Foreword by Eric G. E. Zuelow

1. 1. Diane P. Koenker, “The Proletarian Tourist in the 1930s: Between Mass Excursion and Mass Escape,” in Turizm: The Russian and East European Tourist under Capitalism and Socialism, edited by Anne E. Gorsuch and Diane P. Koenker, 119–140 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006); Christian Noack, “Building Tourism in One Country? The Sovietization of Vacationing, 1917–41,” in Touring beyond the Nation: A Transnational Approach to European Tourism History, edited by Eric G. E. Zuelow, 171–193 (Farnham, England: Ashgate, 2011).

2. 2. Diane P. Koenker, Club Red: Vacation, Travel and the Soviet Dream (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013), 53–54.

3. 3. Ibid., 179, 191.

4. 4. Colin Campbell, The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), 202–227.

5. 5. For an excellent case study, see Kolleen M. Guy, “ ‘Oiling the Wheels of Social Life’: Myths and Marketing in Champagne during the Belle Epoque,” French Historical Studies 22, no. 2 (Spring 1999): 211–239.

6. 6. Greg Castillo, “Domesticating the Cold War: Household Consumption as Propaganda in Marshall Plan Germany,” in Journal of Contemporary History, special issue, Domestic Dreamworlds: Notions of Home in Post-1945 Europe 40, no. 2 (April 2005): 261–288.

7. 7. For examples, see Claire Langhamer, “The Meanings of Home in Postwar Britain,” Journal of Contemporary History special issue 40, no. 2 (April 2005): 341–362; Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Alon Confino and Rudy Koshar, “Régimes of Consumer Culture: New Narratives in Twentieth-Century German History,” German History 19, no. 2 (February 2001): 135–161.

8. 8. Jay Newell, Charles T. Salmon, and Susan Chang, “The Hidden History of Product Placement,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 50, no. 4 (2006): 575–594.

9. 9. Jae Han Jay Min, Hyo Jung Julie Chang, Tun-Min Catherine Jai, and Morgan Ziegler, “The Effects of Celebrity-Brand Congruence and Publicity on Consumer Attitudes and Buying Behavior,” Fashion and Textiles 6, no. 10 (2019): 1–19.

10. 10. There is some debate about the origins of tourism, as well as about what distinguishes it from other types of travel. For a very thoughtful review essay, see Sasha D. Pack, “Review Essay: Tourism and the History of Travel,” Journal of Tourism History 14, no. 1 (June 2022): 103–117.

11. 11. Michel Peillon, “Tourism—The Quest for Otherness,” Crane Bag 8, no. 2 (1984): 165–168.

12. 12. Eric G. E. Zuelow, A History of Modern Tourism (London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 14–29.

13. 13. For an entertaining account, see Christian Wolmar, Blood, Iron, and Gold: How Railways Transformed the World (New York: PublicAffairs, 2010).

14. 14. For popular overviews, see Piers Brendon, Thomas Cook: 150 Years of Popular Tourism (London: Secker and Warburg, 1991); Dave Richardson, Let’s Go: A History of Package Holidays and Escorted Tours (Stroud, UK: Amberley Publishing, 2016).

15. 15. See Rudy Koshar, “ ‘What Ought to Be Seen’: Tourists’ Guidebooks and National Identities in Modern Germany and Europe,” Journal of Contemporary History 33, no. 2 (July 1998): 323–340; Dominik Ziarkowski, “Cultural Heritage and Tourism in the Nineteenth Century: A Study of Polish Guidebooks,” Journal of Tourism History 15, no. 2 (June 2023): 121–148.

16. 16. Gary Cross, A Quest for Time: The Reduction of Work in Britain and France, 1840–1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).

17. 17. James Buzard, The Beaten Track: European Tourism, Literature, and the Ways of Culture, 1800–1918 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).

18. 18. Hans Magnus Enzensberger, “A Theory of Tourism,” New German Critique 68, Special Issue on Literature (Spring/Summer 1996): 117–135. First published as Hans Magnus Enzensberger, “Vergebliche Brandung der Feme: Eine Theorie des Tourismus,” Merkur 126 (August 1958): 701–720.

19. 19. See Eric G. E. Zuelow, “Negotiating National Identity through Tourism in Colonial South Asia and Beyond,” in The Cambridge History of Nationhood and Nationalism, edited by Cathie Carmichael, Matthew D’Auria, and Aviel Roshwald, 640–660 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2023); Manu Goswami, “ ‘Englishness’ on the Imperial Circuit: Mutiny Tours in Colonial South Asia,” Journal of Historical Sociology 9, no. 1 (March 1996): 54–84.

20. 20. Zuelow, Modern Tourism, 134–148.

21. 21. Ibid., 149–179.

22. 22. Christopher Endy, Cold War Holidays: American Tourism in France (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 81–99; Eric G. E. Zuelow, Making Ireland Irish: Tourism and National Identity since the Irish Civil War (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2008), 58–65.

Introduction

Epigraph: I like to be a tourist / It’s something stimulating / It’s an exhilarating / Way to learn / […] Relax on the beach / Flirt a little bit / And leave the sun / To tickle your skin.

1. 1. From the movie El Turismo es un Gran Invento, 1968, directed by Pedro Lazaga. The film is a Spanish comedy produced in 1968 and filmed in Málaga and Torremolinos on the Costa del Sol.

2. 2. Alcade remarks that back in the day, in order to see a woman’s legs, you had to marry her.

3. 3. The movie was made in 1979, and the plot centers around Nea Mărin, an Oltenian who comes to visit his nephew but is mistaken for an American billionaire.

4. 4. See, for instance, Paul Preston, The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2013); José M. Faraldo and Gutmaro Gómez Bravo, eds., Interacting Francoism: Entanglement, Comparison and Transfer between Dictatorships in the 20th Century (London: Routledge, 2023), 4–5. Faraldo and Bravo argue that Francoist Spain was “a modern form of authoritarianism with a strong totalitarian period, like many other dictatorships of the time.”

5. 5. Nigel Townson, Spain Transformed: The Late Franco Dictatorship, 1959–1975 (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 2–3. In the 1940s–1950s, fifty thousand political prisoners were executed.

6. 6. Ibid., 2.

7. 7. Two of the four Politburo members were viewed as being of non-Romanian origin: Ana Pauker was a Romanian-born Jew and Vasile Luca was an ethnic Hungarian. Given the powerful antisemitic and anti-Hungarian sentiments of the Romanian population inherited from the interwar period, the party lacked popular sympathy.

8. 8. At first, the leadership was collective and included four members: Ana Pauker, Vasile Luca, Teohari Georgescu, and Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej.

9. 9. See Anii 80 și Bucureștenii (Bucharest: Paidea, 2003) and the documentary film Eu nu am furat niciodata nimic (I have never stolen anything), 2023, produced by the Museum of Communist Horrors in Romania. Indeed, certain measures were taken in the early 1980s that tried to justify the reintroduction of rationing. In 1982 Iulian Mincu, a well-known medical doctor, published a booklet titled “Noțiuni elementare de alimentație rațională” (Basic notions of rational management of food intake), which encouraged people to consume less oil, sugar, and meat, products that were otherwise only available with a rationing card. See Mincu, Noțiuni elementare de alimentație rațională (Bucharest: Editura Medicală, 1982). See also Mioara Anton, “Cultura Penuriei in Anii 80: Programul de Alimentatie Stiintifică a Populației,” Revista Istorică 26, no. 3–4 (2015): 345–356; Mihnea Beridei and Gabriel Andreescu, eds., Ultimul Deceniu Comunist. Scrisori către Europa Liberă, vol.1, 1979–1985 (Iași, Romania: Polirom, 2010).

10. 10. Erhard Lehmkuhl, “Le Tourisme des Allemands,” Tourisme a L’Etranger, May 1969, 38.

11. 11. John Urry, The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies (London: SAGE, 1990), 27.

12. 12. Dan Stone, The Oxford Handbook of Postwar Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 437.

13. 13. “Romania” in World Travel, no. 112 (April–May 1973): 19.

14. 14. Ibid.

15. 15. Peter Lyth, “Flying Visits: The Growth of British Air Package Tours, 1945–1975,” in Europe at the Seaside: The Economic History of Mass Tourism in the Mediterranean, edited by Luciano Segreto, Carles Manera, and Manfred Pohl (New York and London: Berghahn Books, 2009), 39.

16. 16. Eduard W. Bratton, “Charter Flight to Europe,” South Atlantic Bulletin 34, no. 3 (May 1969): 32. Although they were popular and much less expensive, some feared charter flights were unsafe because of the number of crashes involved.

17. 17. An example of an author who tries a more balanced approach is Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York: Penguin Books, 2006), 213–220, 350–358. Judt, unlike other scholars, discusses Eastern Europe, though still in a disproportionate way.

18. 18. “European Tourism on the Increase,” World Travel 63 (April 1964): 3–17. The article surveys European tourism with data from Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, and the USSR.

19. 19. While Romania embraced “socialist modernization,” which focused on developing heavy industry as well as public services such as housing, education, and health care, Franco’s Spain claimed to pursue its own path to modernity, though it also involved industrial growth, urbanization, and expansion of social services. On socialist modernization, see Jutta Günther, Dagmara Jajeniak-Quast, Udo Ludwig, and Hans-Jürgen Wagener, “Development and Modernization under Socialism and after: An introduction,” in Roadblocks to the Socialist Modernization Path and Transition: Evidence from East Germany and Poland, edited by Jutta Günther et al., 1–31 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2023). On Spanish modernization and how it was exported to other Spanish-speaking regions, see David Brydan, Franco’s Internationalists: Social Experts and Spain’s Search for Legitimacy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019).

20. 20. Eric Zuelow, A History of Modern Tourism (London: Red Globe Press, 2015).

21. 21. Dean MacCannell, The Tourist: A New Theory of Leisure Class (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999), 3.

22. 22. Ibid., 6.

23. 23. Ibid., 15.

24. 24. Urry, The Tourist Gaze, 12.

25. 25. Ibid., 13.

26. 26. Adrian Franklin, Tourism: An Introduction (London: SAGE, 2003), 5.

27. 27. John K. Walton, “Taking the History of Tourism Seriously,” European History Quarterly 27, no. 4 (October 1997): 563–571.

28. 28. Rudy Koshar, German Travel Cultures (New York: Berg, 2000), 5.

29. 29. Ellen Furlough and Shelley Baranowski, Being Elsewhere: Tourism, Consumer Culture and Identity in Modern Europe and North America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002).

30. 30. Sasha Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe”s Peaceful Invasion of Franco’s Spain (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 5, 191.

31. 31. Justin Crumbaugh, Destination Dictatorship: The Spectacle of Spain’s Tourism Boom and the Reinvention of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2009).

32. 32. Alejandro Gómez del Moral, Buying Into Change: Mass Consumption, Dictatorship, and Democratization in Franco’s Spain (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2021).

33. 33. See, for instance, Hannes Grandits and Karin Taylor, eds., Yugoslavia’s Sunny Side: A History of Tourism in Socialism (1950s–1980s) (Budapest: Central European University, 2010).

34. 34. Scott Moranda, The People’s Own Landscape: Nature, Tourism and Dictatorship in East Germany (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2014).

35. 35. Anne Gorsuch and Diane Koenker, Turizm: The Russian and East European Tourist under Capitalism and Socialism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), 2.

36. 36. Ibid., 6.

37. 37. John Urry, Consuming Places (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), 51.

38. 38. Kristen Ghodsee, The Red Riviera: Gender, Tourism, and Postsocialism on the Black Sea (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005). See also Aurora Morcillo, True Catholic Womanhood: Gender Ideology in Franco’s Spain (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2008). For the relationship between tourism and gender with a focus on female representation in tourist media in Spain, see Moritz Glaser, “Gendering Touristic Spain,” in Consumption and Gender in Southern Europe since the long 1960s, edited by Kostis Kornetis, Eirini Kotsovili, and Nikolaos Papadogiannis (London: Bloomsbury, 2016), 29–43.

39. 39. Some attempts to compare Eastern and Southern Europe were made in a special issue of the journal Contemporary European History. See Kim Christiaens, James Mark, and José M. Faraldo, “Entangled Transitions: Eastern and Southern Europe Convergence or Alternative Europes? 1960s–2000s,” Contemporary European History 26, no. 4 (November 2017): 577–599.

40. 40. Gorsuch and Koenker, Turizm, 5.

41. 41. Eric Zuelow, Touring beyond the Nation: A Transnational Approach to European Tourism History (London: Routledge, 2011), 4.

42. 42. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries elites in both countries connected modernization with catching up with Western Europe on the one hand and economic development on the other. For Spain, see Francisco J. Romero Salvado, Twentieth-Century Spain: Politics and Society in Spain, 1898–1998 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999). For Romania, see Bogdan Murgescu, Romania și Europa: Acumularea Decalajelor Economice (1500–2010) (Iași, Romania: Polirom, 2010).

43. 43. Some attempts have been made to describe the relationship between these economic systems in an international context. See Fred Block, “Capitalist versus Socialism in World-Systems Theory,” in Review 13, no. 2 (Spring 1990): 265–271. The article argues against Immanuel Wallerstein’s assumption that the socialist system was built within a capitalist world economy, so it could never totally be detached from this order. See Wallerstein, “The Rise and Future Demise of the World Capitalist System: Concepts and Comparative Analysis,” in Comparative Studies in Society and History 16, no. 4, (September 1974): 387–415. Block denies that the concept of socialism exists, as he argues that even in a planned economy, such as under socialism, individual choices prevail.

44. 44. See Ionel Gheorghe and Crișan Careba, Tehnica Operatiunilor de Turism International (Bucharest: Sport/Tourism Publishing House, 1984); Oscar Snak, Economia Turismului (Bucharest: Sport/Tourism Publishing House, 1976); Oscar Snak, Organizarea și retibuirea muncii in comerț (Bucharest: Scientific Publishing House, 1964); Alexandru Gheorghiu and Constantin Gereanu, Analiza eficienței economice a activitatilor intreprinderilor de turism și alimentație publică, curs adresat studenților anilor IV și V seral și fără frecvență (Bucharest: Academia de Studii Economice, Catedra de Analiza-Control-Drept, 1989); Iulian Berbecaru, Conducerea moderna in turism (Bucharest: Sport/Tourism Publishing House, 1975); Probleme de marketing, publicitate, comerț interior, alimentație publică, turism (Bucharest: Comitetul National Pentru Stiinta și Tehnologie, Institutul National de Informare și Documentare, 1989); Nicolescu, Radu, Serviciile in Turism, Alimentația Publică (Bucharest: Editura Sport Turism, 1988).

45. 45. For literature that has begun to compare cultural phenomena in Francoist Spain and the German Democratic Republic (GDR, see Fernando Ramos Arenas, “Film Clubs and Film Cultural Policies in Spain and the GDR around 1960,” Communication & Society 30, no. 1 (2017): 1–15.

46. 46. See Vladimir Tismaneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003); Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism, and What Comes Next? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Gail Kligman, The Politics of Duplicity: Controlling Reproduction in Socialist Romania (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996); Pavel Câmpeanu, Coada Pentru Hrană: Un Mod de Viața, (Bucharest: Litera, 1994); Katherine Verdery, National Ideology under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceaușescu’s Romania (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991); David Kideckel, The Solitude of Collectivism: Romanian Villagers to the Revolution and Beyond (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993).

47. 47. Verdery, What Was Socialism.

48. 48. Most literature on soft diplomacy in the Cold War has argued that the West used soft power as a strategy to delegitimize socialism in Eastern Europe. See, for instance, Carla Konta, US Public Diplomacy in Socialist Yugoslavia, 1950–70: Soft Culture, Cold Partners (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2020); Radina Vucetic, Coca-Cola Socialism: Americanization of Yugoslav Culture in the Sixties (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2018); Ingebord Stensrud, “ ‘Soft Power’ Deployed: Ford Foundation’s Fellowship Programs in Communist Eastern Europe in the 1950s and 1960s,” Monde(s) 6, no. 2 (2014): 111–128.

