INDEX

abolition, 4–5, 54, 57, 67, 135; gradual, 4, 57
abuse, 45, 74, 80, 94, 96–97, 135
Act for preventing Suppressing and punishing the Conspiracy and Insurrection of Negroes and other Slaves, 56, 58
Act for preventing the Conspiracy of Slaves (1708), 89
Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery (1799), 57
Act to Incourage the Baptizing of Negro, Indian and Mulatto Slaves (1706), 58
Acts and Proceedings of the General Synod (1816), 113
adultery, 44, 47
Afonso I (Kongo), 42, 75
Africa, 48, 68, 140n18; Catholicism in, 39, 42–43, 74, 76
African Burial Ground report, 127, 131
African captives, 6, 20–22, 72, 140n18, 140n19, 149n59, 149n69, 154n113, 162n90
African culture, enslaved community and, 68, 71–72, 74–77, 162n87; religious practices and, 75–76, 93–94, 129, 131–132
agricultural labor. See farming
Aimwell, Absolom, 70
Albany County, 5, 66; enslaved population in, 54–57, 80; legislation in, 59
Albany, 56, 59, 67, 165n28, 166n49; built environment of, 60–61, 64, 81, 85–86; churches in, 108, 112, 118–21, 123, 127, 186n80, 188n112; enslaved population in, 80, 86; fire in, 64, 70, 91, 171n136; public spaces in, 59, 61, 64, 70–71; Synod of, 115. See also Beverwijck
alcohol, 38, 65–66, 68, 73. See also taverns
Alexander, Robert, 108, 119
American Revolution, 6, 66–67, 72–73, 86, 113, 123
Amsterdam, 20–21, 71, 174n23; Classis of, 105, 111, 114
amulets, 130–31
Anderson, Elijah, 53, 163n6
Andrade, Tonio, 17
Andries (enslaved by Jan Baptist van Rensselaer), 25–26, 152n97
Anglican churches, 105–6, 116–17, 120–121, 123, 128, 132, 182n22, 184n58
Angola, 22, 43, 75, 131, 162n87
Angola, Anthonie van, 39–40, 156n32
Angola, Christina, 52
Angola, Domingo, 51–54, 77
Angola, Dorothea, 42, 44
Angola, Emanuel Swager van, 40, 157n37
Angola, Gracia d’, 13, 26, 43, 154n115
Angola, Maijken van, 31–32, 39, 42, 48, 50, 52
Angola, Manuel, 52–54, 77
Angola, Paulo, 26, 43, 154n115
Angola, Samuel, 40, 42
Angole, Emanuel d’, 40, 41
Angool, Lúcie d’, 39–40, 156n32
Anthonij, Anthonij, 42, 44
Antonij, Cleijn, 13, 26, 42–43, 154n115
archeology, 8–9, 80, 83, 87f, 88, 92–93, 129–32, 137n3, 177n66
architecture, churches and, 106, 117, 120–21, 124–25; changes in, 11, 81, 85, 88, 116, 120, 174n23; control and, 8, 16, 59–60, 81, 85, 89
arson. See fires
artifacts, 9, 84f, 92–94
Ashanti Adae, 76
Atlantic Creoles, 6, 48
Atlantic Ocean, 15. See also slave trade
auctions, 21–22, 38, 78–79

Bakongo, 93, 130, 190n152
balconies, 119, 121, 123
Baltus (enslaved man), 59–60
Banda Islands, 16, 17
baptism, 39–42, 44, 107–109, 111–13, 156n37
Baptist church, 105, 124
Barbados, 59, 140n18, 168n70
Barbot, Jean, 75
basements. See cellars
Bassie de neger (enslaved man), 127
Batavia, 16, 17, 21, 28
Baumfree, Isabella. See Sojourner Truth
Beasley, Nicholas, 106
Bedminster, NJ, 125
bellmen, 59, 166n49, 166n50. See also curfews; watchmen
Benes, Peter, 106, 120
Bentham, Jeremy, 8, 89
Beranek, Christa, 173n23
Berlin, Ira, 6, 48, 53
Bet (accused of arson in Albany), 1, 64, 70, 91, 167n63–64
Beverwijck, 22, 24, 49, 97, 149n64, 165n28, 166n50. See also Albany
Bevier, Anne, 105, 115
Block, Sharon, 98
Blussé, Leonard, 16
bodies, displays of, 13, 60; scrutiny of, 63, 97
Bogaert, Harmen Meyndertsz van den, 46
Bogardus, Everardus, 40–42, 156n37, 159n68
Boles, Richard, 128, 189n125
Bonomi, Patricia, 3, 180n8
Borsum van, Egbert, 25, 39
Bosman, Willem, 75, 131
Bout, Jan Evertsen, 152n106
bouwerijen, 24, 35
Brandon, Pepijn, 17
Brant, Molly, 93
Brazil, 17, 20, 22, 23, 149n67
Brooklyn, 54–57, 68, 79–82, 109, 127, 128
Brown, Kathleen, 89
Brown, Vincent, 8
Brown, William J., 124
Buggeln, Gretchen, 106
built environment, 8–9, 16, 59, 66, 80–81, 116. See also architecture
burials. See cemeteries
Burke, Peter, 72
Bushwick, 55f, 109

