Acosta, Benjamin, 31, 153, 161–162, 168

adaptation (organizational), 4–5, 9, 32, 94, 112, 121–122, 125, 167

determining factors, 38, 42

in Renamo, 192

in the FMLN, 109–110, 115–116, 137–138

in the RUF, 201, 207

All People’s Congress. See APC

alternative explanations, 84, 88

“bush bureaucracies,” 6

of organizational structures, 75–77

prewar party hypothesis, 84

structural replacement hypothesis, 3–4, 25, 41, 119, 126, 135

territorial control, 5–6, 42, 71, 101–102, 148, 156, 176–177, 219

APC, 184, 187, 191, 199, 208–209

Arjona, Ana, 90, 219

Armed Forces of El Salvador (FAES).

See under El Salvador

audit (organizational), 40–41, 126–130, 132

in Renamo, 203–204

in the FMLN, 139–142

autocrítico. See self-reflection (organizational)

bureaucratization, 5–6, 31–32, 77, 123, 176

drawbacks of, 5, 85, 121–122

Carpio, Cayetano “Marcial,” 54–55, 61–62, 67, 200

case selection, 14–15, 50, 183–184

Castro, Fidel, 26, 55, 184

centralization, 29, 31–32, 122, 124

decentralization in the RUF, 197, 209

drawbacks of, 5, 121–122

Chalatenango, 58, 64, 100, 102, 104, 107, 109, 117, 137, 143, 147, 167

Chapúltepec Accords, 15, 136–137

Christian base communities, 53–54, 58, 64, 70, 101–102, 137

cohesion and fragmentation, 5, 29–33, 123, 130, 167–168

in Renamo, 194, 205

in the FMLN, 27, 32, 65, 135

in the RUF, 197, 201

Cold War, 2, 136, 158, 167, 184

Communist Party of El Salvador (Partido Comunista de El Salvador). See PCS

comunidades eclesiales de base (CEB). See Christian base communities

conflict resurgence, 5, 19, 220, 223

remobilization and, 3, 220

Coordinadora Revolucionaria de Masas. See CRM

critical junctures, 19, 44, 79, 125, 192, 201

CRM, 49, 78

Daly, Sarah Zukerman, 5

data collection. See methodology

deference to expertise, 38, 120, 122–125, 140, 143, 213

Democratic Nationalist Organization. See ORDEN

Democratic Revolutionary Front (Frente Democratico Revolucionario). See FDR

democratic transition, 121, 151–152, 220–222

attempted in Mozambique, 205–206

attempted in Sierra Leone, 207

in El Salvador, 136

Dhlakama, Afonso, 183, 190, 193–195, 203–205

Díaz, Nídia, 29–30, 63, 83, 112–113, 146–147

disarmament and demobilization, 14, 153–154, 222

as a criterion for rebel-to-party success, 154, 162

in Renamo, 203

in the FMLN, 137

in the RUF, 203, 207

diversification (organizational), 2, 8, 38–40, 59, 85, 122–123, 165, 217, 223

in Renamo, 195–196

in the ERP, 101–102

in the FMLN, 31–32, 62, 76, 115, 144–146

in the FPL, 66–68, 102–109

in the PRTC, 71–73

in the RUF, 197, 200, 209–210

sources of, 44

Duarte, José Napoleón, 52, 109, 111–112, 136

El Salvador

civil war in, 1, 26, 27, 78–79, 136–137, 154

FAES, 79, 109, 136

historical context, 51–52

state repression in, 26, 69

US involvement in, 95, 109

electoral institutions, 4–5, 158, 168, 172

electoral participation. See transition (electoral participation)

electoral participation provisions, 2, 4, 151, 160, 169–174, 216, 224

ERP, 17, 57–60

attempted transformation of, 138, 141–142, 144, 148

electoral performance of, 175–179

local ties, 110, 115

organizational ideology of, 62–63, 70

organizational structure of, 61–66, 68–70, 77, 100–102, 115

political messaging wing, 69–70, 76

prewar networks, 58–59

¡Radio Venceremos!, 68–70, 76, 138, 144, 146, 148

splits within, 26, 55

expertise. See deference to expertise

FAPU, 70

Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (Farabundo Martí Liberación Nacional). See FMLN