49. 49. Literature since the turn of the century has emphasized various reasons for the permeability of the Iron Curtain. See Yulia Komska, “Theater at the Iron Curtain,” German Studies Review 37, no. 1 (Winter 2014): 87–108; Yulia Komska, “Sight Radio: Radio Free Europe on Screen, 1951–1965,” in Voices of Freedom—Western Interference? 60 Years of Radio Free Europe in Munich and Prague, edited by Anna Bischof, Zuzanna Jurgens (Gottingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015), 1–22; Gyorgy Peteri, ed., Nylon Curtain: Transnational and Trans-Systemic Tendencies in the Cultural Life of State-Socialist Russia and East-Central Europe (Trodheim, Norway: Program on East European Cultures and Societies, 2006); Simo Mikkonen and Pia Koivunen, Beyond the Divide: Entangled Histories of Cold War Europe (London and New York: Berghahn Books, 2015).

50. 50. Alf Ludtke, The History of Everyday Life: Reconstructing Historical Experiences and Ways of Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 26.

51. 51. International tourism and consumption functioned similarly in other socialist societies such as Yugoslavia, Hungary, and the GDR. See Grandits and Taylor, Yugoslavia’s Sunny Side; Mark Pittaway, Eastern Europe 1939–2000 (Brief Histories Series) (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2004); Katherine Pence and Paul Betts, Socialist Modern: East German Everyday Culture and Politics (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008).

52. 52. By “alternative liberalization” I mean a process that ran parallel to the one intended by the two authoritarian states, as interactions between foreign tourists and Romanians or Spaniards were an unintended consequence of opening the borders of the two countries.

53. 53. On the concept of normalization, see Paulina Bren, The Greengrocer and His TV (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010). On the concept of everyday life and personal space under socialism, see Cathleen M. Giustino, Catherine Plum, and Alexander Vari, Socialist Escapes: Breaking Away from Ideology and Everyday Routine in Eastern Europe, 1945–1989 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2013); David Crowley and Susan Reid, Socialist Spaces: Sites of Everyday Life in the Eastern Bloc (Oxford and New York: Berg, 2002); Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Borders of Socialism: Private Spheres of Soviet Russia (Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); Daniela Koleva, Negotiating Normality: Everyday Life in Socialist Institutions (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2012).

54. 54. See Yulia Komska, The Cold War’s Quiet Border (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015); Oscar Sanchez Sibony, Red Globalization: The Political Economy of the Soviet Cold War from Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Simo Mikkonen and Pia Koivunen, Music, Art, and Diplomacy: East–West Cultural Interactions and the Cold War (London and ,New York: Routledge, 2016); Viviana Iacob, “The University of the Theater of Nations: Explorations into Cold War Exchanges,” Journal of Global Theater History 4, no. 2 (2020): 68–80; Jari Eloranta and Ojala Jari, East–West Trade and the Cold War (Finland: University of Jyväskylä, 2005).

55. 55. Christian Gabras and Alexander Nützenadel, Industrial Policy in Europe after 1945: Wealth, Power, and Economic Development in the Cold War (Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke, Power and Plenty: Trade, War and the World Economy in the Second Millennium (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007). At the same time there have been attempts to write an integrated history of postwar Europe. See Mary Fulbrock, Europe since 1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), which is divided thematically and not geographically; Jan Kershaw, Roller-Coaster, Europe: 1950–2017 (New York and London: Penguin Books, 2018).

56. 56. The Central Committee was one of the leadership structures of the Romanian Communist Party together with the Secretary Office (composed of six individuals) and the Political Bureau. The Chancellery Unit comprises discussions about the overall development of tourism within the Secretary Office, which was in fact the decision-making body within both the party and socialist state. The Economic Section comprises reports about the economic situation, plans for development, etc., to be approved by the Central Committee. The Propaganda Section includes materials about tourism advertising, strategic plans, etc., also to be approved by the Central Committee. The Administrative Section contains various internal documents about the Communist Party and, in relation to tourism, a variety of documents about the resorts or hotels run by the party. The External Affairs Section includes reports on the visits of and meetings with foreign officials.

57. 57. This archive abounds in informative notes about informal interactions between Western tourists and Romanians, personnel files of tourist workers who were under surveillance because of these interactions, and of those who reported on Western tourists. The archive includes information on the formal education of tourist workers, criteria for selecting these workers, and their everyday lives. It also provides details about smuggling activity, which was common, especially among West German tourists who were primarily visiting their relatives in Transylvania.

58. 58. Dirección General de Turismo is part of the Cultura Collection.

59. 59. Bill M. and Kazuo M., personal interview, Pittsburgh, PA, April 2015.

60. 60. On oral history and its purpose, see Alessandro Portelli, Battle of Valle Julia: Oral History and the Art of Dialogue (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997); Alessandro Portelli, The Death of Luigi Trastulli and Other Stories: Form and Meaning in Oral History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990); Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson, The Oral History Reader (London: Routledge, 1998).

61. 61. On remembering in post-communist and post-authoritarian societies, see Richard S. Esbenshade, “Remembering to Forget: Memory History, National Identity in Post-War East-Central Europe,” Representations, no. 49, special issue (Winter 1995); Alon Confino, “Collective Memory and Cultural History: The Problem of Method,” American Historical Review 102, no. 5, (December 1997); Svetlana Boym, The Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic Books, 2001); Svetlana Boym, Common Places: Mythologies of Everyday Life in Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).

62. 62. Katherine Verdery, Secrets and Truths: Ethnography in the Archive of Romania’s Secret Police (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2014).

63. 63. Secret services of nonsocialist countries are believed to operate in the same ways, but unfortunately their archives have not been opened yet.

64. 64. An example of recent scholarship that goes beyond the East–West division is Alina-Sandra Cucu, “Going West: Socialist Flexibility in the Long 1970s,” Journal of Global History 18, no. 2 (2023): 153–171.

1. International Tourism in Socialist Romania and Francoist Spain in the 1950s

1. 1. Personal file of Henry J, 1959, Archives of the National Council for the Study of the Securitate Archives (hereafter ACNSAS), Informative Fond, file no. 329725, vol. 1, folio 4.

2. 2. Ibid., folio 38.

3. 3. Óscar Bernàcer (dir.), El Hombre Que Embotello El Sol (Nakamura Films, RTVE, 2016), 81 min.

4. 4. Ibid.

5. 5. Giles Tremlett, Ghosts of Spain: Travels through Spain and Its Silent Past (New York: Walker & Co., 2008) and El Hombre Que Embotello El Sol.

6. 6. “The Man Who Built Benidorm Bows Out Aged 85,” The Guardian, April 2, 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/apr/02/spain.

7. 7. On how West European tourist promoters advertised the concept of the “South” among Northwestern European tourists, see Patricia Hertel, “Ein anderes Stück Europa. Der Mittelmeertourismus in Expertendiskursen der Nachkriegszeit, 1950–1980,” Comparativ 25, no. 3 (2015): 75–93.

8. 8. On East–West Cold War diplomacy, see Werner D. Lippert, “Economic Diplomacy and East–West Trade during the Era of Détente: Strategy or Obstacle for the West?” in The Crisis of Détente in Europe: From Helsinki to Gorchakov, edited by Leopoldo Nuti (London: Routledge, 2008), 189–201; Robert Mark Spaulding, “Trade, Aid and Economic Welfare” in The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, edited by Richard H. Immerman and Petra Goedde (Oxford: Oxford Academic, 2013); Suvi Kansikas, Socialist Countries Face the European Community: Soviet Bloc Controversies over East–West Trade (Lausanne, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 2014); Christian Noack and Sune Pederson, eds., Tourism and Travel during the Cold War: Negotiating Tourist Experiences across the Iron Curtain (London: Routledge, 2019).

9. 9. Kathy Burrell and Kathrin Hörschelmann, eds., Mobilities in Socialist and Post-Socialist Societies: Societies on the Move (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 8.

10. 10. Archivo General de la Administración (hereafter AGA), (03)049.013, box 50073, Culture Fond, Topografica: 73/66.101-66.507.

11. 11. See Laurien Crump, The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969 (London: Routledge, 2017).

12. 12. “Request of Belgian students to visit Romania,” The Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (hereafter AMAE), 1954, Belgium Fond, 1945–1970, file no. 150, folio 3.

13. 13. Statement of policy proposed by the National Security Council, June 27, 1951, Foreign Relations of the United States, Europe: Political and Economic Developments, vol. 4, part 1, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1951v04p1/d380.

14. 14. Ibid.

15. 15. Ibid.

16. 16. James Mark, “Entangled Peripheries? Eastern and Southern Europe during and after the Cold War” (Keynote address, Cold War Mobilities and (Im)mobilities: Entangled Histories of Postwar Eastern and Southern Europe, 1945–1989, Workshop, Institute for Advanced Study, Central European University, Budapest, June 6, 2017) https://ias.ceu.edu/events/2017-06-06/cold-war-mobilities-and-immobilities-entangled-histories-postwar-eastern-and.

17. 17. Pia Koivunen, “Overcoming Cold War Boundaries at the World Youth Festivals,” in Reassessing Cold War Europe, edited by Sari Autio-Sarasmo and Katalin Miklóssy (London: Routledge, 2011).

18. 18. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 7349, vol. 4, folio 2.

19. 19. World Youth Festival in Bucharest, August 1953, AC/52-D/11, Committee on Information and Cultural Relations (1953–1974), NATO Archives Online, https://archives.nato.int/world-youth-festival-in-bucharest-august-1954.

20. 20. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 7349, vol. 4, folio 3.

21. 21. Ibid., folio 4.

22. 22. Ibid., folio 25.

23. 23. Ibid., folio 26.

24. 24. Ibid., folio 4.

25. 25. Victoria de Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006).

26. 26. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 7349, vol. 4, folio 34.

27. 27. I use both socialism and communism in this book, as political leadership in Romania called the country socialist (Romanian Socialist Republic), while the ruling party was the Romanian Communist Party. In the Romanian case, as well as more generally in socialist Eastern Europe, it is difficult to distinguish between the two terms.

28. 28. World Youth Festival in Bucharest, NATO Archives Online.

29. 29. Gabriel Arias Salgado, Textos de doctrina y política de la información, June 1955 (Madrid: Ministerio de Información y Turismo), 20.

30. 30. Report on Castellana Hilton Hotel, Special Meeting of Board of Directors held January 22, 1953, and February 20, 1953, University of Houston Libraries, Hospitality Industry Archives, Hilton Hotels International Collection, box 1.

31. 31. A decree from July 21, 1950, established the so-called Mercado Libre de Divisas (a free market for foreign currencies). The obligation for Spanish citizens to give away to the central bank all foreign currencies was abolished. Yet only one-third of a specific amount could be exchanged “freely.” For the rest of the sum, IEME took a commission of 0.27 pesetas for each dollar. See Angel Niñas, Julio Viñuela, Fernardo Eguidazu, Carlos Fernandez Pulgar, and Senen Florensa, Politica comercial exterior en España, 1931–1975 (Madrid: Servicio de Estudios Economicos, Banca Exterior de España, 1979), 616.

32. 32. Report on Castellana Hilton Hotel, Hospitality Industry Archives.

33. 33. Ibid.

34. 34. Ibid.

35. 35. Arias Salgado, Textos de doctrina, 21.

36. 36. The location of the meeting is unclear. Although in the Romanian document London is mentioned, the actual meeting took place in New York in 1954.

37. 37. Central National History Archives of Romania (hereafter ANIC), Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (hereafter CC of PCR) Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 148, folio 2, 1954.

38. 38. “Romania Will Open Gates to Tourists,” New York Times, September 28, 1955, 56.

39. 39. Ibid.

40. 40. Ibid.

41. 41. University of Miami Libraries, Special Collection, Pan American Airways Papers, bilateral files with Romania, file no. 341, box 764, folder 15.

42. 42. Ibid.

43. 43. One of the consequences of this early détente was the Lacy-Zarubin Agreement of 1958. See Andrei Kozovoi, “A Foot in the Door: The Lacy-Zarubin Agreement and Soviet-American Film Diplomacy during the Khrushchev Era, 1953–1963,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 36, no. 1 (2016): 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/01439685.2015.1134107.

44. 44. AMAE, Belgium Fond, 1945–1970, file no. 195, folio 4. This connection was in agreement with similar deals the USSR signed with various capitalist countries. See Steven E. Harris, “Dawn of the Soviet Jet Age: Aeroflot Passengers and Aviation Culture under Nikita Khrushchev,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 21, no. 3 (Summer 2020): 591–626; Karl Lorentz Kleve, “Making Iron Curtain Overflights Legal: Soviet-Scandinavian Aviation Negotiations in the Early Cold War,” in Tourism and Travel during the Cold War, edited by Sune Bechamann Pedersen and Christian Noack, 171–176 (London: Routledge, 2019).

45. 45. AMAE, Belgium Fond, 1945–1970, file no. 195, folio 5.

46. 46. ANIC, Council of Ministers Collection, file no. 29/1961, folio 46.

47. 47. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 1/1956, folio 5.

48. 48. Ibid., folio 11.

49. 49. Ibid., folio 12.

50. 50. Ibid.

51. 51. Carol I was the first king of Romania from the Hohenzollern family. He ruled as prince from 1866 to 1881 and as king from 1881 to 1914. Romania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1877 and added a change to its constitution in 1881 that proclaimed it a kingdom and Carol I a king.

52. 52. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file 1/1956, folio 13.

53. 53. ANIC, Institute for Cultural Relations Abroad Fond, file no. 224/1955–1958, Republica Federala Germania, folio 14.

54. 54. Note on the Agenda of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Conference in Geneva, 1956, ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 179/1956, folio 8.

55. 55. Protocol no. 53 of the Political Bureau of the CC of the PCR, October 23, 1956, ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 121/1956, folio 15.

56. 56. Minutiae of the meeting between Gheorghe Gheorghiu Dej, Chivu Stoica, Ion Gheorghe Maurer, Ștefan Voitec with Konni Zilliacus, MP in the British Parliament, September 11, 1959, ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 33/1959, folio 1.

57. 57. Ibid., folio 2.

58. 58. Ibid., folio 3.

59. 59. Ibid.

60. 60. AMAE, The Netherlands Fond, 1960, file no. 222, folio 1.

61. 61. Ibid., folio 3.

62. 62. Ibid., folio 7.

63. 63. ANIC, Council of Ministers Collection, file no. 29/1961, folio 5. The first discussion about international tourism, but only between socialist countries, occurred in 1953 at a COMECON meeting. A more focused discussion took place in 1955. Martin A. Garay, Le tourisme dans les démocraties populaires européennes (Paris: La documentation française, 1969), 35. More about it, see also: Sune Bechmann Pedersen, “Eastbound Tourism in the Cold War: The History of the Swedish Communist Travel Agency Folkturist” Journal of Tourism History, vol. 10, issue 2, 2018: 130–145.

64. 64. ANIC, Council of Ministers Collection, file no. 29/196, folio 6.

65. 65. Ibid., folio 10.

66. 66. Ibid., folio 39.

67. 67. Report about foreign tourists in Tulcea County in 1960, ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, file no. 19661, vol. 1, folio 4.

68. 68. Jacques Laurent Bons, L’Espagne Au Jour Le Jour (Paris: Paul Morihien, 1951), 9.

69. 69. Ibid., 12.

70. 70. Dirección General de Turismo, Movimiento Turistico en España (Madrid: Ministerio de Información y Turismo, 1956), 8.

71. 71. Ibid., 10.

72. 72. The service was offered by Iberia, the Spanish State Airline Company. A special postcard was issued to mark this direct flight. The postcard symbolically depicted a ship as a reminder of Christopher Columbus’s crossing of Atlantic Ocean to the Americas.

73. 73. Documenta no. 40, November 20, 1951, 341.

74. 74. ATESA, Madrid, Excursiones (Madrid, 1949); ATESA, Castellos de España (Madrid, 1949).

75. 75. During the Spanish Civil War, the Nationalists led by Francisco Franco would organize tours to showcase their military success. See Sandie Holguin, “National Spain Invites You: Battlefield Tourism during the Spanish Civil War,” The American Historical Review 110, no. 5 (December 2005): 1399–1426; Dolores Brandis and Isabel del Río, “Turismo y Paisaje durante la Guerra Civila Española, 1936–1939,” Scripta: Nova Revista Electrónica de Geografia y Ciencias Sociales 20, no. 530 (September 2016). https://.doi.org/10.1344/sn2016.20.15792.