Calvin, John, 107, 117–18
Calvinism, 111, 117, 126
camp meetings, 128–29
Camp, Stephanie, 7, 8, 11, 53, 69, 137n5, 163n9
Cape Coast, 75
Cape Town, 16
Capitein, Jacobus Elisa Johannes, 111
Caribbean, 6, 22, 59, 140n19, 149n59, 149n69
Carli, Diongi de, 43, 76
carpenters, 18, 23, 155n11
Carson, Cary, 85
Cartagena, 159n63
Carter’s Grove, Virginia, 92
catechism, 50, 107–108, 111
Catholicism, 39, 42–43, 74–75
Caughnawaga (Fonda), 112, 126.
cellars, 1, 2, 64, 78–80, 83, 85, 88–91, 173n21, 173n23, 177n66
cemeteries, 70, 126–28, 189n133
census, 55–57, 79f, 82, 86, 139n9
Certeau, Michel, 7
chained labor, 15, 23–24, 27, 29–30, 38, 96. See also kettinggangers
Chalk Schuyler, 97–8
Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions (1629), 18
Chesapeake colonies, 21, 85, 89, 92, 102, 123, 173n13
Child of the Van Rensselaer Family and Servant (c. 1730), 9, 10f
children, 44–45, 67, 91, 96, 101, 120, 131; baptism of, 39–43, 107–8, 112; as company property, 27–28, 43; enslaved, 9–10, 10f, 26; of enslaved people, 97–98, 103, 152n106; freedom petitions and, 28, 43; as gifts, 99; of half-free people, 26–28, 35, 43–44; sale of, 38, 78–79, 97–100; slave trade and, 150n69
churches, buildings, 40–41, 50, 106, 116–125, 132, 188n112; governance of, 39, 110, 114–115; membership in, 39, 95, 106–14; seating in, 118–25; segregation in, 106, 109, 115–16, 119, 124–25, 128; social hierarchies and, 106–7, 110, 113–14, 116, 132
churchyards, 125–26, 189n129
City Hall, 38, 48
civic spaces, 117
Claesje (enslaved by Sander Leendersz), 49–50
Clinton, Catherine, 97
coachmen, 126
Coen, Jan Pieterszoon, 17
Cohen, David Steven, 127
coins, as amulets, 130–31, 190n57
Colono Ware (Colono-Indian Ware), 129
communion, 39, 107–8, 111, 113–15, 124, 184n58
conditional freedom. See half-freedom
Congo, Simon, 13, 26, 41, 43, 154n115
consistory, 105, 108, 115, 119, 120, 123
Constitution, U.S., 95
Continental Army, 57, 86
Continental Congress, 86
Cooper, James Fenimore, 70, 133–35
corncobs, 84f, 92–94, 129
Coster, Will, 189n133
courts, 47, 50, 52, 160n75, 162n87, 163n94; access to, 3–4, 10, 32, 47–51, 58, 134, 161n85; proximity to, 32, 35, 47–51
Couwenhoven van, Jacob, 33, 152n106
Covart, Elizabeth, 167n64
Coventry, Alexander, 56, 69–70
Craeij, Theunis, 42, 157n46
Cregier, Marten, 153n106
Crioole, Elaria (Swartinne), 45, 159n69
crosses, 129–130, 190n152
Curaçao, 20, 22–23, 38, 45, 152n97
curfews, 53, 61, 65, 166n49, 167n64. See also night; pass systems; watchmen

