INDEX
abolitionists, 36, 51–52, 53, 109; debates about slavery in Constitution, 198n43; political manhood, 42; rejection of woman suffrage, 107–108; women as, 48; women’s rights and, 35
activists. See African American activists; women’s rights activists
“Address to the Free Colored Inhabitants of these United States,” 40
“Address to the People of New York,” 41
AERA. See American Equal Rights Association
African American activists, 8, 60, 72; in Kansas, 190n97, 221nn82–83; manhood arguments, 33–41, 49–54, 80–81; political conventions, 33–41, 49; protests against disfranchisement, 3, 7, 34–36, 38, 41; and women’s rights movement, 35, 41–42, 51–54, 134, 150. See also specific activists
African American men: brotherhood, 71, 75; as feminized, 184n9, 207n96; gender identity, 101–103, 109, 145, 165–166; head-of-household status, 87–92; participatory citizenship, 85–87, 96–103; rights of manhood, 79–92; right to self-protection, 97–99; and sexual control over white women, 80, 88–92, 90–91, 153–154, 158–159, 226n12
African Americans: citizenship, 4–5, 49, 60, 85–87, 208n11 (see also Dred Scott v. Sanford); civil rights, 59–60; communities, 178n62; economic independence, 37–38; education, 37, 152; emancipation, 3–4, 35, 36, 60, 85–86, 190n95; families, 87–92; social “elevation” or “racial uplift,” 36–42; temperance, 36–37. See also racism; slavery
African Americans’ enfranchisement, 2, 12, 53–54, 131, 135–136, 197n34; dangerous voter arguments, 10–11, 23–25; disfranchisement, 11–12, 15, 20, 22–27, 32, 36, 125, 209n17; in District of Columbia, 60–61, 158, 198n39; Kansas referendum, 147–151; military service arguments, 19–23, 34, 38–39, 49–50, 75–76, 99–101, 141–142, 155; opponents of, 23–26, 30, 63–71, 96–97; petitions for, 35, 60, 71–73, 75–77, 120, 124, 214n71; state constitutional convention debates over, 19–23; supporters of, 25–27, 70–71, 96–103, 133–134, 142; and taxation, 18–19, 23, 38–39, 138
African American women: activism by, 41–42; disfranchisement of, 213n47; marginalization of, 183n138, 205n37, 210n23, 224n136; in patriarchal family structures, 89; sexual exploitation of, 91
Allen, Richard, 36
Amar, Akhil Reed, 169n2
American Anti-Slavery Society, 35, 42, 53–54, 193n127
American Colonization Society (ACS), 35–36
American Equal Rights Association (AERA), 133–144, 146–149, 161, 217n26
American Revolution: African Americans, military service, 20–21, 38–39; democratic logic, 10; electoral population, 13; white men, military service, 69–70
Anthony, Susan B., 5–6, 136, 193nn127–128; and African American activism, 53–54; and congressional politics, 52; on Fourteenth Amendment, 133; Kansas woman suffrage campaign, 147–151; leadership in Loyal League, 51–52, 105; at meetings in New York, 216n4; meetings with Republicans and abolitionists, 107–108; partisan political strategies, 213n62; petitions, 104–106, 109–111, 119–125; racist suffrage arguments, 6–7, 135, 149–151, 156–157, 160–161, 165, 222n92; on republicanism rhetoric, 109; rhetorical attacks on manhood, 134–135, 140–142; support for abolition, 51–52; women’s military service arguments, 140–141, 219n48
Anti-Female Suffrage State Committee (Kansas), 148
antislavery activists. See abolitionists
“Appeal to the Colored Citizens of Pennsylvania,” 39–40
apportionment, 114, 120. See also representation
Baker, Jean, 223n104
Bayard, James A., Jr., 163
Beecher, Henry Ward, 148
Benedict, Michael Les, 210n32