76. 76. Rafael Esteve Secall and Rafael Fuentes Garcia, Economía, historia e instituciones del turismo en España (Madrid: Ediciones Piramide, 2000), 56.

77. 77. “Turismo en España,” Hostelería, March 1964, 32.

78. 78. Esteve Secall and Fuentes Garcia, Economía, 54.

79. 79. Ibid., 55.

80. 80. Plan Nacional de Turismo (Madrid: Ministerio de Información y Turismo, 1953), 1.

81. 81. Ibid., 2.

82. 82. Ibid.

83. 83. Javier Tussel, Dictatura Franquista y Democracia, 1939–2004 (Barcelona: Critica, 2005).

84. 84. Esteve Secall and Fuentes Garcia, Economía, 118. “Decreto 2320/1959 de 24 de diciembre, complementario del Decreto—Ley de 27 de Julio de 1959 sobre inversion de capital extranjero en empresas españolas,” in B.O. del Ministerio del Aire, 1959, 4.

85. 85. Ángel Alcaide, “El turismo español en los años sesenta: Una consideración económica,” Informacion Comercial Española 421 (1968), 45.

86. 86. Decision of Council of Ministers (hereafter HCM), September 1955, no. 1781/5, 40.

87. 87. Derek R. Hall, Tourism and Economic Development in Eastern Europe & the Soviet Union (London: Belhaven Press, 1991), 49.

88. 88. HCM, September 1955, no. 1781/5, 41.

89. 89. Decision no. 86, in Colecţia de legi, decrete, hotărâri şi dispoziţii [Collection of laws, decrees, and decisions], vol. 3 (Bucharest: Scientific Publishing House, 1959), 164.

90. 90. Decision no. 162 [in regard to enhancing and developing tourist activity], in Colecţie de legi, decrete, hotărâri [Collection of laws, decrees, and decisions], vol. 3 (Bucharest: Scientific Publishing House 1962), 53.

91. 91. Ibid., 55.

92. 92. ANIC, CC of PCR, Economic Section, file no. 31/1966, folio 2.

93. 93. Ibid., folio 4.

94. 94. Ibid., folio 5.

95. 95. “Decree no. 32 regarding the establishment, structure, and functioning of the National Office for Tourism of the Socialist Republic of Romania,” in Colecţie de legi, decrete, hotărâri, vol. 1 [Collection of laws, decrees, decisions, and other normative acts] (Bucharest: Scientific Publishing House, 1967), 33.

96. 96. Ibid., 33–34.

97. 97. “Hotărârea nr. 641 a Consiliului de Miniştri al Republicii Populare Române şi a Consiliului Central al Sindicatelor din Republica Populară Română cu privire la sistemul de calculare a contribuției salariaților şi pensionarilor pentru trimiterile la tratament balnear şi odihnă şi cu privire la stabilirea tarifelor pe anul 1960 în stațiunile balneoclimaterice,” in Colecţia de Hotărâri şi Dispoziţii ale Consiliului de Miniştri al Republicii Populare Române, November 18 and June 1, 1960, 11.

98. 98. Hall, Tourism and Economic Development, 49.

99. 99. This decentralized institutional framework of tourism was brought to a halt in the early 1980s. In 1984, ONT–Littoral lost one of its most important responsibilities, negotiating and reaching agreements with foreign partners, primarily private firms in Western countries. ONT–Carpathians Bucharest took on this task, while ONT–Littoral only ran the day-to-day operations and reported to the central authorities in Bucharest. Before these reorganizations, the payments for the tourist services were made to ONT–Littoral directly; as of 1984, ONT–Carpathians Bucharest was the only institution able to run such operations. This shift in responsibilities echoed the Romanian government’s intention to exercise a more strong-handed policy in its attempt to streamline the collection of available foreign currencies. International tourism and its commercial services became the responsibility of four institutions based in Bucharest: Mercur, ONT–Carpathians-Bucharest, Comturist Bucharest, and Publiturist. Mercur, subordinated to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and International Economic Cooperation, was in charge of the import of foreign goods to be sold in tourist shops; ONT–Carpathians-Bucharest was responsible for all international tourist operations for both foreign and Romanian tourists; Comturist Bucharest, subordinated to the Ministry of Tourism, coordinated the chain of tourist shops that existed in all large hotels and on the Black Sea Coast and sold their merchandise in foreign currencies, especially dollars and Deutsche Marks; finally, Publiturism, the Agency for Tourist Publicity, produced and disseminated advertising materials (flyers, movies, tourist brochures, exhibitions, etc.) that promoted Romanian tourism. See “Decree of the State Council no. 22, from 24 January 1984 regarding the improvement of international tourism activitie,” Official Bulletin no. 14, January 1984, 177.

100. 100. Ana Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo en España en el sieglo XX (Madrid: Editorial Sintesis, 2007), 150.

101. 101. Ibid., 151.

102. 102. Ibid., 152.

103. 103. Louis Bolín, España, Los años vitales (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1967), 312.

104. 104. Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo, 190.

105. 105. Esteve Secall and Fuentes Garcia, Economía, 55.

106. 106. Manuel Fraga, De Santiago a Filipinas, pasando por Europa (Planeta: Barcelona, 1988), 43.

107. 107. Ana Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo, 195.

108. 108. Esteve Secall and Fuentes Garcia, Economía, 55.

109. 109. “Decreto de 8 augusto 1958 por el que se reorganiza la Dirección General de Turismo,” in Boletín Oficial del Estado, no. 218, 1601.

110. 110. “Decreto del Ministerio de Información y Turismo de 8 de Augusto de 1958,” in Información y Turismo, August 1958, 1.

111. 111. Ibid., 3.

112. 112. Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo, 198.

113. 113. Esteve Secall and Fuentes Garcia, Economía, 98.

114. 114. Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo, 227.

115. 115. Tussel, Dictatura Franquista.

116. 116. Sasha Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe’s Peaceful Invasion of Franco’s Spain (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 107.

117. 117. Ibid., 106. However, it should be noted that one of his previous positions was chief of state of information services and censorship. See Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship, 107.

118. 118. Ibid., 107.

119. 119. Justin Crumbaugh, Destination Dictatorship: The Spectacle of Spain’s Tourist Boom and the Reinvention of Difference (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2009) 4.

2. The 1960s and the “Invention” of Mass Tourism in Two European Peripheries

1. 1. Neckermann Catalog (front cover), 1963. Neckermann was one of the leading travel agencies in Germany.

2. 2. Whereas North American tourists predominated in the 1950s–1960s, in the 1970s, West Germans outnumbered North Americans. See “Bilan des Diferentes Politique Touristique, Des Pays de la Communaute/Alegmagne: Ou en Est le Budget Touristique,” La Gazette Officialle de Tourism, no. 389 (September 20, 1975): 15–17.

3. 3. Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York: Penguin Books, 2006), 235.

4. 4. Ibid, 325.

5. 5. Ibid., 325–326.

6. 6. Ibid., 326.

7. 7. Ibid., 338.

8. 8. Ibid., 339–340.

9. 9. Ellen Furlough, “Making Mass Vacations and Consumer Culture in France from 1930s to 1970s,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 40, no. 2 (April 1998), 263.

10. 10. Klaus Edelman, “Les vacances des Allemands et des Austriciens,” Espaces-Tourisme-Loisiers-Environment, April, May, no. 4, (April–June 1971), 54.

11. 11. Ibid., 55.

12. 12. For the connection between the welfare state and tourism in Western Europe, see Derek Hall and Frances Brown, “The Welfare Society and Tourism: European Perspectives,” in Social Tourism in Europe, edited by Scott McCabe, Lynn Minnaert, and Anya Diekmann, 108–122 (De Gruyter, 2011).

13. 13. Dan Stone, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History (Oxford: Oxford Academic, 2012), 433.

14. 14. Ibid., 434. In the 2010s, working hours fell to 35–38 in some European states.

15. 15. By “tourist mindset” I am referring to a new mindset noted by French sociologist Jean Viard. In the late 1960s, not going to other places on vacation had become a “sign of social maladjustment almost as strong as the refusal to work … the norm of vacationing quickly became an obligation.” Jean Viard, Penser Les Vacances (Paris: Editions de l’Aube, 2007), 262.

16. 16. Judt, Postwar, 343.

17. 17. Because of tourism, the GDP per capita in Spain increased from $2,397 in 1950 to $8,739 in 1970. See Judt, Postwar, 325.

18. 18. Judt, Postwar, 343.

19. 19. John Urry, The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies (London: SAGE Publications, 1990).

20. 20. On Spain’s “Mediterranean” capitalism, see Sebastián Royo, “Still Two Models of Capitalism? Economic Adjustment in Spain,” Working Paper Series 122, Center for European Studies, University of Pittsburgh, 2005. https://aei.pitt.edu/9035/1/Royo_two_models.pdf.

21. 21. In both cases I use the plural rather than singular, as tourist industries represents an amalgamation of various state and nonstate actors at home and abroad, with responsibilities in building tourist infrastructure, managing hotels and restaurants, promoting various destinations, selling and organizing vacations and excursions, etc.

22. 22. This involved a complex system of new hotels and restaurants and airline connections with destinations in both Eastern and Western Europe. As of the 1970s this also involved the United States, India, and the Middle East, and an enhanced road network and direct train connections with various cities in Eastern and Central Europe (including Vienna). Various intermediaries (most of the time Romanian exiles) in Western Europe and the United States helped to establish connections between foreign travel firms and the Romanian National Tourism Office–Carpathians. For more on this, see ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 11381, vols.1–14; D 13502, vol. 4.

23. 23. Report, 1961, ANIC, Council of Ministers Collection, file no. 29/1961, folio 46.

24. 24. Ibid., folio 4.

25. 25. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 15/1964, folio 47.

26. 26. For more on the efforts of socialist states in Eastern Europe to brand themselves as tourist destinations through food, see Mary Neuburger, “Dining in Utopia: A Taste of the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast under Socialism,” Gastronomica 17, no. 4 (2017): 48–60, special issue, Culinary Revolutions: Food, History, and Identity in Russia and East-Central Europe; Mary Neuburger, “Kababche, Caviar or Hot Dogs? Consuming the Cold War at the Plovdiv Fair, 1947–72,” Journal of Contemporary History 47, no. 1 (2012): 48–68.

27. 27. Hotărârea nr. 671 în Monitorul Oficial al RPR nr. 34 din 10 iunie 1966 [Decision no. 671 in the Official Monitor, June 10, 1966]; Hotărârea nr 800 pentru eliberarea documentelor şi trecerea frontierei de stat a Republicii Socialiste România, precum şi organizarea şi funcţionarea punctelor de control pentru trecerea frontierei de stat în Buletinul Oficial al RPR (Republicii Populare Române nr. 32 din 13 aprilie 1967) [Decision no. 800 regarding the issuing of documents for the border crossing in the PRP (Romanian Popular Republic) and the functioning of the border control points published in the Official Bulletin, April 13, 1967)]; and Hotărârea nr. 801 privind acordarea unor facilităţi la intrarea şi ieşirea turiştilor străini care vor vizita România în “Anul turistic internaţional 1967” în Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Populare Române, nr. 32 din 13 aprilie 1967 [Decision no. 801 regarding the granting of some facilities to foreign tourists who visit Romania for the “International Year of Tourism 1967” in the Official Monitor, no. 32 from April 13, 1967].

28. 28. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 15/1964, folio 47.

29. 29. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 113/1965, folio 4.

30. 30. Ibid., folio 3.

31. 31. Ibid., folio 4.

32. 32. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 31/1966, folio 3.

33. 33. Ibid. This meant that 80 percent of the total national income was brought in by Western tourists.

34. 34. Ibid., folio 4.

35. 35. Ibid., folio 2.

36. 36. Oskar Snak, Economia și organizarea turismului (Bucharest: Sport Tourism Publishing, 1976), 28. Oskar Snak had a prolific career in tourism in the 1960s and the 1970s, both in the ONT–Carpathians and Ministry of Tourism, and hence was one of the few individuals with both institutional power and expert knowledge in the tourism sector.

37. 37. Ibid., 28.

38. 38. Ibid., 29.

39. 39. Ibid.

40. 40. “Romania Widens Rift with Soviets: Makes New Moves to the West and Scores Moscow Radio,” New York Times, July 9, 1964, 8.

41. 41. Ibid.

42. 42. This was also part of a broader but carefully calculated path of diverging foreign policy that Romania followed during this period, which included establishing relations with West Germany, not breaking relations with Israel after the 1967 war, De Gaulle’s visit to Romania in May 1968, and Romania’s refusal to take part in the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 with the rest of the Warsaw Pact countries.⁴² ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 150/1966, folio 2.

43. 43. “Para una divisa fuerte, Turismo una industria valiosa, Hostelería,” Hostelería y Turismo 9, no. 85–86 (January/February 1963), 5.

44. 44. Evolution of the Spanish economy from the Stabilization Plan to the Present, 1963, AGA, External Affairs Fond, (08) 021.000, box 52104.

45. 45. Ibid.

46. 46. J. Naylon, “Tourism, Spain’s Most Important Industry,” Geography 52 (January 1967): 26. Tourism increased in 1948–1958 at a rate of 17.6 percent per year, as opposed to industrial production growth of only 7.5 percent per year.

47. 47. Ibid., 26.

48. 48. Ibid.

49. 49. José Luis García Delgado, “In Memoriam: Julio Alcaide, Our On-Call Statistician,” El País, October 9, 2013, http://economia.elpais.com/economia/2013/10/09/actualidad/1381344660_037484.html.

50. 50. Julio Alcaide Inchausti, “El Turismo Español en los Años 1960,” Perspectivos del Turismo en España 421 (September 1968), 46.

51. 51. This happened while the number of foreign visitors to France doubled and to Italy quadrupled.

52. 52. Julio Alcaide Inchausti, “El Turismo Español en los Años 1960,” 48.

53. 53. Jesus M. Zaratiegui, “Indicative Planning in Spain (1964–1975),” International Journal of Business, Humanities, and Technology 5, no. 2 (April 2015), 33. Three plans were implemented between 1964 and 1975, in the periods 1964–1967, 1968–1971, and 1972–1975. The money allocated for each period was $355 billion, $553 billion, and $871 billion, respectively.

54. 54. See Ángel Alcaide, “El Turismo Español en los Años Sesenta: Una consideración económica,” Informacion Comercial Española 421 (September 1968), 44; Zaratiegui, “Indicative Planning in Spain,” 28.

55. 55. Zaratiegui, “Indicative Planning in Spain,” 28.

56. 56. Ángel Alcaide, “El Turismo Español en los Años Sesenta,” 45.

57. 57. Anteproyecto de Ley de Zonas Turisticas de Interes Nacional. Estudio Previo (Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Turisticos, Ministerio de Informacion y Turismo, 1963), 1–2.

58. 58. Ibid., 3.

59. 59. Plan de Promocion Turistica de la Costa del Sol, Segunda Fase (Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Turisticas, 1963), 3.

60. 60. Ángel Alcaide, “El Turismo Español en los Años Sesenta,” 46.

61. 61. Ibid.

62. 62. La promocion del turismo (Madrid: Ministerio de Informacion y Turismo, 1964), 4.

63. 63. Ibid., 31.

64. 64. Jorge Vila Fradero, “Nuevas ideas sobre la promocion turistica,” Informacion Comercial Española 421, (September 1968), 73.

65. 65. AGA, Culture Fond, General Directorate of Tourism, box 42/48686, topografica. 72/40.405–40.504.

66. 66. Carmelo Vega, “La mirada explicita: Fundamentos esteticos de la fotografia de Xavier Miserachs,” Archivo Espanol de Arte 92, no. 368 (October–December 2019): 411–426.

67. 67. Vilgot Sjöman (dir.), I Am Curious (Yellow). Released October 9, 1967, distributed by Grove Press, 122 minutes.

68. 68. I Am Curious (Yellow): A Film (1967).

69. 69. Noticiario turistico, no. 1, January 1964.

70. 70. Spain promoted itself during the 1950s–1960s with the slogan “Spain is Different.”

