. A City in Racial Crisis: The Pre- and Post-1967 Riot (Dubuque, Iowa, 1971), 5.

32. Marc Belding Anderson, “Racial Discrimination in Detroit: A Spatial Analysis of Racism,” M.A. thesis (Wayne State University, 1969), Table 3, p. 82.

33. Ibid., Map 21: “Relief Case Loads by Tract, 1965,” p. 134.

34. Mayor Jerome Cavanagh, “Message to the Open Occupancy Conference, 1963,” and Richard V. Marks, “Message to the Open Occupancy Conference, 1963,” both in Gordon, ed., A City in Racial Crisis, 30, 32.

35. Erwin Canham, chair, Task Force on Economic Growth and Opportunity of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States, Washington, D.C., to Jerome Cavanagh, 27 January 1965, Series 5, Box, 243, Folder 7, JPCC.

36. Morton Engleberg to Robert Toohey, 13 February 1965, Series 5, Box 243, Folder 7, JPCC.

37. “The American Crisis: A Liberal Looks at the Ashes of Dead Dreams and Issues a Manifesto for Survival,” Detroit Free Press Magazine, 6 August 1967, Part 1, Box 30, NAACP Collection.

38. B. J. Widick, Detroit: City of Race and Class Violence (Chicago, 1972), 155.

39. Joseph Darden, Richard Child Hill, June Thomas, and Richard Thomas, Detroit: Race and Uneven Development (Philadelphia, 1987), 203.

40. NAACP Complaint Form: Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Wilson, 17 June 1966, Series 3, Part 2, Box 31, Folder 3, NAACP Collection.

41. NAACP Complaint Form: Mrs. Thomasyne Faulkner, 1 April 1966, Series 3, Part 2, Box 31, folder 6, NAACP Collection.

42. Mr. Ulmer to Mr. Patterson, 13 May 1963, Series 5, Part 1, Box 22, NAACP Collection.

43. “Police-Community Relations: Case Review and Present Status 1964 (November–December)” (p. 4), Series 3, Box 2, Folder 35, CCRC.

44. Miscellaneous notes, Series 3, Box 2, Folder 18, CCRC.

45. “Cross-section Survey of the Model Neighborhood,” for the Model Neighborhood Citizens Planning Conference, 18–20 September 1968, Box 14, City of Detroit City Planning Commission Collection, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.

46. Richard V. Marks, secretary/executive director, CCCR, memo, 14 June 1966, and Housing Committee, CCCR, memo, Series 1, Part 2, Box 10, Folder 8, NAACP Collection.

47. “Detroit Program for an Integrated School System,” 5 October 1964, Box 5, Folder 14, Detroit Public Schools Commission on Community Relations Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

48. Whereas 8 Detroit schools were all black in February 1962, by October 1965, 10 schools were all black. Despite the fact that black students comprised 54.8 percent of the Detroit school body of 294,822 children in 1965, by that year, 30 inner-city schools had no black kids. It angered city blacks further that very little improvement had been made in integrating the teaching or administrative staff of the Detroit Public School System. In 1961, of the 10,516-person instructional staff, 78.1 percent were white and 21.6 percent were black. In 1965, however, that staff had increased to 11,157, and still 70.2 percent were white while only 29.5 percent were black. As for school administrators, in 1961, 19 out of 293 assistant principals were black, but by 1965, still only 19 out of 295 assistant principals and 13 out of 244 principals were African-American. At the high school level, the degree of segregation that continued to exist by 1965 was particularly dramatic. For more on this, see “Racial Distribution of Students and Contract Personnel in the Detroit Public Schools” and “Racial Composition of Detroit Public High Schools in 1965,” December 1965, Series 1, Box 6, PSCCRDC.

49. Joyce Peterson Shaw, “Black Automobile Workers in Detroit, 1910–1930,” Journal of Negro History 64, no. 3 (Summer 1979): 177; Philip Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker: 1619–1981 (New York, 1981), 221.

50. “Percent Distribution of Family Heads by Their Occupation, by Race Detroit, 1969,” Research Division, City Planning Commission, 18 April 1972, Box 15, City of Detroit City Planning Commission Collection.

51. “Employment Conditions in the Model Neighborhood, 1970,” Social Planning Division, Detroit Planning Commission, 21 July 1970, Box 14, City of Detroit City Planning Commission Collection.

52. Michael Lipsey and David Olson, Commission Politics: The Processing of Racial Crisis in America (New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1977), 348.

53. “Employment Conditions in the Model Neighborhood, 1970,” 18.

54. “Who’s on Welfare?,” Charter Revision Commission, 11 June 1971, Box 3, Charter Revision Commission Collection, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.

55. “Public Assistance in Metropolitan Detroit,” booklet, August 1964, United Community Services Metro Detroit, Box 16, Folder 29, UCSPDC.

56. “Turnaround in the Seventies,” booklet, Detroit Police Department and Michigan Office of Criminal Justice Programs, 1973, Part 3, Box 69, Folder 2, CCRC.

57. Mrs. Jessie Wallace to Robert Tindal, 30 September 1966, Part 2, Box 5, Folder 21, NAACP Collection.

58. Burton Levy, “Changing the Police System,” 8. Discussion paper for the Public Safety Committee of the Charter Revision Commission. Box 3, Charter Revision Commission Collection.

59. As quoted in William Serrin, “God Help Our City,” Atlantic Monthly; March 1969, 115.

60. There is a substantial body of literature on the police in the United States. Regarding how the police feel about race relations, as well as how to historicize police brutality, see Mark Baker, Cops: Their Own Lives in Their Own Words (New York, 1985); D. Yarmey, Understanding Police and Police Work: Psychological Issues (New York, 1990); Marvin Dulaney, Black Police in America (Bloomington, Ind., 1996); Gordon Misner and Lee Brown, The Police and Society: An Environment for Collaboration and Confrontation (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1981); Jerome Skolnick and James Fyfe, Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use of Force (New York, 1993); Leonard Ruchelman, ed., Who Rules the Police? (New York, 1973); Ronald Kahn, “Urban Reform and Police Accountability in New York City, 1950–1974,” in Urban Problems and Public Police, ed. Robert Lineberry and Louis Masotti (Lexington, Mass., 1975).

61. “How Detroit Police View Treatment of Negroes,” survey in the Detroit Free Press, Box 3, Folder 1, Dan Georgakas Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

62. The arrest figures of the DPD attest to the fact that officers did not view blacks in the same way as they did whites. See: The Detroit Police Department, “Statistical Annual Reports,” 1964, 1965, 1967, 1975, Detroit Police Department Museum and Archives Unit. See also “Total Crime and Prosecution Arrests—Twenty-Five Year Comparison,” Detroit Police Department, Museum and Archives Unit.

63. “NAACP Proposals for Effective Law Enforcement and Crime Prevention,” statement of Robert Tindal, executive secretary; Bruce Miller, chairman of the Legal Redress Committee, Part 2, Box 24, Folder 3, NAACP Collection.

64. McGowan to Bush, memo, 26 January 1967, Part 3, Box 69, Folder 19, CCRC.

65. “Shooting Investigated by the Inkster and Romulus Branch NAACP,” 23 August 1963, Series 5, Part 1, Box 22, NAACP Collection.

66. “Background Statement on Police-Community Relations,” the City of Detroit Commission on Community Relations, Box 3, Folder 3, CCRC.

67. The Cotillion Club to Mayor Cavanagh, 22 January 1965, Part 2, Box 24, Folder 3, NAACP Collection.

68. “Police Injury Cases,” report, 19 February 1964, Box 3, Folder 1, DGC.

69. Ray Girardin, “The Police and the Community,” speech, 17 January 1964, Box 10, Ray Girardin Papers. Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.

70. Richard V. Marks, “Memo for Commission Information and Action,” Box 4, Folder 18, DGC.

71. Ibid.

72. Leigins S. Moore to Rev. Charles Williams, 19 February 1965, Part 2, Box 5, Folder 20, NAACP Collection.

73. Thomas Green Jr., M.D., to Jerome Cavanagh, 22 November 1965, Part 2, Box 5, Folder 20, NAACP Collection.

74. Moore to Rev. Williams, NAACP Collection.

75. Mattie Barrow to Mayor Cavanagh, 16 January 1965, Series 5, Box 217, Folder 7, JPCC.

76. Editorial on WJBK, 30 April 1965, Series 1, Part 2, NAACP Collection.

77. James Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency: The League of Revolutionary Black Workers (New York, 1977), 72.

78. A. Rahrig to Mayor Cavanagh, 1965, Series 5, Box 217, Folder 7, JPCC.

79. George Gerhold to Mayor Cavanagh, 7 January 1965, Series 5, Box 217, Folder 7, JPCC.

80. Mrs. E. Vick to Mayor Cavanagh, 6 January 1965, Series 5, Box 217, Folder 8, JPCC.

81. “A Policeman’s Wife” to Mayor Cavanagh, 11 January 1965, Series 5, Box 217, Folder 9, JPCC.

82. Ms. Elma French to Mayor Cavanagh, 6 January 196,. Series 5, Box 217, Folder 8, JPCC.

83. Pauline Ford to Mayor Cavanagh, 5 January 1965, Series 5, Box 217, Folder 8, JPCC.

84. Anonymous to Mayor Cavanagh, received in mayor’s office 4 February 1965, Series 5, Box 225, Folder 4, JPCC. For more hostile correspondence, see W. Ingersoll to Honorable Mayor’s Committee, 6 January 1964, Series 5, Box 225, Folder 4, JPCC.

85. Irving Bluestone to Walter Reuther, 5 June 1967, Box 429, Folder 1, Walter P. Reuther Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

86. Cavanagh did, however, rename his Total Action against Poverty program Human Resource Development in 1967, so that “negative comparisons between the agencies clients could be avoided by eliminating the word ‘poverty’ from the agencies name.” See “Mayor’s Committee for Human Resources Development,” newsletter, March–April 1967, Box 6, Folder 24, UCSPDC.

87. “Report on Investigations of Law Enforcement Claims against the Detroit Police Department” (p. 24), June 1966, Series 1, Part 2, Box 19, Folder 19, CCRC.

88. Ibid.

89. Richard Marks of the CCR, for example, wrote to a local pastor in 1964 that the DPD was recruiting men to fill one hundred vacancies on the force, “recognizing their responsibility to give equal opportunity to all.” He told this pastor, “We trust you will communicate the opportunity to the members of your congregation and to others whom you feel may qualify.” See Richard Marks to “Dear Pastor,” 9 March 1964, Part 3, Box 68, Folder 19, CCRC.

90. CCR to Girardin, memo, 16 September 1964, Series 3, Box 2, Folder 34, CCRC.

91. Criminal Investigation Division to Commission Ray Girardin, DPD memo, 1 October 1964, Part 3, Box 68, CCRC.

92. Richard Marks to Commission Sub-Committee on Police-Community Relations, Ray Girardin, and Robert Tindal, memo, 8 December 1964, Series 3, Box 2, Folder 24, CCRC.

93. Citizens Complaint Bureau, internal memo, Part 2, Box 24, Folder 6, NAACP Collection.

94. Girardin to Wadsworth, memo regarding Joseph et al., 13 January 1965, Series 1, Part 2, Box 4, Folder 22, NAACP Collection.

95. Girardin to Wadsworth, memo regarding Dowdell, 13 January 1965, Series 1, Part 2, Box 4, Folder 22, NAACP Collection.

96. Girardin to Wadsworth, memo regarding the Smiths, 13 January 1964, Series 1, Part 2, Box 4, Folder 22, NAACP Collection.

97. Girardin to Wadsworth, memo, 2 February 1965. For more correspondence from Police Commissioner Girardin during this time period, see Boxes 3 and 4, Ray Girardin Papers.

98. Citizens Complaint Bureau, internal memo.

99. “Interim Report to the Public Safety Commission of the Detroit Charter Revision Commission,” Maurice Kelman and David Hood, law professors, Wayne State University, Box 3, Charter Revision Commission Collection.

100. “Citizen Complaint Statistics, 1960–1975,” the Detroit Police Department. Museum and Archives Unit.

101. “The Negro Community and City Hall,” speech, Dr. Albert Wheeler, 16 January 1967, Series 1, Part 2, Box 19, Folder 21, NAACP Collection.

102. “Background Statement on Police-Community Relations,” CCRC.

103. Ibid.

104. For more on this, see Suzanne Smith, Dancing in the Streets (Cambridge, Mass., 2000).

105. “The Negro Community and City Hall,” NAACP Collection.

106. “Report on Investigations of Law Enforcement Claims,” CCRC.

107. H. B. Sissel, Consultant, U.S. Department of Commerce, Community Relations Service, Washington, D.C., to Mr. Anthony Ripley, mayor’s office, 24 September 1965, Part 3, Box 67, Folder 23, CCRC.

108. Stanley Webb to Richard Marks, 26 January 1965, Series 3, Box 3, Folder 2, CCRC.

109. Ibid.

110. Michigan Chronicle, 4 November 1961.

111. Francis Kornegay to Jerome Cavanagh, 15 April 1965, Series 1, Part 2, Box 3, Folder 16, NAACP Collection.

112. “Eyewitness Account of the Origins of the Riot—Detroit, July, 1967,” Rene Freeman (staff director of the West Community Organization), 3 August 1967, circulated by James Campbell of the Detroit Industrial Mission, Box 8, Folder 3, CCRC.

113. Ibid.

114. Albert Bergesen, “Race Riots in 1967: An Analysis of Police Violence in Detroit and Newark,” Journal of Black Studies (March 1992).

