Notes

Introduction

1.Clare Boothe Luce, “America in the Post-War Air World,” Congressional Record—House, 78th Congress, February 23, 1943, 762.

2.Daniel Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire: A History of the Greater United States (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2019), 17.

3.Victoria De Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 3.

4.Boothe Luce, “America,” 760.

5.Boothe Luce, “America,” 761.

6.For a better understanding of global history, consult Sebastian Conrad, What Is Global History? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017). For an example that applies global history to an investigation of aviation, see Andreas Greiner, “Aviation History and Global History: Towards a Research Agenda for the Interwar Period,” Bulletin of the German Historical Institute 69 (Fall 2021–Spring 2022): 123–50.

7.This work is not the first to chronicle the development of civil aviation outside the West, even if the number of scholars writing such accounts is still quite modest. See, for example, Arratee Ayuttacorn and Jane Ferguson, “Air Male: Exploring Flight Attendant Masculinities in North America and Thailand,” The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 20, no. 4 (2019): 328–43; Willie Hiatt, The Rarified Air of the Modern: Airplanes and Technological Modernity in the Andes (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Elizabeth Manley, “Runway Hospitality: Air Jamaica’s ‘Rare Tropical Birds’ and the Embodied Gender and Race Politics of Tourism, 1966–1980,” Hispanic American Historical Review 102, no. 1 (2022): 285–319; Philip Muehlenbeck, “Czechoslovak Aviation Assistance to Africa (1960–1968),” in Czechoslovakia in Africa, 1945–1968 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 125–56; Jessica Lynne Pearson, “Decolonizing the Sky: Global Air Travel at the End of Empire,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 14, no. 1 (2023): 68–84; Peter Svik, Civil Aviation and the Globalization of the Cold War (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020); Jenifer Van Vleck, “An Airline at the Crossroads of the World: Ariana Afghan Airlines, Modernization, and the Global Cold War,” History and Technology 25, no. 1 (2009): 3–24; John D. Wong, Hong Kong Takes Flight: Commercial Aviation and the Making of a Global Hub, 1930s–1998 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2022); and Waqar Zaidi, “Pakistani Civil Aviation and U.S. Aid to Pakistan, 1950 to 1961,” The Journal of Research Institute for the History of Global Arms Transfer 8 (2019): 83–97.

8.This book occasionally employs the Cold War–era terminology of three worlds since it offers a convenient shorthand for the geopolitical and social divisions of the time. Nevertheless, I recognize the problematic nature of this terminology. Thus, I more frequently refer to the First World as the North Atlantic realm or the West. I also prefer Europe’s socialist East to Second World and Global South to Third World.

As shorthand, I occasionally use the term “East,” and capitalize it, to refer to this Cold War–era rendering of the term. East, in this sense, refers to the area consisting of the Soviet Union and its (supposedly) loyal satellite states in Yugoslavia and elsewhere in Eastern and East-Central Europe. Thus, whereas a capitalized “East” might be more familiar to readers today as a reference to Asia, during the Cold War’s tug of war “West” and “East” referenced the capitalist democracies and their communist adversaries.

On the 1952 creation of the terminology of First, Second, and Third Worlds by anticolonial advocate Albert Sauvy, see Alfred Sauvy, “Trois Mondes, Une Planete,” L’Observateur, August 14, 1952. Also note Sauvy’s contribution in Georges Balandier, ed., Le Tiers-monde: Sous-développement et développement (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1961). Discussion and critique of Sauvy’s creation of the terms is found in Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World (New York: New Press, 2007), 6–7.

9.Kosta Bojović, interview with author, Belgrade, Serbia, May 11, 2018.

10.Sharon Brandt, interview with author, Kingston, Jamaica, January 14, 2018.

11.Exceptions to BOAC’s policy of hiring only flight attendants from Britain were made for stewardesses whose Asian homelands were not only culturally distinct, but also linguistically different. Thus, in 1949, BOAC hired a cadre of stewardesses from Hong Kong, soon followed by women from Pakistan and Singapore.

12.Sharon Brandt, interview with author.

13.Stef Jansen, “The Afterlives of the Yugoslav Red Passport,” Citizenship in Southeast Europe (blog), October 24, 2012, https://www.citsee.eu/citsee-story/afterlives-yugoslav-red-passport.

14.Works chronicling Yugoslavia’s uniquely liberal border policies include William Zimmerman, Open Borders, Nonalignment, and the Political Evolution of Yugoslavia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014). On Jamaica’s and Yugoslavia’s migration histories, see Lara Putnam, Radical Moves: Caribbean Migrants and the Politics of Race in the Jazz Age (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013) and Brigitte Le Normand, Citizens without Borders: Yugoslavia and Its Migrant Workers in Western Europe (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2021).

15.Regarding the West Indies Federation, British plans by the mid-1950s were to bestow independence not on Jamaica itself, since the island had fewer than two million citizens and possessed limited natural resources, but rather on a federation composed of nine of its colonies in the region. When preparations became more contentious, Jamaicans opted out in a September 1961 referendum. This was a decisive defeat for Jamaica’s colonial-era premier Norman Manley at the hands of his political rival Alexander Bustamante, who campaigned strongly for a go-it-alone approach to independence. Jamaica thus became independent as a single entity.

16.Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 312.

17.Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 314.

18.JAT purchased six Ilyushin Il-14 planes from the Soviets in 1957, after Tito and Nikita Khrushchev temporarily normalized relations. However, these planes were deemed so fragile and expensive to repair that they were largely replaced with the planes they were supposed to retire: World War II–era American-made DC-3s. Jovo Simišić, Bio Jedan JAT (Belgrade: Lighthouse Studio, 2022), 20–21.

19.This quote comes from the renowned aircraft engineer Milenko Mitrović, who was commissioned by the Yugoslav state in August 1945 to assess how to rebuild Yugoslavia’s aviation sector. Report from Milenko Mitrović to Privredni savet D. F. J., August 20, 1945, 1, Istorijska beleška fonda vlade FNRJ—Predsedništva vlada, fond 50, subset 85–181, Archives of Yugoslavia (Arhiv Jugoslavije), Belgrade, Serbia (hereafter AJ).

20.Orlando Patterson, The Confounding Island: Jamaica and the Postcolonial Predicament (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019), 12. Patterson credits Roland Robertson with popularizing the term glocalization: Roland Robertson, “Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity,” in Global Modernities, ed. Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash, and Roland Robertson (London: Sage, 1995), 25–44.

21.Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique: Annotated Text, Contexts, Scholarship, 50th anniversary ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013). This book was originally published in 1963.

22.My work on stewardesses in the former Yugoslavia and Jamaica is aligned with the relevant literature on women’s history in both societies.

On the former Yugoslavia: Jelena Batinić, Women and Yugoslav Partisans: A History of World War II Resistance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Chiara Bonfiglioli, Women and Industry in the Balkans: The Rise and Fall of the Yugoslav Textile Sector (London: I.B. Taurus, 2019); Neda Božinović, Žensko pitanje u Srbiji u XIX i XX veku (Belgrade: Dvadesetčetvrta, 1996); Ana Devic, “Redefining the Public-Private Boundary: Nationalism and Women’s Activism in Former Yugoslavia,” Anthropology of East Europe Review 15, no. 2 (1997): 45–61; Vera Gudac Dodić, Žena u Socijalizmu: Položaj žene u Srbiju u drugoj polovini 20. veka (Belgrade: Institut za noviju istoriju Srbije, 2006); Andreja Dugandžić and Tijana Okić, eds., The Lost Revolution: Women’s Antifascist Front between Myth and Forgetting (Sarajevo: Association for Culture and Art CRVENA, 2018); Barbara Jancar-Webster, Women and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945 (Denver, CO: Arden Press, 1990); Jovanka Kecman, Žene Jugoslavije u radničkom pokretu i ženskim organicijama 1918–1941 (Belgrade: Institut za savremenu istoriju, 1978); Julie Mostov, “Sexing the Nation/Desexing the Body: Politics of National Identity in the Former Yugoslavia,” in Gender Ironies of Nationalism: Sexing the Nation, ed. Tamar Mayer (New York: Routledge, 2012), 89–112; Mirjana Morokvašić, “Being a Woman in Yugoslavia: Past, Present, and Institutional Equality,” in Women of the Mediterranean, ed. Monique Gadant (London: Zed Books, 1986), 120–38; Ivana Pantelić, Partizanke kao građanke: Društvena emancipacija partizanki u Srbiji, 1945–1953 (Belgrade: Institut za savremenu istoriju, 2011); Sabrina P. Ramet, Gender Politics in the Western Balkans: Women and Society in Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Successor States (College Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010); Marijana Stojčić and Nađa Duhaček, “From Partisans to Housewives: Representation of Women in Yugoslav Cinema,” Časopis za povijest Zapadne Hrvatske 11 (2016): 69–107; Susan L. Woodward, “The Rights of Women: Ideology, Policy, and Social Change in Yugoslavia,” in Women, State, and Party in Eastern Europe, ed. Sharon L. Wolchik and Alfred G. Meyer (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1985), 234–56.

On Jamaica: Henrice Altink, Destined for a Life of Service: Defining African-Jamaican Womanhood, 1865–1938 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2011); Barbara Bailey, Bridget Brereton, and Verene Shepherd, eds., Engendering History: Cultural and Socio-economic Realities in Africa (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1995); Carolyn Cooper, “Caribbean Fashion Week: Remodeling Beauty in ‘Out of Many One’ Jamaica,” Fashion Theory 14, no. 3 (September 2010): 387–404; Honor Ford-Smith, “Making White Ladies: Race, Gender, and the Production of Identities in Late Colonial Jamaica,” Resources for Feminist Research 23, no. 4 (1994): 55–67; Rosamond S. King, Island Bodies: Transgressive Sexualities in the Caribbean Imagination (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2014); Patricia Mohammed, “ ‘But Most of All Mi Love Me Browning’: The Emergence in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Jamaica of the Mulatto Woman as the Desired,” Feminist Review 65 (Summer 2000): 22–48; Janet Momsen, ed., Women and Change in the Caribbean: A Pan-Caribbean Perspective (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993); Rochelle Rowe, Imagining Caribbean Womanhood: Race, Nation and Beauty Contests, 1929–70 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2013); Consuelo López Springfield, Daughters of Caliban: Caribbean Women in the Twentieth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997); Michelle Ann Stephens, Black Empire: The Masculine Global Imaginary of Caribbean Intellectuals in the United States, 1914–1962 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).

23.Diplomatic historian H. W. Brands considers Yugoslavia as a “wedge” to stress its in-between role in European and Cold War geopolitics. Henry William Brands, The Specter of Neutralism: The United States and the Emergence of the Third World, 1947–1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), esp. 313–15. Meanwhile, the social historian Predrag Marković speaks of the city of Belgrade as being a cultural fusion that combined East and West in the Cold War years. Predrag J. Marković, Beograd između istoka i zapada: 1948–1965 (Belgrade: Službeni list SRJ, 1996).

24.The historian Colin Palmer stresses the various ways in which Jamaica’s sense of nationhood balances its legacy as a colony of Great Britain—and thereby a product of the West—and more vocal expressions of Pan-Africanism through the twentieth century. Colin Palmer, Inward Yearnings: Jamaica’s Journey to Nationhood (Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2016).

1. Clare Boothe Luce

1.Jenifer Van Vleck, Empire of the Air: Aviation and the American Ascendancy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 197.

2.As quoted in Marie Brenner, “Fast and Luce,” Vanity Fair, March 1988.

3.Henry Luce, “The American Century,” 1941, reprinted in Diplomatic History 23, no. 2 (Spring 1999), 166.

4.As quoted in Gayle Corbett Shirley, More than Petticoats: Remarkable Montana Women (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010), 100.

5.An important historical work on separate spheres is Linda K. Kerber, “Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman’s Place: The Rhetoric of Women’s History,” Journal of American History 75, no. 1 (1988): 9–39.

6.Details on Boothe Luce’s political rise are found in Sylvia Jukes Morris, Price of Fame: The Honorable Clare Boothe Luce (New York: Random House, 2015).

7.Boothe Luce, “America,” 763.

8.Boothe Luce, “America,” 759.

9.Boothe Luce, “America,” 762.

10.For deliberations leading up to the 1944 Chicago conference and proceedings at the conference itself, see Alan Dobson, A History of International Civil Aviation: From Its Origins through Transformative Evolution (London: Taylor and Francis, 2017).

11.Boothe Luce, “America,” 760.

12.Boothe Luce, “America,” 761.

13.Boothe Luce, “America,” 762.

14.Boothe Luce, “America,” 763.

15.Boothe Luce, “America,” 762–63.

16.Boothe Luce, “America,” 760.