FDR, 48–49, 61, 78

FENASTRAS, 148

Final Offensive, 78–79, 97–100, 138

flexibility (organizational), 5, 9, 11, 19, 38–39, 85, 93–97, 121–126

in Renamo, 194

in the FMLN, 112–113, 115–116

FMLN, 1, 15–16

combat strategy, 95, 97–98, 111–112

electoral performance of, 146–147, 175–178

Final Offensive, 78–79, 97–98

fragmentation in, 32, 54–56, 63

General Command, 32, 47, 56, 78, 97–99, 102, 111–112, 117, 141–142

organizational adaptation, 109–116, 138–139

organizational structure of, 49, 61–65, 76–78, 98–100, 108–109, 115–117

origins of, 26–27, 54–60

politico-military organizations (OP-Ms), 49, 54–56, 61–65, 77, 112

transformation of, 135, 140–146

FPL

combat strategy, 103–104, 111

during the transformation, 140–143

electoral performance of, 177–178

governance wings, 90, 104–106, 137 (see also PPLs)

literacy programs, 106–107

organizational ideology of, 61–62, 66–68

organizational structure of, 64, 66–68, 102–108, 115, 137–140

origins of, 26, 54–55

political messaging wing, 76, 107–108

prewar networks, 58–59, 101–102

fragmentation. See cohesion and fragmentation

Frelimo (Mozambique Liberation Front), 185–186, 188–189, 193–196, 205–206

Gaddafi, Muammar, 184, 190

Grzymała-Busse, Anna, 95, 129

Hándal, Schafik, 55, 75, 98

Hannan, Michael T. and John Freeman, 6, 131

hierarchy, 7, 31–33

implications for flexibility, 95, 123–124

Hoover Green, Amelia, 58, 77, 138

Huang, Reyko, 101, 117

ideology (doctrinal), 56–57, 60, 76, 211

See also organizational ideology

ISO (Insurgent Structures and Outcomes) Dataset, 158–167, 179

Katz, Richard S. and Peter Mair, 39–40, 87–88

leaders. See rebel leaders

liberation theology, 53–54

See also Christian base communities

Ligas-Populares 28 de Febrero. See LP-28

literacy programs, 106–107

Local Popular Power (Poderes Populares Locales). See PPLs

LP-28, 49, 70

Mair, Peter. See Katz, Richard S. and Peter Mair

Mampilly, Zachariah, 29, 47, 90–91, 158

Martí, Farabundo, 51, 55, 78

Marxism-Leninism, 53, 56–57, 67, 76

various interpretations of, 61–62, 64

mass mobilization (wartime), 6, 45, 67–68, 91, 150, 214

across the FMLN, 66–68, 70, 76, 79, 103–104, 106–107, 110–113

in Renamo, 194

in the RUF, 197

postwar implications, 156, 157

strategies of, 45

theories of, 101, 117

See also poder de doble cara; PPLs

Matanock, Aila, 153, 160–162

methodology, 14–18

process tracing, 17, 20, 50, 61, 96, 184

qualitative data collection, 14–16

quantitative data collection, 16–17, 166–167, 176

statistical analyses, 169–174, 175–177

See also case selection

militant organizations, 8, 13, 85, 121

defined, 28

existing models of, 30–33, 83–84

internal audits of, 40–41, 126–130, 203

organizational traits of, 38, 93–95, 122–125

origin of wartime structures, 43–47

postwar outcomes, 151–154

state sponsorship of, 78, 92, 167–169, 171–174, 185, 188

wartime structures, 9–10, 36–37, 88–93

See also ERP; FMLN; FPL; Renamo; RUF

Morazán, 58, 64, 70, 100–102, 110, 114–115, 148, 167, 176

Mozambican Civil War

historical context, 185–186

See also Renamo

National Resistance (Resistencia Nacional). See RN

National Trade Federation of Salvadoran Workers. See FENASTRAS

negotiated settlements, 4, 84, 158, 160, 222

in El Salvador, 136–137

in Mozambique, 194–195

in Sierra Leone, 200–201

with rebel-to-party provisions, 169, 174, 203

Nkomati Accord, 194–195, 204

nominal participation. See under transition (electoral participation)