115. Andrew J. Glass and Jesse W. Lewis Jr., “Segment of American Society Turns to Open Insurrection,” Washington Post, 30 July 1967; quoted in Ann K. Johnson, Urban Ghetto Riots, 1965–1968: A Comparison of Soviet and American Press Coverage (Boulder, Colo., 1996), 76.

116. “A Fireman Dies: Negro Is Beaten,” Washington Post, 26 July 1967; quoted in Johnson, 77.

117. For the most detailed and comprehensive narrative account of Detroit’s civic rebellion, see Sidney Fine, Violence in the Model City: The Cavanagh Administration, Race Relations, and the Detroit Riot of 1967 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1989), passim.

Chapter 3

1. Eugene Martin, president Local Union 805, UAW, to TULC, 30 July 1963, Box 38, Folder 29, UAW Fair Practices Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

2. Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (London: Verso, 1988), 74.

3. Robert Battle III, “United We Won Another Battle,” The Vanguard, February 1966; in the TULC Vertical File: The 1960s, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

4. Horace Sheffield, “Labor Must Erase Last Vestiges of Race Bias,” Michigan Chronicle, 22 April 1961.

5. Michigan Chronicle, 12 March 1960.

6. Michigan Chronicle, 14 November 1959.

7. New University Thought, (September–October 1963), 1.

8. “Youth and Education Center,” TULC brochure, TULC Vertical File: The 1960s.

9. Michigan Chronicle, 28 May 1960.

10. Robert Battle III, press release on behalf of the TULC, Wednesday, 24 August 1960, TULC Vertical File: The 1960s.

11. “Trade Union Leadership Council: Experiment in Community Action,” interview with Battle and Sheffield, New University Thought (September–October 1963).

12. Ibid., 5.

13. Horrace Sheffield in The Vanguard, June 1962.

14. Nelson Lichtenstein, “Walter Reuther and the Rise of Labor Liberalism,” in Labor Leaders in America, ed. Melvyn Dubofsky and Warren Van Tine (Chicago, 1987), 300.

15. According to its constitution, the TULC was “a non-partisan and non-profit organization devoted to the struggles of Negro people, and other oppressed peoples, for first-class citizenship, full freedom, and unrestricted equality in every aspect of the political, economic, and social life of America.” See “Constitution of the Trade Union Leadership Council, Inc., Box 3, Folder 19, Ernest Dillard Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

16. Executive Board TULC, Inc., to Bill Beckham, 5 July 1959, Part 2, Box 12, Folder 16, Jewish Labor Committee Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Alex Roche, COPE director Local 223, to members Local 223, Series 1, Box 12, Wayne County AFL-CIO Office of the President and Vice President Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

20. Joseph Turiani, “The Trade Union Leadership Council and the 1961 Detroit Mayoral Election,” unpublished paper (Department of History, Wayne State University), 23.

21. A1 Barbour, Wayne County AFL-CIO, to Roy Reuther, 1 November 1961, Series 1, Box 12, OPVPC.

22. New University Thought.

23. Horace Sheffield, as quoted in Michigan Chronicle, 22 April 1961.

24. Ernest Dillard, “Report of the Public Relations Committee for the Past Two Years,” Box 3, Folder 30, EDC.

25. A1 Barbour to Horrace Sheffield, 23 October 1961, Box 12, OPVPC.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.

28. Detroit News, 16 August 1966.

29. For an interesting discussion of the historical relationship between Jews and African-American social movements, see Jack Salzman and Cornel West, eds., Struggles in the Promised Land: A History of Black-Jewish Relations in the United States (New York, 1997).

30. Jack Casper to Irwin Small, 14 January 1966, Part 2, Box 12, Folder 16, JLCC.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid.

33. “TULC Campaign Breaks Race Obstacle in UAW,” The Vanguard, June 1962.

34. Alphons Steinmetz (president of the Sophie Wright Settlement Community Council and Affiliated Block Clubs) to Walter P. Reuther, 17 January 1965, Box 4, Folder 3, Walter P. Reuther Collection, Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

35. Irving Bluestone to Brendan Sexton, 17 May 1965, Box 378, Folder 6, WPRC.

36. Walter Reuther to Brendan Sexton, 11 May 1965, Box 378, Folder 6, WPRC.

37. See Kevin Boyle, The UAW in the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945–1968 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989).

38. Walter Reuther to Jerome Cavanagh, 26 January 1966, Box 428, Folder 11, WPRC.

39. Mel Ravitz to Jerome Cavanagh, 7 August 1964, Series 2, Box 30, OPVPC.

40. Detroit News, 15 October 1953.

41. Irving Bluestone to Walter Reuther, 5 June 1967, “Petition to Remove Cavanagh and UAW Statement on the Matter,” Box 499, Folder 1, WPRC. See also a slightly different draft submitted for consideration by Millie Jefferies.

42. Jerome Cavanagh to Walter Reuther, 9 June 1967, Box 429, Folder 1, WPRC.

43. Irving Bluestone to Stephen Shulman, 19 September 1966, Box 378, Folder 6, WPRC.

44. Walter Reuther to Mrs. Medger Evers and Mr. Roy Wilkins, executive secretary NAACP, telegram, Box 54, Folder 41, UAWFPC.

45. Eugene Martin, president Local Union 835, to TULC, Inc., Executive Board, 30 July 1963, Box 38, Folder 29, UAWFPC.

46. Reuther received this award on 17 November 1964.

47. Statement prepared for Mr. Hugh Murphy, Administrator Bureau of Apprenticeship Training, U.S. Department of Labor for Presentation, 4 November 1965, in Lansing, Michigan, Box 54, Folder 42, UAWFPC.

48. Ethel Schlacht to Walter Reuther, 17 April 1966, Box 54, Folder 43, UAWFPC.

49. Wallace H. Brown to Walter Reuther, 27 June 1966, Box 54, Folder 43, UAWFPC.

50. Thomas Brooks, “Workers White and Black: DRUM Beats in Detroit,” Dissent (January–February 1970); and Horace Harris, graduate student in international relations, and Deanna Utlefe, graduate student in economics, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM): A Study through Interviews,” unpublished paper (p. 7), 15 September 1969, Box 1, Folder 10, Enid Eckstein Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

51. Brooks, “Workers White and Black,” 2.

52. As Steve Jefferys points out, Chrysler’s “failure to use its considerable profits to borrow or to invest in new plants created a situation where front-line supervisors found themselves forced to use aging machinery at even higher capacities” Steve Jeffreys, Management and Managed: Fifty Years of Crisis at Chrysler (Cambridge, 1986), 108.

53. Grievance 3886 of Charles Stein, Badge 9171–2537, 9 September 1960, Box 8, Folder 2, UAW Local 7 Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

54. Grievance 3989 of W. Eichrecht, Badge 9150–6488, 13 October 1960, Box 8, Folder 1, UAW Local 7 Collection.

55. Meeting minutes union and management, Grievance 4516, Box 8, Folder 9, UAW Local 7 Collection. See also Grievance 4366, Department 9174, 28 November 1962, Box 8, Folder 8, UAW Local 7 Collection.

56. Grievance 4372, 19 December 1962, Box 8, Folder 8, UAW Local 7 Collection.

57. Ibid.

58. Stamping Group, Eight Mile Road plant, minutes of meeting between Labor Relations Supervisor and Plant Shop Committee, Regional Meeting 28, 24 July 1962, regarding Grievance EM-124, Dept. 3361, 24 May 1962, Box 68, Folder 32, UAW Local 212 Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

59. Stamping Group, Eight Mile Road plant, minutes of meeting between Labor Relations Supervisor and Plant Shop Committee, Regional Meeting 33, 13 August 1963, regarding Grievance EM-226, Dept. 9750, 18 July 1963, Employee E. Cherry, Box 69, Folder 4, UAW Local 212 Collection.

60. Stamping Group, Eight Mile Road plant, minutes of meeting between Labor Relations Supervisor and Plant Shop Committee, Regional Meeting 35, 11 September 1962, regarding Grievance EM-148, Dept. 9890, 13 June 1962, Box 68, Folder 32, UAW Local 212 Collection.

61. Report on Shop Committee Grievances to Plant Manager, 11 January 1963, regarding Grievance 4370, 12 December 1962, Box 8, Folder 10, UAW Local 7 Collection.

62. Grievance 4277, employees F. Kranak, Badge 2745, J. Kosik, Badge 5388, and F. Purczynski, 7 March 1962, Box 8, Folder 8, UAW Local 7 Collection.

63. Grievance 4276, C. England, B. Susylo, O. Pearson, and R. Webster, 7 March 1962, Box 8, Folder 8, UAW Local 7 Collection.

64. Charles R. Walker, Robert H. Guest, and Arthur N. Turner, The Foreman on the Assembly Line (Cambridge, Mass., 1956), 97.

65. ‘“The Man in the Middle’: A Social History of Automobile Industry Foremen,” in On the Line: Essays in the History of Auto Work, ed. Nelson Lichtenstein and Stephen Meyers (Urbana, Ill., 1989).

66. Ibid.

67. Walker et. al., 17 and 40.

68. Jefferys, 54.

69. Robert David Leiter, The Foreman in Industrial Relations, Studies of History, Economics, and Public Law, Columbia University, 542 (New York, 1948), 17.

70. Ibid., 84–85.

71. Leiter, 89; and see Lichtenstein, “‘The Man in the Middle.’”

72. Lichtenstein, “‘The Man in the Middle.’”

73. Jefferys, 154.

74. Ibid., 157.

75. Jefferson Avenue assembly plant meeting, minutes, 10 November 1964, Grievance 4716, 13 October 1964, employee H. Lewis, Box 12, Folder 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

76. NAACP Complaint Form: Mr. James Lee Cowans, 1 June 1966, Series 3, Part 2, Box 31, Folder 11, NAACP Collection. Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit. NAACP Complaint Form: Mr. Robert Washington, 30, August 1966, Series 3, Part 2, Box 31, Folder 12, NAACP Collection.

77. Jefferson assembly plant meeting minutes, Labor Relations Supervisor and Plant Shop Committee, 9 June 1964, regarding Grievance 4643, Box 12, Folder 12, UAW Local 7 Collection.

78. Ibid.

79. Jefferson assembly plant meeting minutes, 10 November 1964, regarding Grievance 4722, Box 12, Folder 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

80. Jefferson assembly plant meeting minutes, 15 December 1964, regarding Grievance 4763, Box 12, Folder 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

81. “Report of Grievance and Adjustment,” regarding Grievance AD-1180, Dept. 3200, 27 December 1965, Box 72, Folder 12, UAW Local 3 Collection, Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

82. Ibid.

83. Jefferson Avenue assembly plant meeting minutes, 1 December 1964, regarding Grievance 4760, Box 12, Folder 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

84. Jefferson Avenue assembly plant meeting minutes, 3 November 1964, regarding Grievance 4709, Box 12, Folder 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

85. The BULLETIN (newspaper of the NCFDA), April 1960, Box 47, Folder 8, Arthur Hughes Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

86. See the NCFDA leaflet “The Shameful Mess” and the leaflet “What Our UAW Needs,” Box 47, Folder 8, AHC.

87. NCFDA leaflet “Chrysler 7 Women All Out Belle Isle Picnic,” Box 47, Folder 8, AHC.

88. Anonymous report, Wednesday, 27 July 1960, regarding 1960 NCFDA “Rank and File” women’s picnic, Box 47, Folder 8, AHC.

89. Ibid.

90. Ibid.

91. Report, “A. H.,” 27 July 1960, Box 47, Folder 8, AHC.

92. Jefferson assembly plant meeting minutes, Labor Relations Supervisor with the Plant Shop Committee, 2 January 1964, regarding Grievance 4561, Box 12, Folder 11, UAW Local 7 Collection.

93. See “Strike Notices Sent since 1958 Summarized Yearly, Numerically by Local,” Box 21, Folder 4, AHC.

94. Stamping Group, Eight Mile Road plant, minutes of meeting between Labor Relations Supervisor and Plant Shop Committee, Regional Meeting 38, 2 October 1962, Grievance EM-188, Dept. 3505, 4 September 1962, Box 68, Folder 32, UAW Local 212 Collection.

95. Stamping Group, Eight Mile Road plant, minutes of meeting between Labor Relations Supervisor and Plant Shop Committee, Regional Meeting 31, 14 August 1962, regarding grievance of 3 May 1962, and Regional Meeting 34, 4 September 1962, regarding Grievance EM-134, 1 June 1962, Box 68, Folder 32, UAW Local 212 Collection.

96. For some of the most valuable information on the use of the grievance procedure within the UAW, see Robert Asher and Ronald Edsforth, eds., Autowork (Albany, N.Y., 1995).

97. “Notes on Comments Made on Opening Day, Thursday July 2, 1964 at Noon Break of Contract Negotiations,” Series 4, Part 2, Box 20, Folder 6, AHC.

98. Chrysler Corporation, Press Information Services, press statement, 9 September 1964, Series 4, Part 2, Box 20, Folder 6, AHC.

99. Letter from the Executive Board of the TULC reprinted in the Detroit Tree Press, 10 July 1963, Series 4, Part 2, Box 20, Folder 7, AHC.

100. Ibid.

101. Jefferson Avenue assembly plant meeting minutes, 10 November 1964, Grievance 4720, Box 12, Folder 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

102. Letter from worker Harold Echols to “whom it may concern,” 12 December 1964, Box 63, Folder 77, UAW Local 212 Collection.

103. Ibid.

104. William J. Porter to Executive Board Members UAW Local 212, 25 January 1965, Box 63, Folder 77, UAW Local 212 Collection.