Bingham, John, 85, 113, 115, 118, 164, 195n13
Bisbee, Bessie, 216n4
black codes, 57–59, 97. See also African Americans
Blackstone’s Commentaries, 84, 94
Blackwell, Henry, 147, 149, 221n74, 222n86
Boutwell, George S., 75, 101, 113, 162
Bromwell, Henry, 74
Brooks, Erastus, 144
Brooks, Preston, 79
Broomall, John, 108
brotherhood, political: fraternal language used by congressmen, 63–71, 75; including African Americans, 71, 75; of white men, 69–71
Brown, Benjamin Gratz, 120, 213n63
Brown, Olympia, 147, 216n4, 221n74, 221n77, 221n83
Bruce, Benjamin, 26
Cady, Tryphena, 225n7
Charleston Mercury, 82
Chase, Salmon P., 194n6
Cincinnati Commercial, 159
citizenship, 59; of African Americans, 4–5, 49, 60, 85–87, 208n11 (see also Dred Scott v. Sanford); connected to identity and partisan politics, 134–135; gendered language for, 81–84, 86–92, 94–103, 151; and head-of-household status, 82; of Southern white aristocracy, 57. See also participatory citizenship
civil rights, 92–96; as distinct from political rights, 86–87, 96–97
Civil Rights Act of 1866 (Senate Bill 61), 4, 58–61, 63, 76, 205n49; debates on, 84–90, 92–97
Civil War, 49, 60, 69–70; founders and, 71–72; as site of fraternal bonds, 75; women’s military service, disguised as men, 140–141
Clarke, James, 25
Cline, Andrew J., 18
Cogan, Jacob Katz, 174n18
Colorado Territory, 61
Columbian Register (New Haven, Connecticut), 17
Congress. See Democrats; House of Representatives; representation; Republicans; Senate; Thirty-Ninth Congress
Conkling, Roscoe, 56–57, 85–86, 113–115, 116–117, 119, 127, 164
Connecticut, 9, 61, 178n59, 180n71, 220n70
Connecticut Journal, 17
conservatives: congressional, 63, 80 (see also Democrats); and manhood rights for black men, 80–81, 88–96, 103
Constitution: amending, 56–57, 63, 71–72; Article I, Section 2 (congressional representation), 55; Article II, Section 3 (voting residency requirements), 217n21; Article IV, Section 4 (republican form of government), 110; Eleventh Amendment, 56; gender-specific language in, 1–2, 104–106, 131–133, 212n44; preamble, 1; and slavery, 62–63, 71–73; Twelfth Amendment, 56. See also Fifteenth Amendment; Fourteenth Amendment; Thirteenth Amendment
Constitutional Convention (1789), 4
Cook, John Francis, 196n28
coverture, 82
Cowan, Edgar, 90, 94, 131–132, 155, 205n49
Cummin, John, 18
Curtis, George William, 139, 143, 219n51
Daily Champion, 148
Darlington, William, 20
Davis, Garrett, 65, 67, 91–92, 153, 154, 163
Davis, Jefferson, 140
Davis, Paulina Wright, 44–45, 48
Day, William Howard, 42
Declaration of Independence, 63, 72–74, 145; language of, 45–46
“Declaration of Sentiments” (Seneca Falls 1848 convention), 34–35
“Declaration of Wrongs and Rights” (1864 national convention), 49
Delaney, Martin, 42
Delaware, 174n16, 178n59, 179n68
democracy, dangers of, 173n10
Democratic National Association of the District of Columbia, 61
Democratic Party, 181n90; professionalization of, 14; racism in, 135, 143–144, 149–160, 222n92, 223n104; state convention delegates, 18–19; support for women’s suffrage, 149–156
Democrats, congressional, 56; defeat of House Resolution 51, 126; on founding fathers’ intent and legacy, 62–67; male family metaphors used by, 63–71, 77, 83; opposition to constitutional amendment, 63–66; opposition to granting manhood rights to black men, 80–81, 88–96, 103; on women’s enfranchisement, 118–120, 131–132
Dickey, John, 28