17.For details on how the United States exercised strategic and commercial control over such “emporia” cities, see Irene Gendzier’s account of US-Lebanese relations and the subsequent forging of Beirut into a regional hub of American activity in the early Cold War: Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon, 1945–1958 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006).

18.Various historians have written on the Chicago conference and the resulting international aviation order. The historian who best considers the conference’s creation of a binding legal and economic system is the late Alan Dobson. See especially his History of International Civil Aviation.

19.A copy of the original Bermuda Agreement from 1946 is available at: https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bermuda_Agreement.

20.Print ads from Pan Am have been consulted at the J. Walter Thompson Company Publications Collection, 1887–2005, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Duke University, Durham, NC (hereafter JWT).

21.Boothe Luce, “America,” 762.

22.Boothe Luce, “America,” 759.

23.An authoritative source on developments in the Eastern bloc, with a special emphasis on Soviet and Czechoslovak developments, is Peter Svik, Civil Aviation and the Globalization of the Cold War (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), esp. 20–23.

24.Japan Air Lines inaugurated flights from Tokyo to Wake Island, Honolulu, and San Francisco in 1954, marking it as the first Asian carrier to fly to the United States. Air India, meanwhile, became the first airline from the formerly colonized Global South to fly to the United States when it acquired its first Boeing 707 in May 1960.

25.An authoritative account of American machinations regarding Yugoslavia during the Cold War is found in Lorraine Lees, Keeping Tito Afloat: The United States, Yugoslavia, and the Cold War (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997).

26.There were local efforts, albeit short-lived ones, to forge a Caribbean airline before World War II. See Chandra D. Bhimull, Empire in the Air: Airline Travel and the African Diaspora (New York: New York University Press, 2017).

27.The composition of the Yugoslav delegation in Chicago and their failure to sign the final treaty is noted in International Civil Aviation Conference, Proceedings of the International Civil Aviation Conference: Chicago, Illinois, November 1–December 7, 1944, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1948).

28.International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Convention on International Civil Aviation Done at Chicago on the 7th Day of December 1944. Text of the treaty, with original signatories, is found at: https://www.icao.int/publications/documents/7300_orig.pdf.

2. The Nonaligned Airline

1.The various constituent regions of Yugoslavia experienced different forms of oversight once the country was conquered in April 1941. Slovenia was swallowed into the German Reich itself; the “Independent State of Croatia,” technically an Italian protectorate until 1943, ceded its coastlands to Italy and then was ruled by a Croatian fascist movement (the Ustaša); Bosnia and Herzegovina were subsumed into the Croatian fascist state; Kosovo was directly ruled by German forces in the interest of mining the region; Macedonia was absorbed into Bulgaria; the Banat region north of Belgrade was effectively placed under the control of local German populations; Hungary was granted the rest of the territory of Vojvodina; and Serbia was occupied by German forces and governed by a collaborative regime of Serbs under General Milan Nedić.

2.An overview of economic conditions in Yugoslavia at the dawn of the post–World War II era is found in Andrei Simić, The Peasant Urbanites: A Study of Rural-Urban Mobility in Serbia (New York: Seminar Press, 1973).

3.Memorandum, Milton M. Turner to George V. Allen, July 29, 1952, file 968.52/7–2952, 1950–54 Central Decimal File, Record Group 59: General Records of the Department of State (hereafter RG 59), National Archives (hereafter NARA).

4.Report, from Milenko Mitrović to Privredni savet D. F. J., August 20, 1945, 1, fond 50, Istorijska beleška fonda vlade FNRJ—Predsedništva vlada, subset 85–181, Archives of Yugoslavia (Arhiv Jugoslavije), Belgrade, Serbia (hereafter AJ).

5.Report, Mitrović to Privredni savet, August 20, 1945, 4.

6.In certain years and in certain documents, this agency was also called by a shorter name: the Main Authority for Aviation Transport (Glavna uprava vazduhoplovstvog saobraćaja, or GUVS).

7.JUSTA stands for Jugoslovensko-sovjetsko akcionarsko društvo za civilno vazduhoplovstvo, or the Yugoslav-Soviet Joint Stock Company for Civil Aviation. On JUSTA’s brief history, see Ilija Kukobat, Sovjetski uticaji na jugoslovensko vazduhoplovstvo 1944–1949: Između saradnje i suprotstavljanja (Belgrade: Institut za savremenu istoriju, 2020).

8.The use of “East” in this chapter refers only to the Cold War connotation of the term and its application to Europe: East, in this sense, refers to the Soviet Union and its influence, which included Moscow’s postwar vision for establishing loyal satellite states in East-Central Europe, including Yugoslavia.

9.Most significantly, lack of membership in the Chicago convention’s organizations made it impossible for airlines of non-member states to sell tickets in ICAO member states, at least in their own name. Tickets would have to be sold by an ICAO member airline, which would then require side agreements with the non-member airline to transfer the funds onward. Additionally, airlines from non-member states were not accountable for maintaining the high technical standards required by the ICAO and IATA, making them riskier choices for customers and for governments considering whether to allow them to fly into their airports.

10.The directives from Tito to Mates are not found in the Ministry of Transportation’s holdings. Instead, they are quoted post facto in: report, Komisija državne kontrole vlade FNRJ, “Izveštaj o pregledu Glavne uprave civilnog vazdušnog saobraćaja i njezinih preduzeća,” January 1949, 4, fond 190, Komisija državne kontrole vlade FNRJ, 1946–51, subset 160–1611, AJ.

11.Hungary’s Mazsovlet lasted as a joint venture from 1946 to 1954, before the Hungarian government took control of the airline and rebranded it MALÉV (Magyar Légiközlekedési Vállalat); Romania’s joint venture with the Soviets was named TARS (Transporturi Aeriene Româno-Sovietic) and lasted for the same duration as the Hungarian-Soviet airline, before rebranding as TAROM (Transporturile Aeriene Române); Bulgaria’s airline was known as TABSO (Transportno-aviazionno balgaro-savetsko obschtestvo) and also existed as a joint venture until 1954; it rebranded as Balkan Bulgarian Airlines in 1968.

12.While JAT was incorporated as a new company in 1947 and the prewar Kingdom of Yugoslavia’s airline, Aeroput, was liquidated, certain members of the aviation community of Serbia stress an important link between the two airlines: many of JAT’s first managers, pilots, and other employees were former Aeroput personnel. Today’s Air Serbia—the legal successor of JAT—thereby claims a history of more than ninety years, including the Aeroput legacy.

13.Eastern European carriers, including even Poland’s LOT (Polskie Linie Lotnicze) and Czechoslovakia’s ČSA (Československé aerolinie), purchased and flew Soviet-built airliners in the Cold War period. See Svik, Civil Aviation.

JAT secured twelve DC-3s between 1947 and 1953, a few of the first ones artfully acquired through UN auspices after being decommissioned by the US military. JAT also possessed three German Junkers Ju-52 aircraft that had been captured during the war and then were prepped for civilian use. The lone exception to JAT’s preference for Western aircraft was when it purchased Soviet planes in 1957, which were calamitous for the airline. See Simišić, Bio Jedan JAT, 20–21.

14.For Yugoslavia’s involvement in the Trieste crisis, see Federico Tenca Montini, Trst ne damo!: Jugoslavija i Tršćansko pitanje 1945–1954 (Zagreb: Srednja Europa, 2021). For consideration of Yugoslavia’s support of communist rebels in the Greek Civil War and the preponderance of Slavic Macedonians in this struggle, see James Horncastle, The Macedonian Slavs in the Greek Civil War, 1944–1949 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2019).

15.The records of the Ministry of Transportation provide little additional information on Pudarić. They do mention that he was a member of the Communist Party and attribute his westward orientation to contacts established during his education in France and his service as a pilot on behalf of the Yugoslav Army during World War II while based in the United Kingdom. He later joined the Partisans. More details on Pudarić can be found in Simišić, Bio Jedan JAT, 35–38 and 41–42.

16.Report, Glavna uprava za turizam, “Zapisnik po pitanjima civilnog vazdušnog saobraćaja, održane na poziv Glavne uprave za turizam u Beogradu,” December 15, 1947, 5, fond 290, Jugoslovensko-Sovjetsko akcionarsko društvo za civilno vazduhoplovstvo—JUSTA, subset 2, AJ.

17.Report, Glavna uprava za turizam, December 15, 1947, 12.

18.This figure comes from: report, Filimena Mihajlovna, “Kratak izveštaj o pregledu Glavne uprave civilnog vazdušnog saobraćaja,” December 29, 1948, 2, fond 19, Komisija državne kontrole vlade FNRJ, subset 160–1611, AJ.

19.Letter from Ivan Režić, secretary of the Ministry of Transportation, to Savet za Izgradnju Beograda, June 30, 1947, fond 50, Istorijska beleška fonda vlade FNRJ—Predsedništva vlada, subset 85–181, AJ.

20.“Razvoj našeg vazduhoplovnog saobraćaja,” Politika, October 11, 1947, 5. The full plan itself is published as: Government of Yugoslavia, Petogodišnji plan razvitka narodne privrede FNRJ u godinima 1947–1951 (Belgrade: RAD, 1948).

21.The figure of 6,421 passengers is found in: Savezni Zavod za Statistiku, Saobraćaj i Veze 1958, published as part of the series Statistički Bilten, vol. 149, October 1959, pp. 115, 117, fond 599 F-129, AJ. This figure, along with the other figures cited here, is repeated in Simišić, Bio Jedan JAT, 39–40.

22.Report, Ing. Vukan Dešić, pomoćnik ministra saobraćaja, “Zbirni Finansijski Plan JUSTA-e za II. Tromesečje 1947 g.,” April 30, 1947, fond 290, Jugoslovensko-Sovjetsko akcionarsko društvo za civilno vazduhoplovstvo—JUSTA, subset 3, AJ.

23.Savezni Zavod za Statistiku, Saobraćaj i Veze 1958, 115, 117.

24.Report, “Predmet: JUSTA,” February 12, 1949, fond 19, Komisija državne kontrole vlade FNRJ, subset: 161–1613, AJ.

25.According to the protocol signed on August 31, 1949, the Yugoslavs owed the Soviets a total of 28.5 million dinars, much of which is directly attributable to expenses for JUSTA. The Yugoslavs placed the full amount into a clearinghouse and the Ministry of Foreign Trade came to an agreement with the USSR’s trade representative in Yugoslavia about what amount of goods and money would be exchanged for full repayment. Protocol, “Protokol o likvidaciji Jugoslovensko-Sovjetskog dunavskog parobrodskog akcionarskog društva JUSPAD i Jugoslovensko-Sovjetskog akcionarskog društva za civilno vazduhoplovstvo JUSTA,” fond 290, Jugoslovensko-Sovjetsko akcionarsko društvo za civilno vazduhoplovstvo—JUSTA, subset 4, AJ.

The overall Five-Year Plan was left unfulfilled, in part due to the upheaval with the Soviets.The government opted never to publish the results of the plan.

26.Letter from the director, Jugoslovenski Aerotransport to Češkoslovenske Aerolinije, November 12, 1949, fond 620, Uprava za civilno vazduhoplovstvo, subset F-56, AJ.

27.Report to Ministar saobraćaja FNRJ, “Predmet: Kadrovi u Glavnoj upravi za vazdušni saobraćaj,” February 28, 1949, fond 19, Komisija državne kontrole vlade FNRJ, subset 160–1911, AJ.

28.Details on Pudarić’s fate are found in Simišić, Bio Jedan JAT, 41–42. Discussion of the other “enemy agents” is found in: report, “Predmet: Kadrovi u Glavnoj upravi,” February 28, 1949, 3–4.

29.The historian Petar Dragišić describes Yugoslavia’s relations with Austria from 1945 to 1949 as “a war after the war,” in that economic and political activity between the two countries was limited and adversarial, with the Yugoslav press and politicians stressing the complicity of Austrians in the Nazi occupation of parts of Yugoslavia and the war crimes committed therein. Petar Dragišić, “Rat posle rata: Jugoslavija i Austrija 1945–1949,” in Odnosi Jugoslavije i Austrije 1945–1955 (Belgrade: Institut za noviju istoriju Srbije, 2013), 25–102.

30.The diplomatic correspondence is quoted in Thomas Bürgisser, Wahlverwandtschaft zweier Sonderfälle im Kalten Krieg: Schweizerische Perspektiven auf das sozialistische Jugoslawien 1943–1991 (Bern: Diplomatische Dokumente der Schweiz, 2017), 251. The citation for the original quote, as found in the Swiss Diplomatic Documents (DDS), is: Schreiben der Deutschen Interessenvertretung des EPD in Basel (F. Kästli) an den Vorsteher des EPD (M. Petitpierre) vom 16.6.1945; DDS, bd. 16, dok. 12, dodis.ch/316.