105. Ibid.

106. NAACP Complaint Forms, Series 3, Part 2, Box 31, Folder 16, NAACP Collection.

107. Fair Practices Case A-88–67, Michigan Civil Rights Commission Case 3915-EM, William E. Mims v. International Union UAW, regarding 30 November 1966 discharge, Box 17, Folder 47, UAW Local 3 Collection.

108. Michigan Civil Rights Commission Case 3183-EM, “Notice of Disposition,” Box 17, Folder 47, UAW Local 3 Collection.

109. Ibid.

110. Chrysler Corporation, Huber Avenue foundry meeting minutes, 15 June 1967, Meeting 8, Grievance HA 69–124, Dept. 9400, Shift 3, 15 March 1967, Box 78, Folder 10, UAW Local 3 Collection.

111. Ibid.

112. See information in Box 47, Folder 6, AHC.

113. Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 6.

114. See numerous company charges of excessive employee absenteeism in Box 12, UAW Local 3 Collection.

115. “Special Meeting” minutes, Jefferson Avenue assembly plant union and management, 8 May 1964, Box 12, Folder 12, UAW Local 3 Collection.

116. “Answers from the Plant Committee (First Step) Hamtramck Complex,” regarding Grievance AF 212–200, 28 March 1967, Box 78, Folder 7, UAW Local 3 Collection.

117. Grievance A63–126, Dept. 3330, Shift 3, 16 March 1967, Box 78, Folder 10, UAW Local 3 Collection.

118. Dodge UAW Local 3 UAW-AFL-CIO meeting between local officers and management, 28 July 1967, regarding Grievance AF191–158, Dept. 9150, 7 April 1967, Box 77, Folder 2, UAW Local 3 Collection.

119. Hamtramck assembly plant, meeting minutes of Plant Manager’s designated representatives with the officers of Local Union 3, 8 September 1966, Box 77, Folder 21, UAW Local 3 Collection.

120. Grievance AE 571–525, Dept. 9150, 7 June 1966, Box 77, Folder 2, UAW Local 3 Collection.

121. “Answers from the Plant Committee (First Step)–Hamtramck Complex 1967,” regarding Grievance AF 146–136, 28 February 1967, Box 78, Folder 7, UAW Local 3 Collection.

122. Grievance 4347, Dept. 9160, 18 October 1962, Box 8, Folder 8, UAW Local 7 Collection.

123. Ibid.

124. Appeal Board of the Chrysler Corporation and International Union, United Autoworkers Aerospace, Agricultural Impalement Workers of America, Case 4059–63:5, June 1963, Box 63, Folder 50, UAW Local 212 Collection.

125. Ibid.

126. Grievance AE 197–194, Dept. 9150, 24 February 1966, Box 77, Folder 2, UAW Local 3 Collection.

127. Dodge UAW Local 3 UAW-AFL-CIO Plant Committee Grievance Report, regarding Grievance AE160–164, Dept. 3200, Box 72, Folder 12, UAW Local 3 Collection.

128. See Grievance AF 145–135, 28 February 1967, R.. Philson, Box 78, Folder 7, UAW Local 3 Collection.

129. Dodge UAW Local 3 UAW-AFL-CIO Plant Committee Grievance Report, regarding Grievance AE 262–259, Dept. 3200, Box 72, Folder 12, UAW Local 3 Collection.

130. Steve Pasica, president, to Mr. R. Kobus, plant manager, Dodge Main plant, 1 November 1963, Box12, Folder 21, UAW Local 3 Collection.

131. Jefferson Avenue assembly plant meeting minutes, 10 November 1964, Grievance 4716, regarding worker H. Lewis, 13 October 1964, Box 12, Folder 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

Chapter 4

1. Interview with Detroiter Dick Lobenthal, in Detroit Lives, ed. Robert H. Mast (Philadelphia, 1994), 280.

2. James Johnson Jr., interview with attorney, 8 May 1971, Box 7, Ronald Glotta Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

3. Testimony of Maggie Taylor (p. 3), Box 5, RGC.

4. Rene Freeman (staff director of the West Community Organization), “Eyewitness Account of the Origins of the Riot—Detroit, July, 1967,” 3 August 1967, Box 8, Folder 3, Commission on Community Relations Collections, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

5. See the valuable survey responses in Joel D. Aberbach and Jack L. Walker, Race in the City: Political Trust and Public Policy in the New Urban System (Boston, 1973), 100.

6. Jerome Cavanagh to David Booth, research coordinator, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 6 February 1968, Series 8, Box 425, Folder 6, Jerome P. Cavanagh Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

7. “Black Polish Conference Final Evaluation Report,” 7 May 1973, Box 154, New Detroit Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

8. Ibid.

9. Mel Ravitz, Common Council president, “The Sociology of the Block Club,” September 1962, Box 13, folder 6, Charter Revision Commission Collection, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.

10. Interview with Eleanor Josaitis, in Mast, 42.

11. Ibid., 42.

12. Michael Lipsey and David Olson, Commission Politics: The Processing of Racial Crisis in America (New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1977), 348.

13. “Power Struggle among Black Militants,” Detroit Scope Magazine, 11 May 1968; reprinted in Leonard Gordon, ed., City in Racial Crisis: The Pre- and Post-1967 Riot (Dubuque, Iowa, 1971), III and 112.

14. “Progress Report of the New Detroit Committee,” April 1968, 22, Metropolitan Fund, Inc., Suite 1515, 211 W. Fort St., Detroit, Michigan.

15. Ibid., 30.

16. Ibid., 39.

17. Ibid., 103 and 132–33.

18. Lonnie Saunders to Richard V. Marks, memo regarding account of Ralph Williams, New Bethel Church janitor and Trustee Board member, 6:00 p.m., 30 March 1969, Part 3, Box 67, Folder 10, CCRC.

19. Lonnie Saunders to Richard V. Marks, memo regarding accounts of Miss Keyes and Miss Huey, late afternoon, 30 March 1969, Part 3, Box 67, Folder 10, CCRC.

20. Account of Ralph Williams, New Bethel Church janitor and Trustee Board member, continued, Box 67, Folder 10, CCRC.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Lonnie Saunders to Richard V. Marks, memo regarding interview with attorney Milton Henry, vice president of the Republic of New Africa, on 8 April 1969, Part 3, Box 67, Folder 10, CCRC. Also “Statement of Commissioner J. Spreen,” 3:00 a.m., Sunday, 30 March 1969, Part 3, Box 67, Folder 10, CCRC.

24. George Crockett was a fascinating character in the Motor City. By the 1960s, he had come to work closely with the city’s liberal administration; indeed, he was considered to be part and parcel of that “liberal establishment” by black nationalists and white conservatives alike. But Crockett actually had a far more radical history than many of his liberal colleagues on the bench or in City Hall. He had been one of the key defense attorneys in the infamous Smith Act trials of the 1940s, actually serving time in prison for contempt of court. He also served as counsel for accused Communists during the House Un-American Committee investigations of the 1950s, and he was a prominent figure in the Detroit civil rights movement from the moment it began.

25. “Progress Report of the New Detroit Committee,” 28.

26. “Statement by Judge George C. Crockett,” 3 April 1969, Box 36, Kenneth Cockrel and Sheila Murphy Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

27. “Progress Report of the New Detroit Committee,” 29.

28. Richard Marks to Walter P. Reuther, 18 April 1969, Box 429, Folder 5, Walter P. Reuther Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid.

31. “A Committee to Honor Judge Crockett in Support of Law and Justice,” Box 36, CMC.

32. James Ralph, Northern Protests: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement (Cambridge, Mass., 1993), passim.

33. “Poor People’s Campaign, Supportive Committee Meeting,” minutes, 11 May 1968, Box 9, CMC.

34. Statement of witness, Sam J. Dennis, field representative, Community Relations Service/U.S. Department of Justice, 3 June 1969, Part 3, Box 67, Folder 10, CCRC.

35. Statement of witness, Philip H. Mason, field representative, Community Relations Service/U.S. Department of Justice, 11 June 1969, Part 3, Box 67, Folder 10, CCRC.

36. “Statement of Protest and Demand for Action,” from Detroit coordinating office Southern Christian Leadership Conference, to Jerome P. Cavanagh, Ray Girardin, Lawrence Gubow, Citizens Complaint Bureau, Michigan Civil Rights Commission, Box 9, CMC.

37. “Ad Hoc Action Group Citizens of Detroit,” leaflet, Box 9, CMC.

38. See 13 May 1968 case materials, in Box 26, CMC.

39. “Detroit Branch NAACP Position on Unrest in the Detroit Public School System,” 16 October 1969, Box 67, NDC.

40. See statement to UNICOM from Daniel Toomer, 22 September 196,. Box 26, CMC, and memo, Cooley High incidents, New Detroit Committee, 2 October 1969, Box 57, NDC.

41. J. Terry, Speaker Bureau, to William T. Patrick, memo regarding meeting on student unrest in the New Detroit Conference Room, 24 September 1969, Box 57, NDC.

42. Interviews with students at Cooley High School by Laura Jackson, 14 October 1969, Box 57, Folder 38, NDC. For additional accounts, see Cynthia Hill statement to UNICOM, 2 September 1969; Glynda Farrior statement to UNICOM, 21 September 1969; Daniel Toomer statement to UNICOM, 29 September 1969, Box 26, CMC.

43. South End, 12 March 1969.

44. Detroit News, 5 September 1969.

45. “Spotlight,” transcript, Radio-TV Reports, Inc., 28 September 1969, Station WXYZ-TV, Box 30, Folder 27, Richard Austin Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

46. Detroit News, 5 September 1969.

47. Beck’s campaign newsletter, The Broom, August 1969, which was “dedicated to the promotion of the laws of GOD and MAN”; see also Southwest Journal, 28 October 1965, Mary Beck Biography File, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.

48. “The Austin Program to Fight Crime,” pamphlet, Box 30, Folder 4, RAC.

49. B. J. Widick, Detroit: City of Race and Class Violence (Chicago, 1972), 207.

50. “WHITE Tax-Paying Honky” to Richard Austin, 30 September 1969, Box 30, Folder 12, RAC.

51. Joseph Darden, Richard Child Hill, June Thomas, and Richard Thomas, Detroit: Race and Uneven Development. (Philadelphia, 1987), 209.

52. Detroit Tree Press, 5 November 1969.

53. Detroit News, 4 November 1969.

54. Detroit Free Press, 17 August 1969.

55. “Power Struggle among Black Militants.”

56. Police-Community Relations Committee and staff CCR to CCR, memo, 2 October 1971, Box 3, Dan Georgakas Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid.; and “From the Ground Up, Detroit Under S.T.R.E.S.S.,” Box 3, Folder 5, DGC.

59. Ibid.

60. James Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency: The League of Revolutionary Black Workers (New York, 1977), 171–72.

61. Ibid., 88

62. Interview Ron Lockett, in Mast, 92.

63. For an overview of the politics of black nationalism, which held particular appeal to these young African Americans in Detroit, see William Van Deburg, ed., Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (New York, 1997). See also Manning Marable, Black Nationalism in the Seventies: Through the Prism of Race and Class (Dayton, Ohio, 1980).

64. Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying (New York, 1975), 16.

65. Ibid., 16.

66. John Hersey (with intro by Thomas Sugrue), The Algiers Motel Incident (Baltimore, MD, 1998).

67. See Inner City Voice, 22 June 1967; June 1969; October 1967; 15 December 1967; 16 November 1967; February 1970; 16 March-1 April 1970; June 1970; 15 April 1970. All in the Detroit Revolutionary Union Movements Newspaper Collection (DRUM News Collection), the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

68. Inner City Voice, November 1969.

69. This movie, which mostly covered black radical activism in the auto plants, had an international audience. In fact, Italian workers invited the movie’s producers to Italy and showcased the film in Turin and Milan. For more on the international, and specifically Italian, connections with the black nationalist Left in Detroit, see Georgakas and Surkin, Detroit: I do Mind Dying. Updated Edition (Cambridge: South End Press, 1998).

70. Interview Marian Kramer, in Mast, 103.

71. “Wayne and the Inner City: The Survey of Urban Concern,” booklet, October 1968, Office of the President, Wayne State University, Wayne State University Brochures, Pamphlets, Reports 1965–69 Vertical Files, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

72. South End, 26 September 1969; see bound volumes of the South End, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

73. Ibid.

74. For use of such language, see these issues, among others, of South End: 22 October 1968; 24 October 1968; 28 October 1968; and 4 November 1968.

75. Jon Jeter, “A Coat of Pride,” in Detroit Free Press, Special Reprint, “The Riot—Unending Effects,” August 1992.

76. For a still excellent overview of the black church well before the 1960s, see Carter G. Woodson, A History of the Negro Church in America (Washington, D.C., 1921). See also C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence Mamiya, The Black Church in the African American Experience (Durham, N.C., 1990), and Hans Baer and Merril Singer, African American Religion in the Twentieth Century: Varieties of Accommodation and Protest (Knoxville, Tenn., 1992).

77. For a wonderful account of how political radicalism was reflected and furthered by theologians in Detroit, see Angela Dillard, “From the Reverend Charles Hill to the Reverend Albert B. Cleage, Jr.: Change and Continuity in the Patterns of Civil Rights Mobilizations in Detroit,” Ph.D. diss. (University of Michigan, 1995).

78. Vincent Harding, “The Religion of Black Power,” in The Religion Situation, ed. Donald Cutler (Boston, 1968), 22–30.

79. Albert Cleage, The Black Messiah (New York, 1969).

80. Ibid., 66.

81. Harry Cook and Joyce Walker-Tyson, “Politics and the Pulpit: A Tradition,” Detroit Free Press, “The Riot—Unending Effects,” August 1992, 58.