District of Columbia: African Americans’ enfranchisement in, 60–61, 158, 198n39; petitioners from, 76; suffrage rights, 87
domestic tranquility, 111
Doolittle, James, 152
Dorsey, Bruce, 42
Douglass, Frederick, 34, 36, 42, 217n20; support for woman suffrage, 43
Douglass, Sarah M., 42
Dred Scott v. Sanford, 4, 49, 59, 85, 113, 208n11, 211n35
DuBois, Ellen Carol, 170n17, 222n87, 222n92
Dudden, Faye, 151, 159–160, 188n52, 216n6, 217nn24–25, 220n71, 221n80, 221n82, 222n85
Dwight, Theodore, 142
Earle, Thomas, 25
Edmunds, George, 163
Edwards, Weldon, 18
Eldridge, Charles, 91
Eleventh Amendment, 56
Eliot, Thomas, 128
emancipation, 3–4, 35, 36, 60, 85–86
Emancipation Proclamation, 190n95
equality, 71–73, 137–138, 165–166; gender-neutral rhetoric, 44–46
Eskridge, Charles, 148
ethnicity, 29. See also racial identity
family: male authority in, 81–83, 87–92, 144–147; male family metaphors used by congressmen, 63–77
farmers, independence of, 37–38
Federalists, 17
Fehrenbacher, Don, 211n35
feminism, 170n17; inequality in, 161
feminization of men, 146, 184n9, 207n96
Fessenden, William Pitt, 58, 60, 112–113, 115, 125–126, 128
Fifteenth Amendment, 5; and debates on women’s enfranchisement, 162–165; racist arguments against, 6
Finck, William, 68
First Ward Civil Rights Association, 60
Foner, Eric, 14
Forten, Charlotte, 42
Forten, James, 36
Forten, Margaretta, 42
Fortieth Congress, 163; suffrage-related debates in, 151
Forward, Walter, 25
founders: as “fathers,” 63–77; original intent, 56–57, 62–72; political legacy of, 56–57, 62–72, 77
Fourteenth Amendment, 2–3; early drafts, 111–112; impact of women’s rights activists on, 106; ratification by states, 130; representation provision, 77; section 2, text of, 130; use of word “male,” 2, 6–7, 106, 111–112, 133, 164–165, 212n44. See also House of Representatives
franchise restrictions, 3, 9–17, 27–32, 169n7, 173nn12–13, 174n16
Frank, Stephen M., 203n11
fraternal language. See brotherhood
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, 59
Fuller, Jerome, 142
Fuller, John, 19
Garfield, James, 99
Garnett, Henry Highland, 36
Garrison, Lucy McKim, 54
Garrison, William Lloyd, 42, 51, 54, 71, 151
gender-based franchises: in states, 3, 10–11, 15–17, 32. See also Fourteenth Amendment
gender disruption, 145–147, 163
gender identity: arguments for voting rights, 3, 6–8, 25–27, 34, 101–103; as biologically determined, 181n104; and political citizenship, 81–84, 86–92, 94–103. See also manhood; women
gender-neutral franchise, 52, 105, 108
Georgia, 173n12, 178n59; petitioners from, 76
Gilmore, Glenda, 226n12
Goldsmith, Barbara, 219n57
Graves, Ezra, 139
Great Compromise of 1787, 55
Greeley, Horace, 106–107, 139–145, 146–147, 148, 214n70; ridiculed manhood, 143–145
Greeley, Mary Cheney (Mrs. Horace), 143–145, 219n57
Grider, Henry, 113
Grinnell, Josiah B., 78–81, 102–103
Hand, Stanton B., 140
Harding, Aaron, 69
Harper, Frances Ellen Watkins, 42
Harper’s Weekly, 107
Harris, Ira, 113
head-of-household status, 81–83, 88–92
Henderson, John, 123
Hendricks, Thomas, 67–68, 70, 164
Horton, Lois and James, 174n18, 196n28
House of Representatives: Bill 1 debates, 58, 61, 63, 76, 87, 196n28; open debates, 177n52; petitions, referral of, 214n71; Resolution 6 debates, 108; Resolution 11 debates, 108; Resolution 51 debates, 1, 62–64, 76–77, 87, 115–120, 125–128, 130–131; Resolution 127 debates, 60, 79, 87, 120, 127–132 (see also Fourteenth Amendment). See also Joint Committee of Fifteen on Reconstruction (JC15)
