INDEX

Figures and tables are indicated by “f” and “t” following page numbers.

accommodations. See lodging
advertisements: archive materials, 14; for beach tourism, 5, 44, 46, 54, 157, 158, 183f; for Black Sea Coast, 44, 157, 177, 237n1; for Comturist shops, 128; consumerism and, 119, 120, 131–32, 231n91; nationalism in, 90, 91f; production and dissemination of, 211n99; promotional campaigns, 53–54, 95; slogans and, 54, 95, 215n70; targeted, 49; by tourist offices, 88; for vacation packages, 35, 177
Africa: tourists from, 83; tourist worker trainees from, 89, 224n101; World Youth Festival participants from, 25
Aguirre Moul, Ignacio, 111
airline transportation: airport construction and refurbishment, 60–61, 64, 160, 174; in Francoist Spain, 35, 62, 99, 209n72; in Romania, 29–30, 57, 60–61, 83, 90, 93, 212n22, 223n64. See also charter flights; specific airlines
Alcaide, Ángel, 53
Alcaide Inchausti, Julio, 52
Alfonso XIII (king of Spain), 168
Amor a la Española (film), 245n33
Andalusia (Spain), 40, 103, 146, 170, 173, 184, 234n51
Andreescu, Ștefan, 94
antisemitism, 201n7
Arbeiterwohlfahtr (travel agency), 239n55
Arias Salgado, Gabriel, 26–28, 41, 42, 153, 175
Arriba (newspaper), 144–45, 234n44
Asia: tourists from, 82, 83; World Youth Festival participants from, 25
Association of Romanian Architects, 70, 237n14
Australia, tourists from, 83, 94
Austria: economic growth in, 45; Soviet withdrawal from, 238n22; tourist infrastructure in, 65; tourists from, 106–7, 121–22, 221n19
authoritarianism: criticisms of, 54; remembering in post-authoritarian societies, 205–6n61; totalitarianism, 143, 196, 201n4, 244n29; tourism sector and, 161. See also dictatorships; Francoist Spain; Romanian Socialist Republic
automobiles: fuel for, 191–92, 195, 244n11, 244n27; private ownership of, 45, 131, 134, 136; for tourism, 32, 45, 57–60, 62–63, 86–87, 165, 192
Autotransporte Turistico Español S.A. (ATESA), 35
Azcarraga, Juan, 111

Badham, John, 223n51
balance of payments, 10, 35, 37, 42, 49–50, 108
Banú, Jose, 169
Baranowski, Shelly, 8
Bardot, Brigitte, 154, 236n97
Bazarca, Romeo, 103
beach tourism: advertisements for, 5, 44, 46, 54, 157, 158, 183f; mass tourism and, 158, 159, 170, 192; morality and, 157–58, 184–85; popularity of, 45, 73, 157, 161–62, 176, 190; sun therapy and, 5, 45–46; vacation packages, 162, 167. See also specific destinations
Belea, Romeo, 218n161
Benidorm beaches (Spain), 22, 158, 197
Benito, Louis Alonso, 133
bias. See discrimination and stereotypes
black markets, 12, 136–49, 156, 227n11, 232n4
Black Sea Coast (Romania): access to, 86; advertisements for, 44, 157, 177, 237n1; common culture of everyday life on, 13; competition with Costa del Sol, 166; concessions for attracting tourists, 158; consumer goods on, 123–25, 229n39; cosmopolitanism of, 17, 156, 158, 160, 180, 183, 188; development planning, 105, 160–68, 176; differential treatment of tourists, 178–79, 187; government investment in, 58, 162, 190; guidebooks on, 120, 160, 177, 237n16; hitchhikers on, 181–83, 182f; home countries of tourists to, 5, 10, 21; institutional organization of tourism on, 39; lodging on, 66–67, 66f, 160–68, 238n23, 242n137; spatial configuration, 187–88; surveillance of tourists on, 180–81, 184; tourist arrivals on (1975–1977), 165t; tourist infrastructure, 71, 72, 159–68, 238nn23–24; tourist shops on, 211n99. See also specific resorts
blat system, 144, 149, 156, 235n68
Block, Fred, 203n43
Boicil, 102, 225n105
Bolín, Louis, 40
Bozdog, Nicolae, 99–102, 105, 193, 244n20
Bravo, Gutmaro Gómez, 201n4
Brokaw, Kurt, 92, 93
Bucharest Declaration (1966), 216n98
Bucharest Project Institute, 218n161
Bulgaria: Helsinki Agreement and, 222n43; international tourism in, 9, 48, 52, 81, 86, 189, 244n10; seasonal workers in, 46; tourists from, 221n16; tourist shops in, 230n71
Burrell, Kathy, 23