daily life, 11, 37–38, 44, 51, 60, 82, 134
dance, 68, 75–76, 171n147
Dankaerts, Jasper, 69
Dapper, Olfert, 131
Dean (accused of arson in Albany), 1, 64, 70, 91, 167n63, 167n64, 171n136
Delle, James, 8, 89, 92, 141n37, 164n9
DeWitt, Hillitje, 63
Dewulf, Jeroen, 75, 171n136
Diamond, Joe, 173n21
diaspora, 93, 129, 131–32, 162n87
Dijkeman, Johannes, 90, 176n47
dikenga, 93, 177n66
Dillon, Elizabeth Maddock, 9
discipline, 24, 59–60, 92, 115
docks, 25, 56
domestic labor, 25, 27, 31, 56, 85, 98
domestic spaces, 11, 80, 94, 96, 98, 102, 173n23
Donck, Adriaen van der, 152n106
Dordrecht, Synod of, 126
Douglass, Frederick, 102, 124
Douw, Volkert, 55, 91
Drayton Hall, South Carolina, 89
Dubois, Sylvia, 61, 129
Duke’s laws, 58, 165n28
Dunlap, William, 69–70
Dutch Americans, 5, 56; culture of, 5–6, 77, 105; as enslavers, 55, 63, 73, 79–80, 89, 95–96, 98–99; reliance on slavery by, 3, 26, 81
Dutch Reformed Church, 3, 59, 61, 105–6, 115, 132; architecture and, 39, 116–25; Black community and, 44, 103–4, 124, 128–132; Black membership in, 95, 107–14, 128, 129; enslaved people and, 39–43, 49–50, 95, 107–9, 112–14, 129; power and, 12, 104–6, 113–14. See also architecture; baptism; churches; marriage
Dutch Republic, 15, 18–20, 25–26, 68, 71
Dutchess County, 56f, 100, 101
Duyckinck, Gerardus, 99

East India Company (VOC), 14–18, 21, 24, 28, 30
election day celebrations, 68, 72, 75–76
Eliade, Mircea, 106
Ellis, Clifton, 163n9
Emanuels, Christina, 44, 158n57
English settlers, 17–18
English takeover, 4–6, 46–47, 52, 58, 164n15. See also New York City
Enlightenment, 72–73, 113
enslaved labor, colonization and, 11, 14–18, 20, 23, 29; contracting out of, 18, 24–25, 35; demand for, 21, 26; invisibility of, 88–90, 101–2; reliance on, 3, 54–57, 77, 95, 109, 134; tasks performed by, 4, 23–26, 56, 83, 85–86, 88; West India Company and, 4, 13, 20–28, 31
enslaved people, access to courts by, 46–49; colonization and, 14–26, 29; communities of, 33, 43–46, 49–50, 74–77, 124–25; living spaces of, 32–33, 35, 37, 78, 80–92, 94–101; participation in the community by, 32, 37–43, 53–54, 67–73, 108–10, 113–15, 119; public spaces and, 37, 53, 57–73; sale of, 21–25, 99
enslaved population, 53, 56f, 79; backgrounds of, 6–7, 22, 129–32, 140n18–19, 157n48, 159n63; growth of, 6, 54, 55f, 72
enslavement, hierarchies of, 14, 26–30
Epperson, Terence, 8, 89, 92
Equiano, Olaudah, 9
Erasmus Hall Academy, 182n28
errands, 25, 56, 100, 134
escape from slavery, 19, 24–25, 61–63, 66–67, 73–74, 95–97, 101, 134
Esopus. See Kingston
executioners, enslaved people as, 24, 45, 150n73, 151n83
executions, 13–14, 24, 29, 63, 70, 167n63, 171n136