House Resolution 402. See Fifteenth Amendment
Howard, Jacob, 87–88, 113, 115, 127, 128–130
identity-based suffrage arguments, 6, 11, 23–27, 165–166. See also gender identity; manhood; racial identity
independence, 175n24; of black men, 101; economic, 37–38; of men, 14, 83, 86
Independent, 148
interracial marriage, 89–90, 94, 154, 205n51
Iowa, 61
Jackson, Andrew, 14, 20; proclamation of equality, 186n34
Jacobs, Louisa and Harriet, 216n4
Jenckes, Thomas, 108
Jim Crow South, 166
Johnson, Andrew, 214n85; Reconstruction policy, 57–58, 107; veto of Civil Rights Act (1866), 4, 60, 90
Johnson, Reverdy, 64, 66, 69–70, 89–90, 94, 113, 128–130
Joint Committee of Fifteen on Reconstruction (JC15), 58, 62–64, 76–77, 87, 195n11; apportionment of representation petitions, 120, 209n16; congressional representation proposals, 114–120; House Resolution 127 (Fourteenth Amendment), 60, 120; members, 112–113; referral of petitions to, 214n71; woman suffrage petitions, 106, 120–123. See also House of Representatives
Jones, J. Elizabeth, 47
Jones, Martha, 42, 184n11, 187n50
Judiciary Committee, 59, 162, 209nn16–17, 214n71
jury duty, 140
Kansas: African American activists, 190n97, 221nn82–83; Republicans’ rejection of women’s enfranchisement, 147–148, 156, 159; suffrage campaigns, 134, 147–151
Kelley, William D., 101, 192n122
Kent, James, 29
Kerber, Linda, 207n89
Keyssar, Alexander, 13, 173n13
Kimmel, Michael, 184n9
Kraditor, Aileen, 188n55
land, meaning in American imagination, 13–14
Lane, Henry, 86
Langston, Charles, 42, 220n71, 221n82
Langston, John Mercer, 196n28
Larned, E., 215n101
Lee, Robert E., 57
“legal voters,” 114
Lewis, Jan, 174n14
Lincoln, Abraham, 57, 83, 211n34
literacy, as franchise requirement, 108
Louisiana, 16, 174n16, 178n59, 190n97
Loyal League. See Women’s National Loyal League
Macon, Nathaniel, 21
Maine: African American voters, 15–16; franchise restrictions, 16, 173n13, 174n16, 178n60
male family metaphors, use in Thirty-Ninth Congress, 63–77, 83
Maltz, Earl, 210n32
manhood, 10–11; abolitionists, 42; and African American activists, 33–41, 49–54; in debate on representation, 63–77; and honor, 202n7; meanings of, 199n46; use of term, 40; as voter qualification, 25, 32–35, 101–103, 106–109, 131, 134, 138–139, 141–147, 157, 165–166. See also African American men; rights of manhood; Southern white men; white men
manhood-based suffrage arguments, 44
marriage: interracial, 89–90, 94, 154, 205n51; laws, 82; women’s property rights, 46, 94
Marshall, Samuel, 65
Maryland, 173n12, 174n21, 178n59; African American voters, 12
Massachusetts, 16; 1858 African American convention, 41; African American voters, 12, 15; franchise restrictions, 173nn12–13, 174n16, 178n59; women’s suffrage petitions, 43; women voters, 12
Masten, Joseph, 142
McClintock, Anne, 199n46
McDougall, James, 92
McMillen, Sally G., 190n81
“men,” as reference for humanity, 2, 45. See also African American men; manhood; white men
“Mentor” (Federalist), 17
Michigan: 1843 African American state convention, 36–37, 39; black suffrage referendum, 61; constitutional convention, 220n70
military service: arguments for African Americans’ enfranchisement, 19–23, 34, 38–39, 49–50, 75–76, 99–101, 141–142, 155; arguments for women’s enfranchisement, 47, 140–141, 219n48; substitutes, 141, 143, 219n49; and voting privileges, 17, 218n40
Militia Act (1792), 49, 181n87