Cals Güell, Joan, 96–97
Câmpeanu, Pavel, 228–29n35
Canada, tourists from, 96, 223n70
capitalism and capitalist countries: consumption in, 125; everyday life under, 117, 156; liberal, 11, 159; Mediterranean-style, 46, 212n20; mobility and immobility in, 23, 26; socialism in relation to, 10–11, 17, 203n43; territorial development in, 159; tourists from, 5, 10, 12, 23, 26, 30–34, 47–48, 59–61, 85, 87, 104, 135, 166–67, 179, 191–92; in Western Europe, 6, 22, 26, 60, 98. See also specific countries
Carol I (king of Romania), 31
cars. See automobiles
Castellana Hilton Hotel (Madrid), 27–28, 34
Catholic Church: Concordat of 1953, 24; excommunication by, 22, 158, 196–97; morality and, 111, 144, 157, 184–85; national identity and, 153; Opus Dei, 3, 42; social influence of, 95; on tourist-citizen relationships, 12, 135
Ceaușescu, Elena, 127
Ceaușescu, Nicolae: on beach tourism, 162, 163; on commercial activity, 124; on “consumption” term, 244n26; dispute with Maurer, 244n21; foreign debt payments, 17, 150; on international tourism, 135–36; on lodging, 70, 218n164; nationalism of, 4, 87, 136; ONT–Carpathians and, 105, 194; personal dictatorship of, 113; political and economic policies, 13; villa at Neptun-Olimp, 164; Western orientation of, 50
Cedok (travel agency), 33, 97
censorship, 41, 153–54, 178, 211n117
Central Committee (Romanian Communist Party): archive materials from, 14, 15, 205n56; on consumer demands, 134; decision-making authority, 104; development planning, 176; Economic Section, 48, 89, 121, 205n56; Executive Bureau, 127; on Geneva Summit, 31; hotel price approval by, 193; on martial law in Poland, 127; mechanisms of power in, 124; on reorganization of ONT–Carpathians, 39, 105; on success of international tourism, 191
Chalmers, Judith: Wish You Were Here, 81
charter flights: costs of, 6, 32, 64; crashes involving, 201n16; introduction of, 6, 56, 60, 61, 64, 85, 192; liberalization of rules for, 64; planes for, 60, 222n31; TAROM and, 86, 93. See also specific airlines
Cioculescu, Șerban, 125
Claire, Petit Marie, 21
class: consumerism and, 129–31, 133; international tourism and, 9, 196; social mobility and, 197. See also elites; middle class; working class
clothing: bikinis, 1–2, 22, 34, 157–58, 185–86, 197; consumerism and, 119; dress codes, 184, 196; miniskirts, 1, 158
Coca, Ignacio, 169
coffee, 123, 179, 242n123
Cold War: complexities of, 189; consumerism during, 162, 238n22; diplomacy during, 12, 130, 204n48, 206n8; discourse related to, 28, 33, 99; Geneva Summit during, 30, 31; geography of international tourism and, 215n72; mobility in political context of, 24–25. See also détente; Iron Curtain
Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), 24, 32–33, 88, 100, 165, 209n63, 230–31n74
communism: anti-communism, 3, 24–28, 104, 192; everyday life under, 117; fall of, 197; “new woman” ideal and, 152; public morality and, 21; remembering in post-communist societies, 205–6n61; terminology considerations, 207n27. See also Romanian Communist Party
Compostela Hotel (Galicia, Spain), 75–76, 76f, 219–20n187
Comturist shops, 88, 118, 127–30, 210–11n99, 222n36, 230n68
Conde, Fernando, 133
Constantin, Gheorghe, 61
consumerism and consumption: advertisements and, 119, 120, 131–32, 231n91; anti-Western views of, 118; black markets, 12, 136–49, 156, 227n11, 232n4; blat system, 144, 149, 156, 235n68; Ceaușescu on “consumption” term, 244n26; class and, 129–31, 133; during Cold War, 162, 238n22; conspicuous, 127, 130, 143; culture of, 8, 156; department stores, 125–26, 232n97; economic growth and, 45; everyday life and, 120, 130, 132, 134, 155, 228n13; goods shortages, 4, 12, 27, 112, 123, 127, 131, 134, 150, 194, 201n9, 229n35, 229n46; guidebooks and, 120, 125–28, 195, 227n10; hard currency acquisition and, 46, 126; international tourism and, 3, 7, 12, 14, 17, 118–34, 155–56, 194–95, 204n51; liberalization and, 120, 133, 227n8; as resistance, 143, 148, 155; socialist vs. capitalist, 125; supermarkets, 132, 134, 184. See also smuggling
Cosma, Ion, 194
cosmopolitanism: architectural designs and, 237n14; of Black Sea Coast, 17, 156, 158, 160, 180, 183, 188; of Costa del Sol, 17, 156, 158, 168, 186, 188; international tourism and, 17, 72, 156, 158, 168, 180, 186, 194–95, 197
Costa Brava (Spain): map of (1955), 75f; popularity of, 73, 237n9; tourism revenue from, 173; tourist infrastructure, 74, 74t, 219n185
Costa del Sol (Spain): advertisements for, 44, 157; common culture of everyday life on, 13; competition with Black Sea Coast, 166; concessions for attracting tourists, 158; cosmopolitanism of, 17, 156, 158, 168, 186, 188; development planning, 168–76; film depictions, 200n1; guidebooks on, 177, 184, 185; mass tourism and, 170; population of, 237n8; spatial configuration, 187–88; tourist infrastructure, 159, 168–72, 240n71; vacant areas of, 173, 241n99. See also specific resorts
Costes, Claude, 21
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. See Comecon
Count Dracula (film), 223n51
Coya, Miguel, 110–11
Crumbaugh, Justin, 8, 42
culture: common, 13; consumer, 8, 156; diplomacy and, 95; European, 195; folk, 102; homogenization of, 133; immersion into, 46; material, 2, 117, 131, 136, 150–51, 195, 235n75; political, 3; popular, 91, 126, 179, 197; urban, 65
culture shock, 15, 131, 133–34
currency: consumer goods as, 139, 153; exchanging, 50, 140–43, 145, 215n89, 233n30, 234n53, 239n49; lack of convertibility, 215n91; smuggling of, 140–41, 145, 180, 195; socialist views of, 139–40, 233n18. See also hard currency acquisition
Czechoslovakia: open border project, 139; Prague Spring (1968), 84, 87, 225n102; Romanian tourist office in, 87; Soviet invasion of (1968), 87, 213n42, 225n102; tourists from, 5, 84, 97–99, 165–66; tourist shops in, 230n71

Daicoviciu, Constantin, 125
Dalea, Mihai, 67
Darie, Constantin, 125
De Gaulle, Charles, 213n42
department stores, 125–26, 232n97
détente: East–West, 23, 81, 83, 86, 103, 111; economic, 86; Geneva Summit and, 31; Lacy-Zarubin Agreement and, 208n43; political, 17, 86
dictatorships: personal, 3, 113, 192; totalitarian, 143, 196, 201n4, 244n29. See also Francoist Spain; Romanian Socialist Republic
dining. See restaurants
diplomacy: airline connections and, 60; in Cold War, 12, 130, 204n48, 206n8; cultural, 95; Iron Curtain and, 97; Romania-Spain, 99–102, 130, 224n92; soft, 12, 204n48
discrimination and stereotypes: antisemitism, 201n7; of Eastern Europe, 93; Iron Curtain and, 192; against tourists, 7, 85
domestic tourism: beach tourism and, 161, 162; institutional organization of, 38–40; revenue from, 49, 225n118; transportation infrastructure for, 59
Doxiadis, Constantinos A., 172
Dracula (film), 223n51
Dracula AD (film), 223n51
Dracula legend, 90–94, 223n51
Drăgănescu, Emil, 106
dress. See clothing
Duda, Igor, 8