families, enslaved, 28, 39, 41–46, 49, 65, 68–69, 74, 91, 96, 99–102; slaveholding, 4, 9, 63, 78–86, 88–90
farming, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 35, 37, 43, 56, 98, 135
Fatah-Black, Karwan, 17
Ferguson, Leland, 129–130, 190n152
Festivals. See Pinkster
fires, 1–2, 8, 64, 70, 91, 166n50, 167n64, 171n136
Fitts, Robert K., 173n14
Flatbush, 6, 49, 55f, 79, 109, 119, 127, 182n28
Flatlands, 55f, 79f, 81, 109, 182n28
Foote, Thelma Wills, 3
forests, 33, 35, 98
Fort Amsterdam, 14, 23, 46
Fort Orange, 46, 50
Fort Orange, Jan, 13, 26, 40–41, 43, 154n115, 156n35
Foucault, Michel, 7, 8, 60, 89
Francisco, Jan, 26, 43
Franklin, Benjamin, 57, 64, 86
free Black community, 31, 35, 37, 44, 50–56, 112
free Black people, 32–33, 40, 43, 46, 54–57, 63, 67, 101–4, 132. See also half-freedom; manumission
freeburghers, 16
Fromont, Cécile, 75, 94, 131
Fuentes, Marisa, 8, 59, 178n88
funerals, 126, 131. See also cemeteries
Furman, Gabriel, 69

galleries, 116–21, 123–24
gallows, 59, 60, 70
Games, Alison, 17
Gansevoort, Peter, 1, 64, 91
Garden Street Church, 115
garrets, 1–2, 80, 83, 84f, 86, 90–93, 129, 134
geographies of control, 53, 58, 63, 67, 77
geographies of resistance, 11, 53, 64, 67, 77
Gideon, 20, 21, 155n12
Ginsberg, Rebecca, 163n9
godparents. See witnesses
Goetschius, Johannes Mauritius, 127
Gold Coast, 6, 22, 75, 140n18
Goodfriend, Joyce, 3
Gorée Island (Senegal), 1, 2f
Grant, Anne, 85, 96–99, 102
Gravesend, 55f, 79f, 109, 159n67
grisgris, 93
Groth, Michael, 3
Grotius, Hugo, 153n111

Haefeli, Evan, 157n48
half-freedom, 3, 14, 26–30, 47, 143n7, 154n115, 155n12; children and, 26–28, 35, 43–44; conditions of, 26–28, 30, 44; full manumission and, 46–47; living conditions and, 32, 35, 43, 44; loyalty and, 15, 27, 29
Hall, David, 106
Hall, Thomas, 35, 38, 155n11
Hallett, Ruth, 89
Hallett, William, Jr., 89
Hamer, Deborah, 16, 160n71
Hanley, Ryan, 111
Hardenbergh, Charles, 78, 83, 98, 100
Hardesty, Jared, 91
Harre (enslaved by Philip Schuyler), 97, 101
Harris, Leslie, 3
Hartman, Saidiya, 69–70
Hasbrouck, Abraham, 83, 173n21
Heaton, John, 9, 10f
Heidelberg Catechism, 107–8
Hendrick I. Lott house, 81–85, 90, 92–94, 129–30, 173n19
Henry, Edward Lamson, 126, 126f
Herman, Bernard, 64
Higman, Barry, 59
Hodges, Graham Russell, 3, 66–67, 68, 116, 128
horses, 25–26, 126
Horton, James, 72
Horton, Lois, 72
houses, 11, 35, 60, 155n11; of enslaved people, 33, 35; resistance in, 91–94, 129; as spaces of enslavement, 80–91, 94–98, 101–2, 133–34, 173n21, 173n23
Hudson River, 53, 86, 99, 100
Huntington, New York, 92

Igbo, 177n62
in-between spaces, 119–20
indentured servants, 5, 18–19, 27
Indonesia, 9, 15, 16, 94
infants, 99, 101
intimacy, 9, 40, 44, 48–49, 80, 97, 100–1; in churches, 109, 114
Iroquois Nations, 66, 93
Isaac, Rhys, 106
Islam, 45, 159n63

Jacobs, Jaap, 146n33, 160n71
Jamaica, 89, 92, 140n18, 175n42
Jay, John, 86
Jefferson, Thomas, 89
Joghemsen, Andries, 38
Johnson Hall, 93
Johnson, Rashauna, 8, 73
Johnson, William, 93
Johnston, David, 103
Jordan, Mark, 115–16
judicial system. See courts