Militia Act (1862), 190n95
Minnesota, 61
miscegenation, 68, 80, 159, 205n51
mixed-race people, 28–31. See also racial identity; racial mixing
Montgomery, John, 25
Morais, Nina, 169n9
Morel, Junius C., 36
Mott, Lucretia, 43, 54, 209n15
National Anti-Slavery Standard, 109–110
National Convention of Colored Citizens, 196n28
National Convention of Colored Freedmen, 42
National Equal Rights League, 196n28
National Women’s Rights Convention (1866), 133
natural-rights suffrage arguments, 174n22, 189n67
Neal, John, 47
“new, new political history,” 172n21
New Hampshire, 16; African American voters, 15; franchise restrictions, 173nn12–13, 174n16, 175n26, 178n59
New Jersey: franchise restrictions, 174n16, 178n59, 179n68; legal codes, 174n21; white male voters, 15; women voters, 12–13
newspapers, transcriptions of legislative debates, 14
New York Herald, 143
New York State: 1821 constitutional convention, 17, 19–22, 27–30, 135, 181n96, 189n67; 1840 African American state convention, 38, 41; 1846 constitutional convention, 25–27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 175n23, 181n96, 183n4, 189n67; 1851 African American convention, 37; 1867 constitutional convention, 139–142, 144–147; African American conventions, 33–34, 36–41; African American voters, 12, 38, 173n9, 182n106, 216n3; black suffrage referenda, 61; campaign for universal suffrage, 134–147; constitutional convention debates, 16–23, 25–33, 35, 135, 139–142, 144–147, 175n23, 181n96, 183n4, 189n67; election of constitutional convention delegates, 135–139; franchise restrictions, 10–12, 173n12, 178n59; women’s property ownership, 46; women’s suffrage petitions, 43, 139; women voters, 12
New York Tribune, 106–107, 148, 219n48
New York World, 143
Niblack, William, 152
Nichols, Clarina Howard, 47, 221n74
Nicholson, John, 70
North Carolina: African American voters, 12, 173n12, 182n106, 182n128, 226n12; constitutional convention debates, 16–21, 23, 28–29, 32; franchise restrictions, 173nn12–13, 178n59
Owen, Robert Dale, 192n116, 215n87
participatory citizenship: and rights of manhood, 83–84, 96–102; voting rights as gendered act of, 32, 83, 204n24
partisan politics, 62; in debates on racial distinctions, 30; development of, 14–15; racist speech in, 7
Paschal, Benjamin, 36
Pennington, James, 36
Pennsylvania: 1848 African American convention, 39–41; 1865 state equal rights convention, 50; African American conventions, 35–41, 190n97; African American voters, 12, 182n106; constitutional convention debates, 16–25, 27–29, 31–32; franchise restrictions, 173nn12–13, 178n59, 179n67; social unrest, 24; State Equal Rights League, 73; women’s property ownership, 46
personal considerations (whiteness and manhood), 9–10, 32
petitions: for African Americans’ enfranchisement, 35, 60, 71–73, 75–77, 120, 124, 214n71; antislavery, 51–52, 192n119; from Mrs. Horace Greeley, 143–145; signatures on, 219n56; for woman suffrage, 5, 7, 33–34, 43, 104–106, 108–111, 119–125, 131, 139, 164, 183n4, 184n11, 214n71
Phillips, Wendell, 35, 45, 53–54, 105, 108, 148
Pillsbury, Parker, 216n4, 218n43
political community: gender identity as foundation for, 101–103, 134; limits of, 6, 117, 131–132; as male family members, 7, 63–77; membership in, 2, 165–166. See also citizenship; participatory citizenship
Pomeroy, Samuel C., 72, 74, 84, 86, 88, 97, 107, 147–148, 207n96
popular politics, growth of, 14–15
population-based representation, 114–118, 126–128