Eastern Europe: airline connections with, 6, 99, 212n22; black markets in, 232n4; democratization of international tourism in, 6; GDP per capita in, 220n3; hard currency acquisition in, 46; in integrated histories of Europe, 6, 201n17; international tourism in, 80–82, 84; mobility from, 22, 25; modernization in, 13; similarities with Southern Europe, 23, 188, 203n39; stereotypes of, 93; tourists from, 96–98, 180; train connections with, 212n22; welfare state in, 45; World Youth Festival participants from, 25. See also socialism and socialist countries; specific countries
East Germany: international tourism in, 204n51; open border project, 139; Romanian tourist office in, 87; Socialist Unity Party regime, 8
eating facilities. See restaurants
economy: autarchic, 22, 28, 37, 41, 131, 144; balance of payments, 10, 35, 37, 42, 49–50, 108; black markets, 12, 136–49, 156, 227n11, 232n4; foreign investments, 3, 27, 37, 68, 69; GDP per capita, 45, 130, 212n17, 220n3, 231n85; global, 17, 47, 82, 111, 194; inflation, 42, 77, 85, 123, 190, 191, 193; modernization and, 10, 47–57, 80, 190, 203n42; planned, 47, 55, 57, 105, 123, 203n43. See also Comecon; consumerism and consumption; global economic crises
EEC. See European Economic Community
Eforie Nord (Romania), 67–68, 121, 129, 162, 178, 238n29
elites: economic, 88, 131, 132, 134; on modernization, 203n42; political, 84–85, 87, 112, 131, 144, 175; in Romania, 31, 47, 84–85, 87–88, 105, 144; in Spain, 131–36, 144, 148, 168–70, 175; technocratic, 112; travel for, 64, 187
employees. See tourist workers
Enescu, George, 126
Europe: international tourism in, 52, 56, 84; paid vacations in, 45; urban development in, 65; working hours in, 45, 212n14. See also postwar Europe; specific regions and countries
European Coal and Steel Community, 45
European Economic Community (EEC), 42, 45, 83, 85, 96, 139, 148–49, 235n67
everyday life: capitalism and, 117, 156; common culture of, 13; communism and, 117; consumption and, 120, 130, 132, 134, 155, 228n13; degradation of, 192, 193; high politics and, 9, 11; international tourism and, 7, 84, 135, 149, 155, 190; liberalization of, 13, 120, 137, 204n52; middle class and, 131; normalization of, 12, 25, 134, 204n53; personal space and, 204n53; socialism and, 117, 143, 156; soft diplomacy and, 12
exchange rates, 50, 141–42, 215n89, 233n30, 234n53, 239n49

Fabritius, Ernst and Richard, 141
Falangists, 3, 41–42, 168, 186, 197, 234n44
Faraldo, José M., 201n4
Fascist Italy, alliance with Francoist Spain, 3
fashion. See clothing
Fazakas, Janos, 123–24
Federal Republic of Germany. See West Germany
females. See women
Feminine Institute, 186
Feria del Campo (Spain), 102–3
Figuerola, Manuel, 110–11
Firu, Ion, 29
Florescu, Gheorghe, 228n20
Florescu, Radu, 91–94
food services. See restaurants
Fordism, 126, 133, 230n61
Fraga Iribarne, Manuel: on Arias Salgado, 41; as chief of state of information services, 211n117; on infrastructure, 62, 75, 79; on luxury hotel tax, 147; meeting with Romanian delegation, 101; political ambitions of, 42; popularity of, 97; tourism and, 50, 148, 170, 172, 175, 194, 226n141
France: airline connections with, 6, 64; automobiles in, 45; Geneva Summit and, 31; international tourism in, 52, 80, 214n51, 237n9; paid vacations in, 9; tourists from, 5, 21, 34–35, 45, 56, 61, 63–64, 73, 94, 106, 192, 221n19, 223n70; tourist worker training in, 48
Franco, Francisco: death of (1975), 24, 113; decline of power, 13; on international tourism, 135–36; Nationalists led by, 3, 37, 209n75; personal dictatorship of, 3, 192
Francoist Spain: accession to EEC, 148–49, 235n67; anti-communism of, 3, 24–28, 104, 192; archive materials from, 14–16; balance of payments in, 10, 35, 37, 42, 108; black markets in, 144–48; commerce in, 130–33, 232n97; consumer goods shortages, 27, 131; Development Plans, 52–53, 108, 214n53, 226n142; diplomatic relations with Romania, 99–102, 130, 224n92; domestic tourism in, 40; economic autarchy in, 22, 28, 37, 41, 131, 144; economic growth in, 212n17; Europeanization of, 8, 104; Falangists and, 3, 41–42, 168, 186, 197, 234n44; Feria del Campo in, 102–3; foreign investments in, 3, 27, 37; GDP per capita in, 130; gender in, 9, 22, 132, 236n94; Guardia Civil (police) in, 22, 146, 151, 185; Helsinki Agreement and, 222n43; international isolation of, 2, 3, 24, 36, 47, 168, 192; liberalization in, 12–13, 42–43, 133, 135–37, 148, 204n52; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 51, 97–98, 101, 103; Ministry of the Interior, 40, 97–98, 147; mobility and immobility in, 23–29; modernization in, 2, 7, 10, 46–47, 50–56, 79–80, 144, 194, 202n19, 203n42; New Year’s Eve speech (1963), 133; normalization of relations with Western Europe, 42; political prisoners in, 201n5; propaganda in, 35, 36, 41–42, 100, 173, 222n38, 234n44; prostitution in, 151–52, 154–56; seasonal workers in, 46, 53, 174; Stabilization Plan, 3, 37, 42, 51, 131–32, 134, 153, 158; surface area of, 217n121; tourists from, 102, 129, 130; United Nations membership for, 36; US relations with, 3, 24–26, 36, 41, 192, 244n13. See also Catholic Church; Franco, Francisco; international tourism in Spain; Spanish Civil War
Franklin, Adrian: Tourism: An Introduction, 7
Furlough, Ellen, 8

GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), 50
gaze, tourist, 7, 46, 132
GDP. See gross domestic product
GDR (German Democratic Republic). See East Germany
Gélida Miralles, Jaime, 146
gender: in Francoist Spain, 9, 22, 132, 236n94; international tourism and, 9, 203n38; segregation of beaches by, 22; in socialist countries, 236n81; tourist workers and, 9, 158–59, 168, 196. See also men; women
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 50
General Tours (travel agency), 91–92, 223n54
Geneva Summit (1955), 30, 31
Georgescu, Teohari, 201n8
German Democratic Republic (GDR). See East Germany
Germany. See East Germany; Nazi Germany; West Germany
Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe, 4, 32, 135–36, 201n8
Ghodsee, Kristin, 9
Gibson, Alan, 223n51
gift-giving, 136–38, 149–50, 153, 188, 235n74
Gimenez-Arnau, Ricardo, 99–100
global economic crises (1970s), 17, 81–82, 106, 111, 191, 194
globalization, 7, 17, 81, 83
Global South, 89, 96. See also specific countries
Gómez del Moral, Alejandro, 8, 9, 133
Gorsuch, Anne, 8–10
Grandits, Hannes, 8
Graur, Alexandru, 125
Gray, H. E., 29–30
Great Britain: airline connections with, 6, 64; Dracula legend and, 91; Geneva Summit and, 31; international tourism in, 32; paid vacations in, 9; tourists from, 5, 22, 34–35, 54, 58, 64, 73, 94, 175, 217n129, 221n19, 223n70
Greece: Helsinki Agreement and, 222n43; international tourism in, 52, 189; seasonal workers in, 46; tourists from, 167
Gropius, Walter, 70
gross domestic product (GDP), 45, 130, 212n17, 220n3, 231n85
Groza, Petru, 3–4
Guardia Civil (Spanish police), 22, 146, 151, 185
guidebooks: audience for, 118–19; on Black Sea Coast, 120, 160, 177, 237n16; consumerism and, 120, 125–28, 195, 227n10; on Costa del Sol, 177, 184, 185; on currency exchange, 140; on Dracula legend, 91–93; on living standards, 118; in national identity building, 227n5; on transportation options, 57–58
Gutu, Eugenia, 222n37

Hale, Julian, 57, 58
Hall, Derek, 39, 222n33
hard currency acquisition: consumerism and, 46, 126; economic policy and, 44, 87; exchanges and, 27, 140, 207n31; institutional organization of, 39; mass tourism and, 10; as motivation for international tourism, 4, 5, 34, 43, 70; from property sales to foreigners, 176, 240n77; revenue from, 49, 53, 89, 190–91, 213n33; state monopolies on, 28, 140, 233n21; streamlining of, 210n99; tourist shops and, 118, 127, 128, 211n99, 222n36; tourist worker training schools and, 224n101; transportation infrastructure and, 59; World Tourism Organization and, 88–89
Hariton, Dinu, 218n161
health resorts and spas, 38, 65, 67–68, 71–72, 217n151
Helsinki Agreement (1975), 103, 222n43
Herzog, Werner, 223n51
Hilton, Conrad, 27
Hilton International, 27, 34–35
Hitler, Adolf, 24, 37
Hohenlohe-Langenburg, Alfonso de, 168–69
Holecek, V., 97
Holloway, Nancy, 126, 230n58
Hörschelmann, Kathrin, 23
Hotel Credit Program, 73, 75, 78–79
hotels. See lodging
Humphrey, Caroline, 150
Hungary: anti-Hungarian sentiments, 201n7; international tourism in, 204n51; Soviet intervention in (1956), 25, 50, 238n22; tourists from, 5, 221n16

I Am Curious (Yellow) (film), 54
IATA (International Commercial Aviation Cartel), 64
Iberia (Spanish airline), 62, 209n72
identity: material possession and, 150; national, 126, 153, 227n5
IEME (Spanish Foreign Exchange Institute), 27, 207n31
India, airline connections with, 212n22
Industriale Carmen, 27
infrastructure. See tourist infrastructure
inns. See lodging
Institute for Tourist Studies (Spain), 14, 52, 53
Intercontinental Hotel (Bucharest), 65, 69–70, 70f, 90, 217n139, 218n161, 218n164
International Commercial Aviation Cartel (IATA), 64
International Monetary Fund, 42
International Peace Research Institute, 189
international tourism: class and, 9, 196; consumption and, 3, 7, 12, 14, 17, 118–34, 155–56, 194–95, 204n51; cosmopolitanism and, 17, 72, 156, 158, 168, 180, 186, 194–95, 197; democratization and, 6, 7; drawbacks to, 46, 53; everyday life and, 7, 84, 135, 149, 155, 190; gender and, 9, 203n38; geography of, 56–57, 81–104, 215n72; histories and literature review, 8–11, 203n39; modernity and, 2, 7–8, 13, 16, 46–57, 84, 144, 157, 177, 194; new order of, 111–13; passports for, 26, 29, 34, 40, 148; politics of, 6, 16, 28, 32, 100, 190; as social and political tool, 25, 43; welfare state and, 45, 212n12. See also beach tourism; guidebooks; international tourism in Romania; international tourism in Spain; mass tourism; tourist infrastructure; tourist visas; tourist workers
international tourism in Romania: advertisements, 5, 14, 49, 211n99; beach tourism, 5, 157–68, 176; border crossings and, 28–29, 32; consumption and, 14, 118–30, 133–34, 195; cost considerations, 5–6, 46, 59, 71t; decline of, 104–7, 111–12, 124–25, 165–67, 179–80, 191–94, 198, 219n177, 240n59, 244n9; domestic politics and, 28; Dracula legend and, 90–94, 223n51; economic dimensions of, 43, 47–50; film depictions of, 1, 2, 200nn1–2; geography of, 83–94; ideological dimensions of, 84; illnesses and, 125, 229n52; image building through, 4, 25–27, 43; infrastructure for, 57–62, 64–72, 78–80, 108–9; institutional organization of, 37–40, 210n99; motivations for, 4, 10, 23, 43, 70, 189; origins and growth of, 16, 29–34, 48, 56, 81, 84, 87, 190; pragmatic approach to, 11, 16; for rest and health promotion, 33, 38, 49; revenue from, 39, 49, 59, 85, 104, 106, 127–28, 165, 167, 190, 222n33, 244n16; sources and methodology for study of, 13–16; systemic challenges and limitations, 104–9; tourist map (1966), 51f; tourist offices abroad for promotion of, 87–88, 102; World Youth Festival (1953), 25–26. See also Ministry of Tourism; National Office for Tourism–Carpathians; National Office for Tourism–Littoral; specific destinations
international tourism in Spain: advertisements, 5, 35, 53–54, 215n70; beach tourism, 5, 54, 73, 157–59, 168–76, 190; border crossings and, 28–29, 36, 42, 62, 108, 144, 216n119; commercialization of, 95–96; consumption and, 12, 130–34; cost considerations, 5–6, 35, 46; decline of, 110–11; domestic politics and, 28; economic dimensions of, 35, 43, 50–54; film depictions of, 1–2, 200n3; geography of, 94–104; ideological dimensions of, 35, 42; image building through, 4, 35, 36, 43, 54, 62; infrastructure for, 62–65, 73–80, 108; institutional organization of, 37, 40–42; motivations for, 4, 10, 23, 36, 43, 189; National Service for Tourism, 40; National Tourism Plan, 36, 62, 73, 171; origins and growth of, 16, 34–37, 52, 56, 81, 84, 214n46; pragmatic approach to, 16, 35, 41; revenue from, 53, 108, 148, 173, 190; sources and methodology for study of, 14–16; systemic challenges and limitations, 108–11; tourist map (1955), 55f; tourist offices abroad for promotion of, 54, 94–96. See also Ministry of Information and Tourism; specific destinations
International Union of Official Travel Organizations, 29, 88, 208n36, 225n111
Iron Curtain: diplomacy and, 97; fall of (1989), 11; Geneva Summit and, 30; geography of international tourism and, 83; permeability of, 12, 13, 24, 26, 189, 204n49; physical separation due to, 2–4, 10; stereotypes and, 192; transnational relations across, 9, 17, 143; use of term by Spanish officials, 224n83; vacationing beyond, 46. See also Cold War
Italy: automobiles in, 45; economic growth in, 45; fascism in, 3; Helsinki Agreement and, 222n43; international tourism in, 52, 80, 214n51, 237n9; paid vacations in, 9; tourist infrastructure in, 65; tourists from, 5, 221n19