31.Bürgisser, Wahlverwandtschaft zweier Sonderfälle, 255.

32.It was in this financial context that the Yugoslav Foreign Ministry authorized the Ministry of Transportation to conclude negotiations with the Swiss in March 1949. Memo from K. Badnjević (načelnik IV odeljenje) to Ministarstvo Saobraćaja (GUCVS), March 14, 1949, godina 1949, zemlja Švajcarska, fascikla 103, dosije 16, Vazdušni saobraćaj sa Švajcarskom, broj dok. 44631, Diplomatic Archives (Diplomatski Arhiv), Ministarstvo spoljnih poslova, Republic of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia (hereafter DA).

33.Protocol, “Rešenje o potvrdi Sporazuma o vazdušnom saobraćaju između Federativne Narodne Republike Jugoslavije i Sjedinjenih Američkih Država,” December 24, 1949, fond 50, Istorijska beleška fonda vlade FNRJ—Predsedništva vlada, subset 65–146, AJ.

34.To account for this relative largesse, an October 1950 State Department memo characterized this and future connections between Yugoslavia and the West to be in America’s national interest: “The Embassy [in Belgrade] felt at the time that the existing transport connections were insufficient in view of Yugoslavia’s increasing economic and political orientation toward the West.” Dispatch, from Belgrade to Department of State, Air Service between Belgrade and Athens or Rome, March 27, 1951, file 968.5281/3–2751, RG 59, NARA.

35.The economic aspects of American-Yugoslav relations were finalized about a year and a half before the aviation agreement, in July 1948. See Lees, Keeping Tito Afloat.

36.Memo from Yugoslav Embassy, Washington, DC, “Otvorena pitanja iz naših finansiskih odnosa sa SAD,” September 28, 1949, godina 1949, fascikla 96, dosije 10, Naši trgovački odnosi sa S. Amerikom, broj dok. 423456, DA.

37.Dispatch from Belgrade to Department of State, “Memorandum of Conversation, Subject: Yugoslav Civil Aviation,” August 9, 1950, 2, file 968.52/8–1050, RG 59, NARA.

38.The West German government was not permitted to start an airline of its own, Lufthansa, until 1955. Instead, Pan Am operated the largest number of West German domestic routes, including flights from Frankfurt and Munich into West Berlin’s Tempelhof Airport (in the city’s American occupation zone). Once Lufthansa incorporated, new aviation treaties between Yugoslavia and West Germany replaced the treaty from 1949. The same was true of an eventual Yugoslav-Austrian air treaty that followed Austrian independence in 1955 and the founding of Austrian Airlines in 1957.

39.Report from P. Tomić, šef trgovinske delegacije FNRJ, “Izveštaj o trgovinskim pregovorima sa Egiptom (17 juni–7 avgust 1950),” undated, 12, fond 50, Istorijska beleška fonda vlade FNRJ—Predsedništva vlada, subset 65–146, folder: Egipat, AJ.

40.Some of the latest scholarship on Yugoslavia’s relationship with the Non-Aligned Movement is found in Paul Stubbs, ed., Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement: Social, Cultural, Political, and Economic Imaginaries (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2023). The diplomacy leading to Yugoslavia’s inclusion in NAM is found in Svetozar Rajak, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union in the Early Cold War: Reconciliation, Comradeship, Confrontation, 1953–1957 (New York: Routledge, 2010).

41.Edvard Kardelj, Yugoslavia in International Relations and in the Non-Aligned Movement (Belgrade: Socialist Thought and Practice, 1979), 234. As quoted in Konstantin Kilibarda, “Non-aligned Geographies in the Balkans: Space, Race, and Image in the Construction of New ‘European’ Foreign Policies,” in Security beyond the Discipline: Emerging Dialogues on Global Politics, ed. Abhinava Kumar and Derek Maisonville (Toronto: York University Centre for International and Security Studies, 2010), 34.

42.Svetozar Rajak, “ ‘Companions in Misfortune’: From Passive Neutralism to Active Un-commitment; The Critical Role of Yugoslavia,” in Neutrality and Neutralism in the Global Cold War: Between or Within the Bloc?, ed. Sandra Bott, Jussi Hanhimäki, Janick Marina Schaufelbuehl, and Marco Wyss (London: Routledge, 2016), 75.

43.Kilibarda, “Non-aligned Geographies in the Bakans,” 39n11.

44.On load factor, see report, Savezni zavod za statistiku, “Saobraćaj i veze 1958,” undated, 120, fond, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-129, AJ. On profitability, see report, Uprava civilnog vazduhoplovstva, “Razmatranje o planu vazdušnog saobraćaja za 1960 godinu,” undated, 29, fond 599, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-193, AJ.

45.Rajak, “ ‘Companions in Misfortune,’” 75n17.

46.Patrick Hyder Patterson, Bought and Sold: Living and Losing the Good Life in Socialist Yugoslavia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), xvi.

47.Stef Jansen, “The Afterlives of the Yugoslav Red Passport,” Citizenship in Southeast Europe (blog), October 24, 2012, https://www.citsee.eu/citsee-story/afterlives-yugoslav-red-passport.

48.Patterson, Bought and Sold, 2.

49.The flights to Cairo debuted on April 19, 1955. As the CV-340s were being delivered in the summer of 1954, the proposed routes and frequencies, which had been altered a bit from the actual 1955 flight plans, were included in US embassy correspondence from July 30, 1954: Dispatch from Belgrade to Department of State, “Sale of Convair Aircraft to JAT,” July 10, 1954, file 968.526/7–3054, RG 59, NARA.

50.On American efforts to prop up Convair’s product over the UK’s Vickers, see memo from John Foster Dulles to US Embassy Belgrade, “Sale of Convair Aircraft to JAT,” July 1, 1954, file 968.526/7–154, RG 59, NARA.

51.Memo, Dulles to US Embassy Belgrade, July 1, 1954, 2.

52.Boothe Luce, “America,” 762.

53.Dispatch from US Embassy Belgrade to Department of State, “Yugoslav Purchase of Three Convair 340 Planes,” November 4, 1952, file 968.526/11–452, RG 59, NARA.

54.Dispatch from US Embassy Belgrade to Department of State, “Possible Pan American World Airways (PAA) Participation in General Survey of Jugoslovenski Aerotransport (JAT) and Opening of an Agency in Belgrade,” October 6, 1960, file 968.72/10–660, RG 59, NARA.

55.Dispatch from Belgrade to Department of State, “Sale of Convair Aircraft to JAT,” July 10, 1954.

56.On the development of Adriatic tourism, see Hannes Grandits and Karin Taylor, eds., Yugoslavia’s Sunny Side: A History of Tourism in Socialism, 1950s–1980s (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2010).

57.Dispatch, from US Embassy Belgrade to Department of State, “Yugoslav Plans for Use of DC-6’s and Convairs in Expansion of Yugoslav Airline,” December 10, 1958, file 968.72/12–1058, RG 59, NARA.

58.Airgram from US Embassy Belgrade to Secretary of State, November 3, 1958, file 968.72/11–358, RG 59, NARA.

59.Report, “Informacija o problematici civilnog vazduhoplovstva,” undated, 4, fond 599, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-193, AJ. The text itself notes that the document is composed of a presentation from the director general of civil aviation to the Savezno izvršno veće (SIV—the Federal Executive Council). The document is filed with other documents from 1956.

60.Dispatch from US Embassy Belgrade to Department of State, “Yugoslav Interest in Possible Purchase of Jet Aircraft,” June 17, 1960, 1, file 968.726/6–1760, RG 59, NARA.

61.To put more precise figures on the size of the trade, 15.8 percent of Yugoslav exports in 1960 headed to the Global South. This percentage remained consistent through the decade before dipping in 1970 to 13.2 percent. Exports to Eastern Europe were twice as numerous in the 1960s, while exports to the West about three times more numerous. See Central Intelligence Agency, “Yugoslavia,” National Intelligence Survey 21, April 1973, 28, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP01-00707R000200100032-0.pdf.

62.A timeline of these exchanges and meetings is found in Petar Žarković, “Yugoslavia and the USSR 1945–1980: The History of a Cold War Relationship,” YU historia (blog), accessed March 29, 2023, https://yuhistorija.com/int_relations_txt01c1.html.

63.Jan Berge, JAT Glory Days: Yugoslavia’s National Airline through Communism, 1947–1987 (self-pub., 2013), 19 and 22, accessed at: https://www.academia.edu/14553153/JAT_GLORY_DAYS?auto=download.

64.Berge, JAT Glory Days, 18–19.

65.Report from Uprava civilnog vazduhoplovstva, “Informacija o liberalizaciji međunarodnog vazdušnog saobraćaja u Jugoslaviji,” October 9, 1962, 1–2, fond 599, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-195, AJ.

66.Adria Airways (Adria Aviopromet in Slovenian) was founded in August 1961 by the Slovenian republican government and various Slovene investors. Its relationship with JAT was at times antagonistic (mainly due to fears that the Yugoslav market was too small for two independent airlines), while at other moments cooperative. Since Adria did not have scheduled flights until the 1980s, it was often a counterpoint to JAT, as Adria exclusively handled cargo and charter passengers, while JAT—though still very much in the cargo and charter markets—was primarily a scheduled airline. When antagonisms between Yugoslavia’s constituent nationalities flared up, rivalries also surfaced between the Slovene airline, a smaller Croatian airline (Pan Adria Airways) that was also founded in 1961 as a domestic-only carrier, and JAT, which was at times perceived as heavily Serbian.

67.Report from Adria Aviopromet, “Osnove, predlozi i analitički podaci za uspostavljanje redovne vazdušne linije između FNRJ i zemalja velikog Magreba—Tunis, Alžir, Maroko,” June 1962, 6, fond 599, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-195, AJ.

68.Report from Adria Aviopromet, “Osnove,” June 1962, 7.

69.Report from Adria Aviopromet, “Osnove,” June 1962, 2.

70.Report from Adria Aviopromet, “Osnove,” June 1962, 11.

71.After ceasing their flights to Tunis in 1961, the Soviets by 1965 were flying to Algeria and on to Accra, even stopping in Belgrade for refueling. To protect Adria’s market share, however, Aeroflot was not allowed to pick up passengers in Belgrade. Report from Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, “Informacija u vezi pisma preduzeća za aerodromske usluge aerodrom ‘Beograd’ u odnosu na liberalizaciju u vazdušnom saobraćaju,” January 13, 1965, 4–5, fond 599, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-259 343, folder 84, AJ.

72.Report from Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, “Informacija,” January 13, 1965.

73.Details on Yugoslav investments in Libya are found in the Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the Republic of Serbia. For the number of Yugoslav citizens living in Libya in 1968, see “Izveštaj o radu konzularne službe u 1968 godini,” January 28, 1969, sig. broj 45793, dosije 1. On the value of corporate contracts in Libya, see “Zabeleska o pitanju posete člana SIV-a Ali Šukrije u Libiji,” February 10, 1969, sig. broj 44818, dosije 2. These items are both found in godina 1969, zemlja Libija, fascikla 219, DA.

74.Using 1956 and 1962 as sample points: In 1956, JAT’s total income was 1.648 billion dinars, of which 600 million dinars (36.4 percent) was a state subsidy. Report, Milan Simović, direktor preduzeća JAT-a, to Saveznom izvršnom veću, Sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, “Rešenje o načinu upotrebe dotacije JAT-u,” April 11, 1956, 3, fond 599, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-194, AJ.

JAT’s 1962 income was 5.214 billion dinars, of which 1.05 billion (20 percent) was a state subsidy. Report from Jugoslovenski Aerotransport, “JAT: Predloženi plan za 1962 godinu,” undated, fond 599, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-193, AJ.

75.Costs for Belgrade’s new airport from 1956 to 1960 totaled 6.183 billion dinars. Meanwhile, construction of the new Dubrovnik airport and runways at five other airports were slated to cost another 8 billion dinars, starting in 1960. It should be noted that Dubrovnik’s airport, like Belgrade’s, experienced significant delays and cost overruns. Memorandum from Uprava civilnog vazduhoplovstva to Sekretarijatu SIV-a za saobraćaj i veze, “Predmet: Predlog za obrazovanje Direkcije aerodrome u izgradnji kao investitora za sve civilne aerodrome u Jugoslaviji,” February 16, 1960, 1, fond 599, Savezni sekretarijat za saobraćaj i veze, subset F-193, AJ.

76.On unemployment, see Susan Woodward, Socialist Unemployment: The Political Economy of Yugoslavia, 1945–1990 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), especially 383; on debt, see CIA, “Yugoslavia,” 29; on trade deficits, 26.