71. 71. The international tourism situation and its influence on the tourist exchanges of the R.S. Romania, 1970, ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 1/1970, folio 40.

72. 72. Most literature on Cold War tourism emphasizes the geographical division of West versus East. See Anne Gorsuch, All This Is Your World: Soviet Tourism at Home and Abroad after Stalin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Anne Gorsuch and Diane Koenker, The Socialist Sixties: Crossing Borders in the Second World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013).

73. 73. See Kristen P. Thomas, “Romania’s Resistance to the USSR,” in Beyond Great Powers and Hegemons: Why Secondary States Support, Follow, or Challenge, edited by Kristen P. Williams, Steven E. Lobell, and Neil G. Jesse, 33–48 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012); Ronald H. Linden, “Socialist Patrimonialism and the Global Economy: The Case of Romania,” International Organization 40, no. 2 (Spring 1986): 347–380.

74. 74. Bogdan Murgescu, Romania si Europa. Acumularea Decalajelor Economice, 1500–2010 (Iași, Romania: Polirom, 2010), 384.

75. 75. Julian Hale, Ceaușescu’s Romania: A Political Documentary (London: Harrap, 1971), 159.

76. 76. Peter Latham, Romania: A Complete Guide (London: The Garnstone Press, 1967), 46.

77. 77. It was established in 1964, and in 1966 it had its first transatlantic flight. See TAROM, “History,” http://www.tarom.ro/despre-noi/compania-tarom/istoric/, accessed March 16, 2022.

78. 78. Latham, Romania, 46.

79. 79. Ibid., 49.

80. 80. The boat trip was an initiative of the ONT–Carpathians, and it was a regular trip from Vienna to Hârșova in Constanța County.

81. 81. Latham, Romania, 47.

82. 82. Ibid.

83. 83. Anuarul Statistic [Statistical yearbook] (Bucharest: Directorate of Statistics,1990), 526.

84. 84. “Legea planului de stat 1960,” 1960, in Colecția de Legi și Decrete, 232–240.

85. 85. Anuarul Statistic, 526.

86. 86. Ibid., 548.

87. 87. Ibid., 526–527.

88. 88. Latham, Romania, 53; Anuarul Statistic, 550.

89. 89. The price was calculated using an exchange rate of 18 lei for 1 dollar. This was the standard exchange rate used for external transactions with capitalist countries, which was set up through a decree of the Council of Ministers.

90. 90. Dem Popescu, Cu trenul in vacanță, circuite feroviare românesti [With the train on vacation], 2^nd ed. (Bucharest, 1967).

91. 91. Socialist countries did not have convertible currencies like most capitalist countries, nor did Spain under Franco.

92. 92. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 8850, vol. 23, folio 224. For instance, one possible upgrade was to serve alcohol for the whole trip, not just from 10:00 a.m.

93. 93. Ibid., folio 224.

94. 94. Services and Trips Offered by the Carpați, National Tourism Office Bucharest (Bucharest: ONT–Carpathians, 1976), 3–7.

95. 95. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 178/1980, folio 5.

96. 96. AMAE, Belgium Fond, file no. 195/1957, folio 14.

97. 97. Latham, Romania, 32, 34.

98. 98. Ronald D. Bachman, ed., “West Germany,” in Romania: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Government Publications Office, 1989), http://countrystudies.us/romania/77.htm. Romania was the second country in the Eastern Bloc (after the USSR) to establish diplomatic relations with West Germany. This decision was taken in the aftermath of the Warsaw Pact’s Bucharest Declaration in 1966.

99. 99. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file nos. 26/1970 and 61/1978; Murgescu, Romania și Europa, 381. On the upgrade of aircraft fleets in Eastern Europe, including Romania’s, see Derek R. Hall, “Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union: Overcoming Tourist Constraints,” in Tourism and Economic Development in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, edited by Derek R. Hall (London: Belhaven Press, 1991), 71–72.

100. 100. AMAE, Belgium Fond, file no. 361/1963, folio 67.

101. 101. Ibid., folio 67.

102. 102. Economic Council of May 23, 1965, regarding the proposals for the development of tourism in Poland and in light industry (meeting minutes), ANIC, Council of Ministers Collection, file no. 227/1965, folio 72.

103. 103. Ibid., folio 73.

104. 104. “Did You Know that Henri Coandă International Airport Was … A Nazi Air Base?” Historical Tourism Association, July 26, 2013. https://turismistoric.ro/stiati-ca-aeroportul-international-henri-coanda-a-fost-baza-aeriana-nazista/.

105. 105. University of Miami Libraries, Pan Am Collection, Special Collection 341, series I, box 206, folder 12.

106. 106. Interview with Gheorghe Constantin in “Cuget Liber,” January 18, 2015.

107. 107. Ibid.

108. 108. Ibid.

109. 109. Murgescu, Romania și Europa, 386. For instance, 80 percent of the tourist charters were carried by TAROM, and the rest by foreign companies. See ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 244/1981, folio 7.

110. 110. Ibid., folio 8.

111. 111. Ibid., folio 9.

112. 112. Anteproyecto, Plan Nacional de Turismo (Madrid: Ministerio de Información y Turismo, 1952), 1.

113. 113. Ibid., 3.

114. 114. Ibid., 4.

115. 115. Ibid.

116. 116. Anteproyecto, Plan Nacional de Turismo, 18.

117. 117. Ibid., 20.

118. 118. Ibid., 23.

119. 119. On the topic of borderlines at the French–Spanish border, see Sasha Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe’s Peaceful Invasion of Franco’s Spain (Basingtoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 93. See also Anteproyecto, Plan Nacional de Turismo, 4.

120. 120. In 1946 a complaint form in English and French was made available on trains. Anteproyecto, Plan Nacional De Turismo, 22.

121. 121. Spain’s surface area is 195,124 square miles.

122. 122. Anuario Estadistica España [Statistical yearbook, Spain], 1951, 1960, 1969, Instituto Nacional de Estadística, http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/libros.do?tntp=25687.

123. 123. Ibid.

124. 124. Ibid.; Anuarul Statistic, 468.

125. 125. Judt, Postwar; Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes, A History of the World, 1914–1991(New York: Vintage, 1996).

126. 126. AGA, Culture Fond, General Directorate of Tourism, (03) 049.022, box 48976.

127. 127. Ibid.

128. 128. Rafael Esteve Secall and Rafael Fuentes Garcia, Economía, historia e instituciones del turismo en España (Madrid: Ediciones Piramide, 2000), 257.

129. 129. For British tourists, it was also important that they did not need visas to travel to Spain as of 1961. See Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship, 95–96.

130. 130. Ibid., 97.

131. 131. Ibid.

132. 132. Ibid.

133. 133. Ibid., 95.

134. 134. Información y Turismo, February 1958, 1.

135. 135. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship, 95–96.

136. 136. Dennis R. Judd, ed., The Infrastructure of Play: Building the Tourist City (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2003), xii.

137. 137. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file. no. 31/1966, folio 28.

138. 138. Ibid.

139. 139. When asked what places in Romania they considered most known to international tourists, my interviewees identified Mamaia and the Hotel Intercontinental.

140. 140. Laurențiu Stroe, Istoricul Stațiunii Mamaia, academia.edu, accessed February, 7, 2015.

141. 141. Gheorghe Androniuc, Adrian Rădulescu, and Lascu Stoica, Litoralul Mării Negre (Bucharest: Editura Sport Turism, 1989), 11.

142. 142. Ibid., 14.

143. 143. Iulian Bercaru and Mihal Botez, Teoria și practica amenajării turistice (Bucharest: Editura Sport Turism, 1977).

144. 144. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 109/1967, folio 12. The equivalent of the first category were four-star hotels, the second category was three stars, and the third category was one or two stars.

145. 145. Latham, Romania, 103.

146. 146. Ibid., 102.

147. 147. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 8/1970, folio 25.

148. 148. Ibid., folio 26.

149. 149. Ibid., folio 27.

150. 150. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 88/1973, folio 42.

151. 151. The health resorts mostly comprised hotels managed by the trade unions, while the hotels run by the National Office for Tourism/Ministry of Tourism were less common.

152. 152. Ion Paraschiv and Trandafir Iliescu, De la Hanul Șerban Vodă la Hotel Intercontinental: pagini din istoria comerțului hotelier și de alimentație publică din București (Bucharest: Editura Sport Turism, 1979); ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 31/1966, folio 35.

153. 153. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 31/1966, folio 35.

154. 154. About the structure of different hotels, see Vladimir Ionescu, “Hotel Turistic la Oradea,” Arhitectura, no. 5 (1969): 78–82; Viorica Zărnescu, “Senatoriu cu 300 de paturi la Băile Felix,” Arhitectura, no. 5 (1968): 82–84. The hotel in Oradea was spread over seven floors, each with 25 rooms; in total: 5 two-room apartments, 18 single rooms, and 147 double rooms; reception area, ONT travel office for external services, and restaurant; a ballroom of 200 seats, a summer garden with 150 seats, and a bar with 30 seats; a hairdresser and artisanal objects shop; and a pool. The building was modern and projected to fit the existing urban environment and natural landscape along the Crișul Repede (River). A terrace on the top floor with a bar completed the project and suggested the commercial-tourist purpose of the building. By contrast, the sanatorium in Băile Felix, although of impressive size (five floors and 300 beds), was more modest in terms of commercial amenities but well equipped for its purpose: it had one restaurant of 150 seats, a salon, and a bar with mineral waters, as well as double rooms, each with bathroom, balcony, and in-wall closets as well as a medical check-in point on each floor.

155. 155. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 31/1966, folio 36.

156. 156. Ibid., folio 25.

157. 157. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 20/1967, folio. 134; ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13819, vol. 1, folio 23.

158. 158. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13819, vol. 1, folio 45.

159. 159. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 9/1972, folio 18.

160. 160. University of Miami Libraries, Pan American Special Collection, Airlines Papers, Collection 341, series 1, box 383, folder 4.

161. 161. The team of architects included Dinu Hariton, Gheorghe Nădrag, Ion Moscu, and Romeo Belea from the Bucharest Project Institute. See Elena Dragomir, “Hotel Intercontinental in Bucharest: Competitive Advantage for the Socialist Tourist Industry in Romania,” in Competition in Socialist Society, edited by Katalin Miklossy and Melanie Ilic (London: Routledge, 2014).

162. 162. To a certain extent, they might have also considered this move politically dangerous because of the rising number of Romanians deciding to remain abroad, which was a constant concern of the communist government.

163. 163. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13819, vol. 1, folio 45.

164. 164. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section/Economic Section, file no. 68/1970, folio 13.During this meeting N. Ceausescu admits that he has never visited Intercontinental because he did not like the architectural style.

165. 165. See Arhitectura, no. 5 (1969): 26–37.

166. 166. Cornelia Pop et al., Romania as a Tourist Destination and the Romanian Hotel Industry (Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007), 70.

167. 167. Ibid., 71

168. 168. Ibid., 72.

169. 169. David Turnock, The Economy of East Central Europe, 1815–1989: Stages of Transformation in a Peripheral Region (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 386.

170. 170. Anuarul Statistic, 600–601.

171. 171. Pop et al., Romania as a Tourist Destination, 73.

172. 172. Ibid., 73. It is worth noting that the amount of time between the decision to build a large hotel and to secure financing for it must be factored in when considering the continued expansion of hotels. Unfortunately, the available sources do not shed light on this important variable.

173. 173. Ion Cosma, Dezvoltarea turismului in România: Sarcini actuale și in următorii 5–10 ani, vol. 4 (Bucharest: Terra, 1981), 9–16. Similarly, see Clement Gabrilescu quoted in Gheorghe Barbu, Turismul in Economia Națională. Studii (Bucharest: Editura Sport Turism, 1981), 137; ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 31/1966, folio 28 (the dollar was calculated at 23.13 lei.)

174. 174. ANIC, Presidency of Council of Ministers Collection, Coordination Section, file no. 112/1984, folio 59.

175. 175. On the economic crisis in Romania in the 1980s, see Constantin Ionete, Criza de sistem a economiei de comandă și etapa sa explozivă (Bucharest: Expert, 1993).

176. 176. Murgescu, Romania și Europa, 79; Ilie Rotariu, Globalizare și Turism, Cazul României (Sibiu, Romania: Continent, 2004).

177. 177. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Propaganda Section, file no. 60/1983.The file discusses the low performance of international tourism in 1982 and identifies inadequate services, failure to meet contractual obligations, the break with some traditional partners, and the low quality of advertising materials and strategies as the main reasons for the decline of international tourism. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Sibiu, D 8663, vol. 22, folios 5–7 includes material on the surveillance of tourists who came to visit their relatives in Mediaș in 1983; Plan for 1981 summer season, Foreign Tourists and Foreign Specialists Issue, ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 19661, folios 87–93.

178. 178. Anteproyecto, Plan Nacional de Turismo, 3.

179. 179. Ana Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo en España en el sieglo XX (Madrid: Editorial Sintesis, 2007), 238, 239.

180. 180. AGA, Culture Fond, General Directorate of Tourism, (03) 049.001, box 32569.

181. 181. Rogelio Duocastella, ed., Sociologia y Pastoral del Turismo en La Costa Brava y Maresme (Madrid: Confederacion Española de Cajas de Ajorros, 1969), 90.

182. 182. Ibid., 92.

183. 183. Ibid., 108.

184. 184. Ibid., 96.

185. 185. Costa Brava, tourist leaflet published by the Subsecretaria de Turismo (Barcelona: Ministerio de Informacion y Turismo, 1963). Tourists were advised to stay in modern hotels but also in “some really wonderful private houses.”

186. 186. Asi fue la España de Franco, documentary movie, accessed March 4, 2015, http://www.veoh.com/watch/v7073696K3z2WXn6?h1=Asi+Fue+La+Espa%C3%B1a+De+Franco+08+%28Turismo%2CInformacion+Y+Censura%29+%28DVDrip+XVID+MP3%29. Also, the Francoist regime had a different approach to the political opponents of the regime who emigrated after the civil war, and who, for example, could not get a visa to travel to Spain. See Información y Turismo, 1957, 3.The complex issue of the impact of foreign tourists on local social relations will be discussed in chapter 5.

187. 187. Comisión Interministerial de Turismo, Anteproyecto de Ley Sobre el Plan de Albergues y Paradores de Turismo (Madrid: 1955), 9. The city is reputed to house the remains of St. James, one of Jesus’s apostles. The cathedral, built on the site of the reputed grave, is reported to have been the site of many miracles. To this day, Catholic pilgrims visit the site.

188. 188. Patricia Cupeiro López, “Patrimonio y Turismo, La intervenció arquitectónica en el patrimonio cultural a través del programa de paradores de turismo el las diversas rutas jacobeas. El Camino Francés,” in Becas de Investigaciónes, Caminos Jacobeos (2nd ed.), 2008.

189. 189. Ibid., 30.

190. 190. Ibid., 31.

191. 191. Ibid., 32.

192. 192. Anteproyecto de Ley Sobre el Plan de Albergues, 10.

193. 193. Ibid., 11–12.

194. 194. Información y Turismo, June 1956. 3.

195. 195. Información y Turismo, July 1957, 6.

196. 196. Ibid., 7.

197. 197. Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo, 243.

198. 198. Codigo Turistico; Esteve Secall and Fuentes Garcia, Economía, 196.

199. 199. Ibid., 197.

200. 200. Twenty-five were classified as luxury; 208 as category A; 358 as category B, first class; and 733 as category B, second class. See Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo, 206.

201. 201. Maria Velasco González, La politica turistica, Gobierno y Administración Turística en España (1952–2004) (Valencia, Spain: Editorial Tirant lo Blanch, 2004), 122.

202. 202. Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo, 253.

203. 203. Ibid., 153.

204. 204. “International Tourism in Figures, 1950–1979,” in Organizacion Mundial del Turismo, February 1980, Instituto de Estudios Turisticos-Turespaña.

205. 205. Noticiario Turistico, January, no. 1 (1964), 7.

206. 206. “Los nuevos hoteles en España,” Hostelería y Turismo 9, no. 89, (1963): 11.

207. 207. Ibid., 253.