Jacolin, Henry, 21
James (saint), 76, 219–20n187
Jews, 145, 201n7
Jora, Mihail, 126
Judt, Tony, 46, 201n17

Kamocsa, Béla, 178
Khrushchev, Nikita, 29–31, 86
Koenker, Diane, 8–10
Koshar, Rudy, 8
Kotkin, Steven, 82

laborers. See working class
Lacy-Zarubin Agreement (1958), 208n43
Lang de Threlfall, Ilse, 175–76
Lătărețu, Maria, 126
Latham, Peter, 118–19
Latin America: Feria del Campo and, 102; tourists from, 82, 83, 89, 94, 223n70; World Youth Festival participants from, 25
Lazaga, Pedro, 1, 2, 200n1
Lăzărescu, Cezar, 162
Lee, Cristopher, 223n51
lifestyles, 2, 17, 136, 143, 144, 168
lodging: access to, 60; allocation of, 82; architectural designs, 69, 70, 170, 237n14; on Black Sea Coast, 66–67, 66f, 160–68, 238n23, 242n137; classification of, 67, 70–71, 77–78, 217n144, 220n200; complaints regarding, 109, 146, 161; condition of, 30, 31; on Costa Brava, 74, 74t, 219n185; on Costa del Sol, 168–72, 171f, 240n71; costs of, 71t, 77, 146; development of, 52–53, 212n22; for domestic tourism, 49; growth of, 71–72, 78–79, 219n172; for health resorts and spas, 71, 217n151; institutional organization of, 38, 40, 41; luxury, 40, 66, 75, 77, 136, 147, 170–71; morality and, 153; overestimates of capacity, 161, 239n48; price controls for, 54, 73, 192–94; at private homes, 53, 145, 146, 171, 232–33n6; refurbishment of, 124; regulations for, 145–47; restaurants on site, 30, 67, 69, 170; structural differences in, 218n154; tourist shops within, 211n99. See also specific accommodations
López de Letona, José, 97
Luca, Fănică, 126
Luca, Vasile, 201nn7–8
Ludtke, Alf, 12, 148
Lupu, Traian, 88, 111

MacCannell, Dean, 7
Maestre, Benito, 103
males. See men
Mamaia resort (Romania): consumer services in, 121; cosmopolitanism of, 160; film depiction of, 1–2; French exchange students at, 21; government investment in, 162; guidebooks on, 160; popularity of, 65, 191, 217n139; Siutghiol Lake rehabilitation project, 107; tourist infrastructure, 66–67, 66f, 160–62, 178, 238n23; tourist suggestions regarding, 122
Manescu, Manea, 194
Manzano, Jose Luque, 169
Marbella resort (Spain), 1, 168–70
mass tourism: beach tourism, 158, 159, 170, 192; cost considerations, 5–6, 64; economic growth and, 44–45; as global phenomenon, 10, 25; infrastructure for, 5, 67, 170, 187; international relations and, 8; modernization and, 47; promotion of, 22, 206n7; redistributive effects of, 46, 80. See also charter flights; vacation packages
Maurer, Ion Gheorghe, 50, 194, 244n21, 244n26
McNally, Raymond, 91–94
Mediterranean region: airline connections with, 6; democratization of international tourism in, 6; in integrated histories of Europe, 6; international tourism in, 52, 159, 237n9. See also specific countries
men: consumerism and, 133; as tourist workers, 9, 158. See also gender
Mercur (Romania), 210n99
Merino, Fernando, 245n33
Michael I (king of Romania), 4
middle class: charter flights and, 64; Costa del Sol and, 170–71, 185; everyday life and, 131; formation of, 130; targeted by socialist country tourism, 9; tourist mindset among, 5, 46; tourist shops and, 129
Middle East: airline connections with, 212n22; tourists from, 83, 89; tourist worker trainees from, 224n101; World Youth Festival participants from, 25
Mincu, Iulian, 201n9
Ministry of Information and Tourism (Spain): assessment of tourism sector, 108; bureaucratic procedures, 56; censorship regulations, 154; on commercialization of tourism, 96; on Costa del Sol, 168, 173, 175–76; establishment of, 36, 41; Fraga as head of, 41, 42, 50; General Directorate of Tourism (DGT), 14, 36, 40–42; Hotel Credit Program and, 78; Insurance Policy Agency, 41–42; lodging regulations, 145–47; newspaper published by, 64; on promotional strategies, 54, 95; refurbishment of restaurants and lodging, 124; on socialist country tourists, 97–98; Spanish Tourist Administration (ATE), 41–42; on transportation infrastructure, 79
Ministry of Tourism (Romania): on Black Sea Coast tourism, 165–66; Comturist and, 211n99; establishment of, 38, 39; lack of coordination with Securitate, 180; on lodging classifications, 70; responsibilities of, 39; on socialist country tourists, 167; tourist offices and, 87, 102
Miserachs, Xavier: Costa Brava Show, 54
mobility, 23–29, 43, 197
modernity and modernization: architectural designs and, 70, 237n14; economic, 10, 47–57, 80, 190, 203n42; European model of, 7, 203n42; international tourism and, 2, 7–8, 13, 16, 46–57, 84, 144, 157, 177, 194; in socialist countries, 8, 202n19; of tourist infrastructure, 58–65, 72.73, 78–80, 159, 174
monetary overhang, 229n37
money. See currency
Monserrat, Esteban, 176
morality: beach behavior and, 157–58, 184–85; Catholic Church and, 111, 144, 157, 184–85; codes of, 22; congresses of, 157–58; enforcement of, 136, 152, 184; lodging and, 153; public, 21, 22, 188; tourists as threat to, 22, 42, 135, 186; of vacation choices, 54
Moranda, Scott, 8
Morcillo, Aurora, 9
mores: Catholic, 157; local/traditional, 177, 186; sexual, 151, 181, 196; social, 2, 4, 12
Morocco, 148, 235n63
Moscu, Ion, 218n161
motels. See lodging
Mussolini, Benito, 24, 37