3. G. Arthur Brown

1.Delays in implementing the final accords ultimately pushed back Jamaica’s independence to August 6, 1962.

2.“Independence: Premier Hints Aug. 1,” Daily Gleaner (Kingston, Jamaica), January 29, 1962, 2.

3.On the inaugural dates of Pan Am’s jet service to both Montego Bay in 1959 and Kingston in 1962, see “Pan-Am Starts Jamaica-Miami Jet Service,” Daily Gleaner, February 5, 1962, 2.

4.Because G. Arthur Brown did not complete his memoir before his death, information about his personal life and exact whereabouts for key moments in this narrative is incomplete. Regarding his participation in the London Independence Conference, see P. J. Patterson, “My Political Journey: Jamaica’s Sixth Prime Minister, Part 6—The Federal Experiment,” Daily Gleaner, December 9, 2018.

The list of Brown’s accomplishments is assembled from a variety of published sources: “Dilemmas of Caribbean Development: An Interview with G. Arthur Brown,” Fletcher Forum 9, no. 2 (Summer 1985): 255–68; “George Brown, 70, Former Governor of Bank of Jamaica,” New York Times, March 5, 1993, A20; “George Arthur Brown,” Prabook, accessed December 28, 2021, https://prabook.com/web/george_arthur.brown/568082.

5.The Commission of Inquiry on Civil Aviation in the West Indies was created on April 4, 1961, by the cabinet of Jamaica to make recommendations on aviation policy. G. Arthur Brown chaired the first meeting on July 3 of the same year. A. G. S. Coombs, minister of communications and works, “Cabinet Submission: Commission of Inquiry on Civil Aviation in the West Indies,” August 30, 1961, FCO 141/5476, Foreign and Commonwealth Office Records (FCO), The National Archives of the United Kingdom, Kew, UK (hereafter NAUK).

6.Roosevelt’s assertion of American policing power is a quote from his 1904 address to Congress announcing what became known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. See “Theodore Roosevelt’s Annual Message to Congress for 1904,” December 6, 1904, HR 58A-K2, Records of the US House of Representatives, Record Group 233, Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives.

7.Key scholarly works that cover either US-Jamaican or UK-Jamaican relations in the run-up to independence include: Obika Gray, Radicalism and Social Change in Jamaica, 1960–1972 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991); Spencer Mawby, Ordering Independence: The End of Empire in the Anglophone Caribbean, 1947–1969 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Kenneth Morgan, A Concise History of Jamaica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023); Jason C. Parker, Brother’s Keeper: The United States, Race, and Empire in the British Caribbean, 1937–1962 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); and Diana Paton and Matthew J. Smith, The Jamaica Reader: History, Culture, Politics (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021).

8.Under the leadership of the Jamaican Labour Party in the 1960s, especially Prime Minister Hugh Shearer, the government developed a policy of Jamaicanization, which Obika Gray characterizes as a response to the “growing demand for a larger domestic share in the ownership of the national economy.” Gray proceeds to characterize this as a “weak policy” that was half-heartedly applied until the more progressive prime ministership of Michael Manley that began in 1972. Gray, Radicalism and Social Change, 196–97.

9.Report, “Jamaica and the West Indies in 1961,” attached to saving telegram from Governor, Jamaica to Secretary of State for the Colonies, April 10, 1961, GSO, ref. CSP, 138/S3, pp. 2–3, CO 1031/3624, Records of the Colonial Office (CO), NAUK.

10.Report, “Jamaica and the West Indies,” 3.

11.Report, “Jamaica and the West Indies,” 5–6. For details on the Colonial Development Corporation, see Mike Cowen, “Early Years of the Colonial Development Corporation: British State Enterprise Overseas during Late Colonialism,” African Affairs 83, no. 330 (January 1984): 63–75.

12.The £6 million sum is cited in Ministry of Communications and Works, “Airport Development,” Parliament Ministry Paper no. 43/1969, May 21, 1969, Government and United Nations Documents (GUND), University of the West Indies Library, Mona (Kingston), Jamaica (hereafter UWI). An example of a decision by the colonial government to borrow for runway improvements in Kingston is found in: telegram from Acting Governor of Jamaica to Secretary of State for the Colonies, March 3, 1951, p. 2, CO 937/185/1, CO, NAUK.

13.According to numbers published in the Canadian press, tourist arrivals in Jamaica in 1956 totaled 161,000, with 1961 numbers rising to over 300,000. “Jamaican Visitors Boost Island as Tourist, Industrial Paradise,” Ottawa Citizen, January 28, 1958, 17. Using a slightly different metric of foreign visitors, statistics compiled by the government of Jamaica detail the next doubling of tourist numbers from 1960 to 1970: 226,000 foreign arrivals were counted in 1960, with 415,720 arriving in 1970. P. J. Patterson, “Tourism Development,” Parliament Ministry Paper no. 61/1975, December 11, 1975, 1–2, GUND, UWI. On Willis’s promise to double the number of tourists, see “Pan-Am Starts Jamaica–Miami Jet Service,” Daily Gleaner, February 5, 1962, 2.

14.G. Arthur Brown, Patterns of Development and Attendant Choices and Consequences for Jamaica and the Caribbean (Kingston: GraceKennedy Foundation, 1989), 4–5.

15.The number of hotel rooms in Jamaica are covered in: O. G. Balz, “Proposed Hotel—Montego Bay, Jamaica,” draft, October 20, 1956, p. 4, folder 28, box 323, Intercontinental Hotels Corp. Collection, Pan American World Airways Archives, University of Miami, Miami, FL (hereafter PAWA).

Pan Am’s original enticements to build the hotel at Montego Bay included a sales pitch from the head of the town’s Chamber of Commerce, Walter Fletcher, to Pan Am’s president Juan Trippe that focused on the 1944 Hotel Aid Law. See: letter from Walter Fletcher to Juan T. Trippe, president, Pan American World Airways, February 26, 1949, p. 2, folder 28, box 323, Intercontinental Hotels Corp. Collection, PAWA.

16.BOAC’s losses in BWIA are reported in A. G. S. Coombs, minister of communication and works (Govt. of Jamaica), “Cabinet Submission: Report on the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Aviation,” December 13, 1960, appendix A, 9, FCO141/5501, FCO, NAUK.

Jamaican ministers’ antagonism toward BWIA is manifest in a cabinet decision from 1961: “It would be extremely disadvantageous to allow the Trinidad Government to acquire BWIA because that Government is mainly interested in the airline as an employment agency, whilst Jamaica’s primary interest lies in tourism.” See: Gov. of Jamaica, “Cabinet Decision,” no. 54/61, August 14, 1961, 2, in FCO 141/5476, FCO, NAUK.

17.“Extract from Ministry Paper No. 98 Dated 13th December 1965,” 2, attached as appendix A to “Air Jamaica,” Ministry Paper no. 3, January 27, 1969, Jamaica House of Representatives Ministry Papers, 1969, GUND, UWI.

18.As a trade-off for limiting losses, there was also a cap on Jamaica’s profits: UK£60,000 over three years. See letter from P. W. Beckwith, February 22, 1968, folder I, Air Jamaica Limited, April 14, 1966–3 October 3, 1969, file number 796/03, Air Jamaica Papers, Ministry of Finance and Planning Archives, Kingston, Jamaica (hereafter AirJ).

19.Cleve Lewis, minister of communications and works, as quoted in Jamaica Hansard, Proceedings of the House of Representatives of Jamaica, session 1965–66, vol. 1, no. 2, 680–81, GUND, UWI.

20.Discussion of American claims of a “paper airline” are found in: letter from C. E. Diggins, British High Commission, Kingston, to E. L. Sykes, Commonwealth Relations Office, London, October 4, 1963, in Records of the Dominions Office (DO) 200/33, NAUK.

21.Letter from Diggins to Sykes, October 4, 1963.

22.Letter from R. Le Goy to R. H. Oakeley, Commonwealth Relations Office, London, “Jamaica: USA,” October 5, 1964, 2, in BT 245/1400, BT, NAUK.

23.The dynamic of Cold War proxies is detailed in Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third-World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 1–7.

24.The British diplomatic quote comes from Oakeley to Mr. Watson, file notes on document 35A, October 15, 1963, DO 200/33, DO, NAUK.

The quote from the Jamaican ambassador to the United States is found in: Neville Ashenheim to Civil Aviation Board, September 22, 1964, 4, BT 245/1400, BT, NAUK.

25.“Airline Not Only for Prestige Purposes—Sangster,” Daily Gleaner, May 2, 1966, 2.

26.“BOAC’s Separate U.S.-Jamaica Service Ends,” Daily Gleaner, May 2, 1966, 9.

27.G. Arthur Brown, as quoted in “ ‘Dream Come True,’” Sunday Gleaner, May 1, 1966, “Salute to Air Jamaica” special insert, ii.

28.Letter from O. H. Goldson, permanent secretary, Ministry of Communication and Works, to P. W. Beckwith, “Air Jamaica (1968) Ltd.,” January 6, 1969, folder I: Air Jamaica Limited, April 14, 1966–October 3, 1969, file number 796/03, AirJ.

29.Letter from Goldson to Beckwith, January 6, 1969.

30.Internal correspondence from Air Jamaica managers from July 1969 notes: “It is hoped that … the first class of twelve [Jamaican pilots] will be ready for initial training either in late 1969 or early 1970.” See “Report of Managing Director for Month of June 1969,” July 24, 1969, folder I: Air Jamaica Limited, April 14, 1966–October 3, 1969, file number 796/03, AirJ.

31.The figures for the bank loan and redeemable preference shares are found in Economics Division, Ministry of Finance and Planning, “Subhead 10—Purchase of Share in Government Companies—£234,000,” April 23, 1969. The allocation of funds and of stock for the DC-9 purchases is further detailed in Air Jamaica (1968) Limited, “Minutes of Third Directors’ Meeting,” January 9, 1969, 5–7. Notice of the need for the additional $10 million in 1974 is found in a memo from O. H. Goldson, permanent secretary, Ministry of Communication and Works, to P. M. Beckwith, “Air Jamaica (1968) Ltd.,” February 1969, 1. All of these documents are found in folder I: Air Jamaica Limited, April 14, 1966–October 3, 1969, file number 796/03, AirJ.

32.Economics Division, Ministry of Finance and Planning, “Note on Cabinet Submission No. 789/MCW-69 Future of Air Jamaica,” November 8, 1968, folder I: Air Jamaica Limited, April 14, 1966–October 3, 1969, file number 796/03, AirJ.

33.US Embassy Jamaica to Dept. of State, airgram A-300, July 10, 1968, file AV 6 JAM, 1967–69 Central Decimal File (CDF), RG 59, NARA.

34.US Embassy Jamaica to Dept. of State, telegram 1478, January 24, 1968, file AV 6 JAM, 1967–69 CDF, RG 59, NARA.

35.Letter from Neville Ashenheim to N. C. Lewis, minister of communications and works, September 2, 1969, 1–2, folder I: Air Jamaica Limited, April 14, 1966–October 3, 1969, file number 796/03, AirJ.

36.Letter from Ashenheim to Lewis, September 2, 1969.

37.Joseph S. Murphy, “Air Jamaica Stirs Up a Storm of Service … and That Spells Profit!,” Air Transport World, October 1972, 15–16. At its furthest expanse, Air Jamaica flew to both the UK and to continental Europe (Frankfurt), as well as numerous cities in the United States and Canada—from Los Angeles in the southwest to Montreal in the northeast.

38.The 1956 figure, cited earlier, is from O. G. Balz, vice president, Intercontinental Hotels Corporation, “Proposed Hotel—Montego Bay, Jamaica” (draft), October 20, 1956, 4, folder 28, box 323, Intercontinental Hotels Corporation Collection, PAWA. Details of the terms of the “Hotel (Incentives) Act” are found in P. J. Patterson, minister of industry, tourism and foreign trade, “Tourism Development,” Ministry Paper no. 61, 1975, 7, Jamaica House of Representatives Ministry Papers, 1975, UWI.

39.The guarantees for the Montego Bay Intercontinental and the Pegasus are detailed in P. J. Patterson, minister of tourism, “Tourism in 1974,” speech to Parliament, not dated (1974), 8–10, folder “PJP 363” in P. J. Patterson Papers, Caribbean Leaders Collection, UWI.

Details on the additional Intercontinental projects in Kingston and Ocho Rios, as well as another eight convention-sized hotels owned by the UDC, are found in P. J. Patterson, minister of tourism, “UDC,” speech to Parliament, not dated (1976), 6–7, folder “PJP 363” in P. J. Patterson Papers, UWI.

40.Brown, Patterns of Development, 7.