ORDEN, 74, 154

organizational change, 3–4, 34–35, 213

content, 9, 39–40

context, 11, 42–43

facilitating traits, 38–39, 85, 93–95, 121, 125

modeling, 7–8

obstacles and risks, 19, 86, 92, 131–132

process, 10, 40–41, 119–120

organizational ideology, 10–12, 44, 45–47, 71, 213, 220

across the FMLN, 61–63, 66–68

defined, 45

in Renamo, 184, 192–193

in the RUF, 184, 200

role in organizational structure, 59–60, 64

organizations, 25–26

conventional approaches to, 29–34

defined, 2

level of analysis, 7

origin of different structures, 43–47

structures of, 35–37

theoretical approach, 7–13, 34–38, 120–126

traits of, 38, 122–126

Panebianco, Angelo, 7, 121

Parkinson, Sarah E., 7, 16, 36, 95

participation in rebellion, 77, 91, 104–105, 218

party formation. See political party organizations

PCS, 26, 54–55, 57–58, 60

during the transformation, 140–142, 144

electoral performance of, 177–178

Forces Armadas de Liberación (FAL), 75

organizational ideology of, 72, 74–75

persistent contenders. See under transition (electoral participation)

poder de doble cara, 112–113, 143

policy implications, 222–223

political education, 45–46, 54, 56, 62–63, 66–68, 76–77, 90–91, 107, 112, 137–138, 164–165, 195, 204, 210

See also Christian base communities; proto-party structures

political messaging wings, 9, 36–37, 89, 90, 92–93, 127–129, 131

in Renamo, 134, 189, 193, 195–196, 204–205

in the FMLN, 107–108, 136, 138

in the RUF, 191, 198

measurement of, 164–165

See also proto-party structures

political party organizations, 3–4, 7, 156–157

consolidation of, 152, 162

defined, 28–29

electoral performance of, 42–43, 155–156, 175–179

formation of, 10, 41, 84, 126, 130–134, 152–154, 221

linkages, 37, 156–157

party-building in Renamo, 206

party-building in the FMLN, 140–144, 147–148

party-building in the RUF, 206–208

post-conflict consolidation of, 146–147

structures of, 39–40, 86–88

See also transition (electoral participation)

Popular Liberation Forces (Fuerzas Populares de Liberacíon). See FPL

popular mobilization. See mass mobilization (wartime)

PPLs, 90–91, 104–107, 113, 137–139

See also FPL

prewar networks and social bases, 12, 44, 46, 48, 77, 213

in the FMLN, 53–54, 58–60, 65–66, 70, 106

proportional representation, 158, 168, 170, 172

See also electoral institutions

proto-party structures, 9–13, 40–43, 89–93, 106–108, 122–123, 132–134, 151, 157, 213–215

defined, 2, 90

in Renamo, 192–196, 206

in the FMLN, 15, 102–109, 113–117, 137–141, 143–144, 175–178

measurement of, 164–165

origins of, 43–47

PRTC, 26, 146–147

electoral performance of, 177–178

organizational ideology of, 62–63, 71–72

organizational structure of, 29–32, 71–72, 112–114, 138

origins of, 64

prewar networks, 59

transformation of, 140–141, 143

puzzle, 1–3

¡Radio Venceremos!. See under ERP

rebel governance, 8, 11, 40, 71, 90–91, 93, 101, 164, 218–219

in the FMLN, 104–106

role in rebel-to-party transformation, 143

See also PPLs; proto-party structures

rebel groups. See militant organizations

rebel leaders, 4, 15, 30–31, 35, 36, 57, 96, 116, 191

limits of, 44, 123, 192

role in organizational ideology, 45–46, 59–60, 70–71

role in shaping structure, 59, 62, 66–67, 109, 197

role in transformation, 40, 123–124, 126, 129–130, 133–135, 139–140

rebel-to-party transformation. See transformation (internal change)

rebel-to-party transition. See transition (electoral participation)