208. 208. “The capacity of hotels and similar establishments in Europe, 1967–1977,” in World Tourist Organization Archive, Instituto de Estudios Turisticos-Turespaña (IET).

209. 209. Ibid.

210. 210. AGA, Culture Fond, General Directorate of Tourism, (03) 119.000, box 28306.

211. 211. Ibid.

3. The Remapping of Tourist Geographies in the 1970s

1. 1. Thames TV, Wish You Were Here, 1979, YouTube video, 8:01, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jzmIMOShaCQ.

2. 2. Ibid.

3. 3. On the crisis in the capitalist West, see Niall Ferguson et al., The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011). In 1970, the GDP per capita in developed Western European countries was $2,584, while in socialist Eastern Europe it was $1,564. On average, in developed Southern European countries (such as Spain, Portugal, and Greece), the GDP per capita in 1970 was $698. See ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 26/1978, folio 16.

4. 4. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 26/1978, folio 19.

5. 5. “The Tourist Market of European Socialist Countries,” 1978, ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no., 19/1978, folio 61.

6. 6. See Besnik Pula, Globalization under and after Socialism: The Evolution of Transnational Capital in Central and Eastern Europe (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018); Steven Kotkin, “The Kiss of Debt: The East Bloc Goes Borrowing,” in The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective, edited by Niall Ferguson et al., 80–97 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011).

7. 7. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, file no. 8935, vol. 21, folio 1v.

8. 8. Study on the international context of tourism and its influence over international tourism in the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970, ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 1/1970, folio 3.

9. 9. Ibid., folio 4, The figure refers to both international and domestic tourism in Europe.

10. 10. Ibid., folio 4v.

11. 11. Ibid., folio 5.

12. 12. Ibid., folio 46.

13. 13. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 165/1981, folio 13.

14. 14. Ibid., folio 40v.

15. 15. Study on the international context of tourism, 1970, ANIC, folio 18v.

16. 16. A report from April 1980 complained that contracts with Bulgaria, Poland, and Hungary were not yet signed, and the first group of tourists would only arrive/depart in June. See ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13274, vol. 1, folio 2.

17. 17. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13275, vol. 3, folio 1.

18. 18. ANIC, Presidency of Council of Ministers Collection, Coordination Section, file no. 87/1983, folio 17.

19. 19. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 1 /1970, folio 19. Swedish tourists spent $295.30 per person for a holiday, Danes spent $235.80, Belgians/Luxembourgish $95.50, Austrians $90.30, French 82.10, Italians 72.50, and British $66.80, while West Germans only paid $65.90, the lowest amount among Western European countries.

20. 20. Ibid., folio 19.

21. 21. Ibid., folios 21–22.

22. 22. Ibid., folio 23.

23. 23. Ibid.

24. 24. In 1970, West Germans accounted for 45 percent of Western tourists in Romania. See ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 17/1970, folio 12. After a decline in 1976, the West German market grew significantly in 1978. A total of 1,211,123 tourists were expected to arrive in organized groups, which meant an increase of 40 percent compared to 1977, but still below the plan target of 1,188,100 tourists. See AMAE, 1978 Fond, file no. 3539, folio 21.

25. 25. Susan Reid, “Cold War in the Kitchen: Gender and the De-Stalinization of Consumer Taste in the Soviet Union under Khrushchev,” Slavic Review 61, no. 2 (2002): 211–252.

26. 26. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, 1/1970, folio 29.

27. 27. Ibid., folio 29.

28. 28. Ibid.

29. 29. Ibid., folio 30, 30v.

30. 30. Ibid., folio 40v.

31. 31. Romania mainly used propeller planes that tourists considered unsafe, and charter flights operated only if planes were available, as commercial flights had priority. See ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 1/1970, folio 43v.

32. 32. ANIC, CPCP–DOCALS Fond, file no. 82/1977, folio 159.

33. 33. Ibid., folio 160. An estimation in US dollars can be found in Derek R. Hall, “Evolutionary Pattern of Tourism Development in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union,” in Tourism and Economic Development in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, edited by Derek R.Hall (London: Belhaven Press, 1991), 377. Hall contends that the income from international tourism grew from $132 million in 1975 to $324 million in 1980, then plummeted to $182 million dollars in 1985 and further to $176 million dollars in 1988.

34. 34. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13275, vol. 1, folio 34.

35. 35. AMAE, 1978 Fond, file no. 3539, folio 2.

36. 36. Comturist shops sold Romanian made and foreign goods on hard currency. In Romania, these shops first emerged in 1964 after the model of other socialist countries that used them to obtain hard currencies. They were mostly located in large hotels and in Bucharest, the capital city of Romania.

37. 37. Films were made by SAHIA, a Romanian film company, that helped promoters to attract Romanian emigres. One of them was Remember (with English subtitles), directed by Eugenia Gutu in 1974.

38. 38. It was not just socialist countries that did so; Spain too adopted this form of tourist propaganda because it needed to humanize its image among the citizens of the capitalist West to increase tourism from there.

39. 39. AMAE, 1975 Fond, file no. 8, folio 3.

40. 40. Ibid.

41. 41. The buds of “nationalism” flourished in the late 1950s and early 1960s and peaked with the Romanian Workers Party’s (Communist Party as of 1965) “Declaration of Independence” in 1964. See Declaratia cu privire la pozitia Partidului Muncitoresc Român in problemele miscarii comuniste si muncitoresti international adoptata de Plenara largita al CC al PMR din aprilie 1964 (Bucharest: Editura Politica, 1964).

42. 42. On the creation of WTO, see Peter Shackeford, A History of the World Tourism Organization (Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing, 2020).

43. 43. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13275, vol. 8, folio 90. Also, Romania and Spain as well as Portugal, Italy, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, and Bulgaria worked together to draft the part of the Helsinki Act detailing the promotion of tourism as these countries were dependent on and had a strong interest in international tourism. See Angela Romano, “Concluding Remarks,” in Tourism and Travel during the Cold War: Negotiating Tourist Experiences across the Iron Curtain, edited by Sune Bechmann Pedersen and Christian Noack (London: Routledge, 2019), 195.

44. 44. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 360/1984, folio 23.

45. 45. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 244/1981, folio 173.

46. 46. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism, file no. 12/1975, folio 4.

47. 47. Ibid., folio 35v, 36.

48. 48. Pan Am Collection, University of Miami Libraries, Special Collection 341, series I, box 206, folder 12, 1971.

49. 49. Pan Am Collection, University of Miami Libraries, Special Collection no. 341, series I, box no. 357, folder 10, 1970.

50. 50. See Lucian Boia, Doua Secole de Mitologie Națională (Bucharest: Humanitas, 2009).

51. 51. A number of films about Dracula or vampires were filmed during the 1970s, including Nosferatu (1979) by Werner Herzog; Dracula (1979) by John Badham; Dracula AD (1972) by Alan Gibson (with Cristopher Lee); and the Spanish, French, Italian, and German co-production Count Dracula (1970).

52. 52. Duncan Light, The Dracula Dilemma: Tourism, Identity and the State in Romania (Surrey, UK: Ashgate, 2012), 63.

53. 53. George Pillesment, La Roumanie Inconnue (Bucharest: Editions Touristique, 1974); Sebastian Bonifaciu, ed., Roumanie, Guide Touristique (Bucharest: Editions Touristique, 1974).

54. 54. General Tours had a long history of organizing tours in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

55. 55. Kurt Brokaw, A Night in Transylvania: The Dracula Scrapbook (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1976).

56. 56. “Rumania. La ruta del Conde Dracula,” in Viajar, June 1978, no. 3, 2.

57. 57. Brokaw, A Night in Transylvania.

58. 58. Ibid., 3.

59. 59. “Rumania. La ruta del Conde Dracula,” 2.

60. 60. Brokaw, A Night in Transylvania, 4.

61. 61. Ibid., 4.

62. 62. Ibid.

63. 63. Ibid., 5.

64. 64. Ibid., 34. In 1973, the Pan Am flight that connected New York and Bucharest since 1971 was interrupted.

65. 65. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 16319, vol. 16, folio 1.

66. 66. Ibid., folio 2.

67. 67. Ibid., folio 3.

68. 68. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13502, vol. 4, folio 349.

69. 69. Estadisticas del Turismo Internacional, 1975, vol. 29, cote III, Spain, 2.

70. 70. Ibid. But out of the 30,122,478 tourists who entered Spain in 1975, only 11,983,624 actually stayed in a hotel or other form of tourist accommodation, which suggests some of these travelers were only involved in small-scale, cross-border traffic and not traveling for leisure purposes. However, the number of foreign tourist nights in hotels were 19,489,272 for British tourists, followed by 18,993,053 for West German tourists and, at a significant distance, 5,977,720 for French tourists, 5,520,308 Benelux tourists, and 3,100,163 for American/Canadian tourists. At the same time, tourists from Latin America spent 1,450,297 nights in Spain, which mirrors the increasing number of travelers from these countries. See Estadisticas del Turismo Internacional, 1975, vol. 29, cote III, Spain, 3–4.

71. 71. AGA, Culture Fond, General Directorate of Tourism, 03 (49).11, box 43845.

72. 72. Ibid.

73. 73. Ibid.

74. 74. Ibid.

75. 75. Ibid.

76. 76. Ibid.

77. 77. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 072.011, box 48686.

78. 78. Ibid.

79. 79. Joan Cals Güell, Turismo y Politica Turistica en Espana: Una Aproximacion (Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1973), 45.

80. 80. Cals Güell, Turismo, 47.

81. 81. AGA, Culture Collection, (03) 049.022, topografica 73/66.101-66.507, box 50073.

82. 82. Ibid.

83. 83. Spanish officials used the term Iron Curtain in their correspondence about Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

84. 84. AGA, Culture Collection, (03) 049.022, topografica 73/66.101-66.507, box 50073.

85. 85. Sedo to Acosta, January 2, 1967, AGA, Culture Collection.

86. 86. Sedo to Acosta, January 14, 1967, AGA, Culture Collection.

87. 87. Ibid.

88. 88. AGA, Culture Collection, (03) 049.022, topografica 73/66.101-66.507, box 50073.

89. 89. Don Juan Molist Codina of Montesol Viajes to Manuel Fraga, Minister of Information and tourism, 1968, AGA, Culture Collection, (03) 049.022, topografica 73/66.101-66.507, box 50073.

90. 90. Ibid.

91. 91. Gazette Offcialle de O.N.I., June 1970, no. 5125, 48.

92. 92. This happened during a meeting in Paris, and it meant that Spain had an economic office in Bucharest and Romania had one in Madrid.

93. 93. In 1962, a first article about Romania was published in SUR, Málaga’s daily newspaper.

94. 94. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, 73/66.101-66.507, box 56753.

95. 95. Ibid.

96. 96. Ibid.

97. 97. Gimenez-Arnau to the Spanish undersecretary of tourism, 1968, AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, 73/66.101-66.507, box 56753.

98. 98. Ibid.

99. 99. Ibid.

100. 100. Ibid. This was a serious issue, as even the Romanian official delegation could not visit Mallorca because it needed a visa that did not arrive on time.

101. 101. A School for Tourist Workers was established in Bucharest in the aftermath of the visit, and soon tourist workers from the Middle East and African countries began to be trained there. Payments for these trainings were made in US dollars, which helped the Romanian communist regime’s goal to use tourism to acquire more hard currencies. See ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 102/1979, folio 54. The costs for training a tourist worker (such as a chef or hotel manager), were as high as $1,000 USD a month.

102. 102. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 109/1968, folio 25. This declaration came in the wake of the Prague Spring, when Romania opposed the Warsaw Pact countries’ invasion of Czechoslovakia. Although this was an internal meeting, the aim of establishing relations with all countries became part of the party’s rhetoric.

103. 103. Relations and exchanges in the field of tourism between Spain and Romania, AMAE, 1975 Fond, file no. 4472, folio 4.

104. 104. Ibid.

105. 105. Ibid., folio 5. Boicil was a medicine produced by a Romanian physician in Timișoara, which claimed to cure conditions such as rheumatism, varicose veins, and thrombosis.

106. 106. See “Feria del Campo (Campo Fair),” Atlas Obscura, accessed December 13, 2022, https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/feria-del-campo.

107. 107. Relations and exchanges, AMAE, 1975 Fond, folio 6.

108. 108. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13275, vol. 6, folio 7.

109. 109. Ibid.

110. 110. Ibid., folio 8.

111. 111. The International Union of Official Travel Organization, which was a nongovernmental organization, was rebranded the World Tourism Organization (WTO) and became an intragovernmental organization. The new status made WTO an executive agency of the United Nations Development Programme and allowed it to establish a more global agenda. Besides the ability to sign cooperation agreements with the International Civil Aviation Organization and UNESCO, among others, the WTO became more active in promoting learning exchanges and in growing tourist collaborations across the globe, including with socialist Eastern Europe and the Third World.

112. 112. AMAE, 1975 Fond, file no. 4472, folio 3.

113. 113. Ibid.

114. 114. See, for instance, Vladimir Tismăneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism (Los Angeles: University of California University Press, 2003); Mioara Anton, Ieșirea din Cerc, Politica Externă a Regimului Gheorghiu-Dej (Bucharest: Institutul National pentru Studiul Totalitarismului, 2007).

115. 115. ANIC, CPCP–DOCALS, file no. 82/1977, folio 159.

116. 116. Ibid.

117. 117. Ibid., folio 160.

118. 118. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 81/1976, folio 10. Revenue from Romanian tourists also increased from 1,800 lei in 1966–1970 to 3,600 million lei in 1971–1975. See ANIC, CPCP–DOCALS, file no. 82/1977, folio 159.

119. 119. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 81/1976, folio 11.

120. 120. Ibid., folio 12.

121. 121. ANIC, CPCP–DOCALS, file no. 82/1977, folio 161.

122. 122. Ibid.

123. 123. Ibid., folio 162.

124. 124. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 31/1966, folio 17.

125. 125. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 28/1974.

126. 126. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 244/1981, folio 9.

127. 127. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 188/1981, folio 54.

128. 128. Ibid., folio 53.

129. 129. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 244/1981, folio 7.

130. 130. Ibid., folio 8.

131. 131. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection Chancellery Section, file no. 61/1978, folio 9.

132. 132. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 12/1974, folio 2.

133. 133. Ibid., folio 4.

134. 134. Ibid., folio 5.

135. 135. Ibid., folio 6.

136. 136. Ibid., folio 7.

137. 137. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 138/1982, folio 947.

138. 138. Ibid., folio 948.

139. 139. Hall, “Evolutionary Pattern of Tourism Development,” 102; Bogdan Murgescu, Romania șii Europa. Acumularea Decalajelor Economice, 1500–2010 (Iași, Romania: Polirom, 2010).

140. 140. Hall, “Evolutionary Pattern of Tourist Development,” 102.

141. 141. Sasha Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe’s Peaceful Invasion of Franco’s Spain (Basingtoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 109. Fraga called tourism “a crusade.” See also Ana Moreno Garrido, Historia del Turismo en España en el sieglo XX (Madrid: Editorial Sintesis, 2007), 245.

142. 142. This was the first Plan de Desarrollo, which covered the period 1964–1967.

143. 143. AGA, Trade Unions Fond, (08) 045.004, topografica 36/67.508.67.606, box 11050.

144. 144. Ibid.

145. 145. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.007, box 31803.

146. 146. Ibid.

147. 147. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, box 56758.

148. 148. Asamblea Nacional de Turismo, vol. 3 (Madrid, 1964), 352.

149. 149. Ibid., 353.

150. 150. Ibid., 354.

151. 151. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.011, topografica 23/66.603-69.301, box 42241.

152. 152. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, box 60751.

153. 153. Ibid.

154. 154. Ibid.

155. 155. Ibid.

156. 156. Miguel Coya and Manuel Figuerola, “El turismo extranjero en España y sus nuevos horizontes,” Estudios Turisticos, nos. 51–52 (1976), 284–285.

157. 157. Ibid., 285.

158. 158. Ibid.

159. 159. Ibid., 287.

160. 160. AMAE, 1977 Fond, file no. 3925, folio 4.

161. 161. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 13502, vol. 4, folio 349.

162. 162. Ibid., folio 93.