41.Andrew Marti, “Preliminary Findings and Recommendations, Air Jamaica Report #4,” May 29, 1975, 1, folder “PJP 378,” P. J. Patterson Papers, UWI.

42.Patterson, “UDC,” 7–9.

43.As cited in “Annual Report—Air Jamaica (1968) Ltd.,” Ministry Paper no. 37, July 13, 1975, Jamaica House of Representatives Ministry Papers, 1975, GUND, UWI.

44.As quoted in “Annual Report—Air Jamaica (1968) Ltd.,” Ministry Paper no. 39, September 21, 1976, Jamaica House of Representatives Ministry Papers, 1975, GUND, UWI.

45.Coverage of Manley’s initial economic program is offered by Christine Clarke and Carol Nelson, “A Clash of Ideologies: Jamaica and the International Monetary Fund,” in Contextualizing Jamaica’s Relationship with the IMF (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 164–216. The use of the slogan “Better Mus’ Come” is covered in Nelson W. Keith and Novella Zett Keith, The Social Origins of Democratic Socialism in Jamaica (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992).

46.This quote is reprinted on the website for “Life and Debt: A Film by Stephanie Black,” January 15, 2022, http://www.lifeanddebt.org/about.html.

47.Details of Jamaica’s debt status and the standoff with the IMF are from Karen DeYoung, “Manley’s Rift with IMF Dominates Jamaican Economics,” Washington Post, September 6, 1980.

48.Details of the 1974 conditions at the airline are found in “Annual Report [for 1975]—Air Jamaica (1968) Ltd.,” Ministry Paper no. 39, September 21, 1976, UWI. The debt-to-equity ratio is found in “Annual Report [for 1976]—Air Jamaica Limited,” Ministry Paper no. 30, July 29, 1977, 4, UWI.

49.“Annual Report [for 1976]—Air Jamaica Limited,” Ministry Paper no. 30, July 29, 1977, 4, UWI.

50.Contrast my conclusions with other historians writing on aviation in the Global South as a venue for national prestige and autocratic corruption, as in Jeffrey Engel’s work: “Leaders in the developing world, in particular heads of new nations decolonized at war’s end, understood airpower’s cachet equally as well. They saw aircraft as potential symbols of their authority at home and their legitimacy abroad, whether through the shining planes they ordered for their personal use or the (frequently unprofitable) national airlines that sprang up like wildflowers throughout the early Cold War. In either case, aircraft brought instant respectability.” Jeffrey Engel, Cold War at 30,000 Feet: The Anglo-American Fight for Aviation Supremacy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 6.

51.Letter from R. Le Goy to R. H. Oakeley, Commonwealth Relations Office, London, “Jamaica: USA,” October 5, 1964, 2, in BT 245/1400, BT, NAUK.

4. Alix d’Unienville

1.For details on World War II’s impact on hiring men and women in the United States, see Phil Tiemeyer, Plane Queer: Labor, Sexuality, and AIDS in the History of Male Flight Attendants (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), especially chapter 2, “The Cold War Gender Order.”

2.In Europe, the few airlines hiring stewardesses in the 1930s included Swissair, which in 1934 hired Europe’s first stewardess, Nellie Diener; the Netherlands’ KLM, which hired some women for its intra-European flights in 1935; and Germany’s prewar Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1938. On Swissair, see Pascale Marder, Nelly Diener: Engel der Lüfte vom kurzen Glück der ersten Lufthostess Europas (Zurich: Bilgerverlag, 2018). Note that KLM’s intercontinental flights to its colony in Indonesia continued to be serviced only by men. See Frido Ogier, “Our First Steward and Stewardess,” KLM (blog), September 6, 2019, https://blog.klm.com/our-first-steward-and-stewardess/ (site discontinued).

3.On Air France, see François Duclos, “Air France retrace l’histoire des hôtesses de l’air,” Air Journal, March 18, 2016, https://www.air-journal.fr/2016-03-18-air-france-retrace-lhistoire-des-hotesses-de-lair-video-5159697.html.

On BOAC and its predecessor Imperial Airways, see “British Airways Uniform through the Years,” accessed June 26, 2023, https://confessionsofatrolleydolly.com/2022/01/01/british-airways-uniform-through-the-years/.

On Sabena, see Vanessa D’Hooghe, “Article 119: How Stewardesses Obtained Equal Pay in the European Community (Belgium 1968–1980),” in Institutionalizing Gender Equality: Historical and Global Perspectives, ed. Yulia Gradskova and Sara Sanders (Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2015), 42.

On SAS, see Scandinavian Airlines (SAS), “Meet Nan, One of SAS Very First Stewardesses,” 2016, YouTube, 5 min., 5 sec., https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CB5Sjv4ltXU.

4.Kathleen Barry’s work on flight attendants in the United States details how stewardessing embodied these characteristics of pink-collar labor, a general category designating “female-dominated clerical or service occupations which were generally cleaner and safer than blue-collar work” though with sizable disadvantages in terms of pay, benefits, and reputation because of women’s social inferiority. Kathleen Barry, Femininity in Flight: A History of Flight Attendants (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 9.

5.A firsthand chronicle of stewardesses’ struggles is found in Georgia Panter Nielsen, From Sky Girl to Flight Attendant: Women and the Making of a Union (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1982). Kathleen Barry’s work offers a historical overview of such discrimination. Barry, Femininity in Flight.

6.Elaine Tyler May’s Homeward Bound remains an authoritative text for linking the entrenchment of traditional gender roles in the United States with the country’s de facto mobilization against communism in the Cold War. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (1988; repr., New York: Basic Books, 2008).

7.Alix d’Unienville, En vol: Journal d’une hôtesse de l’air (Paris: A. Michel, 1949), section “Le Bourget, 25 July.”

8.D’Unienville, En vol, preface.

9.D’Unienville, En vol, section “New-York, 13 janvier.”

10.Philippe Roland, “Revolution dans le ciel,” Figaro, March 3, 1946, reprinted in Camille Lestienne, “Les premières hôtesses de l’air, une révolution dans le ciel de 1946,” Figaro, March 4, 2016.

11.Scandinavian Airlines, “Meet Nan.”

12.Roland, “Revolution dans le ciel.”

13.Scandinavian Airlines, “Meet Nan.”

14.These excerpts from interviews with Resistance fighters close to d’Unienville are found in Bernard O’Connor, Agents Française: French Women Infiltrated into France during the Second World War (Research Triangle Park, NC: Lulu Press, 2016), 414.

15.These and other details of d’Unienville’s work in World War II are found at: “Alix d’Unienville, SOE agent—obituary,” Telegraph (London, UK), November 20, 2015.

16.“Alix d’Unienville, SOE agent—obituary.”

5. Dragica Pavlović

1.Report, from Milenko Mitrović to Privredni savet D. F. J., August 20, 1945, 4, fond 50, Istorijska beleška fonda vlade FNRJ—Predsedništva vlada, subset 85–181, Archives of Yugoslavia (Arhiv Jugoslavije), Belgrade, Serbia (hereafter AJ).

2.Jovo Simišić, “The Symbol of a Profession,” JAT Airways New Review, September 2010, 47–51.

3.Predrag J. Marković, Beograd između istoka i zapada: 1948–1965 (Belgrade: Službeni list SRJ, 1996), 14–15.

4.See, for example, Jelena Subotić and Srđan Vucetić, “Performing Solidarity: Whiteness and Status-Seeking in the Non-aligned World,” Journal of International Relations and Development 22 (2019): 722–43.

5.Tijana Okić, “From Revolutionary to Productive Subject: An Alternative History of the Women’s Antifascist Front,” in The Lost Revolution: Women’s Antifascist Front between Myth and Forgetting, ed. Andreja Dugandžić and Tijana Okić (Sarajevo: Association for Culture and Art CRVENA, 2018), 167.

6.The singular of the term for a female Partisan is partizanka; the plural is partizanke.

7.Josip Broz Tito, speech from the First National (Zemaljska) Conference of the Women’s Antifascist Front, 1942. As quoted in “Žene u socijalizmu—od ubrzane emancipacije do ubrzane repatrijarhalizacije,” Buka Magazin (Banja Luka, Bosnia-Herzegovina), March 2, 2015.

8.Okić, “From Revolutionary to Productive Subject,” 171.

9.World War I had also been a stimulus, especially for urban women, to take on more public roles traditionally held by men. As Tijana Okić notes, even before World War II, 20 percent of the university population in Yugoslavia was female. Okić, “From Revolutionary to Productive Subject,” 166.

10.“Žene u socijalizmu.”

11.Constitution of the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia, implemented January 31, 1946. Available at: https://bs.wikisource.org/wiki/Ustav_Federativne_Narodne_Republike_Jugoslavije_(1946)

12.As quoted in “Zapisnik Konferencije po pitanjima civilnog vazdušnog saobraćaja,” December 15, 1947, 2, fond 290, JUSTA, subset 2, AJ.

13.Z. Franješ and B. Ivković, “Plan Kadrova za 1948 godinu (razrađen na temelju odobrenog zbirnog plana),” May 14, 1948, fond 290, JUSTA, subset 3, AJ.

14.The ad itself appears in Politika, August 21, 1947, 8.

15.The original text, at least in its first portion, reads: “Glavnoj upravi civilnog vazdušnog saobraćaja potreban je izvestan broj drugarica-drugova za službenike letače na avionima.”

16.The Serbian reads: “Prvenstveno dolaze u obzir drugarice.”

17.The conditions set forth in JAT’s working manual (Radni Red) from 1949 states that “those who wish to be employed by Yugoslav Aerotransport … cannot be younger than 18 nor older than 60 years.” Jugoslovenski Aerotransport, Radni Red, July 30, 1949, 1, fond 620, Uprava za civilno vazduhoplovstvo, subset F-56, AJ. While this manual was published two years after the employment ad for flight attendants, it is unlikely that JAT’s original employment manual differs significantly from this version.

18.This figure comes from an inspection of JUSTA’s labor conditions conducted by the Komisija za pregled jedinica civilnog vazdušnog saobraćaja, “Zapisnik,” October 16, 1947, 1, fond 290, JUSTA, subset 2, AJ.

19.Air pouch, from US Embassy Belgrade to Department of State, Subject: Special Report on Civil Aviation, February 6, 1959, 7, file 968.72/2–659, RG 59, NARA. Note that this document states that this data is taken from: Statistical Bulletin 121 of the Yugoslav Federal Statistical Office.

20.On gender roles in Yugoslavia in these years, see Vera Gudac Dodić, Žena u socijalizmu: Položaj žene u Srbiju u drugoj polovini 20. veka (Belgrade: Institut za noviju istoriju Srbije, 2006). The aforementioned collection on the AFŽ also addresses these conflicting roles: Dugandžić and Okić, Lost Revolution.

21.Eric John Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914–1991 (London: Abacus, 1995), 313.

22.Like in all Eastern bloc countries, the persecution of communists in Nazi Germany and their subsequent fight against the Nazis was used in Yugoslavia as a core basis of the regime’s legitimacy. All official government correspondence in the 1940s and early 1950s included the salutation: “Death to fascism, freedom to the people!” (Smrt fašizmu, sloboda narodu!)

23.Joseph Frankel, “Communism and the National Question in Yugoslavia,” Journal of Central European Affairs 15 (April 1955), 64.

24.Workers’ Councils were devised by Yugoslav communists after the Tito-Stalin split to assert that there were differences between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union when it came to the path toward socialism. By placing a workers’ organ into the administrative structure of companies, Yugoslav officials could assert that the means of production were in the hands of the proletariat, even if this system of “workers’ self-management” differed from the Soviet model. Note also that Workers’ Councils, in practice, had an advisory role to the true leader of a company, the director, who was then assisted by an executive board. On Pavlović’s election to head the Workers’ Council, see Simišić, “Symbol of a Profession,” 47, 50.

25.“25 Pitanja magazina ‘Praktična žena’ odgovora Dragica Pavlović,” Praktična žena, November 5, 1956, 10.

26.Simišić, “Symbol of a Profession,” 50.

27.Anonymous A, interview with author, July 5, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

28.Anonymous A interview.

29.Anonymous A interview.

30.Simišić, “Symbol of a Profession,” 47.

31.JAT-Jugoslawischer Flugverkehr, JAT (Belgrade) 1, no. 1 (1956). This publication is part of the holdings of National Library of Serbia (Narodna biblioteka Srbije, hereafter NBS). The German-language publication titled JAT is the earliest of these materials. While it is marked as the first of a serial publication (volume 1, issue 1), there is no date on it and also no evidence that further issues of JAT were produced. Librarians at the NBS have assigned 1956 as its publication year. I find this date convincing given the nature of the photos used in publication, including Jawaharlal Nehru’s arrival at Belgrade’s Zemun Airport, which occurred on July 3, 1955.