82. Cleage, Black Messiah, 35.

83. Ibid., 45.

84. Ibid., 19.

85. Ibid.

86. Everett Baggerly to Lynne Townsend, chairman of the Education Committee, memo regarding meeting with teachers from Cooley High School relative to student unrest, 10 October 1969. Box 57, NDC.

87. Ibid.

88. “Declaration of Black Teachers,” 27 April 1968, adopted at the Black Ministers-Teachers Conference, Detroit, Box 86, American Federation of Teachers President’s Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

89. Everett Baggerly to all task force leaders, memo regarding student unrest, 23 September 1969, Box 57, NDC.

90. “Causes of Unrest,” Box 86, AFTPC.

91. “Desegregation Chronology,” Series 1, Box 7, Folder 9, Detroit Public Schools Commission on Community Relations Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

92. “PASCC: Parents and Students for Community Control,” leaflet, Box 18, CMC.

93. Inner City Voice, July 1970.

94. “Progress Report: June–December 1970,” PASCC, Box 4, Folder 20, DGC.

95. Ibid.

96. Ibid.

97. Ibid.

98. Ibid.

99. Geschwender, 150.

100. “Osborn High Black Student Voice,” Black Student United Front 1, no. 2. Series 2, Box 8, Folder 12, PSCCRC. Soul on Ice by Eldridge Cleaver, Black Rage by William Grier, and The Rick and The Super-Rich by Ferdinand Lundberg.

101. “Osborn’s 12 Black Student Demands,” Series 2, Box 8, Folder 14, PSCCRC.

102. “Northeastern Senior High School Ad Hoc Committee,” Series 2, Box 8, Folder 14, PSCCRC.

103. “Northern High: We Demand, BSUF,” Series 2, Box 8, Folder 14, PSCCRC.

104. “Press Statement: Detroit Branch NAACP,” 22 April 1966, Series 1, Part 2, Box 12, Folder 7, NAACP Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

105. “Central High: Black Student Voice, BSUF,” Series 2, Box 8, Folder 14, PSCCRC.

106. See “the Black Manifesto,” in Baer and Singer, African American Religion in the Twentieth Century, 191–202.

107. The most famous of these intellectuals are James H. Cone and C. Eric Lincoln. See, James H. Cone, Black Theology and Black Power (New York, 1969), and C. Eric Lincoln, Sounds of the Struggle: Persons and Perspectives in Civil Rights (New York, 1968.)

108. Detroit News, 17 November 1970.

109. Detroit News, 16 November 1970.

110. Ibid., 16.

111. In their newsletter “Support the Children’s Free Breakfast Program,” the Panthers pointed out that during the summer they had served 350 kids lunches every day out of two of their centers, and they announced that “there will be four centers open [in the fall] to serve the free breakfast for school children. All of the youth of the community of Detroit will be fed a balanced hot breakfast before they go to school” (Detroit News, 17 November 1970; and the National Committee to Combat Fascism, “Support the Children’s Free Breakfast Program,” newsletter, Series 2, Box 8, Folder 14, PSCCRC).

112. Kramer, in Mast, 103.

113. Amy Carrol, Shawn Gilbert, Ellen Schweitzer, and Tim Sabota, “STRESS Fractures” (p. 20), senior research paper written for Dr. Charles Bright (Residential College, University of Michigan, 1995).

114. “STRESS Fractures,” 28.

115. See the interviews with Jim Jacobs, Frank Joyce, Pat Fry, and Sheila Murphy Cockrel; all in Mast, 274, 276, 320, and 180.

116. Mast, 257.

117. Interview Jim Jacobs, in Mast, 273.

118. Interview Rich Feldman, in Mast, 266,

119. Interview Dave Riddle, in Mast, 325.

120. “Revolutionary in Legal Sheepskin,” interview with Kenneth Cockrel, Detroit News Sunday Magazine, 14 October 1973.

121. Michigan Chronicle, 11 February 1965.

122. “Some Comments Regarding the West Central Organization as it Relates to University City #2,” memo, March 1966, in the Wayne State University Urban Renewal Vertical Files, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

123. “STRESS Fractures,” 22.

124. Richard Marks to CCR, memo, 16 April 1969, Box 429, Folder 5, WPRC.

125. Press release: Guardians of Michigan, 9 March 1972, Box 16, CMC. See also Guardians of Michigan to Police Commissioner John Nichols, telegram, Part 3, Box 69, Folder 10, CCRC.

126. “The Boundary Plan for School Decentralization in Detroit,” Series 1, Box 7, Folder 23, PSCCRC.

127. Amy Rose Dinges, “Theory and Practice: The Busing Controversy in the Detroit Public Schools, 1970–1977,” unpublished research paper (Residential College, University of Michigan, 1997).

128. Ibid.

129. Ibid.

130. Charlie Walker, “The April 7^thIntegration, Decentralization Plan,” unpublished paper (Residential College, University of Michigan, 1997), 12, 13, 22, and 23. See also Jeffery Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1993).

131. Interview with Herman Ferguson and Arthur Harris, 4 February 1970, Box 26, CMC; “White Youth Stand up and Be Counted,” leaflet, Youth Corps KKK, Box 7, CMC.

132. Widick, Detroit: City of Race and Class Violence, 189.

133. South End, 1 November 1968.

134. Aberbach and Walker, Race in the City, 108.

135. Ibid., 108.

136. Ibid., 95.

137. Detroit Free Press, 19 February 1969. See also South End clippings in Vertical Files, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

138. Jack Mondin to Detroit Free Press,. 1 July 1969, Box 26, CMC.

139. Joel Thurtell, “Inside the Red Squad,” Detroit Free Press Magazine, 4 November 1990. According to the Detroit Free Press, the Red Squad kept tabs on city and labor movement radicals from 1950 to 1974, when its legality was challenged in the courts (Detroit Free Press, 21 December 1980).

140. Detroit Free Press, 27 September 1971.

141. “STRESS Fractures,” 31.

142. Ibid., 32.

143. Ibid., 32.

144. Ibid., 33.

145. Letters to the editor, Detroit News, 20 April 1972.

146. Statement by Mayor Roman S. Gribbs, 17 March 1972, Part 3, Box 68, CCRC.

147. For further information on how this famous desegregation case unfolded, see Bradley v. Milliken, 433 F.2d 897 (6^th Cir., 1970); Bradley v. Milliken, 338 F. Supp. 582 (E.D. Mich., 1971); Bradley v. Milliken, 345 F. Supp. 914 (E.D. Mich., 1972); Bradley v. Milliken, 484 F.2d 215 (6^th Cir., 1973); Milliken v. Bradley, 418 U.S. 717 (1974). For secondary literature on this famous case, see Mirel, The Rise and Fall; Paul R. Diamond, Beyond Busing: Inside the Challenge to Urban Segregation (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1985); Eleanor P. Wolf, Trial and Error: The Detroit School Desegregation Case (Detroit, 1981); and William Grant, “The Detroit School Case: An Historical Overview,” Wayne Law Review 21, no. 3 (March 1975).

148. Official Proceedings of the Board of Governors, Wayne State University, 13 February 1969, Vertical File: The South End.

149. Official Proceedings of the Board of Governors, Wayne State University, 20 January 1969, 1572, Vertical File: The South End. Although John Watson maintained that the South End was not anti-Semitic under his editorship, the paper did read that “it is roughly estimated that one third of the power at Wayne, Governors, Deans, and so forth, is Jewish. But the Jews must give up their hold on their portion of the power at Wayne along with other suburban whites” (South End, 20 January 1969). While such rhetoric clearly alienated Jewish students at WSU, Arab students came out in support of the paper’s editors (South End, 21 February 1969).

150. Official Proceedings of the Board of Governors, Wayne State University, 9 February 1973, 2253, Vertical File: The South End.

151. Official Proceedings of the Board of Governors, Wayne State University, 10 July 1969. See also Information Services, Wayne State University to Paul J. Pentacost, memo, 9 February 1973, Vertical File: The South End.

152. Official Proceedings of the Board of Governors, Wayne State University, 13 February 1969, Vertical File: The South End.

Chapter 5

1. Michigan Chronicle, 2 March 1969.

2. “Chrysler Corporation Application for Employment,” James Johnson Jr., Box 5, Ronald Glotta Collection, Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

3. James Johnson Jr., interview with attorney, 8 May 1971, Box 5, RGC.

4. Testimony of Clarence Horton and Bernard Oweisny, James Johnson Jr. v. Chrysler Corporation, State of Michigan, Bureau of Workman’s Compensation, John Conley, hearing referee, 22 and 24 November 1971, Box 7, RGC.

5. Testimony of Don Thomas (p. 49), Box 5, RGC.

6. “Chrysler Corporation Employee Medical Records,” James Johnson Jr., Box 5, RGC.

7. Trial testimony of Don Thomas (p. 47), Box 5, RGC.

8. “Continuation of Decision” (p. 7), decision of hearing referee John Conley, Johnson v. Chrysler, 28 February 1973, Box 3, RGC.

9. “Employment Conditions in the Model Neighborhood, 1970,” Social Planning Division, the Detroit City Planning Commission, 21 July 1970, Box 14, City of Detroit City Planning Commission Collection, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library.

10. James Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency: The League of Revolutionary Black Workers (New York, 1977), 74.

11. Detroit Free Press, 23 May 1971.

12. William Serrin, The Company and the Union: The Civilized Relationship of General Motors Corporation and the United Automobile Workers, revised edition(New York, 1974), 151.

13. Douglas Fraser to Walter P. Reuther, 19 December 1969, Box 51, Folder 4, Walter P. Reuther Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

14. JARUM 1, no. 1, in the Detroit Revolutionary Union Movements Newspaper Collection (DRUM News Collection), the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

15. DRUM 1, no. 1, Box 41, Folder 26, UAW Local 3 Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

16. Philip Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker (New York, 1981), 374.

17. New York Times, 1 October 1968; quoted in Foner, 416.

18. Grievances to this effect can be found in Box 3, Folder 6, DRUM Collection.

19. UAW Grievance 5428, submitted to third-step arbitration, 16 June 1970, Box 3, Folder 13, Dan Georgakas Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

20. UAW Grievance 70–482, submitted to third-step arbitration, 16 June 1970, Box 3, Folder 12, DGC.

21. A1 and Helen Thompson, parents of Gary Thompson, interview with author, 11 April 1991.

22. Ibid.

23. Case 5428–70:480, Chrysler Corporation, 30 November 1971, Box 3, Folder 27, DRUM Collection.

24. Harry T. Englebrecht, plant manager, Eldon Avenue axle plant, to Eldon Avenue axle employees, 4 June 1970, Box 3, Folder 27, DRUM collection.

25. Interview with Pete Kelly, in Detroit Lives, ed. Robert H. Mast (Philadelphia, 1994), 219.

26. United Justice Train 1, no. 6, Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region iB Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

27. United Justice Train, memo, 26 December 1972, Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region IB Collection. See also undated note, United Justice Caucus, 26 December 1972, and UNC letter to Leonard Woodcock, Douglas Fraser, William Gilbert, and Ken Morris, 30 May 1972, Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region IB Collection.

28. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 199.

29. Interview with Kelly, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 219.

30. See United Justice Train 1, no. 6 (December 1972); United Justice Train 1, no. 6 (July 1972); United Justice Caucus to Mr. Flowers, recording secretary of Local 7, 31 August 1972, Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region IB Collection.

31. Proceedings of the Twenty-third Constitutional Convention, International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America–UAW (pp. 252–52), the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

32. Ibid., 328.

33. Interview with General Baker, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 305–308.

34. William Gilbert, president of Dodge Main plant’s Local 3, said that in 1970 “production is up 63 percent over 1949–1953, when there were 14,500 people in the plant. Now we’ve got 6,500.” In the Dodge Main plant specifically, “the line was edged up from 49 units to 58 units an hour”; quoted in Thomas R. Brooks, “Workers, White and Black, DRUM Beats in Detroit,” Dissent (January–February 1970): 4 and 5; Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection. Reuther Library. Detroit.

35. “Open Letter to Chrysler Corporation,” General Baker, 29 May 1969, Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection.

36. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 145.

37. Inner City Voice, 15 July 1970, DRUM Collection.

38. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 92.

39. DRUM 1, no. 16, Box 41, Folder 26, UAW Local 3 Collection.

40. DRUM, vol. 1, nos. 5 and 8; quoted in unpublished paper, Horace Harris, graduate student in international relations, and Deanna Utlefe, graduate student in economics, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM): A Study through Interviews” (p. 5), 15 September 1969, Box 1, Folder 10, Enid Eckstein Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

41. See “Guide to the Collection,” DGC.

42. Brooks, “Workers, White and Black,” 5.

43. CHRY-RUM 1, no. 1 (November 1970), Kenneth Cockrel and Sheila Murphy Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

44. Inner City Voice 2, no. 7. (15 July 1970), in the DRUM Collection.

45. For another interesting account of the rise of black dissidents within the UAW during the 1950s and 1960s and the UAW’s response to such insurgencies, see Thomas Cornelius Casanova, “Black Workers at the Point of Production: Shopfloor Radicalism and Wildcat Strikes in Detroit Auto, 1955–1976,” Ph.D. diss. (University of Notre-Dame, 1993), passim.

46. DRUM Constitution, Box 41, Folder 24, UAW Local 3 Collection.

47. ELRUM, July 1970, DRUM Collection.

48. B. J. Widick, Detroit: City of Race and Class Violence (Chicago, 1972), 226.

49. ELRUM, 1970, DRUM Collection.

50. DRUM 1, no. 4, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection.

51. DRUM 1, Box 41, Folder 26, UAW Local 3 Collection.

52. DRUM 2, no. 1, Box 41, Folder 28, UAW Local 3 Collection.

53. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 84.