Price, Abby H., 45
property-based suffrage laws, 3, 11–17, 31–32; eliminated by states, 9–11, 15–17; restrictions on African Americans, 25–26, 33, 38, 216n3; supporters of, 17
property rights: as right of manhood, 92–94 (see also rights of manhood); of women, 46, 136
race-based state franchises, 3, 10–11, 15–17, 27–32. See also African Americans’ enfranchisement
race-neutral franchise, 19, 24–25, 30–31, 52, 103, 178n59
racial identity: determining, 26–31, 181n104; voting rights and, 3, 6–8, 25–31, 39–40. See also African Americans; whiteness
racial mixing, 28–31, 68–69, 94–95
racism, 6–7, 15, 80, 85–86, 98, 184n9, 187n50, 206n58; black codes, 57–59, 97; in Democratic Party, 67–69, 135, 143–144, 149–160, 222n92, 223n104; in Southern states, 57–59, 97, 99, 159; violent, 24–25, 99, 159; in woman suffrage arguments, 6–7, 135, 149–151, 156–161, 165, 222n92
Radical Republicans, 52, 56, 60, 75, 109
radicals, 53–54, 125–126, 148, 214n85
Rael, Patrick, 184n8
rape: of African American women, 91; death penalty for, 91, 154; myth of the black rapist, 89–91, 153–154, 158–159, 200n66, 226n12
Rathbone, Henry, 211n34
Raymond, Henry, 88
Reconstruction policy, 53–54, 112–113
Remond, Charles L., 36, 41, 216n4
representation, 4–5, 55–57; House Resolution 51 debates, 1, 62–64, 76–77, 87, 115–120, 125–128, 130–131; linked to African American voting rights, 61–64, 77, 112, 125; population-based, 114–118, 126–128; taxation and, 13, 22, 46–47, 125–126, 138; voter-based, 114–118, 127–128; of women, 116–120, 123–127
republican form of government, 131–132
Republicans, congressional: in 1864 elections, 53; and black men’s manhood rights, 80–81, 85–89, 96–103; on congressional representation, 4–5, 85–87; early Reconstruction policy, 56–63; on founders’ intent, 62–63; House Resolution 127 debates, 128; male family metaphors used by, 7, 71–77, 83–84; support for black men’s voting rights, 96–103, 109–111
Republicans’ rejection of women’s enfranchisement: in Congress, 107–109, 123–124, 133–135, 156; in Kansas, 147–148, 156, 159; in New York, 140–142, 145–147; in the press, 106–107
Revolution (suffrage newspaper), 151, 156–160
Revolutionary War. See American Revolution
Rhode Island: African American voters, 15–16; franchise restrictions, 173n9, 173n13, 174n16
Rhodes, Elijah, 26
rights acquisition, theory of, 44
rights of manhood, 79–103; African Americans and, 80–81, 84–103; contract rights, 92, 94–96; in families, 81–83, 87–92, 144–147; participatory citizenship, 83–84, 96–102; property rights, 83, 92–94. See also manhood
Rochester, NY: 1853 African American national convention, 38, 186n34; AERA meeting, 216n11
Rogers, Andrew J., 64, 66, 69, 113, 152, 154
Rogers, H. Gold, 180n85
Rousseau, Lovell H., 78–81, 102–103
Russell, John, 31
safety of the nation, 111, 153–155, 157–158
Sanford, Ruben, 20
sarcasm, as rhetorical strategy, 217n20
Saulsbury, Willard, 97
Schurz, Carl, 193n128
Scott, Dred, 113. See also Dred Scott v. Sanford
Scott, John, 30
Senate: antislavery petitions in, 192n119; Bill 1 (see Civil Rights Act of 1866); Resolution 51 debates, 125–126; Resolution 127 debates, 128–130
Seneca Falls convention (1848), 43
separate spheres ideology, 81–82, 203n9
service-based suffrage arguments, 11, 16–23, 32; for African American men, 99–101; for women, 44, 46–47
sexual control over women, 80, 88–92, 153–154, 158–159, 200n66, 226n12
Shellabarger, Samuel, 117–118, 226n10