32.JAT, 1.

33.JAT, 2.

34.JAT, 3.

35.JAT, 3

36.Patterson, Bought and Sold, 2.

37.Marković, Beograd između istoka i zapada, 270–71. The report from the Paris fashion show was originally covered in Politika, April 12, 1951.

38.“Magazin ‘Praktična žena’ uputiće ženu-suprugu, ženu-majku i domaćicu u mnoge korisne stvari,” Praktična žena, no. 1, March 5, 1956, 1.

39.“Magazin ‘Praktična žena,’” 1.

40.Praktična žena, no. 1, March 5, 1956, cover.

41.On divorce, see “Još nešto o razvodu braka,” Praktična žena, no. 40, November 1957, 8; on legal and work issues, see Ljubomir Stamenković, “Pravna i poslovna sposobnost žene,” Praktična žena, no. 171, March 15, 1963, 15.

42.The cited articles are contained in the following issues of Praktična žena: Syria, no. 32, July 5, 1957; Central Africa, no. 33, July 20, 1957; Lebanon, no. 35, August 20, 1957; China, no. 42, December 5, 1957; Liberia, no. 109, September 20, 1960.

43.“Pismo sa Bliskog Istoka,” Praktična žena, no. 32, July 5, 1957, 18.

44.The actions of the AFŽ from 1947 onward to end the wearing of the veil by Muslim women in Yugoslavia are covered in Tea Hadžiristić, “Unveiling Muslim Women in Socialist Yugoslavia: The Body between Socialism, Secularism, and Colonialism,” Religion and Gender 7, no. 2 (2017): 184–203.

45.“25 Pitanja,” 8.

46.As quoted in “25 Pitanja,” 10.

47.Anonymous A interview.

48.Anonymous A interview.

49.“25 Pitanja,” 8.

50.“Dnevnik jedne stjuardese,” Praktična žena, nos. 80–91, from July 5, 1959 to December 20, 1959 (in biweekly intervals).

51.“Dnevnik jedne stjuardese,” Praktična žena, no. 80, July 5, 1959, 8.

6. Marguerite LeWars Kirkpatrick

1.One of the ways that Jamaican governments of the 1960s sought to conduct nation-building on the cultural front was to proclaim individuals from both the long history of the colony and the brief era of independence as “national heroes.” These individuals would then be memorialized in works of art, in publications, and in school curricula. An early example of this nationalist, hagiographic literature is Sylvia Wynter, Jamaica’s National Heroes (Kingston: Jamaica National Trust Commission, 1971).

2.“Stuffed Teddy Bears, Two Beauty Crowns,” Gleaner, November 8, 1963, 28.

3.As quoted in “Prime Minister’s Congratulations,” Gleaner, November 9, 1963, 1.

4.The quote comes from “Hurrah!,” Gleaner, November 8, 1963, 1. The mention of Crawford being the first West Indian winner is found in “ ‘Miss Jamaica’ Wins ‘Miss World,’” Gleaner, November 8, 1963, 1.

5.Myrthe Swire, “Miss World Pushes Jamaica in Hamburg,” Gleaner, November 14, 1963, 1.

6.“ ‘Miss Jamaica’ Wins ‘Miss World’ Title,” Gleaner, November 8, 1963, 1.

7.“ ‘A Break Away from Painted Dolls,’” Gleaner, November 10, 1963, 1.

8.Rochelle Rowe deftly chronicles how the British Caribbean’s light-skinned, mixed-race brown elites had already attained such inclusion domestically by 1963, both through beauty contests and via intermarriage with local whites. Darker-skinned Black West Indians, however, still had not attained such parity by 1963. See Rochelle Rowe, Imagining Caribbean Womanhood: Race, Nation, and Beauty Contests, 1929–70 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2013).

9.“La corona de Miss Mundo a Miss Jamaica, morenita de pequeña estatura,” ¡Hola!, November 16, 1963.

10.As quoted in “Jamaica’s Carol Gets Wide Publicity in British Press,” Gleaner, November 9, 1963, 1. The original text is found in “The Loveliest of Them All,” Daily Express, November 8, 1963, 7.

11.Gerri Major, “Negro Beauty Queen Wins Miss World Crown,” Jet, November 28, 1963, 60.

12.Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995).

13.The biographical facts on Marguerite LeWars are pulled from “Marguerite LeWars, ‘Miss Jamaica’ 1961,” Gleaner, June 26, 1961, 18. Her actual birth date is not publicly available, but is likely to be circa 1940. Upon her crowning as Miss Jamaica in 1961 the Gleaner reported her age as nineteen, therefore placing her date of birth in 1941 or 1942. However, in other articles, the same publication suggests that her birth date was closer to 1940. Carol Joan Crawford was born in 1943.

14.Cedriann Martin, “Marguerite Gordon: Lady of the Manners,” Caribbean Beat, August 2009, https://www.caribbean-beat.com/issue-98/marguerite-gordon-lady-manners#axzz7YxZY3jtx.

15.Martin, “Marguerite Gordon.”

16.“Barbara LeWars of Jamaica’s New Generation,” Life International, July 20, 1959, cover.

17.Barbara LeWars Manley died at the age of twenty-nine, soon after having given birth to Sarah. See Sarah Manley, “Coppertone,” PREE: Caribbean Writing, November 13, 2018, https://preelit.com/2018/11/13/coppertone/.

18.Manley, “Coppertone.”

19.Kitty Kingston, “Personal Mention: Filming ‘Miss Jamaica’ Contest,” Gleaner, June 22, 1961, 26.

20.Martin, “Marguerite Gordon.”

21.Details of the Kingston premiere of Dr. No are found in Edward Biddulph, “Bond at 50: Dr. No in the Gleaner,” MI6 Confidential, no. 68, April 26, 2012. The London premiere is covered in Zaini Majeed, “First James Bond Film Dr. No Released on This Day in 1962: All about Global James Bond Day,” Republic World, October 5, 2020.

22.“Designs New Uniforms for Air Jamaica Girls,” Gleaner, May 30, 1967, 5. Both Rochelle Rowe and Elizabeth Manley assert that the face in the tourist board ads belongs to Miss Jamaica 1960, Judith Willoughby. My research, however, finds that LeWars was the model for this renowned image. Beyond this minor point of disagreement, both Rowe and Manley offer insightful discussion of the various iterations of this famous facial image. See Rowe, Imagining Caribbean Womanhood, and Elizabeth Manley, “Runway Hospitality: Air Jamaica’s ‘Rare Tropical Birds’ and the Embodied Gender and Race Politics of Tourism, 1966–1980,” Hispanic American Historical Review 102, no. 1 (2022): 285–319.

23.“Salute to Air Jamaica,” Gleaner, May 1, 1966, xiv.

24.“When You’re Six Years Old” (Air Jamaica advertisement), Gleaner, May 24, 1967, 9.

25.“Marguerite LeWars,” 18.

26.“Designs New Uniforms.”

7. Mary Wells Lawrence

1.Frank Sinatra, vocalist, Billy May, composer, Jimmy Van Heusen and Sammy Cahn, songwriters, “Come Fly with Me,” Capitol Records, 1958.

2.A profile of the jet set from this era, including coverage of James Bond author Ian Fleming and ad executive Mary Wells Lawrence, is found in William Stadiem, Jet Set: The People, the Planes, the Glamour, and the Romance in Aviation’s Glory Years (New York: Random House, 2014).

3.This quote is found in Mary Wells Lawrence, A Big Life in Advertising (New York: Knopf, 2002), 33.

4.Braniff International Airways, “Announcing the End of the Plain Plane,” printed magazine insert, November 1965, box “MAR 00105 D-4,” folder “Girard Press—01/1964–12/1965,” Alexander Girard Archives, Vitra Design Museum, Weil am Rhein, Germany (hereafter Girard).

5.“Designs New Uniforms for Air Jamaica Girls,” Gleaner, May 30, 1967.

6.An authoritative and well-researched biography of Helen Gurley Brown is Jennifer Scanlon, Bad Girls Go Everywhere: The Life of Helen Gurley Brown, the Woman behind Cosmopolitan Magazine (New York: Penguin, 2010).

7.Whereas Feminine Mystique was released in the early months of 1963, Brown’s book came out toward the end of 1962. Helen Gurley Brown, Sex and the Single Girl (New York: Bernard Geis Associates, 1962).

8.Justin McCarty, “Beauty Checkout,” Vogue, September 15, 1965, 62.

9.Braniff International Airways, “Emilio Pucci: Fashion Innovator,” press release, July 19, 1965, box “MAR 00105 D-4,” folder “Girard Press—01/1964–12/1965,” Girard.

10.Scholarly works that chronicle the 1960s’ two cultural fault lines most pertinent to this paper—feminism and the sexual revolution—include: David Allyn, Make Love, Not War: The Sexual Revolution, an Unfettered History (London: Routledge, 2016); Patricia Bradley, Mass Media and the Shaping of American Feminism, 1963–1975 (Oxford: University Press of Mississippi, 2009); Barbara Ehrenreich, Elizabeth Hess, and Gloria Jacobs, Re-Making Love: The Feminization of Sex (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1986); Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945–1960 (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1994); Scanlon, Bad Girls Go Everywhere; and Julie Willett, The Male Chauvinist Pig: A History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021).

11.Lawrence, Big Life in Advertising, 35.

12.Shirley Kennedy, Pucci: A Renaissance in Fashion (New York: Abbeville Press, 1991), 98.

13.Lawrence, Big Life in Advertising, 34.

14.As quoted in Cobey Black, “Meet America’s Top Woman Exec,” Honolulu Advertiser, March 25, 1975.

15.Lawrence, Big Life in Advertising, 35.

16.Helen Gurley Brown, “Foreword,” in Kennedy, Pucci, 7.

17.Pucci’s role as a jet-set celebrity, including his collaboration with Mary Wells at Braniff, is covered in Stadiem, Jet Set, 252–75.

18.J. Walter Thompson Company, “Preliminary Exploration of Consumer Perceptions of the 747 Plane in England, France and Germany,” research report for Pan American World Airways Inc., November 1969, 18, box PA10, folder “Research Reports 1969,” in “J. Walter Thompson Company Account Files, 1885–2008 and undated,” JWT.

19.J. Walter Thompson Company, “Preliminary Exploration,” 16.

20.The configurations of Braniff’s DC-7Cs were either for sixty-two (all first-class seating) or seventy-five (a mix of first class and coach) passengers. Meanwhile, the 727 jets, which comprised the bulk of the order that Harding Lawrence placed, typically flew with an all-coach configuration of 154 passengers, though sometimes with a less-dense mix of first and coach.

21.J. Walter Thompson Company, “Preliminary Exploration,” 18.

22.Friedan, Feminine Mystique, 57.

23.On the importance of women’s inclusion in the 1964 Civil Rights Act’s Title VII, which prevented basic workplace discrimination, see Katherine Turk, Equality on Trial: Gender and Rights in the Modern American Workplace (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), and Tiemeyer, Plane Queer.

24.Braniff International Airways, “Exacting Qualifications Remain Unchanged as Braniff Hostesses Hold Silver Anniversary Party,” press release, June 1962, box 26, folder 1, Braniff Collection, History of Aviation Archives, Special Collections and Archives Division, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX (hereafter Braniff).

25.Braniff International Airlines, “A Braniff International Hostess Is … ,” press release, undated [circa 1968], box 26, folder 1, Braniff.

26.Braniff, “A Braniff International Hostess Is …”

27.Helen Gurley Brown, Sex and the Office (New York: Bernard Geis Associates, 1964), 183–86. This title was a sequel to Brown’s Sex and the Single Girl. It reiterated her main points from the earlier book and added more detail of office life and women’s potential roles—both professional and sexual—therein.

28.Bradley, Mass Media, 11.

29.As quoted in Kennedy, Pucci, 8.

30.As quoted in Kennedy, Pucci, 139.

31.As quoted in Kennedy, Pucci, 46.

32.As quoted in “Hero, Scholar, Jet-Age Renaissance Man, Italian Style-Setter: Pucci,” Life, October 16, 1964, 70.

33.As quoted in Kennedy, Pucci, 154.

34.Braniff, “A Braniff International Hostess Is …”

35.Braniff International Airways, “Braniff International Introduces New Dresses, Long Hair and Discards Hats to Once Again Change the Look of Airline Hostesses,” press release, May 28, 1968, box 27, folder 3, Braniff.

36.“World Fashion Press Acclaims Pucci-Braniff Flight Fashions,” The Braniff B-Liner, July 1965, 4, box “MAR 00105 D-4,” folder “Girard Press—01/1964–12/1965,” Girard.