54. “Here’s Where We’re Coming From” (p. 2), the League of Revolutionary Black Workers, Box 4, DGC.

55. Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 11.

56. The quotes are from the “League of Revolutionary Black Workers Constitution,” Box 4, Series 1, DGC.

57. ELRUM 1, no. 2 (29 November 1968), Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

58. See ELRUM 1, no. 2 (29 November 1969), and ELRUM 1, no. 9, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

59. Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 19.

60. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 94.

61. ELRUM, May 1970, DRUM Collection..

62. ELRUM 7, Box 41, Folder 28, UAW Local 3 Collection.

63. ELRUM, 1970, DRUM Collection.

64. Helen Thompson interview.

65. Ibid.

66. Devon Anne Perez, “The Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement: Rhetoric Defined, Actions Solidified, Opposition Destroyed” (p. 37), unpublished senior honors thesis (Department of History, University of Michigan, 1996); Chrysler Corporation v. General G. Baker et al., 1161, Circuit Court for Wayne County, 16 July 1968, Box 4, DRUM Collection.

67. Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 20.

68. Testimony of Clarence Horton, p. 13, Box 5, RGC.

69. Quoted in Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 147.

70. “Black Workers Protest UAW Racism: March on Cobo Hall,” the League of Revolutionary Black Workers, Box 41, Folder 25, UAW Local 3 Collection.

71. See Detroit Free Press, 19 August 1973, regarding the growth of left-wing organizations within Detroit’s auto plants.

72. Interview with General Baker, quoted in Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 10.

73. Even those whites committed to turning their political attention to the plants could not always agree about how best to do this. Some argued that radicals should agitate from within existing reform caucuses, while others advocated pursuing an explicitly “dual union” strategy. For an example of such debates, see International Socialists, internal discussion document, production work, Box 1, Folder 3, EEC.

74. Interview with Rich Feldman, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 265.

75. For an explanation of the principle of “Class Struggle Unionism” and “how to use it and win,” see International Socialists brochure, “Fighting to Win! Class Struggle Unionism” (Detroit, 1975), Box 1, Folder 3, EEC.

76. Interview with Pete Camarata, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 330.

77. Interview with Gene Cunningham, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 314.

78. Baker, quoted in Mast, Detroit Lives, 309.

79. Interview Mike Hamlin, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 87.

80. JARUM 1, no. 1, DRUM Newspaper Collection. See the letters-to-the-editor section of Detroit Free Press, 13 March 1973, for an example of how whites viewed the murders committed by Johnson. DRUM News Collection.

81. DRUM 2, no. 4, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection.

82. “Unite and Fight,” DRUM leaflet, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

83. Leaflet, Local 809, August 1971, National Youth Alliance, Centerline, Michigan, Box 16, Folder 11, Ken Morris Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

84. “D.U.M.B.” 1, no. 1, Box 41, Folder 28, UAW Local 3 Collection; “M.A.P.U.M.B.,” 16 September 1969, Box 1, Folder 42, UAW Region 1 Collection.

85. John Taylor, interview with Dan Georgakas, 25 August 1972, Box 3, Folder 17, DGC.

86. Jordan Sims, Eddie Barksdale, and Carla Cooke, interview with Dan Georgakas, 19 August 1972, Box 3, Folder 18, DGC.

87. Brooks, “Workers, White and Black,” 8.

88. United National Caucus, booklet, Box 47, Folder 12, Arthur Hughes Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

89. United Justice Train 1, no. 6 (January 1973). Box 73, Folder 5. UAW Region IB Collection.

90. Walter Dorosh, president of Local 600, to Walter Reuther, 16 January 1969, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

91. Ibid.

92. Ron March, quoted in the League documentary Finally Got the News (Black Star Productions, 1970).

93. United Justice Train 1, no. 6 (December 1972), Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region IB Collection.

94. According to Jefferys, there were far more wildcats in the 1950s than in the 1960s (there were 289 between 1955 and 1959 alone). Note, however, that the unauthorized strikes of the 1960s were not remarkable for their frequency; they were remarkable for their substance. Indeed, the issues behind the wildcats were often much different from what they had been in the 1950s. See Steve Jefferys, Management and Managed: Fifty Years of Crisis at Chrysler (Cambridge, 1986), 7.

95. “Protection Department of the Chrysler Corporation,” July–August 1968, Box 3, Folder 4, DRUM Collection; H. G. Phipps, staff investigator, to W. T. Diehl, memo, 1968, Box 3, DRUM Collection; Perez, “The Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement,” 40–41.

96. DRUM 1, no. 15, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection.

97. DRUM 1, no. 16, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection.

98. Inner City Voice, 22 January 1968, and Inner City Voice, no. 8 (June 1968), in the DRUM Collection.

99. DRUM rally leaflet, Series 9, Part 2, Box 47, Folder 1, AHC.

100. Interview with Mike Hamlin, 30 August 1969; quoted in Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 5.

101. Don Rand to Irving Bluestone, 13 November 1969, Box 74, WPRC.

102. Letter from Jacob Przybylo, in file with collection of ELRUM literature, Series 9, Part 2, Box 47, Folder 3, AHC.

103. United Justice Train 1, no. 5 (October 1972); Community News, 2 August 1972, Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region IB Collection.

104. Dorosh to Reuther, 16 January 1969, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

105. Bill Beckham to Walter Reuther, 13 February 1969, Box 74, Folder 4, WPRC.

106. Shelton Tappes did not like the style of the RUMs, but he well understood why they were mobilizing. As he wrote, “the failings of the past in these highly volatile areas [can’t be] explained away; they cannot be accused away, nor will they leave unless a direct effort is made to get at the root of these situations.” Tappes had been the first black chairman of UAW Local 600’s foundry unit and served as a member of the committee that had negotiated the first UAW contract with Ford. He knew discrimination firsthand, and that was why he joined the TULC in the 1950s. Shelton Tappes to William Oliver, 28 March 1969, Series 9, Part 2, Box 47, Folder 1, AHC. See also interview with Tappes, in Elaine Latzman Moon, Untold Tales, Unsung Heroes: An Oral History of Detroit’s African American Community, 1918–1967 (Detroit, 1994), 108.

107. Beckham to Reuther, 13 February 1969, Box 74, Folder 4, WPRC.

108. Ibid.

109. Frank Menedez to George Merrelli, memo regarding Forge and Wooten Altercation at Hamtramck assembly plant, Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection.

110. Irving Bluestone to Walter Reuther, September 1968, Box 74, WPRC.

111. Interview with George Merrelli, 27 August 1969, in Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 13.

112. Douglas Fraser to Nelson Edwards and Marcellius Ivory (copy to George Merrelli and Ed Liska), 4 October 1968, Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection.

113. “Minutes,” special meeting of the IEB, 15 July 1968, Box 16, UAW International Executive Board Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

114. Ibid.

115. See Box 16, Folder 11, Ken Morris Collection. See also the folder “Local 3 DRUM Activities 1968,” Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection.

116. Bluestone to Reuther, 2 July 1968, Box 74, WPRC.

117. George Merrelli to Douglas Fraser, memo, 11 October 1968, Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection; Douglas Fraser to Emil Mazey, Ken Morris, Pat Caruso, and E. Bruce, Box 1, Folder 42, UAW Region IB Collection.

118. George Merrelli to Ed Liska, president Local 3, 11 October 1960, Box 41, Folder 29, UAW Local 3 Collection.

119. William Gerbe to George Merrelli, 27 January 1969, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

120. Miscellaneous notes in “Local 3 DRUM Activities Folder,” Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection.

121. Frank Menendez to George Merrelli, memo regarding Forge and Wooten Altercation.

122. Bill Beckham to Victor Reuther (brother of Walter), 22 April 1971, Box 15, Folder 6, Leonard Woodcock Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs.

123. Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 14.

124. Ibid.

125. Leadership Local 961 to all Local 961 members, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

126. “All Members of the UAW 3,” open letter from the International UAW and Douglas Fraser, IEB member, member-at-large, and director of Chrysler Department; George Merrelli, director of Region 1; Ed Liska, president of Local 3; Chas E. Brooks, vice president of Local 3; William Szelepski, treasurer of Local 3; Joseph Gordon, recording secretary of Local 3; Frank Czarny, financial secretary of Local 3, Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection.

127. John M. Hyatt, Atlanta Area Office, to Leonard Woodcock, letter with a leaflet enclosed from a RUM called GMRUM at a General Motors assembly plant, Box 15, folder 6, LWC.

128. “Voice of the Plantation,” GMRUM. 2, no. 5, Atlanta, Georgia, Box 33, Shelton Tappes Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

129. Quoted in Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 114.

130. “All Members of the UAW 3,” Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection.

131. Ibid.

132. “A Confused UAW Member” to Region 1, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

133. Inner City Voice 2, no. 6, in the DRUM Collection.

134. Michigan Chronicle, 29 March 1969.

135. Chrysler Corporation to James Johnson, June 1970. Box 5, Letter 12, RGC.

136. Testimony of Bernard Owiesny. State of Michigan Workman’s Compensation Appeal Board. 28 June 1979. Box 3, RGC.

137. Attorney notes, 18 October 1971, Box 5, RGC.

138. “Continuation of Decision” (p. 8), Box 3, RGC.

139. “Continuation of Decision” (p. 14), Box 3, RGC.

140. Testimony of James Johnson Jr., 22 and 24 November 1971, Box 7, RGC. James Johnson, Jr. v. Chrysler Corporation, State of Michigan, Bureau of Workman’s Compensation, Hearing Referee John Conley.

141. “Supervisors Report,” 15 July 1970, Chrysler Corporation, Box 5, RGC.

142. Testimony of Clarence Horton (p. 11), Box 5, RGC.

143. “Continuation of Decision” (p. 14), Box 3, RGC.

144. Testimony of Clarence Horton (p. 1), Box 5, RGC.

145. Ibid., 10.

146. Trial summary (p. 30), Box 5, RGC. It was the foremen in Detroit’s plants who were known as the “white shirts.”

147. Trial summary, prosecution’s opening remarks, 30 April 1971, Box 5, RGC.

148. Ibid.

149. Testimony of Melvin Cooper’s supervisor (p. 34), Box 5, RGC.

150. Testimony of Ed Lacey, 5 May 1971, Box 5, RGC.

151. Inner City Voice, 15 July 1970, DRUM Collection.

152. ELRUM, July 1970, DRUM Collection.

153. Michigan Chronicle, 25 July 1975.

154. Ibid.

155. The Metro, July 1970, Box 3, RGC.

156. For an example of this, see the letters-to-the-editor section of the Detroit Free Press, 13 March 1973.

Chapter 6

1. Jerome Cavanagh, “Mayor’s Recommendations before Governor Kerner’s Commission in Washington, D.C.,” 15 August 1967, Series 3, Box 2, Folder 19, Commission on Community Relations Collections, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affoirs, Detroit.

2. “Police Report,” Officer Gerald Raycraft, Badge 3608, and “Police Report,” Officer Francis Decrease, Badge 926, regarding arrest of Hibbitt and Hall, State of Michigan, in the Recorder’s Court of the City of Detroit, The People of the State of Michigan v. Raphael Viera, Case A-152598, and The People of the State of Michigan v. Clarence Fuller, Case A-15297, Boxes 10 and 26, Kenneth Cockrel and Sheila Murphy Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

3. “Revolutionary in Legal Sheepskin,” Detroit News Sunday Magazine, 14 October 1973.

4. Affidavit, Douglas Glazier, reporter for the Detroit News, and affidavit, Michael J. O’Neill, radio station WKNR, Box 16, CMC; Detroit News, 7 June 1969.

5. Joseph E. Maher, Judge, the Recorder’s Court v. Kenneth V. Cockrel, R.C. A-152599, Box 16, CMC.

6. DRUM 2, no. 16, Box 41, Folder 27, UAW Local 3 Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

7. Opening Statement, of attorney Harry Philo presenting before Wayne County Circuit Court Judge Joseph A. Sullivan in “Contempt Proceedings of Kenneth Verne Cockrel.” As reproduced in Trial Magazine (November 1980).

8. Ibid., 13.

9. “Memorandum of Authorities in Support of Motion to Dismiss,” Maher v. Cockrel, Box 16, CMC.

10. Justin Ravitz to author. Letter. 27 April 2001.

11. Ibid., 2.

12. “Preparation for May 26, the Hearing—Evidence, Witnesses, Tactics,” defense team notes, Box 16, CMC.

13. At times during the trial, the New Bethel shooter had been described as a short black man, “about 5’5”,” with a green uniform and a white belt. At other times, however, he was described as “six feet one; he was very thin, one hundred and ah, hundred and fifty-five pounds.” Clearly, such contradictory accounts helped the defense. See witness interview, Kelly Zanders, 21 February 1970, by Justin Ravitz, and taped telephone witness interview, Gerald McKinney, 17 November 1969, by Justin Ravitz. Box 10 CMC. See also the summary of testimony of Richard Ivy in People v. Hibbitt, 12 December 1969, Box 10, CMC.

14. Black Consciousness 2, no. 2, Box 2, CMC.

15. State of Michigan in the Recorders Court for the City of Detroit, The People of the State of Michigan v. Raphael Viera, Case A-152598, testimony of David Brown Jr. (pp. 146–47), 2 July 1969, Box 10, CMC. Also see Inner City Voice Vol. 2, #6 (June, 1970). Detroit Revolutionary Union Movements News Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

16. Ravitz to author.

17. See Detroit Free Press, 27 March 1970, and Detroit News, 27 March 1970.

18. As a result of the contempt charges filed by Recorder’s Court Judge Maher against Cockrel, the entire Recorder’s Court bench disqualified itself from the New Bethel trials. New Bethel Two was tried before Judge Gilmore, a Wayne County Circuit Court judge sitting in Recorder’s Court. Ravitz to author.