Nădrag, Gheorghe, 218n161
national identity, 126, 153, 227n5
National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism (Romania), 14, 30, 82, 86, 89, 106, 179
nationalism: in advertisements, 90, 91f; liberalization and, 136; privileged forms of, 7; of Romanian Communist Party, 4, 87, 222n41; tourist industries and, 43
Nationalists (Spain), 3, 24, 37, 40, 209n75
National Office for Tourism–Carpathians (ONT–Carpathians): advertising plans, 190; connections with foreign travel firms, 212n22; on decrease in tourism, 104; development planning, 176; employee selection for, 105; establishment of, 38; on home countries of tourists, 29; lodging and, 71, 217n151; Office for Research and International Analysis, 83–86; responsibilities of, 38, 39, 193–94, 210n99; on restaurants, 122; tourism development plan and, 48–49; tourist worker training and, 48; transportation infrastructure and, 59, 215n80
National Office for Tourism–Littoral (ONT–Littoral): advertising plans, 190; buses for organized tours, 165; development planning, 162–64; overestimates of lodging capacity, 161, 239n48; responsibilities of, 39, 210n99; tourist workers at, 149, 161; vacation packages sold by, 177
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 24, 26, 244n13
Nazi Germany: Fordism in, 230n61; Hitler and, 24, 37; Spanish Civil War and, 3, 37
Nea Mărin Miliardar (My Uncle, the Billionaire) (film), 1–2, 200n3
Neckermann (travel agency), 44, 94, 96, 112, 211n1
Neptun-Olimp resort (Romania), 163–65, 177, 191, 239n45
Nicolaescu, Sergiu, 1, 2
Niculescu-Mizil, Paul, 68
Niethammer, Lutz, 117
Nixon, Richard, 61
norms, 22, 89, 138, 151, 184–85, 212n15
North American tourists, 27, 82, 146, 211n2
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 24, 26, 244n13
Northern Europe, tourists from, 13, 22, 46–47, 85, 185
Nosferatu (film), 223n51
nudist beaches, 160

oil crises (1970s), 45, 105–6, 111, 112, 191
ONT–Carpathians. See National Office for Tourism–Carpathians
ONT–Littoral. See National Office for Tourism–Littoral
oral history, 15, 205n60
Ottoman Empire, Romanian independence from, 208n51

Pack, Sasha, 8
package tours. See vacation packages
Pact of Madrid (1953), 24
Păduraru, N., 94
paid vacations, 9, 45, 84
Pan American Airlines, 29–30, 61, 69, 83, 90, 92–93, 223n64
passports, 26, 29, 34, 40, 148
Patilineț, Vasile, 67
Pauker, Ana, 201nn7–8
PCR. See Romanian Communist Party
Peleș Castle (Romania), 90, 92f
Pellejero Martinez, Carmelo, 154, 185, 186
Personal/private space, 3, 12, 155, 196, 204n53
Petrescu, Alexandru, 100, 102–3
Pez Espada Hotel (Torremolinos, Spain), 170, 171f
Pittman, Alfred B., Jr., 63
Poland: martial law in, 127; open border project, 139; tourists from, 5, 139–40, 142, 221n16
Political Bureau (Romanian Communist Party): assessment of tourism sector, 104–5; foreign policy strategy, 101; on gifts given to tourist workers, 138; on health resorts and spas, 67–68; leadership role of, 205n56; plan for tourism development, 48–49; on tourists from capitalist countries, 47–48, 61
Pop, Mihai, 94
Popa, Dumitru, 90
Popular Front (Spain), 3, 235n65
Portugal: Helsinki Agreement and, 222n43; international tourism in, 52, 189
postwar Europe: East–West divide in, 33, 188, 189, 206n64; economic growth in, 44–45; Francoist Spain as pariah state in, 3; geopolitics of, 56; integrated histories of, 6, 23, 201n17, 205n55; tourism’s growth in, 41, 44. See also specific regions and countries
power: bargaining, 16; of Central Committee, 124; challenges to, 183, 196; consolidation of, 4; institutional, 213n36; relations of, 23; of ruling regime, 12, 73, 105, 150; soft, 34, 204n48
Prague Spring (1968), 84, 87, 225n102
Prahova Valley (Romania), 21, 30–31, 58–59, 65, 72, 90, 138, 190
prejudice. See discrimination and stereotypes
Prohl, Erich, 152
propaganda: in Francoist Spain, 35, 36, 41–42, 100, 173, 222n38, 234n44; in Romania, 195; tourist offices and, 88; Western, 26, 33; World Youth Festival and, 26
prostitution, 136, 151–56, 180, 236n87
public morality, 21, 22, 188
Publiturist (Romania), 210–11n99
Pula, Besnik, 82