37.These statistics were cited by Helen Gurley Brown in 1964 in a business proposal, and are recorded in Scanlon, Bad Girls Go Everywhere, 144.

38.“Braniff Refuels on Razzle-Dazzle,” Business Week, November 20, 1965, 110–11.

39.Stan Mays, “The Air Strip,” Sunday Mirror, March 20, 1966, 21.

40.Memo from Rex Brack, senior vice president of marketing, Braniff International Airways, to all employees, re: “new look” announcement program, November 24, 1965, box 34, folder 2, Braniff.

41.Braniff International Airways, “Braniff International Presents the Air Strip,” television advertisement, December 1965, YouTube, 59 sec., https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7TZXryuhSMg (video no longer active).

42.Braniff, “Announcing the End of the Plain Plane.”

43.“The Wild Hue Yonder,” Life, December 3, 1965.

44.The statistic on passenger traffic comes from: Clarence Newman, “Color It Colorless: Black and White Gain in Fashions and Homes,” Wall Street Journal, June 8, 1966, 1. The statistic on revenue comes from Carol Loomis, “As the World Turns—On Madison Avenue,” Fortune, December 1968, 114.

45.Lawrence, Big Life in Advertising, 36.

46.For an account of the advertising world in the 1920s, when women’s roles were quite limited and they were pigeonholed into copywriting jobs for female-directed ads, see Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920–1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). A famous, though fictional, account of the male dominance in advertising that persisted through the 1960s is found in the hit television series Mad Men, which ran from 2007 to 2015.

47.George Raine, “Creative Fizz/Mary Wells’ Memorable Ad Campaigns for Such Clients as Braniff and Alka-Seltzer Helped Make Her the First Woman to Run a Publicly Traded Company,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 30, 2002.

48.Bradley, Mass Media, 213.

49.Lawrence, Big Life in Advertising, 5.

50.For accounts of sexual harassment and other forms of abuse against stewardesses, see Nielsen, From Sky Girl to Flight Attendant, and Barry, Femininity in Flight. Accounts from JAT and Air Jamaica flight attendants are included in chapter 10.

51.Black, “Meet America’s Top Woman Exec.”

52.Lawrence, Big Life in Advertising, 59.

53.Loomis, “As the World Turns,” 117.

54.Loomis, “As the World Turns,” 194.

55.Lawrence, Big Life in Advertising, 101.

56.Lawrence, Big Life in Advertising, 59.

8. Love, Fashion, and the Stjuardesa

1.“Izgradnja novih aerodroma,” Građevinar 14, no. 3 (March 1962), 95.

2.Memorandum, Milton M. Turner to George V. Allen, July 29, 1952, file 968.52/7–2952, 1950–54 Central Decimal File, Record Group 59: General Records of the Department of State (hereafter RG 59), National Archives (hereafter NARA).

3.Milica Lukić, Zapisi stjuardese [Recollections of a stewardess] (Belgrade: Partenon, 2000), 90–91.

4.On Yugoslav companies active in the Global South, see Ljubica Spaskovska, “Building a Better World? Construction, Labour Mobility and the Pursuit of Collective Self-Reliance in the ‘Global South,’ 1950–1990,” Labor History 59, no. 3 (2018): 331–51 and Dubravka Sekulić, “Energoprojekt in Nigeria: Yugoslav Construction Companies in the Developing World,” Southeastern Europe 41, no. 2 (2017): 200–229. On the Munich Olympics, see Zdenko Antić, “Yugoslav Construction Prospering in Foreign Countries,” Radio Free Europe Research, October 29, 1970, 3.

5.On the development of Croatia’s coast, see Grandits and Taylor, Yugoslavia’s Sunny Side. On other airlines from the socialist East in the 1960s, see Svik, Civil Aviation.

6.On emigration to the West in these years, see Petar Dragišić, Ko je pucao u Jugoslaviju? Jugoslovenska politička emigracija na zapadu, 1968–1980 (Belgrade: Institut za noviju istoriju Srbije, 2019) and Le Normand, Citizens without Borders.

7.On the IMF’s role in Yugoslavia, see Adam Bennett, “Macroeconomic Stability and Enterprise Self-Management in Yugoslavia: An Impossible Marriage,” in The Legacy of Yugoslavia: Politics, Economics and Society in the Modern Balkans, ed. Othon Anastasakis et al. (New York: Bloomsbury, 2020), 141–68. On the IMF and Jamaica, see Christine Clarke and Carol Nelson, Contextualizing Jamaica’s Relationship with the IMF (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020).

8.These facts are found in Pregrag Marković’s chapter, “Javnost i odnos između polova,” in Beograd između istoka i zapada, 267–82.

9.Marković, Beograd između istoka i zapada, 281.

10.Marković, Beograd između istoka i zapada, 279.

11.Love and Fashion (Ljubav i moda), directed by Ljubomir Radičević, Avala Film (Belgrade), November 1960.

12.As quoted by R. Radosavljević, “Ljubav je opet u modi,” Večernje novosti, July 1, 2010.

13.As quoted by Radosavljević, “Ljubav je opet u modi.”

14.Sonja Ćirić, “Ružičasti talas,” Vreme, December 20, 2000, https://old.vreme.com/arhiva_html/520/32.html.

15.Aleksandar Miletić, “Ljubica Otašević bila ljepša od Sofije Loren,” Politika, April 11, 2013, http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/254593/Ljubica-Otasevic-bila-lepsa-od-Sofije-Loren.

16.“Te oci plavlje nego nebo kojim plovimo / sjajne kao sunce, oci pune sna.”

17.“S njom se nikad ničeg ne bih bojao / celim putem oci bih joj gledao” and “Svuda tražim oci te / avione čekam sve.”

18.Anonymous A, interview with author, July 5, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

19.Lukić, Zapisi stjuardese, 10.

20.Lukić, Zapisi stjuardese, 11.

21.For an account of the Pobednik monument’s history and its importance to Belgrade, see Jovana Babovic, Metropolitan Belgrade: Culture and Class in Interwar Yugoslavia (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2018), 125–27.

22.Dušan Grbić, “Najlepši nebeski odred,” Ilustrovana politika, May 1, 1973, 7, 8.

23.“Das traurige Schicksal der schönsten Frau Kroatiens,” Kosmo (Vienna, Austria), October 31, 2017, https://www.kosmo.at/das-traurige-schicksal-der-schoensten-frau-kroatiens-video/.

24.Donald Bain (ghostwriter), Trudy Baker, and Rachel Jones, Coffee, Tea or Me? The Uninhibited Memoirs of Two Airline Stewardesses (New York: Bantam, 1967).

25.“Stjuardese o putnicima: Italijani svlače pogledom,” Bazar, August 16, 1969, 6.

26.Grbić, “Najlepši nebeski odred,” 8.

27.Grbić, “Najlepši nebeski odred,” 8.

28.Mélanie Geelkens, “Une sacrée paire de pionnières,” Le Vif/L’Express, July 30, 2020, 22.

29.Brigitte Hürlimann, “Die Töchter der Olympe de Gouges: Europas Frauen kämpfen bis heute um Gleichberechtigung—mit Unterstützing supranationaler Organisationen,” Neue Züricher Zeitung, September 25, 2013, 9.

30.Grbić, “Najlepši nebeski odred,” 8.

31.For an account of socialist-inspired fashion in these years, see Ðurđa Bartlett, “Let Them Wear Beige: The Petit-Bourgeois World of Official Socialist Dress,” Fashion Theory 8, no. 2 (June 2004): 127–64.

The details noted here and in ensuing paragraphs on Joksimović’s career are drawn from Danijela Velimirović, Aleksandar Joksimović: Moda i identitet (Belgrade: Utopija, 2008).

32.“Modu čine detalji, ne linija,” Praktična žena, no. 285, December 20, 1966, 14.

33.“Modu čine detalji,” 15.

34.“Modu čine detalji,” 15.

35.Karl Marx discusses the ways that people in capitalist economies ascribe wondrous properties to products they desire, using the example of a table in his work Das Kapital (1867): “But as soon as it emerges as a commodity, it changes into a thing which transcends sensuousness. It not only stands with its feet on the ground, but, in relation to all other commodities, it stands on its head, and evolves out of its wooden brain grotesque ideas, far more wonderful than if it were to begin dancing of its own free will.” Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 1, trans. Ben Fowkes (New York: Vintage, 1977), 163–64.

36.“Modu čine detalji,” 15.

37.Daniel Delis Hill, Peacock Revolution: American Masculine Identity and Dress in the Sixties and Seventies (London: Bloomsbury, 2018).

38.Danijela Velimirović, “Kulturna biografija grandiozne mode: Priča o kolekciji Vitraž Aleksandra Joksimovića,” Etnoantropološki problemi 1, no. 2 (2006): 91–104.

39.Velimirović, “Kulturna biografija grandiozne mode,” 94.

40.As quoted by M. Savić, “Boja sigurnosti,” Politika—Bazar, March 8, 1975. Accessed in the Aleksandar Joksimović Collection, Museum of Applied Arts, Belgrade, Serbia (hereafter Joks).

41.As quoted by Savić, “Boja sigurnosti.”

42.Savić, “Boja sigurnosti.”

43.JAT representatives also were mixed together with the general public for these events, as described in V. Bačlija, “Stjuardese u novoj uniformi,” Večernje novosti, February 25, 1975, Joks.

44.As quoted in “Novo ruho stjuardesa,” JAT Revija, summer 1975, 9.

45.As quoted in “Novo ruho stjuardesa,” JAT Revija, summer 1975, 9.

46.Anonymous K, interview with author, May 30, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

47.Anonymous M, interview with author, July 6, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

48.As quoted in Kennedy, Pucci, 154.

49.Both the Japan Air Lines and Air India ads with such dresses are found in J. Walter Thompson Company, Competitive Advertisements, 1955–1997, series 1960, Transportation and Travel, box 1968–36 (Air India) and 1968–37 (JAL), JWT.

50.On the beginnings of a feminist movement in Yugoslavia in the 1970s and feminist priorities, see Zsófia Lóránd, The Feminist Challenge to the Socialist State in Yugoslavia (Cham: Springer, 2018) and Chiara Bonfiglioli, “Feminist Translations in a Socialist Context: The Case of Yugoslavia,” Gender & History 30, no. 1 (2018): 240–54.

9. “Rare Tropical Birds”

1.On the riots at the university and Walter Rodney’s role in fomenting them, see Walter Rodney, The Groundings with My Brothers (New York: Verso, 2019), and James Bradford, “Brother Wally and De Burnin’ of Babylon: Walter Rodney’s Impact on the Reawakening of Black Power, the Birth of Reggae, and Resistance to Global Imperialism,” in The Third World in the Global 1960s, ed. Samantha Christiansen and Zachary A. Scarlett (New York: Berghahn Books, 2013), 142–58.

2.Manley’s foreign policy, including its sharp contrasts with both his predecessors and his successor, Edward Seaga, is covered in R. B. Manderson-Jones, Jamaican Foreign Policy in the Caribbean, 1962–1988 (Kingston: Caricom Publishers, 1990).

3.“Advertising Campaign,” Doctor Bird Chatter, February 21, 1969, 2. This and subsequent editions of Doctor Bird Chatter are located in folder: Doctor Bird Chatter (February 13, 1969–November 25, 1970), box 1: Historical Documents, Air Jamaica Collection, Ministry of Finance and Public Service, Kingston, Jamaica (hereafter AirJ). Doctor Bird Chatter was an internal newsletter addressed to Air Jamaica employees. Its longtime news editor was employee John Scott.

4.“Successful U.S. Press Conferences,” Doctor Bird Chatter, March 14, 1969, 1.

5.“Looking for Jamaican Air Hostesses,” Gleaner, November 23, 1968, 28.

6.Minutes of the Second Directors’ Meeting of Air Jamaica (1968) Limited, November 21, 1968, 3, file no. 796/03, vol. 1: Air Jamaica Limited—April 14, 1966 to October 3, 1969, AirJ.

7.“Looking for Jamaican Air Hostesses,” 28.

8.“Air Jamaica Offers an Exciting Opportunity as a Flight Stewardess” (Air Jamaica advertisement), Gleaner, November 19, 1968, 13.

9.M. C. Robinson, secretary of Board of Directors, “Secretary’s Report,” December 19, 1968, 1, file no. 796/03, vol. 1: Air Jamaica Limited—April 14, 1966 to October 3, 1969, AirJ.

10.“Air Jamaica Trainee Hostesses Introduced,” Gleaner, January 13, 1969, 18.

11.Minutes of the Second Directors’ Meeting of Air Jamaica (1968) Limited, November 21, 1968, 3, AirJ.