Kalm, Pehr, 119
Kent, James, 124
kettinggangers, 24, 27. See also chained labor
Khoikhoi, 73
Kieft, Willem, 23, 41
Kieft’s War, 23
Kilde, Jeanne Halgren, 106, 114, 117–19
Kings County, 5, 54–57, 79–82, 100–1, 129; churches in, 95, 109, 113, 182n28
Kingston, 6, 49, 55, 59–60, 66, 80, 95, 99, 127, 165n28, 180n6; church in, church, 1, 108–9, 112, 119, 186n86
kitchens, 83, 85–86, 88–89, 91, 93, 129, 165n28, 173n18, 173n23
Knaap, Gerrit, 15
Knuwu, Nzinga (João I), 42
Kongo, Kingdom of, 42–43, 75, 93–94, 131, 162n87
Kramer, Erin, 16
Krol, Sebastiaen Jansen, 40

Laet, Johannes de, 21
land, 33, 35; colonization and, 16, 18, 20, 28–30, cultivation of, 4, 14, 20, 23, 26, 135; half-freedom and, 37, 52, 54
Latting’s Hundred, 92
law enforcement, 24, 47
Law for Regulating Negro & Indian Slaves in the Night Time (1713), 62
lean-tos, 82–85, 173n23
Leendersz, Sander, 49
Lefebvre, Henri, 7, 8
legal system, 15–16, 28–29, 46–49, 98, 162n87
legislation, 6, 44, 47, 51, 53, 58–59, 62–66, 73, 77, 109, 161n85
Leisler, Jacob, 22
Leisler’s Rebellion, 22
Lepore, Jill, 8
Lewis (enslaved by Schuyler family), 57, 64
lived religion, 106
living spaces, 1, 64, 78–85, 88–96, 129, 174n23, 175n38, 177n62, 177n68
Livingston Manor, 90
Livingston, John Henry, 109
Livingston, William, 65
Loange, Swan, 37, 38, 44, 156n26, 158n57
locked spaces, 24, 83, 90
lofts, 82–83
Long Island, 24–25, 45, 50, 53, 69, 81, 89, 163n94, 172n152
Loockermans, Govert, 37, 38, 44
Lord’s Supper. See communion
Loth, Bartel Engelbertszen, 81, 172n10
Lott, Hendrick I., 81, 83. See also Hendrick I. Lott House
Lott, Johannes, 81–82
Louw, Maria, 95–96
Lowe, Peter, 95, 109–14, 128, 182n28, 183n35
loyalty, 13, 15, 27–29, 31
Luanda, 22, 131

Maika, Dennis, 127
Maison des Esclaves, 1, 2f, 137n1
Manhattan, 5, 15–16, 19f, 28, 33, 34f, 37, 52, 77, 112, 119, 127,
Manuel, Cleijn, 26, 43, 48
Manuel, Groot, 13, 25, 26, 37, 43, 142n1, 154n115
manumission, 27, 28, 31, 73, 78, 103, 108, 109; regulation of, 53, 56. See also half-freedom; petitions
marketplaces, 5, 37, 59
marriage, 16, 39–41, 44–45, 100, 157n40, 159n61
Maskiell, Nicole, 176n47
Mason, George, 89
Massachusetts, 67, 124, 179n108
McGill, Joseph, 2
McKittrick, Katherine, 8
Mecugni, Anna, 141n36
Megapolensis, Johannes, 156n37
Mellick, Andrew, 125, 126
Memoirs of an American Lady, by Grant, 96
Merlin-Faucquez, Anne-Claire, 4
Methodist churches, 105, 124, 128
Michaëlius, Jonas, 40
Middle Passage. See slave trade
Midwout, Long Island, 25
Miller, Daniel, 71
Miller, Marla, 173n23, 177n68
ministers, 50, 95, 103–5, 109, 111–17, 119, 124, 127, 132, 180n2, 180n6, 183n35
minkisi, 93
missionaries, 41, 43, 76
mobility, 3, 50, 67, 99; restrictions on, 7, 11, 32, 53–54, 57–62, 65–66, 73, 77, 90,
Moravians, 41, 123
motherhood, 38, 96, 98–100
Mouw, Dirk, 113, 180n2
Mpanzu a Kitima, 75
Munsee, 15, 16, 23
murder, 13, 24, 29, 33, 47, 60, 89–90, 161n81
Murphy, James, 103–6, 114–16, 132
music, 68, 76, 121, 171n147