19. “Joint Motion to Quash Jury Panel and for Other Relief and Affidavit Thereon,” 26 March 1970, Box 26, CMC.

20. Detroit Free Press, 12 April 1970.

21. Michigan Chronicle, 4 April 1970.

22. Detroit Free Press, 12 April 1970.

23. Ravitz to author.

24. Detroit Free Press, 17 June 1970.

25. “Order.” State of Michigan in the Recorder’s Court of the City of Detroit, Honorable Robert E. DeMascio, 31 March 1970. Box 26, CMC.

26. Richard Marks to commission, memo regarding information and action, Box 4, Folder 18, Dan Georgakas Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

27. Ibid.

28. Detroit Free Press, 29 April 1971.

29. These autoworkers’ wives included Mary McCary, a former maid in Alabama who was born in 1905 and married to a Chrysler retiree; Joyce Lockett, a nurse’s aide born in 1936 who was married to an employee at the Ford Rouge plant; Ruth Locust, a hospital worker born in 1942 who was married to an assembly worker at Chrysler’s Jefferson plant; Mary Wallace, a housewife born in 1925 and originally from Alabama, who was married to an operating engineer from Local 324; and Madeline Tabock, an ex-autoworker who was born in 1917 and was married to a research engineer at Ford. The other jurors included Tina Christiniois, a nurse born in 1942; Margaret Barone, a housewife born in 1920; Nemiah May, an autoworker born in 1914; Jesse Williams, an autoworker born in 1906; Edward March, an autoworker born in 1923; Sharon Woodward, a telephone operator born in 1947; Andrew Green, a truck driver born in 1910; Cyril McCough Jr., a Ford employee born in 1931; and Thelma Haugabook, a secretary. See trial notes, Box 5, Ronald Glotta Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

30. Even though Judge Colombo was considered to be “a villain to many liberals for having once sentenced a marijuana defendant to nine years,” he was receptive to Cockrel and Ravitz’s suggestion that the Johnson murders be put in a broader social context. As he said, “I used to work on the line in an auto plant during the summers; that’s a lot of what persuaded me to go to law school. I hated the men who wore white shirts and always knew how to do your job better than you.” As quoted in Time Magazine, 7 June 1971.

31. “Opening Remarks of Prosecutor Galligan,” Box 5, RGC. Murder chronology based on witness testimony, Detroit Free Press, 16 July 1970.

32. “Opening remarks of Kenneth Cockrel,” Box 5, RGC.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid.

36. The not guilty by reason of insanity defense has its origins in English Law during the reign of Henry III. It came into usage in the United States in 1868, but the legal definition of “insanity” changed over time with various case law (see Durham v. United States, 1954; Brawner v. United States, 1972; Carter v. General Motors, 1960; and McQuillen v. United States, 1974). By 1967, this kind of defense was used in only 2 percent of all criminal jury trials, but when that defense was used by African Americans (and particularly when that defendant’s insanity was linked with social deprivation), the cases were extremely controversial. By the 1980s, such controversial insanity defenses were labeled the “excuse” or “black rage” defense. See Richard Allen, Elyce Foster, and Jesse Rubin, Readings in Law and Psychiatry (Baltimore, 1968), and Alan Dershowitz, The Abuse Excuse and Other Stories of Cop-Outs, Sob Stories, and Evasions of Responsibility (Boston, 1994).

37. Testimony of Edna Hudson and James Johnson Jr. (passim), Box 5, RGC.

38. Michigan Chronicle, 22 May 1971.

39. Ibid.

40. Ibid.

41. Trial summary (p. 17), Box 5, RGC.

42. Testimony of Maggie Foster Taylor (pp. 3–5), Box 3, RGC.

43. In 1970, “chronic undifferentiated schizophrenia” was classified as a schizophrenia that is “not easily defined,” but if accompanied by “marked paranoid features,” it was known to manifest itself as “prosecutory or grandiose delusions and hallucinations” and “sometimes excessive religiosity. [The sufferer] ascribes to others [the] characteristics [he or she] cannot accept in [his or her] self.” See Allen, Foster, and Rubin, Readings in Law and Psychiatry, 51.

44. Clemens Fitzgerald to Kenneth Cockrel, 15 February 1971, Box 5, RGC.

45. Trial summary (p. 5), Box 5, RGC.

46. Fitzgerald used both the term “schizophrenic reaction, chronic undifferentiated with marked paranoid features” and “schizoid personality” to describe Johnson’s condition at various points in the trial. “Schizoid personality” applied to one disabled by “shyness, oversensitivity, seclusiveness, avoidance of close or complete relationships”; this individual “reacts to disturbing experiences and conflicts with detachment.” See Allen, Foster and Rubin, Readings in Law and Psychiatry, 54.

47. Clemens Fitzgerald to Kenneth Cockrel.

48. Detroit Free Press, 19 May 1971.

49. See psychological exams of Johnson by psychologists Dr. William Bowen, 21 July 1970; L. L. Mackenzie, 10 October 1970; and Barbara Stewart, Ph.D., to Judge Richard Dunn, 21 July 1970, Box 3, RGC.

50. Michigan Chronicle, 22 May 1971, Box 2, CMC.

51. Detroit Free Press, 6 May 1971.

52. Testimony of Clarence Horton (p. 12), Box 5, RGC.

53. Testimony of James Johnson Jr. (p. 3), Box 5, RGC.

54. Ibid., 3, 4, and 8.

55. Detroit News, 1 May 1971.

56. Dr. Mackenzie exam.

57. Fitzgerald to Cockrel.

58. Testimony of James Johnson Jr. (pp. 9 and 10), Box 5, RGC.

59. “Continuation of Decision,” decision of hearing referee John Conley (p. 2), Box 3, RGC.

60. Testimony of James Johnson Jr. before Workman’s Compensation Appeal Board (p. 3). Box 3, RGC.

61. Testimony of Clarence Horton (p. 12), Box 5, RGC.

62. Ibid., 11.

63. Testimony of Ellsworth J. Rhodes (p. 21), Box 5, RGC.

64. Testimony of James Johnson Jr. (p. 8), Box 5, RGC.

65. Trial summary of Cockrel’s opening remarks to the jury, Box 5, RGC.

66. Michigan Chronicle, 22 May 1971.

67. Ibid.

68. On the day of the murders, the outside temperature was 86 degrees, as compared with the 52-degree weather on the day of the jury’s tour.

69. Time Magazine, 7 June 1971, 39.

70. Ibid.

71. Detroit Free Press, 29 May 1971.

72. Trial summary of Cockrel’s closing remarks (p. 54), Box 5, RGC.

73. Michigan Chronicle, 29 May 1971.

74. Time Magazine, 7 June 1971, 39.

75. Ibid.

76. Ibid.

77. Michigan Chronicle, 29 May 1971.

78. Roy and Joy Johnson to Kenneth Verne Cockrel, 27 May 1971, Box 16, CMC.

79. Michigan Chronicle, 29 May 1971.

80. Detroit Free Press, 18 December 1971.

81. See case complaint and list of all litigants in Box 11, CMC.

82. Case complaint (p. 21), Box 11, CMC.

83. Details of the Manning murder are noteworthy when assessing Detroit’s STRESS operation. See case complaint (p. 17), Box 11, CMC.

84. United Justice Train 1, no. 2 (July 1972); United Justice Train 1, no. 1 (June 1972), Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

85. See: State of Michigan in the Court for The county of Wayne. Labor Defense Coalition, et al. v. Roman Gribhs, et. al. Civil Action no. 204539R. 4, May 1972. Box 11, CMC.

86. Press release, Labor Defense Coalition, 7 June 1972, Box 16, CMC.

87. Field Division Staff to CCR, memo regarding “Changes in the Detroit Police Department’s STRESS Program,” 17 March 1972, Part 3, Box 66, Folder 34, CCRC.

88. “New Criteria for STRESS Program,” statement by Mayor Roman S. Gribbs, 17 March 1972, Part 3, Box 68, Folder 19, CCRC.

89. Community Reporter, 20 April–3 May 1972, Part 3, Box 68, Folder 19, CCRC.

90. “Strength to Families under STRESS,” leaflet, Box 2, CMC.

91. Interview with Hayward Brown, South End, 9 May 1973, Part 3, Box 67, Folder 13, CCRC; “Statement of Hayward Brown, Age 18, to Sergeant Fitzpatrick and Inspector Clifton Casey,” 12 January 1973, Box 11, CMC.

92. Ibid.

93. Interview with Brown, South End 8, June 1973. Vol.8 #4 Part 3, Box 67, Folder 14 CCRC (p. 2). According to two bills of sale located by the DPD, John Percy Boyd had purchased $189.65 worth of weaponry at Wessel Gun Service, Inc., on 16 November 1972 and $208.35 worth of weapons at another Detroit arms store. See sales receipts found by DPD, Box 11, CMC.

94. “Police Request Warrant,” Box 11, CMC.

95. Testimony of Billy Price, 1 May 1973 (pp. 38–39), State of Michigan in the Recorder’s Court for the City of Detroit, The People of the State of Michigan v. Hayward Brown, Case 72–09659, Box 11, CMC.

96. Statement of Hayward Brown to Fitzpatrick and Clifton. Part 3, Box 67, Folder 13, CCRC.

97. Amy Carroll, Shawn Gilbert, Ellen Schweitzer, and Tim Sabota, “STRESS Fractures” (p. 42), senior research paper (Residential College, University of Michigan, 1995).

98. Rachel Paster, “‘A Hero Ain’t Nothing but a Man’: The Trials of Hayward Brown and the Resulting Police Controversy in Detroit, 1972–1973” (p. 6), unpublished senior seminar paper (Residential College, University of Michigan, 1996).

99. “STRESS Fractures,” 44.

100. Testimony of Robert Dooley, 23 January 1973, Box 11, CMC. p. 19.

101. Howard Kohn, “Detroit’s Supercops: Terror in the Streets,” Ramparts (December 1973): 41.

102. Teletypes, 3 February 1973, Box 11, CMC.

103. “Fugitive Apprehension Notes,” Box 11, CMC.

104. On 23 February 1973, Atlanta police killed John Boyd, along with his half-brother Owen Winfield. Three days later, Bethune was killed with a bullet from his own gun on the roof of a dormitory at Morris Brown College in Atlanta (see Detroit News, 24 February 1973). There was much controversy surrounding these deaths. Regarding the Boyd shooting, coroners found non–police issue ammunition in his body that no one could explain. Regarding Bethune, officers claimed that he shot at them first from the roof of the dorm, but later tests showed otherwise. Evidence seems to suggest that while Bethune took aim at officers with his .357 magnum, Officer Walker shot at him first, hitting Bethune in the upper shoulder. Moments later, Bethune’s .357 went off, firing its one bullet directly into his own head. While the incident was written up as a suicide, the coroner stated that it was odd that the gun would not have been directly against Bethune’s head if it were a suicide. Instead, he suggested, the impact of Walker’s shot to Bethune’s shoulder undoubtedly caused Bethune’s hand to fly up and discharge a shot to his own head accidentally. The coroner also noted that “there was no needle marks on the arms ... nor was there any trace of narcotics in their blood.” Michigan Chronicle, 10 March 1973; “STRESS Fractures,” 75.

105. For a full account of the meeting at Ford Auditorium, see CCR Field Division to Police-Community Relations Commission, memo regarding Common Council, 11 January 1973, Hearing on Charges of Police Department Violations of Citizens Rights, 1 February 1973, Part 3, Box 69, Folder 10, CCRC; Commissioner Nichols’s remarks to Common Council, STRESS Hearings, Ford Auditorium, 11 January 1973, Part 3, Box 69, Folder 10, CCRC.

106. Testimony of Richard Grapp (pp. 56 and 57), 1 May 1973, Box 11, CMC.

107. Testimony of Robert Rosenow, quoted in Brian Dunn, “Hayward Brown and the Trials of 1973,” unpublished senior seminar paper (Residential College, University of Michigan, 1996).

108. See testimony of Grapp (pp. 33–35) and testimony of Rosenow (pp. 25–27 and 58–59), Box 11, CMC. See also testimony of Eugene Fuller (pp. 13 and 40–41) in the pretrial examination, 17 January 1973. Box 11, CMC.

109. Testimony of Richard Rosenow (p. 16) and Eugene Fuller (p. 74), pretrial examination. Box 11, CMC. See also testimony of Eugene Fuller (p. 37), 1 May 1973. Box 11, CMC.

110. Cockrel’s objection (pp. 2–4 and 19), 23 January 1973. Box 11 CMC. The State of Michigan v. Hayward Brown, Defendant. Recorders Court File #72–10249.

111. “STRESS Fractures,” 52.

112. Rachel Cardone, “The Tool of Justice” (p. 13), unpublished senior seminar paper (Residential College, University of Michigan, 1996).

113. Transcript of The Lou Gordon Show, 24 June 1973, Box 11, CMC.

114. Detroit Free Press, 7 July 1973.

115. Ibid.

116. Detroit Free Press, 10 July 1973.

117. Detroit News, 8 July 1973.

118. Ibid.

119. Ibid.

120. Margaret Borys, “Towards Our Own Courts ... and Beyond,” Box 4, Folder 21, DGC, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

121. Ibid.

122. Ibid.

123. Letters to the editor, Detroit News, 20 April 1972.

124. “Interview with the Honorable George Crockett,” Ebony, August 1969; quoted in Gregory Parker, “Judge George Crockett: Radical under the Robe” (p. 13), unpublished senior seminar paper (Residential College, University of Michigan, 1996).