12.“Air Jamaica Offers,” 13.

13.Anonymous B, interview with author, February 6, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

14.“Air Jamaica Trainee Hostesses Introduced,” 18.

15.Memo, “Requirements—Biggie,” undated, 1, folder: “Inaugural Day—April 1, 1969,” box 1: Historical Documents, AirJ.

16.“Air Jamaica Trainee Hostesses Introduced,” 18.

17.“Looking for Air Jamaica Hostesses,” 28.

18.“Air Jamaica’s Rare Tropical ‘Birds,’” Gleaner, April 1, 1969, Air Jamaica supplement, 8.

19.“The story of Air Jamaica,” Gleaner, April 1, 1969, Air Jamaica supplement, 2.

20.“Air Jamaica Pulls Out All the Stops to the Islands” (Air Jamaica advertisement), Life, May 29, 1970, 8, folder “First Advertisement in Life Magazine,” box 1: Historical Documents, AirJ.

21.“Check This Nuh?,” Sky Writings, no. 1 (September 1972), 18. All issues of Sky Writings are located in Collection S679 (Sky Writings: Air Jamaica’s Inflight Magazine), National Library of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica (herafter NLJ).

22.Barry, Femininity in Flight, 178.

23.Anonymous B interview.

24.Anonymous B interview.

25.Anonymous B interview.

26.Evon Blake, The Best of Evon Blake (Kingston: B. E. Blake, 1967), 24. Additional details of the incident provided by John Issa, the son of the hotel’s owner Abe Issa, are reported in Annie Paul, “Colour and Tourism,” Gleaner, February 20, 2018. This story has been repeated in important histories of tourism in Jamaica, including Krista A. Thompson, An Eye for the Tropics: Tourism, Photography, and Framing the Caribbean Picturesque (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 204.

27.Blake’s letter is reprinted in: “Congratulations,” Doctor Bird Chatter, March 25, 1970, 2–3, folder “Doctor Bird Chatter,” box 1: Historical Documents, AirJ.

28.The stamp is reproduced in “Stamps in the News: Air Jamaica Honored,” Reading Eagle (Reading, PA), June 11, 1972, 74.

29.The lyrics of Wilson’s “Better Mus’ Come” and a brief analysis of the song’s importance is included in: Diana Paton and Matthew J. Smith, eds., The Jamaica Reader: History, Culture, Politics (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021), 334–35.

30.Beverley Anderson Manley has published an autobiography chronicling these and other life events: Beverley Manley, The Manley Memoirs (Kingston: Ian Randle, 2008).

31.Letter from G. Arthur Brown to Cleve Lewis, minister of communication and works, March 6, 1970, 1, folder “Air Jamaica Ltd., vol. II, October 3, 1969–June 8, 1972,” box 796/03, AirJ.

32.P. J. Patterson (minister of industry, tourism, and foreign trade), Ministry Paper 61/75, “Tourism Development,” December 11, 1975, appendix 2, “Summary of Findings of Studies Done by Professor Hines and by the Tourism Development Committee,” 6, binder “Jamaica Ministry Papers 1975,” Collection “Jamaica Parliament Ministry Papers, 1969–1980,” University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica (hereafter UWI).

33.Patterson, “Tourism Development,” 12.

34.Patterson, “Tourism Development,” 15.

35.Patterson, “Tourism Development,” 15.

36.Anonymous C, interview with author, via telephone, January 22, 2018.

37.Odette Dixon Neath, introduction to A Tapestry of Jamaica: The Best of SkyWritings, ed. Linda Gambrill (Kingston: Creative Communications, 2003), 9.

38.Anonymous C interview.

39.Sky Writings, no. 1 (September 1972), cover, NLJ.

40.John Hearne, “A View from the Mountains,” Sky Writings, no. 1 (September 1972), 8–9, NLJ.

41.Sky Writings, no. 2 (Jan 1973), cover, NLJ.

42.Carlton Gordon, “Men, Proceed with Care. It’s Really a Woman’s World,” Sky Writings, no. 2 (January 1973), 18, NLJ.

43.Anonymous C interview.

44.Anonymous D, interview with author, January 14, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

45.Anonymous E, interview with author, January 17, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

46.Anonymous E interview.

47.The Wilson case is officially known as Bustamante Industrial Trade Union v. Air Jamaica Ltd., no. IDT 2/80, March 3, 1980. Details of the case, including the quote above, are discussed in: “Sacked Stewardess to Be Reinstated,” Gleaner, March 7, 1980, 2.

48.“ ‘A Break Away from Painted Dolls,’” Gleaner, November 10, 1963, 1.

49.Anonymous B interview.

50.Anonymous F, interview with author, January 10, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

51.Anonymous E interview.

52.Anonymous B interview.

53.Anonymous F interview.

54.Anonymous E interview.

55.Anonymous E interview.

56.Anonymous B interview.

57.On the Notting Hill incidents, see Edward Pilkington, Beyond the Mother Country: West Indians and the Notting Hill White Riots (London: I.B. Taurus, 1988).

10. Jet Age Feminist Subversives

1.Literature on the growth of feminist groups in Yugoslavia includes: Lóránd, Feminist Challenge, and Bonfiglioli, “Feminist Translations.” Works that cover Jamaican feminist groups include: A. Lynn Bolles, “Academics and Praxis: Caribbean Feminisms,” in Transatlantic Feminisms: Women and Gender Studies in Africa and the Diaspora, ed. Cheryl Rene Rodriguez, Dzodzi Tsikata, and Akosua Adomako Ampofo (London: Lexington Books, 2015), 63–78; Patricia Mohammed, “Forever Indebted to Women: The Power of Caribbean Feminism,” Caribbean Review of Gender Studies, no. 2 (2008): 1–10; and Judith Soares, “Addressing the Tensions: Reflections on Feminism in the Caribbean,” Caribbean Quarterly 52, nos. 2–3 (2006): 187–97.

2.Per capita GDP levels in 1973, in 2024 US dollars, were US$1219 in Jamaica and US$1011 in Yugoslavia. Meanwhile, the combined mining and manufacturing sectors in both countries totaled 28 percent of GDP in Jamaica and 32.1 percent in Yugoslavia the early 1970s. On GDP per capita, see: United Nations Statistics Division, “National Accounts Estimates of Main Aggregates: Per capita GDP at Current Prices—US Dollars,” UNdata, www.data.un.org. On mining and manufacturing, see, for Yugoslavia: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Economic Surveys: Yugoslavia (Paris: OECD Publication, 1973), 1, and for Jamaica: Bernard La Corbiniere, “Financing Economic Growth and Development in Jamaica: 1960–1992” (PhD diss., University of Kent, 1997), 20.

3.Unemployment in Jamaica was 23.2 percent in 1972. In the same year in Yugoslavia, it was 7 percent. On Jamaica, see Claremont Kirton, Jamaica: Debt and Poverty (London: Oxfam GB, 1992), 16. On Yugoslavia, see OECD, OECD Economic Surveys, 33.

4.“The Air Jamaica Situation,” 7, included as part of “Cabinet Submission, Air Jamaica—Refinancing,” n.d., prepared for meeting with Prime Minister Manley on November 23, 1990, box 796/03, vol. 20, AirJ.

5.Anonymous G, interview with author, May 7, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

6.Anonymous H, interview with author, November 16, 2014, Belgrade, Serbia.

7.Anonymous E, interview with author, January 17, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

8.Anonymous I, interview with author, January 13, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

9.Anonymous J, interview with author, January 17, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

10.Anonymous F, interview with author, January 10, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

11.An excellent description of the Yugoslav system of workers’ self-management, coupled with case studies of its implementation, is found in Goran Musić, Making and Breaking the Yugoslav Working Class: The Story of Two Self-Managed Factories (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2021).

12.Anonymous K, interview with author, May 30, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

13.Anonymous K interview.

14.Anonymous K interview.

15.Anonymous K interview.

16.Anonymous L, interview with author, May 29, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

17.Anonymous D, interview with author, January 14, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

18.Anonymous E interview.

19.Anonymous G interview.

20.Anonymous E interview.

21.Anonymous M, interview with author, July 6, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

22.Anonymous G interview.

23.Anonymous O, interview with author, July 17, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

24.Anonymous O interview.

25.Molly Walton, “Bulletin,” December 1989, as quoted in Industrial Disputes Tribunal, “Award in Respect of an Industrial Dispute between Air Jamaica, Limited and the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union,” Case Number IDT 7/91, April 20, 1994, 2. Found in the Archives of the Industrial Disputes Tribunal, Kingston, Jamaica (hereafter IDT).

26.Details of the case are found in “Award in Respect of an Industrial Dispute.”

27.Anonymous J interview.

28.“Drugs and the U.S. Threat of Aircraft Seizure,” Air Jamaica Staff Newsletter, no. 10, October 1986, 1, box 3, Historical Documents, AirJ.

29.Anonymous F interview.

30.Anonymous J interview.

31.Brown, Sex and the Single Girl.

32.Lukić, Zapisi stjuardese, 15.

33.Lukić, Zapisi stjuardese, 119.

34.Anonymous D interview.

35.Anonymous B, interview with author, February 6, 2018, Kingston, Jamaica.

36.Anonymous J interview.

37.Anonymous F interview.

38.Anonymous E interview.

39.Anonymous F interview.

40.Anonymous N, interview with author, July 4, 2018, Belgrade, Serbia.

41.Anonymous E interview.

42.Anonymous M interview.

43.Anonymous K interview.

44.Anonymous K interview.

45.Anonymous F interview.

46.Anonymous I interview.

47.Anonymous E interview.

48.Anonymous F interview

49.Anonymous M interview.

50.Anonymous N interview.

51.Anonymous N interview.

52.Anonymous M interview.

53.Anonymous D interview.

54.Chiara Bonfiglioli, Women and Industry in the Balkans: The Rise and Fall of the Yugoslav Textile Sector (London: I.B. Taurus, 2021), 60–62.

55.Bonfiglioli, Women and Industry, 56.

56.The text of the Jamaica Maternity Leave Act of 1979 is found here: https://laws.moj.gov.jm/library/statute/the-maternity-leave-act.

57.Anonymous M interview.

58.Anonymous M interview.

59.Anonymous N interview.

60.Anonymous N interview.

61.Anonymous B interview.

62.Anonymous I interview.

63.Anonymous E interview.

64.Anonymous J interview.

65.Mélanie Geelkens, “Une sacrée paire de pionnières,” Le Vif/L’Express, July 30, 2020, 22.

66.A list of some of these cases is provided in: US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “Waiting with Their Wings to Fight Workplace Sex Discrimination,” press release, October 24, 2014, https://www.eeoc.gov/newsroom/waiting-their-wings-fight-workplace-sex-discrimination.

67.Cathleen Dooley Loucks, “Battle in the Skies: Sex Discrimination in the United States Airline Industry, 1930 to 1978” (master’s thesis, University of Nevada Las Vegas, 1995), 34.

68.The fashion shows did return in the mid-1990s. This occurred at a moment when flight attendants’ collective bargaining power had been weakened and many flight attendants were flying on contingent contracts.

69.Leslie Josephs, “68 Percent of Flight Attendants Say They Have Experienced Sexual Harassment on the Job,” CNBC, May 10, 2018, https://www.cnbc.com/2018/05/10/sexual-harassment-of-flight-attendants-is-rampant-survey-finds.html.

70.Anonymous K interview.

Conclusion

1.Boothe Luce, “America,” 761.

2.Boothe Luce, “America,” 762.

3.Boothe Luce, “America,” 762.

4.Clare Boothe Luce, The Women (1936), as quoted in Marie Brenner, “Fast and Luce,” Vanity Fair, March 1988.

5.“Air Jamaica: End of an Era,” Jamaica Observer, July 8, 2011.

6.On JAT’s passenger numbers in 1987, see “Former Yugoslav Flag Carriers Handle over 1.1 Million Passengers in Q1,” Ex-YU Aviation News, May 6, 2024, https://www.exyuaviation.com/2024/05/former-yugoslav-flag-carriers-handle.html.

7.“Air Serbia Now Fully State-Owned as Etihad Sells Last Remaining Shares,” Aviation Week, November 15, 2023, https://aviationweek.com/air-transport/airlines-lessors/air-serbia-now-fully-state-owned-etihad-sells-last-remaining-shares.

8.Some of Fraser’s sharpest critiques of feminism in the neoliberal age are found in Nancy Fraser, Fortunes of Feminism: From State-Managed Capitalism to Neoliberal Crisis (London: Verso, 2013).

9.Catherine Rottenberg, The Rise of Neoliberal Feminism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 54.

10.Sheryl Sandberg, Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead (London: W. H. Allen, 2015).