Silvester, Francis, 146
slavery, 14, 71–73; dependent status of slaves, 84–85; disruption of patriarchal family, 87; fear of slave uprisings, 25
Smith, Gerrit, 104, 108, 148, 160
Smith, Horace, 145
Smith, Rogers, 174n18
social class, 143, 219n49; poverty, 138–139, 175n24
social hierarchies, 31, 94–95, 150, 156–157
Sommerville, Diane Miller, 200n66
South Carolina, 16, 173n9, 173n12, 174n16, 178n59
Southern Quarterly, 82
Southern states: black codes, 57–59, 97; congressional representation, 4–5, 55–56, 62, 112, 149, 207n96; Jim Crow, 166; labor and social organization, 94–96; property-based suffrage, 14; racist violence in, 99, 159; relationship to state in postbellum period, 80; voting laws, 2, 14, 24–25; white aristocracy, political citizenship of, 57. See also Reconstruction
Southern white men: caning attacks by, 78–79; as national brothers, 69–71. See also manhood; white men
Stanford, John A., 211n35
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 5–6, 137–139, 217n26; and African American activism, 53–54; and congressional politics, 52; on isolation of the sexes, 48; Kansas woman suffrage campaign, 147–151; leadership in Loyal League, 51–52, 105; at meetings in New York, 216n4; partisan political strategies, 221n84; petitions, 104–106, 108–111, 119–125; racist suffrage arguments, 6–7, 135, 149–151, 156–161, 165, 222n92; republicanism rhetoric, 109–111; rhetorical attacks on manhood, 134–135, 140–143; rhetorical strategies, 217n20; support for abolition, 51–52; support for call for suffrage, 43; on taxation without representation, 46; on word “male” in amendment proposals, 104–105
Stanton, Henry, 43
states: constitutional conventions, 7, 11; franchise restrictions, 3, 9–17, 27–32, 169n7, 173nn12–13, 174n16; male-female gender ratios, 116–117; sovereignty over suffrage, 61–64; white males, laws defining voters as, 14
Stevens, Thaddeus, 17, 58, 62, 65, 72, 74, 112–116, 127–129, 195n13, 212n44
Stevens/Conkling proposal, 114
Stewart, Maria, 42
Stone, Lucy, 44, 46, 146, 147, 149, 170n16, 190n81
Sturdevant, E. W., 21
substitutes for military service, 141, 143, 219n49
suffragists: use of term, 208n8. See also universal suffrage; women’s enfranchisement; women’s rights activists
Sumner, Charles, 52, 58, 71–75, 78–79, 84–85, 100–101, 111–113, 123, 125–126, 195n13, 196n28
Syracuse, 1852 women’s rights national convention, 46, 48
Tappan, Lewis and Arthur, 42
taxation and representation, 13, 22, 46–47, 125–126, 138
tax qualifications for voting, 17–18, 25, 32
Taylor, William, 26
Tennessee, 178n59
Terborg-Penn, Rosalyn, 220n71
Texas, 15
Thayer, Russell M., 93
Thirteenth Amendment, 3, 35, 52, 60, 66, 205n49; petition drives for, 105; ratification of, 55–56
Thirty-Eighth Congress, 52
Thirty-Ninth Congress: on amending the Constitution and founders’ intent, 56–57, 62–77; discussions about women’s rights, 119–120, 123–127, 151; male, voters identified as, 104–106, 126–132; political citizenship, gendered language used for, 81–84, 86–92, 94–103; postbellum legislative proposals, 58–61
three-fifths clause, 4, 55–56, 61–62, 77, 114
Tilton, Theodore, 148
Tompkins, Daniel D., 17
Train, George Francis, 149–151, 156, 222nn90–92
Troy, New York, African American national convention, 37, 42
Trumbull, Lyman, 59–60, 90, 92–93, 205n51, 215n101
Truth, Sojourner, 42
Twelfth Amendment, 56
United Franchise League, 60
universal manhood suffrage, 112, 204n18; states’ rejection of, 61