Native Americans, 6–7, 15, 89, 112, 130. See also Munsee
Neau, Elias, 128
Negro Election Day, 72, 75
neighbors, 60, 125, 126
Nelson, Louis, 106, 121, 123, 184n58, 189n133
New Amsterdam, 5, 35–38, 117; Black community in, 31–35, 37, 40, 43–48, 58, 134; church, 31–32, 39–43, 107, 117, 126; enslaved labor for, 25, 30, 155n12; fortification of, 14, 28, 46; slave auctions in, 21–22
New France, 66
New Haven, 18, 76
New Jersey, 3, 61, 66, 68, 69, 125, 129
New Netherland, 3–5, 11, 13–14, 19f; colonization of, 14–23, 29; enslaved labor in, 4, 6, 10, 14–15, 20–23, 27–29, 32, 33, 47
New Orleans, 8, 68
New Paltz, 80, 83, 97, 99, 101, 121, 122f, 127, 173n21, 188n112
New Utrecht, 55f, 79, 79f, 101, 109
New York City conspiracy (1741), 8, 90
New York City slave revolt (1712), 59, 89
New York City, 59, 124; Black community in, 52, 55–59, 62–66, 99, 101, 131; churches in, 111–12, 120, 124, 127–28; courts in, 52, 65; Pinkster celebrations in, 70
New York, Classis of, 115–16; Particular Synod of, 113
Newman, Oscar, 60
Ngongo Mbata, 131
Nichols, Francis, 55
night watch. See watchmen
night, 24, 59–62, 64, 65–66, 83, 90, 100, 134. See also curfews
North Carolina, 123

O’Malley, Gregory, 140n19
Oldendorp, Christian, 41
Olwell, Robert, 121, 132
overseers, 24, 38, 42, 134

panopticon, 8, 60, 89
pass systems, 50, 53, 61–62, 67, 134
Passaiac Falls, NJ, 69
paternalism, 72–73
paternity, 45, 97–98
patrols, 3, 11, 53, 58, 60–61, 63, 77
patroonships, 18, 20, 47, 86
Pearce, Cato, 124
Pearl Street, 37–38, 40–41, 48, 61f
petitioning, 47, 65–66, 162n87
petitions, for freedom, 28, 31–32, 43, 46–47, 153n114
pews, 116, 118–21, 123–25, 173n14, 185n75, 187n96, 187n108
Philadelphia, Classis of, 113
picnics, 125–26
Pinkster, 11, 53, 67–77, 170n114
Pirates. See privateers
plantations, 4–5, 8, 25, 68, 88–89, 92, 102, 134, 137n5, 175n38, 175n42, 179n111
Polhelmus, Henry, 127
Pompey, 1, 64, 70, 91, 167n63, 167n64
porticos, 116, 121
Portugies, Antonij, 13, 26, 43, 48, 154n115, 161n81
Portuguese colonization, 17–18, 21–22, 29, 42, 130–31, 152n104, 162n87
pottery, 129–30
pregnancy, 97–99, 108
Premero, Jan, 13, 29, 33, 154n115, 154n6n, 161n81
Prince (enslaved by Schuylers), 86, 97
prisoners, 24, 38
prisons, 59, 70
privacy, 35, 82, 83, 85, 91, 94
private spaces, 60, 98, 128, 132
privateers, 21, 22, 23, 149n69
provisions, 14, 22, 26
Prude, Jonathan, 72
Public spaces, control of, 53, 58–59; navigation of, 11, 65, 67, 77, 134; prohibited behavior in, 60, 61–62, 64, 77; punishment in, 24, 58, 59, 60, 63; regulation of gatherings in, 58–59, 65–66, 68; sales of enslaved people in, 21–22, 38; surveillance of, 60–63, 70, 73, 77; as white space, 53–54, 58, 64, 77
pulpits, 104, 116–21, 124
punishment, corporal, 24, 60, 95, 97; labor as, 23–24; public, 13, 24, 53, 58–60, 63