163. 163. Marie-Françoise Lanfant, “Introduction: Tourism in the Process of Internationalization,” International Social Science Journal 32 (1980), 14.

4. International Tourism and Changing Patterns of Everyday Life until 1989

1. 1. See Lewis Siegelbaum, conference report, “ ‘Historicizing Everyday Life under Communism: The USSR and the GDR,’ Potsdam, 8–10 June, 2000,” Social History 26, no.1, (January 2001): 72–79.

2. 2. Ibid., 74.

3. 3. One exception is Uta Poiger, Jazz, Rock, and Rebels Cold War Politics and American Culture in a Divided Germany (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000). For previous studies on consumption in socialist Romania, see Jill Massino, “From Black Caviar to Blackouts: Gender, Consumption, and Lifestyle in Ceausescu’s Romania,” in Communism Unwrapped: Consumption in Cold War Eastern Europe, edited by Paulina Bren and Mary Neuburger, 226–255 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012);Adelina Ștefan, “They Even Gave Us Pork Cutlets for Breakfast: Foreign Tourists and Eating Out Practices in Socialist Romania during the 1960s and the 1980s,” in Consumption and Advertising in Eastern Europe and Russia in the Twentieth Century, edited by Magdalena Eriksroed-Burger, Heidi Hein-Kircher, and Julia Malitska, 155–178 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2023); Jill Massino, Ambiguous Transitions: Gender, the State, and Everyday Life in Socialist and Postsocialist Romania (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2019).

4. 4. Peter Latham, Romani: A Complete Guide (London: The Garnstone Press, 1967), 155.

5. 5. On guidebooks and their role in both tourism promotion and building national identities, see James Koranyi, “Travel Guides,” in Doing Spatial History, edited by Riccardo Bavaj, Konrad Lawson, and Bernhard Struck, 53–70 (London: Routledge, 2021).

6. 6. Peter Latham, Romani: A Complete Guide (London: The Garnstone Press, 1967), cover page, verso.

7. 7. Ibid., 69–99.

8. 8. Colecția de decrete si legi [Collection of decrees and laws] (Bucharest: Editura Buletinul Oficial, March 1962). In 1962, the selling of bread was liberalized in rural areas as well.

9. 9. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 15/1964, folio 43.

10. 10. A 1965 guidebook of two thousand useful commercial addresses for fulfilling the consumption needs of the Bucharest population included services such as “housework performed at client’s house,” women’s fashion, TV repair, music players, and fridges, as well as sport and tourist equipment rental. These activities were performed by self-employed individuals working within the Bucharest Town Union of Craftsmen. See Law no. 14 from May 15, 1968, https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocumentAfis/195, and 2000 Adrese Utile. Ghidul Cooperativelor Meșteșugărești din Orașul București pentru Deservirea Populației (Bucharest: UCMB, 1965).

11. 11. In 1972, a new law on domestic commerce was passed. This decree ended a previous law from 1952, which was suggestively entitled “law for abolishing private commerce and preventing black market transactions.” The 1972 law allowed farmers to sell their goods (except for cereals) and for state-sanctioned private individuals to establish commercial activities (the so-called commissionaires’ system). See Law no. 3 from April 20, 1972, “regarding domestic commerce activities,” and Law no. 41 from April 24, 1972 (new Romania’s Organic Law), in the Official Bulletin.

12. 12. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 15/1964, folio 47.

13. 13. Other socialist countries were experiencing similar changes, especially in regard to fashion. See Judd Stitziel, Fashioning Socialism: Clothing, Politics and Consumer Culture in East Germany (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2005).

14. 14. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 15/1964, folio 46.

15. 15. Ibid.

16. 16. Dem Popescu, The Romanian Seacoast (Bucharest: Meridiane Publishing House), 1967.

17. 17. Ibid., 14.

18. 18. Ibid., 23.

19. 19. Their situation was made legal by Law no. 3 from April 20, 1972, which mentioned that “in socialist Romania the supplying of [the] population with goods is made by state shops, shops of collective farms, enterprises and craftsmen cooperatives as well as by private individuals with license from the state to carry out commercial activities.” See Law no. 3 and Law no. 41 in the Official Bulletin.

20. 20. Gheorghe Florescu, Confesiunile unui cafegiu (Bucharest: Humanitas 2008). Gheorghe Florescu was a coffee shop commissioner.

21. 21. Ileana M., personal interview, Bucharest, November 2015.

22. 22. The nationalization of private factories and shops took place on June 11, 1948. See Law no. 119 in the Official Monitor.

23. 23. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no.15/1964, folio 45.

24. 24. ANIC, Council of Ministers Collection, file no. 154/1965, folio 14.

25. 25. Ibid., folio 16.

26. 26. Ibid., folio 15. Gogu Rădulescu’s note on the letter said: “I asked ONT–Carpathians to follow some of these suggestions.”

27. 27. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 81/1976, folio 10.

28. 28. Ibid., folio 11.

29. 29. See “1970, Nicolae Ceaușescu Visits the Farmers’ Markets in Bucharest,” Cineclic, accessed February 15, 2023, https://www.facebook.com/Cineclic.ro/videos/512191947729786.

30. 30. Decree no. 277 from July 25, 1979, “regarding certain measures for the rationalization of fuel consumption and the economic distribution of automobiles,” in Official Bulletin 64 (1979), 86.

31. 31. For instance, Romania exported significant quantities of foodstuffs to the USSR in exchange for crude oil. See East Europe Report: Economic and Industrial Affairs, Joint Publication Research Service Publications, JPRS-EEI-84-091, August 13, 1984, p. 25, https://web.archive.org/web/20130408131146/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA352744.

32. 32. Decree no. 306 from October 9, 1981, “regarding the prevention of and fight against deeds that affect the supplying of the population with basic goods,” in Official Bulletin no. 77. See also Pavel Câmpeanu, Ceaușescu, Anii Numărătorii Inverse (Iași, Romania: Polirom, 2002), 269.

33. 33. People were assigned to a specific shop depending on their residence.

34. 34. Anii 80 si bucureștenii (Bucharest: Paidea, 2003).

35. 35. Anii 80 si bucureștenii, 269. Pavel Câmpeanu, a former member of the nomenklatura and an analyst of the communist system in Romania, explains that the party’s first secretaries were responsible for supplying stores with necessary foodstuffs. The party’s first secretaries were Romanian Communist Party appointees in each county whose responsibility was to run the county and report to the central structures in Bucharest. However, against the backdrop of generalized shortages, the party first secretary’s task became more complicated. According to Câmpeanu, “If he gives less food than the directives require of him, he will be loved by authorities but despised by the people; if he tries to give more food, the central authorities will consider him incompetent. Every party first secretary approaches this issue differently, as the party first secretaries are not all alike. I was told that in Cluj and Pitești the situation is horrible; in Sibiu and Vâlcea it’s just pathetic.” Pavel Campeanu, Coada Pentru Hrană: Un Mod de Viață (Bucharest: Litera, 1994), 35.

36. 36. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 169/1985, folio 39.

37. 37. This was a common situation in socialist countries. Economists use the term “monetary overhang” to describe this situation. See Janos Kornai, The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992).

38. 38. George S., personal interview, Focșani, Romania, June 2011.

39. 39. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 45/1975, folio 48. Requests for better-quality bread often involved asking for an increase in the quantity of wheat allocated for Constanța County of 500 tons and an additional 20,000 tons of high-quality wheat to be mixed with ordinary wheat to obtain a better bread.

40. 40. Ibid., folio 51.

41. 41. ANIC, Presidency of Council of Ministers Collection, Coordination Section, file no. 112/1984, folio 62v.

42. 42. Ibid., folio 62.

43. 43. Ibid., folio 62v.

44. 44. Ibid.

45. 45. Ibid., folio 63.

46. 46. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 218/1985, folio 137. This happened despite the available data showing that existing foodstuffs were insufficient to cover peoples’ daily needs.

47. 47. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 205/1984, folio 13.

48. 48. ANIC, CPCP–DOCALS, file no. 4/1988, folio 2.

49. 49. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Tulcea County, D 19666, vol. 3, folio 62.

50. 50. Șerban Cioculescu, ed., La Roumanie—Guide Touristique (Bucharest: Editions Meridiane, 1967); Constantin Daicoviciu and Alexandru Graur, eds., Roumanie: Geographie, Histoire, Economie, Culture (Bucharest: Editions Meridiane, 1966).

51. 51. Daicoviciu and Graur, Roumanie, 2^nd ed. (Bucharest: Edition Touristique, 1974), 214.

52. 52. Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). Indigestion was, however, quite common. See ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 5/1969, folio 26.

53. 53. Constantin Darie, Roumanie, Guide Touristique. Roumanie (Bucharest: Edition Touristique 1974), 455.

54. 54. Ibid.

55. 55. Ibid., 454.

56. 56. Rumania in Brief (Bucharest: Editions Meridiane, 1962), 114.

57. 57. AMAE, Egypt Fond, 1946–1970, file no. 95, folio 70.

58. 58. Nancy Holloway was an African American jazz, pop, and soul singer and actress who was very popular in France.

59. 59. Cezar Grigoriu (dir.), Impușcături pe Portativ [Shotguns on the stave] (Sahia Movies, 1968), 89 min.

60. 60. See https://web.archive.org/web/20160416055712/http://cnc.gov.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/6_Spectatori-film-romanesc-la-31.12.2014.pdf, accessed February 17, 2023.

61. 61. On Fordism and its spread in Nazi Germany and the USSR, see Stefan J. Link, Forging Global Fordism: Nazi Germany, Soviet Russia, and the Contest over the Industrial Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020). For Fordism’s reception in Germany between the wars, see Mary Nolan, American Business and the Modernization of Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).

62. 62. See ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 43/1981, folio 24.

63. 63. Cioculescu, La Roumanie—Guide Touristique, 470.

64. 64. Ibid.

65. 65. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 92/1969, folio 3.

66. 66. Romanian National Bank Archive (hereafter BNR), Directorate of Foreign Exchange and Precious Metals Fond, 1974–1976, file no. 43, folio 32.

67. 67. Paulina Bren, “Tuzex and the Hustler: Living It Up in Czechoslovakia,” in Communism Unwrapped: Consumption in Cold War Eastern Europe, edited by Paulina Bren and Mary Neuburger, 27–49 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

68. 68. Cioculescu, La Roumanie—Guide Touristique, 470. The list of goods and their prices was annually revised and approved by a joint commission of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and International Cooperation and the Ministry of Tourism. See Decree no. 33 for improvement of foreign trade activity, Official Bulletin, Part I, April 19, 1984, 30. A former version of this decree was adopted in 1979; see Decree no. 276, some measures for improving the activity of foreign trade, in the Official Bulletin.

69. 69. Decree no. 33, 30.

70. 70. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 92/1969, folio 3.

71. 71. Bulgaria got $4.5 million and Czechoslovakia obtained $45 million from selling goods in these shops to foreign tourists. See ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 92/1969, folios 3 and 5.

72. 72. BNR, Directorate of Foreign Exchange and Precious Metals Fond, 1974–1976, file no. 43, folio 111.

73. 73. Constantin Darie, Roumanie, Guide Touristique, 455.

74. 74. As an economic strategy, Romania avoided buying goods for domestic consumption from Western countries and tried to save its hard currency reserves for technology and heavy industry. In order to save hard currency, some of these products were imported from neighboring socialist countries. As part of Comecon, Romania shared special prices with the other socialist countries that had little in common with international market prices subject to inflation. This was part of the so-called Bucharest agreement signed in the mid-1950s, which was in place until 1975, when another agreement decided in Moscow changed the system. The new agreement revised the Comecon prices every five years, contingent on international market prices, thus creating the basis for the clearing system. Hence, if Romania decided to import consumption-related goods from a neighboring socialist country, the neighboring country would provide the goods in exchange for other goods it needed (for instance, foodstuffs). This convention was more convenient for Romania and other socialist countries. However, Western tourists preferred to consume brands with which they were familiar, and so this strategy did not always work. See “Accounting System, Hard Currency Trade in CEMA Analyzed,” in East Europe Report: Economic and Industrial Affairs, Joint Publication Research Service Publications, JPRS-EEI-84-091, August 13, 1984, 1–9. Originally published in German as Gerhard Fink, “Accounting System and Hard Currency Trade in CEMA—Hungary, Romania, Poland,” Südosteuropa no. 6 (1984): 341–351.

75. 75. See ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Brașov, D 60, vols. 3–6.

76. 76. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 92/1969, folio 4.

77. 77. Ileana M., personal interview.

78. 78. AMAE, 1973 Fond, file no. 3587, folio 13.

79. 79. Ibid.

80. 80. BNR, Directorate of Foreign Exchange and Precious Metals Fond, 1974–1976, file no. 43, folio 124.

81. 81. Ibid., folio 117.

82. 82. Vladimir Tismăneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003).

83. 83. Patrick Major, Behind the Berlin Wall: East Germany and the Frontier of Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Massino, Ambiguous Transitions.

84. 84. Jesús Marchamalo, Bocadillos de Delfín, Anuncios y Vida Cotidiana en la España de la Postguerra (Barcelona: Grijalbo, 1996), 207.

85. 85. J. Castillo, Sociedad de consumo a la española (Madrid: Eudema, 1987). In 1940, the GDP per capita was 11.042 pesetas.

86. 86. Rafael F., personal interview, Marbella, Spain, June 2014. Rafael was interviewed in English.

87. 87. Ibid.

88. 88. Luis C., personal interview, Málaga, June 2014.

89. 89. Castillo, Sociedad de consumo, 54–60.

90. 90. Pedro Sanchez Vera, La tercera edad ante el consumo (Murcia, Spain: University of Murcia, 2003), 31.

91. 91. For more on the connection between advertising and consumerism in Spain, see Ana Sebastián Morillas, “El papel de la publicidad en España en prensa y radio durante el franquismo: el nacimiento de la sociedad de consumo,” Cuadernos Info, no. 41 (December 2017): 209–226. https://doi.org/10.7746/cdi.41.1128.

92. 92. Guia Turistica de España (Madrid: Calvo Sotelo, 1963), 31.

93. 93. From the article “Reglas para la conservacion de los productos alimenticos mediante al frio” [Rules for preserving alimentary products by using a refrigerator], Hostelería y Turismo, nos. 87–89 (January–February 1963), 23.

94. 94. Ibid., 25.

95. 95. Francisco Andres Orizo, “La evolucion del consumo en España,” Control, no. 69 (1968), 3; Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, “Encuesta de presupuestos familiares Equipamientos y condiciones de las viviendas familiars,” in Anuario Estadístico de España (Madrid: Presidency of the Council of Ministers, General Directorate of the Geographic, Catastral, and Statistics Institute), 86.

96. 96. Orizo, “La evolucion del consumo,” 2.

97. 97. However, Spain had a longer history with department stores, which opened in the late 1920s. On department stores in Spain during the Franco era and their role in construing a consumerist society, see Alejandro J. Gómez del Moral, Buying Into Change: Mass Consumption, Dictatorship, and Democratization in Franco’s Spain, 1939–1982 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2021).

98. 98. Joseph R. Guerin, “Limitations of Supermarkets in Spain,” Journal of Marketing 28, no. 4 (October 1964), 22.

99. 99. Ibid., 23.

100. 100. Francisco Andres Orizo, “Las bases sociales del consumo y del ahorro en España” (Doctoral diss., Universidad Compultense de Madrid, 1975), 197.

101. 101. Ibid., 198.

102. 102. Ibid., p. 199; and Rafael Abella, La vida cotidiana en España de los 60 (Madrid: Prado, 1990), 112.

103. 103. Louis Enrique Alonso Benito and Fernando Conde, “Vistas de Notas sobre la génesis de la Sociedad de Consumo en España,” Debate (1994).

104. 104. Ibid., 135.

105. 105. Gómez del Moral, Buying Into Change, 7.

106. 106. “Mensaje navideño del Caudillo a su pueblo,” Hostelería y Turismo, nos. 87–89 (January–February 1963), 3.

5. Foreign Tourists and Underground Consumption Practices

1. 1. Cartoon in Punch Magazine, 1960, AGA, Trade Unions Fond, (08) 045.004, box 11050/11. The Spanish caption reads: “Enrique, por favor, piensa que gracias a ellos vivimos!”