125. Detroit News, 10 June 1973.

126. Letters to the editor, Detroit News, 16 July 1973.

127. Detroit Free Press, 16 December 1971.

128. Tuebor, January 1973 and February 1973. Both quoted in John Bauman III, “Superfly Suits and Blue Suits with Silver Badges: STRESS, the Election of Coleman Young, and the Reform of the Police Department” (p. 49), unpublished senior honors thesis (Department of History, University of Michigan, 1998).

129. Michigan Chronicle, 5 July 1969.

130. Inner City Voice 2, no. 7 (15 July 1970), in the DRUM Collection.

131. Ibid. In fact, as African American columnist Bill Black stated, “At no time did I condone what James Johnson did.... I abhor violence” (Michigan Chronicle, March 1973).

132. Parker, “Judge George Crockett: Radical under the Robe,” 14.

133. Ken Cockrel, “Speech at the Repression Conference,” January 1970, Box 26, CMC.

134. Draft of editorial on the New Bethel verdicts, Box 10, CMC.

135. Borys, “Towards Our Own Courts.”

136. “Detroit under STRESS,” 36.

137. Jerome Cavanagh, “Mayors Recommendations before Governor Kerner’s Commission in Washington, D.C.”

138. Borys, “Towards Our Own Courts.”

139. Ibid.

140. Detroit News Magazine, 14 October 1973.

Chapter 7

1. Thomas Brooks, “Workers White and Black: DRUM Beats in Detroit,” Dissent, January–February 1970, 8.

2. Horace Harris, graduate student in international relations, and Deanna Utlefe, graduate student in economics, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM): A Study through Interviews,” unpublished paper, 15 September 1969, Box 1, Folder 10, Enid Eckstein Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

3. James Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency: The League of Revolutionary Black Workers (New York, 1977), 103–104.

4. Irving Bluestone to Walter Reuther, memo, Series 6, Subseries B, Box 229, Walter P. Reuther Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

5. DRUM 2, no. 24, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

6. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 107.

7. “Special Trustee Election Tally,” 3 October 1968 runoff, Box 17, Folder 8, UAW Local 3 Collection.

8. “Victory, Victory,” DRUM leaflet, October 1968, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection.

9. Interview with General Baker, 9 August 1969, in Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 17.

10. Devon Anne Perez, “The Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement: Rhetoric Defined, Actions Solidified, Opposition Destroyed” (p. 43), senior honors thesis (Department of History, University of Michigan, 1996); notes of meeting held 1 October 1968 at Dodge Main plant, UAW Local 3, with the mayor, chief of police, and sergeant of police, Hamtramck Police Department, Box 47, Folder 17, UAW Local 3 Collection.

11. George Merrelli to Ed Liska, copy of the South End with comments on the election attached, 11 October 1968, Box 41, Folder 29, UAW Local 3 Collection.

12. Interview with General Baker, 9 August 1969, in Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 18.

13. DRUM 1, no. 15, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection.

14. UAW International Executive Board to All Members, 10 March 1969, Box 45, UAW Region I Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

15. “Andy Hardy for Vice President Local 3,” leaflet, Box 41, Folder 25, UAW Local 3 Collection.

16. Brooks, “Workers White and Black,” 10.

17. DRUM 2, no. 1, Detroit Revolutionary Union Movements News Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

18. DRUM 2, no. 10. See also caricature drawn of Andy Hardy as part of the cartoon duo Amos and Andy, DRUM 2, no. 27, Box 41, Folders 28 and 27, UAW Local 3 Collection.

19. “Open Letter to Local 3 Membership: Ron March Speaks,” Box 41, Folder 25, UAW Local 3 Collection.

20. Lee Cain (former executive board member and former chairman Dodge Local 3 Anti-Discrimination Committee) to members, leaflet, Box 41, Folder 25, UAW Local 3 Collection.

21. Michigan Chronicle, 9 May 1969.

22. DRUM 1, no. 15, Box 44, UAW Local 3 Collection.

23. Ibid.

24. Don Jackson, Ron March, et al., to President Ed Liska, 30 April 1969, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection.

25. Finally got The News. Black Star Productions. 1971. Film and Video Collection. The Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

26. See “Election Special,” Inner City Voice 2, no. 3 (16 March–1 April 1970), DRUM News Collection.

27. Interview with Mike Hamlin, in Robert H. Mast, ed., Detroit Lives (Philadelphia, 1994), 228.

28. DRUM 2, no. 3, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection.

29. See the UAW’s Official Election Count, Box 229, WPRC.

30. Michael Adelman to the secretary of labor, U.S. Department of Labor, 16 July 1970, Sub-series 2-A, Box 4, Folder 34, DRUM Collection.

31. DRUM 3, no. 5, Box 41, Folder 28, UAW Region 1 Collection; Perez, “The Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement,” 54–55.

32. Box 4, Folder 34, DRUM Collection.

33. Ken Simmons, secretary, Credentials Committee UAW, to Aaron Pitts, telegram, 17 April 1970, Box 4, Folder 34, DRUM Collection.

34. “Local Officers and Delegates, Election Day: Wed. March 18, 1970 4:45am-6:00pm,” teletype, Series 6, Subseries B, Box 229, Folder 8, WPRC.

35. Frank Menendez to George Merrelli, memo regarding brief of election held at Local 3 on 18 and 19 March, 24 March 1970, Box 44, UAW Region 1 Collection.

36. See “Election Notes,” Series 6, Subseries B, Box 229, Folder 8, WPRC.

37. Ibid.

38. Ed Liska to Walter P. Reuther, telegram, Series 6, Subseries B, Box 229, Folder 7, WPRC.

39. John Watson, quoted in Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying (New York, 1975), 50.

40. Ibid.

41. During this election on 21 April 1969, ELRUM had run its candidate, Fred Holsey, for the position of trustee; James Edwards for a position as steward; and Alonzo Chandler for a job as union “guide.” See South End 27, no. 121 (14 May 1969), Series 9, Part 2, Box 47, Folder 3, Arthur Hughes Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

42. “Jordon U. Sims for President,” parody leaflet, Series 9, Part 2, Box 47, Folder 3, AHC.

43. DRUM Questionnaire, Local 961, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

44. Leadership Local 961 to Local 961 members, Box 3, Folder 12, Dan Georgakas Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

45. Ibid.

46. Ibid.

47. “Jordan Sims Your Man for President,” pamphlet. Box 4, Folder 14, DRUM Collection.

48. “Jordan U. Sims for President,” Box 47, Folder 3, AHC.

49. Detroit Free Press, 23 May 1971.

50. Ibid.

51. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 201.

52. Michigan Chronicle, 22 March 1969.

53. Steve Babson, Working Detroit: The Making of a Union Town (New York, 1984), 174.

54. John Taylor, interview with Dan Georgakas, 25 August 1972, Box 3, Folder 17, DGC.

55. ELRUM 1, no. 9, Box 45, UAW Region 1 Collection.

56. ELRUM, 3 April 1968, DRUM Collection.

57. Taylor, interview with Dan Georgakas, Box 3, Folder 17, DGC.

58. Member of the Employees Committee on Human Equality to ELRUM, Box 1, Folder 16, DRUM Collection.

59. Taylor, interview with Dan Georgakas, Box 3, Folder 17, DGC.

60. Ibid.

61. DRUM 1, no.5, Box 41, Folder 26, UAW Local 3 Collection.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid.

64. Jordan Sims, Eddie Barksdale, and Carla Cooke, interview with Dan Georgakas, August 19, 1972. Box 3, Folder 18, DGC.

65. Member of the Employees Committee on Human Equality to ELRUM, Box 1, Folder 16, DRUM Collection.

66. Taylor, interview with Dan Georgakas, Box 3, Folder 17, DGC.

67. Ibid.

68. Quoted in Harris and Utlefe, “Dodge Revolutionary Movement (DRUM),” 17.

69. DRUM 1, no. 6, Box 41, Folder 26, UAW Local 3 Collection.

70. DRUM 1, no. 7, Box 41, Folder 26, UAW Local 3 Collection.

71. See DRUM 1, no. 7, Box 41, UAW Local 3 Collection. For more on black manhood, see Lawson Bush, “Am I a Man? A Literature Review Engaging the Sociohistorical Dynamics of Black Manhood in the United States,” Western Journal of Black Studies 23, no. 1 (Spring 1999): 49–57; Michael Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York, 1995); Gail Jardine and Nathan McCall, “To Be Black, Male, and Conscious: Race, Rage, and Manhood in America,” American Quarterly 48, no. 2 (June 1996); Bruce Dorsey, “History of Manhood in America,” Radical History Review 64 (1996); Robert Stapes, Black Masculinity: The Black Males’ Role in American Society (San Francisco, 1982); Daniel Black, Dismantling Black Manhood: An Historical and Literary Analysis of the Legacy of Slavery (New York, 1997).

72. “Negro Lovers,” DRUM newsletter, Box 41, Folder 28, UAW Local 3 Collection.

73. See the biography of Black Panther Assata Shakur, Assata: An Autobiography (Chicago, 1987).

74. Miriam Kramer, former DRUM member, Village Voice, 26 March 1991, 27.

75. Interview with Marian Kramer, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 103–104.

76. Interview with John Watson, in Georgakas and Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying, Updated Edition. (Cambridge: 1988) 224–25.

77. Notes on “Committee Assignments,” Box 1, Folder 31, DRUM Collection.

78. As quoted in Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 160.

79. “Negro Lovers,” DRUM newsletter, Box 41, Folder 28, UAW Local 3 Collection.

80. DRUM 2, no. 22, Box 41, Folder 27, UAW Local 3 Collection.

81. Interview with Edna Hewell Watson, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 225.

82. Cockerel, Hamlin, and Watson, “The Three Way Split,” position paper (pp. 13–25), Box 4, Folder 11, DGC.

83. “Rationale for Revolutionary Leadership Dictatorship of the Proletariat,” League position paper, 2 January 1971, Box 1, Folder 25, DRUM Collection.

84. Interview with General Baker, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 310.

85. “The Split in the League of Revolutionary Black Workers: Three Lines and Three Headquarters,” position paper, Box 1, Folder 19, DRUM Collection.

86. Ibid., 20.

87. Ibid., 16.

88. Ibid., 18.

89. Ibid., 28.

90. “Code of Conduct,” League of Revolutionary Black Workers, 1971 document, Box 4, Folder 11, DGC.

91. “Confidential Communication for Internal Use Only,” League of Revolutionary Black Workers Executive Board, 29 March 1971, Box 18, Kenneth Cockrel and Sheila Murphy Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

92. Steve Jefferys, Management and Managed: Fifty Years of Crisis at Chrysler (Cambridge, 1986), 166.

93. Ibid., 152.

94. Box 3, Folders 6 and 9, DRUM Collection.

95. “Preliminary Results of the First Annual Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses,” Bureau of Labor Statistics, report, 21 January 1974, Box 5, Folder 11, DGC.

96. Detroit Free Press, 15 August 1973.

97. The Washington Report, 20 April 1970, and 23 March 1970, Box 3, Folder 2, DRUM Collection.

98. Frederick Holsey v. Chrysler Corporation, the State of Michigan, Civil Rights Commission, Case 5980-EM, Decision of Philip Colista, November 1971, Ronald Glotta Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

99. Georgakas and Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying, (New York: 1975) 102.

100. Ibid.

101. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 101.

102. Notes from attorney, Ron Glotta, RGC.

103. Ibid.

104. See “Section One: Automobiles,” Rachel Scott, Muscle and Blood (New York, 1974).

105. Ibid., 125.

106. Quoted in ibid., 125–26.

107. See Local 7 membership meeting minutes, Sunday, 25 June 1972, in bound volumes: “Membership / Leadership Meetings,” 25 March 1962–23 April 1978, Box 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

108. Telegram to U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration inspectors, 9 August 1973, Box 87, UAW Region 1 Collection.

109. United Justice Caucus to Mr. Flowers, recording secretary of Local 7, 31 August 1972, Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection.

110. Nathaniel Williams, Mack plant Local 212, to Leonard Woodcock, 7 August 1973, Box 157, Folder 8, Leonard Woodcock Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

111. Beulah Wallace, Local 933, to Leonard Woodcock, 21 August 1973, Box 157, Folder 9, LWC.

112. In Carter v. GM (361 Mich. 577, 106 N.W. 2nd 105, 1960) The Bureau of Workman’s Compensation awarded benefits to James Carter, a machine operator, for psychosis. Donald Loria argued that Carter’s psychosis was a result of the emotional pressure of his job. On 24 October 1956, Carter had a breakdown that led to his filing for compensation. This was an extremely significant case because prior to it, one could only be eligible for workman’s compensation if one had a physical disability.

113. Dr. Gorden Forrer to R. G. Moir, Workman’s Compensation, 9 September 1971, Box 3, RGC.

114. Ibid.

115. Ibid.

116. “Continuation of Decision,” 28 February 1973, James Johnson Jr. v. Chrysler Corporation, State of Michigan Bureau of Workman’s Compensation, attachment, decision of Hearing Referee John Conley, Box 16, CMC.

117. “Continuation of Decision,” Box 16, CMC. Also in Box 3, RGC.