Raben, Remco, 17
Raboteau, Albert, 191n163
Rachel (enslaved by Catharin Cottyn), 108–9
rebellion. See revolts
reenslavement, 27–28, 47, 52, 95
Reidy, Joseph, 76
Reis, Murad, 159n63
relocation, 33, 45, 49, 101
Rensselaer family, 47, 99
Rensselaer, Elizabeth van, 86
Rensselaer, Jan Baptist van, 25, 26,
Rensselaer, Jeremias van, 25, 26, 44, 152n97
Rensselaer, Stephen van, 55
Rensselaer, Stephen van, II, 86
Rensselaerswijck, 18, 44, 47, 49, 80, 160n75
resistance, 3, 5, 7, 11, 53, 134; fears of, 29, 63, 68, 89–90; living quarters and, 89–94, 102; in public spaces, 65–77
Reus, Manuel de Gerrit de, 13–14, 24, 26, 29, 32, 35, 37, 42–43, 48–49, 142n1, 153n114
revolts, 8, 58, 59, 89, 90, 134
Reyniers, Grietje, 45
Rhode Island, 18, 124
rival geographies, 11–12, 53, 80, 137n5, 163n9
Robberts, Susanna Anthonij, 37
Rochester, 63, 80, 105, 115
Rochester, Clove, and Wawarsing churches, 103, 115, 132
Rodenburch, Lucas, 20
Roelants, Adam, 33, 35
Roman law, 28–29, 162n87
Romney, Susanah Shaw, 42, 154n114, 157n48
Ronde, Lambertus de, 111
Roodenburg, Lucas, 152n97
Ross, Robert, 73
runaway slave advertisements, 62–63, 66–67, 97, 101, 125, 189n129
rural areas, 49–50, 64
Rutgersen, Jan, 37

Sabbath, 38
sacraments. See baptism, communion
Said, Edward, 137n5, 163n9
St. Anthonij, Barent Jan, 40, 42
St. Anthonij, Pieter, 40–42
Saint Anthony, 131
St. George, Robert Blair, 173n23
St. Obin, Jan Janzen van, 25
Salee, Abraham van, 159n63
Salee, Anthony Jansen van, 45, 48, 159n63, 159n67, 159n68
Samford, Patricia, 177n62
Santome, Christopher, 37, 46
Santomee, Piter, 26, 43
Satanstoe, by Cooper, 70, 133
Schaats, Anneke, 108
Schaick, Jacob van, 99
Schepenen, 47
Schoonmaker, Martinus, 182n28, 183n35
schout, 24, 47
Schuyler family, 88–89, 97–98, 175n30
Schuyler Flatts, 85, 96
Schuyler Mansion, 57, 64, 85–91
Schuyler, Philip, 57, 85–86, 88, 97, 101, 175n34
Second Great Awakening, 6, 107, 113, 128
Selijns, Henricus, 50, 108
Senegal, 1, 2f, 137n1
Senegambia, 6, 22, 26, 93, 152n97, 177n61
Sensbach, Jon, 123
sextons, 120, 123
sexual relations, 45, 46, 108
sexual violence, 97, 98
shackles, 95–96
Shawangunk, 60, 90, 121, 122f, 126, 127, 189n134
Singleton, Theresa, 8, 89, 92
slave codes, 58, 59, 168n70
Slave Dwelling Project, 2
slave trade, British, 140n18, 140n19; intercolonial, 6, 21–23, 38; local, 21; mortality in, 150n69; transatlantic slave trade, 9, 21–23, 38, 137n1, 149n59, 152n97; trans-Saharan, 159n63
slavery, 7; biblical justifications for, 109, 111; colonization and, 17, 27; conditions of, 27, 32, 80, 96, 133–134; growth of, 4–6, 54–57, 68, 72–73, 95; legal status of, 47–48, 58; spatial control and, 3, 7–8, 70–73
sleeping quarters, 2, 80, 82, 83, 84f, 134
Slijcksteeg, 33, 35, 36f, 37
Society for Apprehending Slaves, 60–61, 63
soldiers, 16, 24, 47, 150n71
South Carolina, 89, 121, 123, 129, 184n58, 189n133, 190n152
South Reformed Church. See Garden Street Church
Spain, 15, 21, 29, 144n17, 162n87
Spicer, Andrew, 106
state assembly, 66, 89
Staten Island, 50, 53
States General, 18, 20, 147n47, 152n106
Stenton Hall, 2
Stiles, Henry, 127
Stokes, I. N. Phelps, 33
Stoler, Ann, 9, 94
streets, 7, 11, 37, 59–61, 64, 91, 134
Strickland, William, 56, 65, 90
Stuart, James [Duke of York], 58
Stuckey, Sterling, 76
Stuyvesant, Petrus, 20, 22–24, 31, 35, 44, 49–50, 152n106
Suriname, 17, 111
surveillance, 8, 33, 63, 77, 91, 133, 134, 175n42; architecture and, 60, 81, 82, 89, 101; avoidance of, 1, 11, 64, 92, 94; churches and, 119, 120; community-based systems of, 60–62; within homes, 80, 89, 90, 101; internalizing of, 60; of public spaces, 3, 53–54, 58, 60, 65, 69–70, 73
Swartinne. See Elaria Crioole
synods, 111, 113, 115–16, 126