2. 2. Mary Ellen Fisher, Nicolae Ceaușescu: A Political Biography (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988); A. Cioroianu, Ce Ceaușescu qui hante les roumains (Bucharest: Curtea Veche Publishing , 2004); Thomas Kunze, Nicolae Ceaușescu—O Biografie (Bucharest: Vremea, 2002); Daniel M. Pennell, Nicolae Ceaușescu: A Biography (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014).

3. 3. The phrase refers to day-to-day interactions between Spaniards and foreigners.

4. 4. On the black market in socialist Eastern Europe, see Katherine Pence, “Grounds for Discontent: Coffee from the Black Market to the Kaffeeklatsch in the GDR,” in Communism Unwrapped: Consumption in Cold War Eastern Europe, edited by Paulina Bren and Mary Neuburger (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Steven L. Sampson, “The Second Economy of Soviet Union and Eastern Europe,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 493, no. 1 (1987): 120–136, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1046198; Venelin I. Ganev, “The Borsa: The Black Market for Rock Music in Late Socialist Bulgaria,” Slavic Review 73, no. 3 (2017): 514–537, https://doi.org/10.5612/slavicreview.73.3.514.

5. 5. Most tourist workers had to go through a background check by the Securitate.

6. 6. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Sibiu, D 8663, vol. 21, folio 262. Also in 1974, Romanians were banned from hosting foreign tourists unless they were relatives. See Decree 225 from December 6, 1974, “regarding the accommodation of foreigners during short stay visits in Romania” in Official Bulletin no. 154, December 9, 1974. This decree abolished the previous decision from 1967, Decision no. 872 from April 17, 1967, “regarding renting rooms and spaces to foreign tourists” in Official Bulletin no. 34, April 20, 1967.

7. 7. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Sibiu, D 8663, vol. 21, folio 77.

8. 8. ANIC, CRCP–DOCALS Fond, file no. 83/1977, folio 241.

9. 9. Ibid., folio 242.

10. 10. Ibid.

11. 11. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 11718, folio 1. Documents drawn up by the Securitate about foreign tourists who visit “our country and their attitude toward the regime of popular democracy.”

12. 12. Ibid.

13. 13. Anca, personal interview, Bucharest, April 2010.

14. 14. Mark Keck-Szajbel, “Shop around the Bloc: Trader Tourism and Its Discontents on the East German–Polish Border,” in Communism Unwrapped: Consumption in Postwar Eastern Europe, edited by Paulina Bren and Mary Neuburger (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

15. 15. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 988, Argeș County, folio 250.

16. 16. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 10325, Suceava County, folio 28.

17. 17. Anii 80 si Bucureștenii (Bucharest: Paidea, 2003).

18. 18. On the role of money in socialist societies, see Jonathan R. Zatlin, The Currency of Socialism: Money and Political Culture in East Germany (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

19. 19. Ibid., 232.

20. 20. Jerzy Kochanowski, “Pioneers of the Free Market Economy? Unofficial Commercial Exchanges between People from the Socialist Bloc Countries (1970s–1980s),” Journal of Modern European History 8, no. 2 (2010): 196–221; Horst Brezinski and Paul Petersen, “The Second Economy in Romania,” in The Second Economy in Marxist States, edited by Maria Los (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1990).

21. 21. See Article 37, Law 210/1960, published in Official Bulletin no. 56/1972. According to this law, failing to declare available foreign currencies could lead to a prison term of six months to five years. This situation was also common in other socialist states. The more liberal Hungary also prohibited foreign currency possession. See the movie Titkos házkutatás (Secret House Search), about a secret search into a private house by the AVH (secret police) to find hidden objects, such as US dollars or Western goods, while the owners were at a spa (OSA archive, Budapest, Hungary).

22. 22. Peter Latham, Romania: A Complete Guide (London: The Garnstone Press, 1967), 65.

23. 23. Ibid.

24. 24. Ibid.

25. 25. Ibid., 66.

26. 26. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Brașov, D 1877, vol. 11, folio 46.

27. 27. Ibid.

28. 28. Ibid., folio 47.

29. 29. Ibid., folio 48.

30. 30. Ibid., folio 50. This was a better price for tourists as $1 could be exchanged for 18 lei in Romania.

31. 31. Ibid., folio 51.

32. 32. Ibid.

33. 33. Ibid., folio 49.

34. 34. Nic. C., personal interview, Bucharest, December 2013. Similar cases are depicted in the Securitate archives. See ACNSAS, Network Collection, file no. R 170533, vol. 1, folio 17.

35. 35. Nic. C., personal interview.

36. 36. Ibid.

37. 37. Vladimir Tismăneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003). This concept has been widely criticized and refined in the literature. See Muriel Blaive, “The Reform Communist Interpretation of the Stalinist Period in Czech Historiography and Its Legacy,” East European Politics and Societies: and Cultures 36, no. 3 (2022): 992–1014; Jeffrey Brooks, “Totalitarianism Revisited,” The Review of Politics 68, no. 2 (May 2006): 318–328.

38. 38. See, for instance, Alena V. Ledeneva, Russia’s Economy of Favours: Blat, Networking, and Informal Exchange (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Paulina Bren and Mary Neuburger, Communism Unwrapped: Consumption in Cold War Eastern Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Mark Beissinger and Stephen Kotkin, Historical Legacies of Communism in Russia and Eastern Europe (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Alena V. Ledeneva, Can Russia Modernize? “Sistema,” Power Networks, and Informal Governance (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

39. 39. A similar argument appears in Joan Carles Cirer Costa, The Crumbling of Francoist Spain’s Isolationism Thanks to Foreign Currency Brought by European Tourists in the Early Years of the Golden Age, Munich Personal RePEc Archive Paper No. 95578, August 15, 2019, https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/95578/1/MPRA_paper_95578.pdf.

40. 40. AGA, Culture Fond, 03 049.013, topografica 72/11.401-11.404, box 049.013.

41. 41. Mario C., personal interview, Seville, June 2015.

42. 42. See, for example, Tourist complaint addressed to Franco, AGA, Culture Fond, topografica 23/66.603-69.301, box 42241.

43. 43. Douglas Clyne, Your Guide to the Costa del Sol (London: Alvin Redman, 1966), 189.

44. 44. Arriba was the official organ of the Falange and a highly propagandistic newspaper, published between 1935 and 1975. Franco himself used to publish articles in this official daily newspaper.

45. 45. Arriba, March 7, 1954, republished in Documenta no. 747, August 6, 1954, 13.

46. 46. Documenta no. 41, December 20, 1951, 21.

47. 47. Ibid.

48. 48. In 1954, police discovered seven such cases in only one month. See Documenta no. 747, August 1954, 435.

49. 49. See the decree from June 5, 1953, in Información y Turismo no.1, January 1955, 2.

50. 50. Información y Turismo no. 4, April 1955, 4.

51. 51. Información y Turismo no. 29, June 1957, 4. While the author made the distinction between Andalusia and Spain, Andalusia was and is part of Spain.

52. 52. Order of November 30, 1959, resolving the appeal filed by Mr. Angel de la Plata Frias, owner of the Hotel la Perla in Granada, Informacion y Turismo no. 50, July 1959, 692.

53. 53. One dollar was calculated at 60 pesetas.

54. 54. Order of December 31, 1962, which resolves the claim filed by Mr. Eudaldo Molas Pujol, manager of the company “Establishment Industries and Services, S.A.,” tenant of the Hotel Majestic in Barcelona against resolution of the General Directorate of Tourism dated March 24, 1960, Documenta, June 1960, 707.

55. 55. Order of September 30, 1962, which resolves the case filed by Mr. Jaime Gélida Miralles against the resolution of the Provincial Delegation of Lérida of May 26, 1962, Documenta, July 1962, 738.

56. 56. Ibid., 738.

57. 57. Sasha Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe’s Peaceful Invasion of Franco’s Spain (Basingtoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 172; AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.013, box 53759, topografica 72/11.401-11.404.

58. 58. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship, 173.

59. 59. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.008, box 44.101.

60. 60. Ibid.

61. 61. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.009, boxes 54.504 and 55.302.

62. 62. Ibid.

63. 63. The northern part of Morocco was a Spanish protectorate until 1956.

64. 64. “Officials of the Tétouan Civil Government of Detained for Illegal Passport Trafficking,” SUR, June 8, 1962, 2.

65. 65. The Spanish exiles involved in the civil war on the Popular Front side were not permitted to enter Spain, while dissidents were not allowed to exit.

66. 66. Alf Ludtke, Eigen-Sinn: Fabrikalltag, Arbeitererfahrungen und Politik vom Kaiserreich bis in den Faschismus (Hamburg: Ergebnisse Verlag, 1993).

67. 67. On Spain’s accession to the EEC and its economic impact, see Vanessa Núñez Peñas, “Spanish Accession to the EEC: A Political Objective in an Economic Reality,” Cahiers de la Mediterrane 90, (2015): 59–70, http://doi.org/10.4000/cdlm.7883.

68. 68. John F. Sherry Jr;, “Gift Giving in Anthropological Perspective,” Journal of Consumer Research 10, no. 2 (September 1983): 157–168; Michael D. Large, “The Effectiveness of Gifts as Unilateral Initiatives in Bargaining,” Sociological Perspectives 42, no. 3 (Autumn 1999): 525–542. For the functioning of the blat economy in socialist societies, see Ledeneva, Russia’s Economy of Favors.

69. 69. Cristina C., personal interview, December 2013.

70. 70. Alexandra N., personal interview, Neptun, Romania, March 2013.

71. 71. Cristina C., personal interview.

72. 72. Margareta T., personal interview, Alexandru Odobescu, Buzau County, Romania, February 2013.

73. 73. Caroline Humphrey, “Rituals of Death as a Context for Understanding Personal Property in Socialist Mongolia,” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 8, no.1 (March 2002): 65–87.

74. 74. Doina, master chef at Hotel Doina in Neptun, recalled how she would send chocolate and other sweets to her sister’s children, who lived in a village in Moldavia. Doina, personal interview, Neptun, Romania, March 2013.

75. 75. Alina B. (personal interview in May 2015) put it simply: “we [Romanians] could tell when one was a foreign or Western tourist. They smelled like Dove or other deodorants and perfumes that we did not have access to. You could ‘smell’ the difference just looking at them on the beach.” Along the same lines, Marioara V. (personal interview in Bucharest, July 2013) said that “they had beach towels, big size beach towels which were not for sale in Romanian shops.”

76. 76. The newspaper included a section where readers could write letters revealing various wrongdoings or putting forth complaints.

77. 77. Información y Turismo no. 17, April 1956, 5.

78. 78. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, box 48976,topografica 72/40.405-40.504.

79. 79. Ibid.

80. 80. Litoralul Românesc [The Romanian littoral], album, 1975. Sung by Hedy Löffler with a foreword by Radu Bourgeau and lyrics by Adrian Zărnescu; Hostelería, July 10, 1962.

81. 81. On gender is state socialism see: Jill Massino and Shana Penn, Gender Politics and Everyday Life in State Socialist Eastern and Central Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), Yan Yunxiang, Private Life Under Socialism, Live, Intimacy and Family Change in A Chinese Village, 1949–1999 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), Rebecca Balmas Neary, “Domestic Life and the Activist Wife in the 1930s Soviet Union” in Lewis Siegelbaum, Borders of Socialism (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 107–123.

82. 82. Ileana M., personal interview, Bucharest, November 2015.

83. 83. Ibid.

84. 84. A region in southern Romania.

85. 85. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Argeș County, D 988, folio 219.

86. 86. Ibid., folio 219.

87. 87. Under Romanian criminal law, prostitution became a felony in 1948.

88. 88. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 10248, vol. 3, folio 227.

89. 89. Ibid., folio 230.

90. 90. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Argeș County, D 988, folio 300.

91. 91. At the same time, the same Securitate agents had no problem asking one of their female colleagues to befriend a West German tourist whom they suspected of espionage. See ACNSAS, Documentary Collection, D 16629, vol.1, folio 3.

92. 92. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Argeș County, D 988, folios 389–390.

93. 93. Ibid., folio 307.

94. 94. On gender under the Francoist regime, see Aurora G. Morcillo, True Catholic Womanhood: Gender Ideology in Franco’s Spain (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000).

95. 95. Speech by the minister of information, Mr. Arias Salgado, at the closing of the National Press College, in Salamanca, Documenta, October 3, 1959, 46.

96. 96. Información y Turismo no. 49, June 1959, 3.

97. 97. A famous picture of Brigitte Bardot shows her walking barefoot in the streets of Torremolinos.

98. 98. Rafael F., personal interview, Marbella, Spain, June 2014.

99. 99. Camelo Pellejero Martinez, personal interview, Málaga, June 2014.

100. 100. Speech by the minister of information, Mr. Arias Salgado, Documenta, 47.

101. 101. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.008, box 44101.

102. 102. Ibid.

103. 103. Ibid.

104. 104. Rosa More, “Something Reprehensible That Should Be Avoided,” Hostelería y Turismo 9, no. 89 (1963), 25.

6. Beach Tourism on Romania’s Black Sea Coast and Spain’s Costa del Sol

1. 1. Die Küste Bei Nacht, Romania (Bucharest: ONT–Littoral), 1970, tourist flyer advertising the Black Sea Coast.

2. 2. Ibid.

3. 3. Rafael Esteve Secall, Ocio, Turismo y Hoteles en la Costa del Sol (Málaga: Diputación Provincial de Málaga, 1982), 28.

4. 4. Comisión Episcopal de Ortodoxia y Moralidad, “Actas I, Congreso Nacional de Moralidad en Playas y Piscinas,” Normas de Decencia Cristiana (Madrid: Secretarioado del Episcopado Español, 1958), 39.

5. 5. Ibid., 40.

6. 6. Maria and Luis F., personal interview, Seville, June 2015.

7. 7. Giles Tremlett, Ghosts of Spain: Travels through Spain and Its Silent Past (New York: Walker & Co., 2008).

8. 8. The population of Costa del Sol increased by 70 percent between 1960 and 1990. See Carmelo Pellejero Martinez, “Tourism on the Costa del Sol,” in Europe at the Seaside: The Economic History of Mass Tourism in the Mediterranean, edited by Luciano Segreto, Carles Manera, and Manfred Pohl (New York: Berghahn Books, 2009), 226.

9. 9. In the 2000s, the Mediterranean region (broadly understood) attracted $134 billion annually, accounting for 28 percent of the world’s tourist expenditures. See Carles Manera et al., “Introduction: The Mediterranean as a Tourist Destination,” in Europe at the Seaside, 4. Nevertheless, some distinctions must be made, as different parts of Mediterranean region developed their tourism industries at different times. The coastal regions of France and Italy, along with Costa Brava in Spain, had been popular tourist destinations since the interwar years, but regions such as Costa del Sol or Mallorca were newcomers to the world tourism industry. See Carles Manera and Jaume Garau-Taberner, “The Transformation of the Economic Model of the Balearic Islands: The Pioneers of Mass Tourism,” in Europe at the Seaside, 31.

10. 10. Mihai Cristescu et al., Litoralul Românesc al Mării Negre (Bucharest: Meridiane, 1967), 46.

11. 11. Dem Popescu, The Romanian Seacoast (Bucharest: Meridiane, 1966), 24.

12. 12. Cristescu et al., Litoralul Românesc al Mării Negre, 47.

13. 13. Ibid., 48.

14. 14. Irina Băncescu, Problematica Frontului la Apa. Aspecte ale Evoluției Litoralului Românesc in Perioada Comunistă (unpublished dissertation, “Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urbanism, 2012), 158. A survey of Arhitectura magazine, the main publication of the Association of Romanian Architects, shows the evolution of the Romanian seaside: while in the early 1950s socialist realism was the prevailing style, in the mid-1950s some elements of modernism began to be added. In the 1960s, the move to a more cosmopolitan architectural style was reflected by functionalism and the hotels were influenced by the designs of Le Corbusier. In the 1970s modular buildings were introduced, and in the 1980s the rhythm of hotel building considerably slowed down and Arhitectura discussed solutions to improve the existing buildings.