Rădulescu, Gheorghe (Gogu), 50, 122, 228n26
Remember (film), 222n37
resorts: archive materials on, 205n56; on Black Sea Coast, 66–67, 66f, 160–68, 238n23; on Costa Brava, 74, 74t, 219n185; on Costa del Sol, 168–72, 171f, 240n71; health resorts and spas, 38, 65, 67–68, 71–72, 217n151; restaurants at, 66–67, 160, 166–68, 170, 178–79, 240n62. See also specific resorts
restaurants: in border areas, 32; complaints regarding, 84, 110; construction of, 108, 212n22; consumerism and, 120, 132; in hotels, 30, 67, 69, 170; institutional organization of, 38, 41; price controls for, 54, 73, 192–93; refurbishment of, 124; at resorts, 66–67, 160, 166–68, 170, 178–79, 240n62; supply issues for, 122; tourist promotion and, 48, 213n26; at World Youth Festival, 25
Rodriguez, Fernando, 129
Rodriguez Acosta, Antonio Garcia, 97–98, 147, 170, 175
Rodríguez de Miguel, Luis, 97
Romanian Air Transport Agency (TAROM): airline connection with US, 29–30, 61, 90, 93; charter flights and, 86, 93; establishment of, 215n77; flights to/from capitalist countries, 57, 60; monopoly held by, 61, 216n109
Romanian Communist Party (PCR): consolidation of power, 4; Council of Ministers, 14, 29, 69, 77, 119–20, 123, 167, 215n89; Executive Committee, 69, 89; leadership of, 4, 167, 201nn7–8; nationalism of, 4, 87, 222n41; Secretary Office, 15, 205n56. See also Central Committee; Political Bureau
Romanian Socialist Republic: archive materials from, 13–16, 205nn56–57; balance of payments in, 10, 49–50; black markets in, 12, 137–44, 156, 227n11; blat system in, 144, 156; commerce in, 118–26, 227n8, 227nn10–11, 228n19; consumer goods shortages, 4, 12, 112, 123, 127, 134, 150, 194, 201n9, 229n35, 229n46; diplomatic relations with Francoist Spain, 99–102, 130, 224n92; domestic tourism in, 38–39, 49, 59, 161–62, 225n118; economic crises in, 72, 219n175; émigré communities, 88, 222n37; Europeanization of, 104; Feria del Campo and, 102–3; foreign policy strategy, 60, 213n42; Helsinki Agreement and, 222n43; independence from Ottoman Empire, 208n51; international isolation of, 2, 47; liberalization in, 4, 13, 43, 71, 126, 135–37, 178, 204n52; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 32, 60, 87–88; Ministry of the Interior, 180; mobility and immobility in, 23–26, 28–29; modernization in, 2, 7, 10, 46–50, 55–56, 79–80, 194, 202n19, 203n42; nationalization of factories and shops, 228n22; planned economy in, 47, 55, 57, 105, 123; propaganda in, 195; prostitution in, 151–53, 155, 156, 180, 236n87; rationing in, 118, 123, 191, 195, 201n9, 228n33, 244n27; revolution in (1989), 148, 149; seasonal workers in, 46, 164; Soviet relations with, 4, 24, 31, 50, 87, 228n31; welfare state in, 125. See also Ceaușescu, Nicolae; international tourism in Romania; Securitate
Romanian Workers’ Party. See Romanian Communist Party
Rome, Treaty of (1957), 45

Sabena (Belgian airline), 30, 60, 208n44
SAHIA (Romanian film company), 222n37
Salkeld, Roy, 176
Sánchez Bella, Alfredo, 63, 151, 175
Santiago de Compostela (Spain), 26, 75–76, 76f, 219–20n187
Scandinavian tourists, 5, 49, 85, 158–59, 192, 221n19
Securitate (Romanian secret police): archive materials from, 14, 16, 205n57, 234n34; background checks for tourist workers, 232n5; black markets and, 137–40, 142–44; concerns regarding Western tourists, 34; on currency smuggling, 140–41; French exchange students surveilled by, 21; on prostitution, 152, 153; surveillance activities, 180–81, 194; on tourist-citizen relationships, 12, 135–37, 150, 181; World Youth Festival and, 26
Sedó Gómez, Ramón, 97–98
Seib, Hugo V.: “Romania by Car,” 31
sex and sexuality: liberal views of, 151–54, 156, 197; mores related to, 151, 181, 196; prostitution, 136, 151–56, 180, 236n87; tourist influences on, 12, 152, 154–56, 159, 186, 194, 197; of youth, 184
Sipciu, Petru, 94
smuggling, 17, 27, 140–41, 144–45, 148, 180, 195, 205n57
Snak, Oskar, 49–50, 111, 213n36
social class. See class
socialism and socialist countries: blat system in, 144, 149, 156, 235n68; capitalism in relation to, 10–11, 17, 203n43; consumption in, 125; delegitimization of, 140, 204n48; everyday life under, 117, 143, 156; Feria del Campo and, 102; gender in, 236n81; lack of convertible currencies, 215n91; meetings among tourist organizations, 32–33, 43, 47, 190; mobility and immobility in, 23, 26; modernization in, 8, 202n19; money in, 139–40, 233n18; passports and visas for travel to, 26, 32; personal space and, 196, 204n53; prices for tourist services in, 33; promotion of ideological superiority of, 25, 89; terminology considerations, 207n27; territorial development in, 159; tourists from, 5, 17, 30–33, 59, 82, 84–85, 91, 96–99, 165–68, 178–82, 191–92; workers as purposeful consumers in, 8. See also specific countries
Socialist Unity Party (East Germany), 8
Southern Europe: GDP per capita in, 220n3; hard currency acquisition in, 46; in integrated histories of Europe, 23; international tourism in, 80; mobility from, 22; modernization in, 13; prices for tourist services in, 33; similarities with Eastern Europe, 23, 188, 203n39. See also specific countries
Soviet Union: airline connections with, 85; consumer goods in, 86; Czechoslovakia invasion (1968), 87, 213n42, 225n102; de-Stalinization project in, 29, 161; Fordism in, 230n61; Geneva Summit and, 31; Hungary intervention (1956), 25, 50, 238n22; relations with Romania, 4, 24, 31, 50, 87, 228n31; sphere of influence, 24; workers as purposeful consumers in, 8; World Youth Festival participants from, 25. See also Cold War
space: built, 159, 164, 168; green, 160, 165, 173, 176; leisure, 159, 187–88; personal, 3, 12, 155, 196, 204n53; urban, 160, 172
Spain. See Francoist Spain
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939): émigré communities following, 23, 219n186; infrastructure destruction in, 40; Nationalists and, 3, 24, 37, 40, 209n75; negative images associated with, 37; Popular Front and, 3, 235n65
Spanish Foreign Exchange Institute (IEME), 27, 207n31
Stabilization Plan of 1959 (Spain), 3, 37, 42, 51, 131–32, 134, 153, 158
Stalin, Joseph and Stalinism, 29, 31, 136, 161
Stângaciu, Vl., 29–30
stereotypes. See discrimination and stereotypes
Stoica, Chivu, 32
supermarkets, 132, 134, 184
SUR (newspaper), 148, 172, 224n93, 243n158