Tacky’s Revolt (1760), 8
Taelman, Pieter, 25
Tally, Robert, 7
taverns, 5, 35, 37–38
Ten Broeck mansion, 85
Ten Broeck, Abraham, 85–86, 88–89
ten Eyck, Conrad, 97
Tham (of Hurley), 60, 63
theft, 49, 59
Thompson, Robert Farris, 93
Thornton, John, 75, 190n157
Tijsen, Geurt, 21, 162n90
trade, with enslaved people, 58–59, 64–66
truancy, 66
Truth, Sojourner, 1, 74, 78–79, 83, 91, 98, 100, 102

Ulster County, 5, 59, 63, 65, 66, 78, 83, 103; enslaved population of, 54, 56f, 100, 101; enslavers in, 55, 60, 79
Ulster, Classis of, 115
upper Hudson region, 47, 81, 162n88, 163n94
Upton, Dell, 8, 85, 106, 121, 123, 173n13, 189n129

vagrancy, 62
Vanderbilt, Gertrude, 127
Veeder, Volkert S., 130
Venema, Janny, 127
Vergulde Bever, 45
Verleth, Maria, 21
Verleth, Nicolas, 22
vigilantes, 60–61
Vincent, Madaleen, 37
Vingboons, Johannes, 33, 34f
violence, colonialism and, 15–16; resistance and, 89–90; slavery and, 38, 53, 97, 98
Virginia, 85, 89, 92, 106, 123
visiting, of friends and family, 63–65, 69, 99–100, 134
Vlach, John Michael, 175n38
Vries, Jan de, 42, 46, 156n37, 159n69

wages, 29, 32, 45, 47, 48, 58, 134
war, 23, 24, 66–67, 86
Washington, George, 86
Wassenaer, Nicolaes van, 18
watchmen, 1, 11, 61, 64, 91, 134, 166n50, 167n64
West Central Africa, 6, 22, 39, 42–43, 48, 74–76, 93, 131, 140n18–19, 157n48, 162n87
West India Company (WIC), 14–21; enslavement by, 4, 13–14, 23–30, 31, 33, 35, 37, 46, 49; judicial system and, 28–29, 47, 160n75; manumission and, 27–28, 43–44, 46, 50, 108; servants of, 18–19; slave trade and, 18, 20–22, 38, 147n47
Westbrouck, Dirck, 105, 115
Westbrouck, Rachel, 105, 115
Wheeler, Walter, 92
White, Shane, 3, 62, 68, 70
widows, 39–40, 152n97
Wilder, Craig Steven, 3
Wilkie, Laurie, 191n163
Williams-Myers, A. J., 3
windows, 60, 86, 89, 92, 94
Wingens, Marc, 71
witnesses, baptismal, 41, 42, 58, 157n46
wives, 35, 45; conditional freedom and, 26, 27, 35, 43; enslaved, 26, 44, 100, 101; freedom petitions and, 43
women, church spaces and, 118–19, 123, 126; enslaved, 21, 31, 38, 49, 82, 96–102, 108, 119, 126, 178n88; as enslavers, 21, 99; half-freedom and, 27; interracial marriages and, 16, 45, 93; motherhood and, 38, 97, 99, 103; sexual violence and, 46, 97–98
work spaces, 64, 82–83; domestic, 9, 31, 53, 56, 97–98; public, 65; spatial segregation of, 80–83, 85, 88–91, 94, 177n68; surveillance of, 86, 89–90
Works Progress Administration, 131

Zandt, Cynthia van, 139n7, 143n5, 154n5, 161n81
Zeusse, Evan M., 71
Zimmerman, Philip, 120

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