reconstruction, 130–132

See also organizational change; transformation (internal change)

remobilization. See conflict resurgence

Renamo (National Resistance of Mozambique), 134

case selection, 184

organizational structure of, 192–196, 204

origins of, 188–189

Rhodesian sponsorship, 188

South African sponsorship, 192–193

transformation of, 203–206

Voz da África Livre, 188, 192–193

reprioritization, 132–134

See also organizational change; transformation (internal change)

resilience, 8–9, 38, 120–125, 168, 213

in Renamo, 191–192, 194

in the FMLN, 136–138

in the RUF, 200

resources, 5–6, 10, 12, 31, 36, 41, 44, 46, 57–58, 59, 75, 77, 79, 90, 107, 121, 123, 126

during transformation, 131–134

in Renamo, 192, 194, 203, 205

in the FMLN, 65–66, 68, 70–72, 103–104, 148–149

in the RUF, 191, 202–203

Revolutionary Army of the People (Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo). See ERP

Revolutionary Party of Central-American Workers (Partido Revolucionario de Trabajadores Centroamericanos). See PRTC

Revolutionary United Front. See RUF

RN, 26–27, 60, 112

during the transformation, 148

electoral performance of, 177–178

organizational ideology of, 72, 74

roles and subdivisions, 8, 12, 19, 29, 32, 35–37, 38, 39–41, 89, 106, 133–134, 151, 213–214

creation of, 59, 66, 71

diversification of, 83, 85, 112, 122–123, 195, 217–218

examples of, 69, 115, 164–165

in political parties, 87–88

in rebel groups, 90–91

repurposing of, 138, 142–143

versus individual skills, 126–129

RUF

attempted transformation of, 206–210

case selection, 184

organizational ideology (and loss of), 200, 202, 210

organizational structure of, 196–203

origins of, 189–190

Salvadoran Armed Forces (FAES). See under El Salvador

Salvadoran Civil War

historical context, 51–54

See also El Salvador; FMLN

Sankoh, Foday, 191, 197–202, 206–207

Sartori, Giovanni, 28–29

scope conditions, 13–14

seated participation. See under transition (electoral participation)

self-reflection (organizational), 9, 11, 35, 38, 85, 93–95

in the FMLN, 98–99, 108, 111, 139

role in transformation, 126

short-term participants. See under transition (electoral participation)

Sierra Leone Army. See SLA

Sierra Leonean Civil War

historical context, 186–187

See also RUF

skills. See diversification (organizational)

SLA, 189, 191–192, 199, 202, 206

Sprenkels, Ralph, 58, 142–143, 146, 148

Staniland, Paul, 4, 30–32, 44, 58–59, 77, 168

subdivisions. See roles and subdivisions

transformation (internal change), 2, 34–35

alternative explanations, 3–7, 148

defined, 3, 34

empirical strategy, 17

facilitating traits, 93–94, 122–125

in Renamo, 203–206

in the FMLN, 135, 140–146

in the RUF, 206–208

mechanisms of, 126

organizational approach to, 35–36, 38, 39–41

process of, 118–119

puzzle of, 2–3, 86

reconstruction process, 130–132

reprioritization process, 132–134

risks and obstacles to, 119–121

theory of, 8–10

versus transition (electoral participation), 151–152

See also organizational change

transition (electoral participation), 11, 42–43

alternative measures, 152–154

conceptualization and measurement of, 154–156, 162–163

defined, 151–152

empirical tests of, 18, 169–175, 177–179

failures, 155

in Renamo, 206

in the FMLN, 146

in the RUF, 208–209

nominal participation, 155–156, 162–163, 170–172, 174, 216

persistent contenders, 162–163

seated participation, 156, 162–163

short-term participants, 162–163

theory of, 156–158

two-faced power. See poder de doble cara

United Popular Action Front. See FAPU

Villalobos, Joaquín, 55, 61, 69–70, 92, 98–101, 116, 138, 150

Viterna, Jocelyn, 117

voter mobilization, 5–6, 11, 14, 37, 42–43, 144, 150, 156–158

Weinstein, Jeremy, 47

Wood, Elisabeth Jean, 52, 77, 112, 115