universal suffrage, 108, 124, 133–139, 198n40, 216n6
unsafe (dangerous or unfit) voters, 10–11, 17–18, 138–139, 153–154
U.S. Supreme Court, 4. See also Dred Scott v. Sanford
Van Horn, Burt, 101
Venet, Wendy Hamand, 191n113, 192nn121–122
Vermont: African American voters, 12, 15; franchise restrictions, 173nn12–13, 175n26; women’s suffrage petitions, 43
violence, racist, 24–25, 99, 159
Virginia, 16, 173n12, 174n16, 178n59
voter-based representation, 114–118, 127–128
voting rights, 7–8; as gendered act of participatory citizenship, 32, 83, 151, 204n24; perceived as restricted political privilege, 170n13. See also African Americans’ enfranchisement; universal suffrage; women’s enfranchisement
Wakeman, Seth, 142
Washburne, Elihu B., 58, 113, 127
Waterbury, David, 26
Welker, Martin, 98
Wellman, Judith, 189n67
Whigs, 14
“white man’s government,” 11, 32, 34, 53, 67, 73, 134, 138, 151, 159
white men: collective identity, 32; control over women, 80–81, 96; head-of-household status, 81–83, 88–92; rights of manhood, 80–87; social and economic power, 94–96; voting rights, 32, 83. See also manhood
whiteness, 10–11, 73, 138–139, 200n60; endangered by black voters, 153–154; limits and meaning of, 28–31, 134; and political privilege, 155–157. See also racial identity
white supremacy, 62; women’s enfranchisement as support for, 149–151, 159. See also racism; social hierarchies
white women, 29; as sexually endangered by black men, 89–91, 153–154, 158–159, 200n66, 226n12; Victorian ideal of, 183n138. See also women
Wilentz, Sean, 176n42, 182n106
Williams, George, 113–114, 127, 130
Wilson, Henry, 192n122, 195n13, 196n28
Wilson, James, 75, 93–94, 98, 100
Wilson, Jesse, 19
Wilson, John Lyde, 202n7
Windom, William, 100
women: connection to state, 21–23, 46–48; empowerment through actions, 44–45; gender transgressions by, 134, 140–141, 145–147; military service, disguised as men, 140–141, 191n109; morality of, 48; “natural law” precluding political participation, 129–131, 145; political power through influence over men, 126; as taxpayers, 22, 46–47, 136. See also African American women; gender identity; white women; women’s enfranchisement; women’s rights activists
women’s enfranchisement: 1867 New York constitutional convention, 139–147; disfranchisement, 21–23; gendered language used to prevent, 7, 106, 117–118, 128, 131–132, 164; Kansas referendum, 147–151; military service arguments, 47, 140–141, 219n48; property-based, 11–13, 22; taxation and, 22, 46–47, 136; unsafe voter argument, 10–11, 45. See also Republicans’ rejection of women’s enfranchisement
Women’s National Loyal League, 51–53, 105, 191n113
women’s rights activists: and African American activists, 35, 41–42, 53–54, 134, 150; controversy over call for suffrage, 43; conventions, 34, 43–49; democratic principles, arguments using, 34–35, 44–46, 134, 136–138; gendered language, use of, 35; impact on partisan politics, 8, 133–135; partisan politics and, 147; protests against disfranchisement, 3, 7, 34–35; racist suffrage arguments, 6–7, 135, 149–151, 156–161, 165, 222n92; republicanism rhetoric, 109–111; Revolution newspaper, 151, 156–160; scholarship on racism in, 170n18, 222n92; state-level activism, 209n15; support for abolition, 51; use of term, 208n8. See also petitions; specific activists
Wood, Gordon, 13
Wood, Samuel N., 147, 149, 220n71
Woodward, George W., 18
Yates, Richard, 85
Yates County Chronicle, 137