15. 15. Ibid., 203.

16. 16. Cristescu et al., Litoralul Românesc al Mării Negre, 50–53. The place was probably new, as the English edition of the guidebook did not mention it a year earlier.

17. 17. Marioara V., personal interview, Bucharest, July 2013.

18. 18. Nic. C., personal interview, Bucharest, December 2014.

19. 19. The place was of exceptional natural beauty but lacked any tourist infrastructure.

20. 20. Marioara V., personal interview.

21. 21. Ibid.

22. 22. After 1955, both socialist and capitalist Blocs attempted to normalize their relationship, although this was still very tense. Soviets withdrew their troops from Austria in 1955, but in 1956 the Warsaw Pact countries crushed the revolt in Hungary, triggering hostility in the West. In 1959, the Soviets agreed to participate in a consumer goods exhibition in New York, while the Americans did the same in Moscow. Greg Castillo, Cold War on the Home Front: The Doft Power of Mid-Century Design (University of Minnesota Press, 2009), Ellen Mickiewicz, “Efficacy and Evidence, Evaluating US Goals at the American National Exhibition in Moscow, 1959”, Journal of Cold War Studies, vol.13, no. 4, (Fall 2011): 138–171.

23. 23. During the interwar period in Mamaia, the Casino, Villa Albatros, Castle Cara-Dara, and the summer residence of the Romanian royal house were built. In 1938, Hotel Rex was opened, and it was the first establishment to have an individual bathroom on the Romanian seaside. See Claudiu Al. Vitanos, Imaginea României prin Turism, Târguri și Expoziții Universale in Perioada Interbelică (Bucharest: Editura Mica Valahie, 2011).

24. 24. The rest of the surrounding buildings were villas or guesthouses built to accommodate workers who took a vacation through their trade unions.

25. 25. ANIC, Council of Ministers Collection, Office of Petre Borilă, file no. 80/1959, folio 3.

26. 26. Ibid.

27. 27. Cristescu et al., Litoralul Românesc al Mării Negre, 50.

28. 28. C. Lazărescu and L. Popovici, “Amenajarea falezei localitații Vasile Roaită. Ansamblul de Odihna și Cură Vasile Roaită,” Revista Arhitectura, nos. 8–9 (1958): 18–20.

29. 29. Cristescu et al., Litoralul Românesc al Mării Negre, 58–63. In Eforie Nord, Hotel Europa was an impressive building of eleven floors. Built between 1965 and 1966 in a modernist style, it was for foreign tourists only. Unlike most hotels on the seaside, it was open all year long. Its facilities included a terrace on the top floor, an exchange office, and a restaurant on the ground floor. This hotel was part of the new construction wave in Eforie Nord that started at the end of the 1950s. The first major building erected after the war was the Perla restaurant in 1959 and the Hotel Perla in 1959–1960. They were part of a complex of six hotels with only three-to-four floors and an average of 2,000 beds each. The complex was located next to the railway station but further away from the beach. By comparison, Hotel Europa was smaller, with only 500 beds in 240 rooms, but was much more modern, as the name itself suggested. Additionally, a major improvement in the resort’s aesthetics was the construction of Lake Bellona from 1963 to 1964; this was a former swamp transformed into an artificial lake. The artificial lake had its own beach, a solarium, lockers, showers, and a buffet.

30. 30. Cezar Lazărescu, “Hotel Europa la Eforie Nord,” Revista Arhitectura, no. 5 (1966): 30–34.

31. 31. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 138/1971, folio 142.

32. 32. Ibid., folio 143.

33. 33. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 176/1968, folio 27.

34. 34. Ibid., folio 23.

35. 35. Ibid., folio 228.

36. 36. Ibid., folio 230.

37. 37. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 109/1967, folio 74.

38. 38. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 176/1968, folio 234.

39. 39. Ibid., folio 234.

40. 40. Ibid., folio 235.

41. 41. Ibid., folio 234.

42. 42. Ibid., folio 236.

43. 43. Alexandra N., personal interview, Neptun, Romania, March 2013.

44. 44. Doru B., personal interview, Neptun, July 2013.

45. 45. There was a commercial space, Neptun Bazar, located between Neptun and Olimp.

46. 46. Marioara V., personal interview.

47. 47. Ibid.

48. 48. Ibid. Marioara did not know this was a concern of ONT–Littoral. In a February 1970 meeting discussing the institution’s performance, the two vice presidents of the body acknowledged that they overestimated lodging capacity and sold more places than existed on the external market in 1968. See ANIC, Presidency of Council of Ministers Collection, file no 80/1970, folio 41.

49. 49. Prices in international tourism planned for 1979, ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 61/1978, folio 21. The plan was set at 1,470 million lei valuta, out of which 1,080 lei valuta was to come from capitalist countries. This meant that most of the revenues (more than 70 percent) were supposed to come from Western tourists. (Lei valuta = an indicator used by the communist government for exports instead of actual foreign currencies.) Communist Romania had three official exchange rates: one official rate to convert foreign currencies into lei valuta, which are accounting units; one exchange rate for foreign tourists; and one “commercial rate” to convert the values of commodity imports and exports to internal lei. See Marvin R. Jackson, “Perspectives on Romania’s Economic Development in the 1980s,” in Romania in the 1980s, edited by Daniel Nelson (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981), 303. For tourism activities, $1 USD was sold for 18 lei in the 1970s and 12.5 lei in the mid-1980s).

50. 50. BNR, Directorate of Foreign Exchange and Precious Metals Fond, 1976–1977, file no. 43, folio 95.

51. 51. Ibid.

52. 52. Ibid., folio 96.

53. 53. Ibid., folio 96, 104v.

54. 54. Ibid., folio 104v.

55. 55. ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Economic Section, file no. 17/1970, folio 5; ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 16322, vol. 2, folio 12. In 1969, eleven million West Germans spent their holidays abroad. A German travel firm, Arbeiterwohlfahtr, announced that it would stop sending tourists to Romania because of poor conditions and services, including a lack of running water, elevators that were not working, and inedible food, among other problems.

56. 56. BNR, Directorate of Foreign Exchange and Precious Metals Fond, 1976–1977, file no. 43, folio 109v.

57. 57. Ibid., folio 110.

58. 58. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no. 508/1985, folio 25.

59. 59. ANIC, Presidency of Council of Ministers Collection, Coordination Section, file no. 87/1983, folio 16. Tourist arrivals dropped by 25 percent compared to 1982 and by 52 percent compared to 1981.

60. 60. Ibid.

61. 61. See ANIC, CC of PCR Collection, Chancellery Section, file no. 62/1983, folio 36.

62. 62. In 1979, a list of restaurants and bars that would stay open past 10:00 p.m. was approved. See ANIC, CRCP–DOCALS Collection, file no. 103/1979, folio 21.

63. 63. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 8850, vol. 23, folio 46.

64. 64. Ibid., folio 48.

65. 65. Ibid.

66. 66. Ibid.

67. 67. Karen O’Reilly, “Hosts and Guests, Guests and Hosts: British Residential Tourism in the Costa del Sol,” in Cultures of Mass Tourism: Doing the Mediterranean in the Age of Banal Mobilities, edited by Obrador Pau Pons, Penny Travlou, and Mike Crang (Surrey, UK: Ashgate, 2012), 133.

68. 68. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, box 48976, topografica 72.40.405-40.504.

69. 69. Ibid.

70. 70. Ibid.

71. 71. In 1930, in Málaga alone, there were 20 hotels that had a lodging capacity of 1,505 beds in 1,501 rooms. See Pellejero Martinez, “Tourism on the Costa del Sol,” 209; Renta Nacional de Espana y su distribucion provincial (Bilbao, Spain: Fundacion BBV, 1999).

72. 72. “Obituary: Prince Alfonso de Hohenlohe-Langenburg,” Guardian, January 21, 2004, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2004/jan/22/guardianobituaries.spain.

73. 73. Ibid.

74. 74. “Murio en Madrid el financier Ignacio Coca,” El País, June 28, 1986.

75. 75. See the homepage for Fuerte Group Hotels, http://www.grupoelfuerte.com/contenido_es/historia.htm.

76. 76. Pedro Galindo Vegas, Historias del Turismo Español Jose Banús Masdeu (Madrid: Editia EPE S.A. Orense, 2007).

77. 77. For foreigners, buying property involved changing their hard currencies into peseta at a fixed rate established by the state. While the entrepreneurs would get their pesetas to buy land in Spain, the state would benefit from a large amount of hard currency. Rafael F, personal interview, June 2014, Marbella.

78. 78. Rafael F., personal interview, Marbella, June 2014.

79. 79. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, box 48976, topografica 72–40.405-40.504. The number of available rooms increased from 1,133 in 1955 to 4,222 (and 7,966 beds) in 1962.

80. 80. Documenta, no. 38, November 1951, 8–14.

81. 81. For a detailed distribution of tourists according to their nationalities, see Pellejero Martinez, “Tourism on the Costa del Sol,” 212.

82. 82. Rafael F., personal interview.

83. 83. Ibid.

84. 84. El Hotel Pez Espada y su contribución al desarrollo turistico sur la Costa del Sol (Torremolinos: Publicaciones Técnicas, 1989), 128.

85. 85. Victor M. Mellado Morales and Vicente Granados Cabezas, Historia de la Costa del Sol (Málaga: Patronato Provincial de Turismo de la Costa del Sol, 1997), 12.

86. 86. Juan Gavilanes Velaz de Medrano, “El Viaje a la Costa del Sol (1959–1969): Proyecto y Transformación en los inicios del turismo moderno” (doctoral diss., Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 2012).

87. 87. El Sur, July 9, 1959.

88. 88. Desarrollo, May 14, 1972.

89. 89. J. Paz Maroto, “Resumen Critico de las Ponencias desrrolladas en Las Jornadas Urbanisticas de Barcelona,” Revista de Obras Publicas, vol. 1, no. 2937 (Madrid: Colegio de ICCP, 1959), 23.

90. 90. Gavilanes Velaz de Medrano, “El Viaje a la Costa del Sol,” 40.

91. 91. Ibid., 41; D’Abel Albert, Enric Lluch i Martin: L’obra Escrita (Barcelona: Catalan Society of Georgraphy, Institute of Catalan Studies, 2007), 330.

92. 92. Doxiadis Iberica S.A., Estudio para el Desarrollo Turistico de la Costa de Málaga—Cabo de Gata (Madrid: Presidencia del Gobierno, Comisaria del Plan de Desarrollo Economico, 1963), 4–82.

93. 93. Note on the draft law for the management of the maritime-terrestrial zone, AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.007, box 31808, topografica 22/31.404-34.703.

94. 94. Memoria de Actividades Realizadas por El Excmo. Ayuntamiento de Málaga en Orden al Fomento de Turismo en la Costa del Sol (Málaga, 1964), 3.

95. 95. Ibid., 4, 53.

96. 96. Plan de Promoción Turistica de la Costa del Sol, primera fase (Madrid: Institute of Tourist Studies, 1967), 78.

97. 97. Ibid.,13.

98. 98. Ibid., 18.

99. 99. According to the Plan de Promoción, “most of the terrain permanently remained unoccupied while the prices continued to rise” (p. 17).

100. 100. Ibid.,18.

101. 101. Ibid., 19.

102. 102. Ibid.

103. 103. Ibid., 20.

104. 104. Ibid., 22–23.

105. 105. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, box 48959, topografica 72/40.405-40.504.

106. 106. “Carta al Ministerio de Turismo,” Dirhos, no. 1 (November 1972), 1.

107. 107. AGA, Culture Fond, (03) 049.022, box 48959, topografica 72/40.405-40.504.

108. 108. Ibid.

109. 109. Ibid.

110. 110. Ibid.

111. 111. “Casinos et night clubs,” Vacances en Roumanie (1976): 6.

112. 112. Neptun, Romania (Bucharest: ONT–Carpathians, 1970), (tourist flyer).

113. 113. Ibid.

114. 114. Ibid.

115. 115. Doru B., personal interview.

116. 116. Béla Kamocsa, Blues de Timișoara, O autobiografie (Timișoara, Romania: Brumar, 2010), 72.

117. 117. Ibid., 71.

118. 118. Ibid., 72, 73.

119. 119. Doru B., personal interview.

120. 120. Marioara V., personal interview.

121. 121. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Prahova, D 16629, 1971, vol. 3, folio 3.

122. 122. Marioara V., personal interview.

123. 123. See more about this in Gheorghe Florescu, Confesiunile unui cafegiu (Bucharest: Humanitas, 2008). Special shops that sold coffee were for people in the nomenklatura, while coffee was in short supply in ordinary shops.

124. 124. Marioara V., personal interview.

125. 125. ANIC, National Institute for Research and Development in Tourism Collection, file no 7/1974, folio 7.

126. 126. ANIC, CPC–DOCALS Fond, file no.82/1977, folio 173.

127. 127. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, D 11487, 1977, folio 235v.

128. 128. Ibid., folio 237.

129. 129. Ibid., folio 238.

130. 130. Ibid.

131. 131. ACNSAS, Documentary Fond, Constanța, D 18345, 1986, folio 180.

132. 132. Ibid., folio 202.

133. 133. Ibid., folio 203.

134. 134. Doru B., personal interview.

135. 135. Jan M., personal interview, Vienna, May 2013.

136. 136. Ibid.

137. 137. Claudia G., personal interview, March 2010. “My husband and I used to spend our vacations at Costinești. Because it was hard to find housing, we would stay in the car or find a host. But sometimes it was better in the car because one time we discovered that our rented room served as a mortuary place, probably just weeks or months before we stayed there.”

138. 138. Jan M., personal interview.

139. 139. Ibid.

140. 140. La Costa del Sol, Málaga (Málaga: Talleres Graficos “La Española,” 1960), 45.

141. 141. Málaga/Costa del Sol (Madrid: Commission of the Costa del Sol Week in New York, 1970), 61.

142. 142. Map of services in Costa del Sol, in Plan General del Costa del Sol (Madrid: Ministry of Information and Tourism, 1964), 63.[AU: Please add citation to bibliography.]

143. 143. Episcopal Commission of Orthodoxy and Morality, Normas de Decencia Cristiana (Madrid: Secretariate of the Spanish Episcopate, 1958), 37–38.

144. 144. Ibid., 39

145. 145. Ibid., 40

146. 146. Ibid., 39.

147. 147. Ibid., 48.

148. 148. Ibid.

149. 149. Ibid.

150. 150. Douglas Clyne, Your Guide to the Costa del Sol (London: Alvin Redman, 1966), 195.

151. 151. Carmelo Pellejero Martinez, personal interview, Málaga, June 2014.

152. 152. Maria F., personal interview.

153. 153. “Los cursos de formacion de la Sección Femenina tienen un amplio alance para la mujer,” SUR, July 1, 1959, 2.

154. 154. Sergio P., personal interview, Málaga, June 2014.

155. 155. Ibid.

156. 156. Pellejero Martinez, personal interview.

157. 157. Rafael F., personal interview.

158. 158. SUR’s “comic page” mocked individuals who bragged about their interactions with foreign tourists. In one instance, it presents a dialogue between two young women: “Some time ago, I went outside although I had laryngitis.” “Me too … I went out with a guy from abroad.” (“Hago unos dias que salgo la calle con faringitis. Si, yo tambien hace unos dias que … salgo con un chico extranjero.”). Another local was taunted for forgetting his native language: “Speak to me in English … I don’t understand my language.” (“Hablame usted en ingles … mi idioma no le entiendo.”) See “La pagina de humor de Holanda Radio-Luz,” SUR, July 1, 1962, 9.

159. 159. See Greg J. Ashworth and Adri G. J. Dietvorst, Tourism and Spatial Transformation (Oxford: CABI Publishing, 1995); Greg Ringer, Destinations: Cultural Landscapes of Tourism (London: Routledge, 2011); Annette Pritchard and Nigel Morgan, “Narratives of Sexuality, Identity and Relationships in Leisure and Tourism Places,” in Tourism, Consumption and Representation: Narratives of Place and Self, edited by Kevin Meethan, Alison Anderson, and Steve Miles (Oxford: CABI Publishing, 2006), 20.