118. Ibid., 14.

119. Ibid., 1–2 and 25.

120. Detroit Free Press, 26 April 1971.

121. Detroit Free Press, 6 March 1973.

122. Glotta, Adleman, and Dinges, press release, 6 March 1973, Box 3, RGC.

123. Detroit Free Press, 6 March 1973.

124. Ibid.

125. Wall Street Journal, March 1973, Box 3, RGC.

126. Detroit News, 8 March 1973.

127. Editorial, Detroit Free Press, 13 March 1973, Box 5, Folder 23, DRUM Collection.

128. Ibid.

129. Suburban newspaper clipping found for 17 March 1973, in Box 2, Folder 23, DRUM Collection.

130. B. J. Widick, Detroit: City of Race and Class Violence (Chicago, 1972), 223.

131. Undated notes, Box 5, Folder 23, DRUM Collection.

132. Elroy Richardson, president; James R. Franklin, recording secretary, UAW Local 961; and Walter Waller, Region 1 representative International UAW, article, The Criterion, 12 August 1970.

133. The Metro (July 1970), Box 3, RGC.

134. Unidentified notes from persons working on the Johnson case, Box 5, Folder 23, DRUM Collection.

135. Motor City Labor League leaflet, Box 3, RGC.

136. Jordan Sims, John Taylor, and Fred Holsey to Leonard Woodcock, 12 March 1973, Box 3, RGC.

137. Jordan Sims, John Taylor, and Frederick Holsey, letter to the editor, Detroit Free Press, 15 March 1973, Box 3, RGC.

138. John Taylor to Homer Jolly, representative International UAW, Chrysler, 16 March 1973, Box 3, RGC; John Taylor, news release, Box 3, RGC.

139. Heather Thompson, “Autoworkers, Dissent, and the UAW,” in Autowork, ed. Robert Asher and Ronald Edsforth (Albany, N.Y., 1995); Emma Rothschild, Paradise Lost: The Decline of the Auto Auto-Industrial Age (New York: 1973); Stanley Aronowitz, False Promises: The Shaping of American Working Class Consciousness (New York: 1973); and Barbara Garson, All the Live Long Day: The Meaning and Demeaning Routine of Work (New York: 1977).

140. “Walk Outs: Unauthorized Strike Must Stop!!!,” Local 7 worker leaflet, from the personal archives of autoworker Neal Chacker.

141. As Douglas Fraser, vice-president of the UAW put it, the union should “take issues away from them, not allow issues to arise upon which they can exploit the situation [because] unless you do they are going to grow and grow.” As quoted in William Serrin, The Company and the Union: The Civilized Relationship of General Motors Corporation and the United Automobile Workers, (New York, 1974), 321.

142. United Justice Train 1, no. 2. (July 1972), Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection.

143. United Justice Train 1, no. 6 (January 1973), Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection.

144. International Socialists, UNC discussion document, Box 2, Folder 4, EEC.

145. JARUM 2, no. 8 (13 December 1974), Box 73, Folder 7, UAW Region 1B Collection.

146. JARUM 2, no. 1 (14 August 1974), Box 73, Folder 7, UAW Region 1B Collection.

147. This distinction between the “old” and “new” RUM movements is more rhetorical than real. After 1973, there was no significant RUM activity in the plants, but original RUM activists—now in other, oftentimes more broad-based groups—thought of themselves as part of a “new” RUM movement nevertheless. See DTRUM 1, Box 7, RGC.

148. JARUM 3, no. 2 (27 May 1975), Box 73, Folder 7, UAW Region 1B Collection.

149. International Socialists, UNC discussion document, Box 2, Folder 4, EEC.

150. United Justice Caucus Leaflet. (February 1973). Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection.

151. Events at UNC conference on racism, as reported in the Fifth Estate, 1972, Box 2, Folder 28, DRUM Collection.

152. “Special Edition,” United National Caucus (January 1973), Box 47, Folder 12, AHC.

153. “Attention Autoworkers,” UNC leaflet, Box 47, Folder 12, AHC.

154. Minutes, Local 7 membership meeting, 25 March 1973, in bound volumes, “Membership / Leadership Meetings,” 25 March 1962–23 April 1978, Box 14, UAW Local 7 Collection.

155. United Justice Caucus leaflet, February 1972, Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection.

156. United National Caucus (August 1973); quoted in Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 202.

157. Emil Mazey to Ken Morris, 15 August 1972, Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection.

158. George Merrelli to Doug Fraser, 23 October 1973, Box 47, Folder 12, AHC.

159. Walter Wallers to George Merrelli, 24 August 1973, Box 87, Folder 14, UAW Region 1 Collection.

160. Interview with Roger Robinson, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 197.

161. United National Caucus 4, no. 1 (March–April 1973), Box 11, Folder 7, UAW Public Relations Department, Simon Alpert Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

162. Willie F. Pride to UNC. Printed in United Justice Train, vol. 1, no. 4. (September 1972). Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection.

163. It was particularly ironic that Frank McKinnon, who had successfully defeated Sims in the 1971 election and enjoyed much support from the UAW’s top brass, was prosecuted by the U.S. government in 1974 for alleged financial improprieties. He was cited for his “false entries in the books and records of Local 961 between June 1. 1971 and June 30, 1972.” See notes regarding United States v. Francis D. McKinnon, 26 February 1974, Box 4, Folder 20, DRUM Collection.

164. Georgakas and Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying, (New York: 1975) 103.

165. Jordan Sims, “Going for Broke,” in Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working Class Organizers, ed. Staughton and Alice Lynd (Princeton, N.J., 1973), 263.

166. Georgakas and Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying, 230.

167. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 191.

168. Transcript, interview with Isaac Shorter and Larry Carter, The Lou Gordon Show, Box 73, Folder 12, UAW Region 1B Collection.

169. Ibid. See also Isaac Shorter and Larry Carter, interview in Workers’ Power (August 1973), Labadie Collection, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

170. Transcript, interview with Isaac Shorter and Larry Carter, The Lou Gordon Show.

171. Leaflet, United Justice Caucus (February 1973), Box 73, Folder 5, UAW Region 1B Collection.

172. Detroit News, 24 July 1973.

173. Isaac Shorter and Larry Carter, interview in Black Voice 3 (September 1973).

174. Shorter and Carter, interview in Workers’ Power.

175. “Victory at Jefferson,” leaflet by UNJ-Jefferson, Jordan, Strike Back-Dodge Main, Mack Safety Watchdog-Mack, UNC. From the personal archives of autoworker Neal Chacker.

176. Isaac Shorter and Larry Carter, interview, in The Journey; quoted in Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 192–93.

177. “As Our Readers See It: Chrysler Hijacking: Anarchy or Justice?,” Detroit Free Press, 4 August 1973.

178. Detroit News, 8 August 1973.

179. See case materials Scott, et al., v. Chrysler Corporation, et al., and deposition of Jerome Scott, Box 4, RGC.

180. UAW’s chronology of plant upheaval at Jefferson forge and Mack, 15 September 1973, Box 73, Folder 14, UAW Region 1B Collection.

181. Order granting an injunction in Chrysler Corporation v. Fredrick McAlister, et al. before Judge Cornelia G. Kennedy in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan, Southern Division. Box 87, UAW Region 1 Collection.

182. Scott, et al., v. Chrysler Corporation, et al., deposition of Leon Klea, 19 September 1977, Box 4, RGC.

183. Detroit News, 8 August 1973.

184. Ibid.

185. Detroit News, 9 August 1973.

186. Handwritten and mimeographed leaflet signed by “Fifteen Forge workers,” Box 87, UAW Region 1 Collection.

187. Detroit News, 10 August 1973.

188. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 191.

189. Detroit News, 11 August 1973.

190. “Vote Strike Friday” Leaflet United Forge Workers. From the personal archives of autoworker Neal Chacker.

191. Forge leaflet, signed by Fraser, Merrelli, and Klea, Box 87, Folder 14, UAW Region 1 Collection.

192. See handwritten account in Box 87, Folder 14, UAW Region 1 Collection.

193. Telegram to the U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration inspectors, 8 August 1973, Box 87, Folder 14, UAW Region 1 Collection.

194. Ibid.

195. Leaflet to Forge Workers, signed by Fraser, Merrelli, and Klea. UAW Region 1 Collection.

196. Detroit News, 11 August 1973; Detroit Free Press, 12 August 1973.

197. Detroit Free Press, 11 August 1973.

198. Detroit Free Press, 13 August 1973.

199. Detroit Free Press, 14 August 1973.

200. Ibid.

201. Geschwender, Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency, 176.

Chapter 8

1. Interview with Roger Robinson, in Robert H. Mast, ed., Detroit Lives (Philadelphia, 1994), 195.

2. Interview with Arthur Johnson, in ibid., 199.

3. Steve Jefferys, Management and Managed: Fifty Years of Crisis at Chrysler (Cambridge, 1986), 35.

4. Johnson was institutionalized at the CFP between June and September 1971, and then again between February and November 1973. He was institutionalized at Ionia from September 1971 to November 1972 and from November 1974 to March 1975. He was insitutionalized at Ypsilanti State Hospital from November 1972 until February 1973.

5. North Detroit Coalition, notice, Box 2, Folder 4, Kenneth Cockrel and Sheila Murphy Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

6. “Draft Cockrel for Mayor Committee,” press release, 8 June 1972, Box 2, Folder 4, CMC.

7. Mrs. Hoskins to Kenneth Cockrel, 1 January 1973, Box 2, Folder 4, CMC.

8. Statement of the Black Workers Congress, Box 1, Dan Georgakas Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

9. Justin Ravitz to Ken Cockrel and Sheila Murphy, Box 18, CMC.

10. Wilbur C. Rich, Coleman Young and Detroit Politics: From Social Activist to Power Broker, (Detroit: 1989), 71; Joseph Darden, Richard Child Hill, June Thomas, and Richard Thomas, Detroit: Race and Uneven Development (Philadelphia: 1987), 213.

11. See interview with Young in the Detroit News, August 15, 1973 and FBI memo printed in the Detroit News January 27, 1985. In the Young Biographical File, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

12. Detroit News, November 8, 1968.

13. Detroit Free Press, September 22, 1968.

14. Radio and TV Reports, Inc., April 14, 1972, WWJ-TV, News 4, Box 3, Charter Revision Commission Collection. Burton Historical Collection. Detroit Public Library, Detroit.

15. Detroit News, October 8, 1973.

16. Many candidates entered this race, including black judge Edward Bell, white sociology professor John Mogk, and white Breakthrough leader Donald Lobsinger.

17. Detroit News, 19 August 1973.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid.

20. Rich, Coleman Young, 102. See also Detroit Free Press, 13 September 1973.

21. Detroit News, 16 August 1973.

22. Detroit News, 14 October 1973.

23. Detroit Free Press, 13 September 1973.

24. Detroit News, 11 July 1973.

25. Ibid.

26. Detroit News, 20 October 1973.

27. John Nichols, quoted in Detroit News, 21 August 1973.

28. Ibid.

29. For more information on how the DPD altered crime statistics, see the report by Gerhard Long, William Deane Smith, David O. Porter, Delores Weber, and L. L. Loukopoulus, “The Detroit Police Department—a Research Report on Previous Studies; Criminal Statistics; and Police Technology, Productivity, and Competence,” May 1970, Box 37, CMC. This exhaustive report includes 74 pages of text, 60 pages of graphs and tables, and a 43-page appendix. See also Loukopoulus, “The Detroit Police Department” and “The Detroit Police Department—Statistical Section,” May 1970, Charter Revision Commission Collection, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library. This independent study was conducted by a fact-finding team at Wayne State University and its Urban Studies Department. Regarding the phenomenon of police manipulating crime statistics elsewhere (in some cases downward, where politically expedient), see Stephen C. Brooks and Robert Lineberry, “Politicians and Urban Policy Change: The Case of Crime and City Politics,” in Urban Policy Analysis, ed. Terry Clark (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1982); David Seidman and Michael Couzens, “Getting the Crime Rate Down: Political Process and Crime Reporting,” Law and Society Review 8 (1984).

30. Detroit News, 24 October 1973.

31. Desmond Brandy, elections specialist for the city of Detroit, to author, 14 November 1990.

32. Detroit Election Commission, “Official Canvas of Votes, 1953–1978,” Vertical Files, Sociology and Economics Department, Detroit Public Library. In 1973, there were 820,243 registered voters, and 456,675 came to the polls.

33. New York Times, 6 January 1974.

34. Interview with Gene Cunningham, in Mast, Detroit Lives, 315.

35. New York Times, 6 January 1974.

36. Ibid.

37. Detroit News, 7 November 1973.

38. Detroit News, 9 August 1973.

39. Jack Weinberg, “Detroit Auto Uprising: 1973,” pamphlet, 1974, author’s copy.

40. James Geschwender, Class, Race and Worker Insurgency: The League of Revolutionary Black Workers (New York, 1977), 195.

41. Detroit Free Press, August 15, 1973.

42. “WAM Uses Struggle as Publicity Stunt,” Workers’ Power, Special: Auto Revolt 1973, the Labadie Collection, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

43. Detroit Free Press, 15 August 1973.

44. Detroit News, 16 August 1973.

45. Detroit Free Press, 16 August 1973.

46. “Mack Safety Protest,” leaflet, the personal archives of autoworker Neal Chacker.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.

49. E. J. Morgan to Bluestone, Bannon, and Fraser, 12 June 1973, Box 158, Folder 8, Leonard Woodcock Collection, the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs, Detroit.

50. UNC 5 (August 1973); quoted in Geschwender, Class, Race and Worker Insurgency, 202.

51. For a glimpse of what was going on inside the plant, see “Night in Captive Auto Plant: Unlikely Place for a Drama,” Detroit Free Press, 16 August 1973, and “Workers Holdout Quietly,” Detroit Free Press, 15 August 1973.

52. “Rebels Ousted at Chrysler,” Detroit Free Press, 15 August 1973.