Tampoși, Nicholas, 90
Tănase, Maria, 126
TAROM. See Romanian Air Transport Agency
Taylor, Karin, 8
technocrats, 42, 104–5, 112–13
Teodorescu, Gheorghe, 162
theft, 105, 136, 150–51
totalitarianism, 143, 196, 201n4, 244n29. See also dictatorships
tourism. See domestic tourism; international tourism
tourist gaze, 7, 46, 132
tourist infrastructure: on Black Sea Coast, 71, 72, 159–68, 238nn23–24; on Costa del Sol, 159, 168–72, 240n71; destruction of, 40; institutional organization of, 38–39; investments in, 68, 72, 107, 108; for mass tourism, 5, 67, 170, 187; modernization of, 58–65, 72.73, 78–80, 159, 174; prioritization of, 44; private sector and, 64, 73–75, 77, 109; sanitation systems, 109, 110, 173; state management of, 64–73, 75–80, 108–9; urban development and, 53, 65, 173, 187. See also lodging; restaurants; transportation infrastructure
tourist mindset, 5, 46, 72, 212n15
tourist visas: for capitalist country tourists, 32, 48, 57; entry and exit, 29, 35, 40, 64, 98, 217n129; for socialist country tourists, 23, 32, 97–99
tourist workers: archive materials on, 14, 205n57; background checks for, 232n5; black markets and, 137–38, 142–43; currency exchange by, 142; gender and, 9, 158–59, 168, 196; gifts given to, 137–38, 149–50; patriotic rhetoric aimed at, 137; reassignment of, 124; seasonal, 46, 53, 164, 174; social mobility for, 197; surveillance of, 194; tips for, 145–46; training for, 39, 44, 48, 69, 89, 100, 121, 224n101; virtual traveling by, 196
Tower International Corporation, 69
trade unions, 37–41, 45, 100, 108, 162, 164, 217n151, 238n24
transportation infrastructure: boats, 58, 215n80; buses, 31, 35, 59–60, 100, 101, 160, 165; complaints regarding, 63, 216n120; destruction of, 40; for domestic tourism, 59; efficiency of, 16, 57, 62, 79; global networks, 47, 57–64; modernization of, 58–64, 79, 174, 216n99; pan-European, 57–64; railways, 36, 57–59, 62–63, 108, 160, 165, 212n22, 215n92; roads, 31, 36, 57–60, 62–63, 66, 79, 108, 212n22. See also airline transportation; automobiles
Treaty of Rome (1957), 45
TUI (travel agency), 94, 112
El Turismo es un Gran Invento (Tourism Is a Great Invention) (film), 1, 2, 200nn1–2
Turkey: Helsinki Agreement and, 222n43; international tourism in, 52

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). See Soviet Union
unions. See trade unions
United Nations: Spain as member of, 36; World Trade Conference, 50
United Nations Development Programme, 103, 225n111
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 112, 225n111
United States: airline connections with, 6, 29–30, 61, 83, 90, 93, 212n22, 223n64; deindustrialization in, 107; Dracula legend and, 90–94; Feria del Campo and, 102; Geneva Summit and, 31; National Security Council, 24; relations with Francoist Spain, 3, 24–26, 36, 41, 192, 244n13; reunification with relatives from, 32; tourists from, 34–35, 46, 54, 82–83, 85, 94, 96, 192, 223n70; urban development in, 65; welfare state in, 45. See also Cold War
Urry, John, 5, 7, 9, 46
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). See Soviet Union

vacation packages: advertisements for, 35, 177; beach tourism and, 162, 167; costs of, 5, 64, 86, 106; sales strategies, 96, 102; tariffs charges on, 167; for working class, 6
Vega, Camillo Alonso, 147
vehicles. See automobiles
Viajes Montesol (travel agency), 98–99
Viard, Jean, 212n15
villas. See lodging
visas. See tourist visas

Wallerstein, Immanuel, 203n43
Walton, John K., 8
Warsaw Pact, 24, 87, 213n42, 216n98, 225n102, 238n22
welfare state, 45, 125, 212n12
Western Europe: airline connections with, 32, 60, 212n22; capitalism in, 6, 22, 26, 60, 98; deindustrialization in, 107; democratization of international tourism in, 6; Feria del Campo and, 102; GDP per capita in, 220n3; inflation in, 191, 193; in integrated histories of Europe, 6, 23; labor productivity in, 45; mobility from, 22–25; modernization in, 203n42; normalization of relations with Francoist Spain, 42; prices for tourist services in, 33; tourists from, 5–6, 13, 22, 35, 45–47, 82, 94; welfare state in, 45, 212n12; World Youth Festival participants from, 25. See also specific countries
West Germany: airline connections with, 64; Arbeiter Wohfatr travel agency in, 239n55; black market goods from, 138; economic growth in, 45; international tourism in, 52; Neckermann travel agency in, 44, 94, 96, 112, 211n1; relations with Romania, 60, 213n42, 216n98; reunification with relatives from, 138; tourists from, 5, 35, 44–45, 49, 54, 64, 85, 94, 96, 106, 138, 193, 205n57, 211n2, 221n19, 221n24, 223n70, 239n55; TUI travel agency in, 94, 112
women: in bikinis, 1–2, 22, 34, 157–58, 185–86, 197; consumerism and, 132, 133; dress codes for, 184, 196; economic independence for, 158, 186, 196; Falangists and, 3, 186; “new woman” in communist regimes, 152; in prostitution, 136, 151–56, 180, 236n87; as tourist workers, 9, 158–59, 168, 196. See also gender
working class: Costa del Sol and, 171; health resorts and spas for, 38; labor productivity, 45; oil crises and, 110; profitability of tourism by, 32; targeted by socialist country tourism, 9; tourist mindset among, 5, 46; vacation packages for, 6; World Youth Festival and, 25. See also tourist workers
World Bank, 16, 41, 42
World Tourism Organization (WTO): archive of, 14; establishment of, 88, 222n42; hard currency acquisition and, 88–89; headquarters of, 83, 103–4; as intragovernmental organization, 103, 225n111; political considerations, 112; transnational relations and, 17
World Youth Festival (1953), 25–26
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 70
WTO. See World Tourism Organization

Yugoslavia: Helsinki Agreement and, 222n43; international tourism in, 32, 52, 84, 189, 204n51; seasonal workers in, 46; tourist infrastructure in, 65; tourists from, 5, 97–99; workers as purposeful consumers in, 8

Zaragoza Orts, Pedro, 22, 158, 197
Zillacus, Konni, 32
Zuelow, Eric, 10

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