Notes

Introduction

1. James W. Clinton, “Cora Weiss,” in The Loyal Opposition: Americans in North Vietnam, 1965–1972 (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1995), p. 169.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. Cora Weiss, interview with author, Brooklyn, NY, 7 April 2006.

5. Ibid.

6. Cora Weiss and Peter Weiss, interview with author, New York City, 9 April 2006.

7. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991), p. 6.

8. Images of the Underground: Underground Newspapers of the 1960s and 1970s. Wisconsin Historical Society, www.wisconsinhistory.org/whi/feature/underground/.

9. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).

10. Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). For other scholarship on American forms of orientalism, see Helen Heran Jun, Race for Citizenship: Black Orientalism and Asian Uplift from Pre-emanicipation to Neoliberal America (New York: New York University Press, 2011). Robert G. Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999); Karen J. Leong, The China Mystique: Pearl S. Buck, Anna May Wong, Mayling Soong, and the Transformation of American Orientalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Melani McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945–2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Bill V. Mullen, Afro-Orientalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004); John Tchen, New York before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776–1882 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, Doctor Mom Chung of the Fair-Haired Bastards: The Life of a Wartime Celebrity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Mari Yoshihara, Embracing the East: White Women and American Orientalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); and Henry Yu, Thinking Orientals: Migration, Contact, and Exoticism in Modern America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

11. For an analysis of how imperialist forms of orientalism shaped U.S. Cold War epistemologies toward Asia as well as the Soviet Union, see Jodi Kim, Ends of Empire: Asian American Critique and the Cold War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010).

12. Linda K. Kerber, No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998).

13. Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Vintage, 1980).

14. Sara Evans, Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America at Century’s End (New York: Free Press, 2004); Leila J. Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997); and Amy Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace: Traditional Motherhood and Radical Politics in the 1960s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).

15. See Rupp, Worlds of Women; Inderpal Grewal, Transnational America: Feminisms, Diasporas, Neoliberalisms (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005); Chandra Mohanty, “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses,” Feminist Review 30 (Autumn 1988): 61–88; Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, “Journeys for Peace and Liberation: Third World Internationalism and Radical Orientalism during the U.S. War in Viet Nam,” Pacific Historical Review 76, no. 4 (2007): 575–84.

16. Mary Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam: American Peace Activists and the War (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1998).

17. Robert K. Brigham, Guerrilla Diplomacy: The NLF’s Foreign Relations and the Viet Nam War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999).

18. William J. Duiker, “The Foreign Policy of North Vietnam,” in Light at the End of the Tunnel: A Vietnam War Anthology, 3rd ed., ed. Andrew J. Rotter (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010), pp. 172–90.

19. Both Hershberger and Weiss refer to this concept of citizen diplomacy, which suggests that American travelers also identified with this role. Clinton, “Cora Weiss,” p. 169; and Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam, pp. xx–xxi.

20. Examples include Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987); and James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (New York: Touchstone, 1987).

21. Political scientist Claire Jean Kim proposed the concept of racial triangulation to analyze how African Americans and Asian Americans are comparatively racialized in the United States. Claire Jean Kim, “The Racial Triangulation of Asian Americans,” Politics and Society 27, no. 1 (1999): 105–38. For a recently published study on the intertwined movements of African American civil rights and Indian decolonization, see Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).

22. Max Elbaum, Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao, and Che (London: Verso, 2002); Daryl J. Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen: Constructing Asian American Identity through Performing Blackness, 1969–1972,” American Quarterly 57 (2005): 1079–1103; Daryl J. Maeda, Chains of Babylon: The Rise of Asian America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Lorena Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No! Chicano Protest and Patriotism during the Viet Nam War Era (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Laura Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); Cynthia A. Young, Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of a U.S. Third World Left (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).

23. Some notable examples include: Cynthia Enloe, Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Ian Lekus, “Queer Harvests: Homosexuality, the U.S. Left, and the Venceremos Brigades to Cuba,” Radical History Review 89, no. 1 (2004): 57–91; Joane Nagel, Race, Ethnicity, and Sexuality: Intimate Intersections, Forbidden Frontiers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Naoko Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally: Reimagining the Japanese Enemy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010); and Heather Marie Stur, Beyond Combat: Women and Gender in the Vietnam War Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

24. Joan Scott, “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis,” American Historical Review 91, no. 5 (1986): 1067.

1. An African American Abroad

1. St. Clair Drake and Horace C. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harcourt, 1945); Maren Strange, Bronzeville: Black Chicago in Pictures, 1941–1943 (New York: New Press, 2003).

2. Wendelle Browne, interview with author, Chicago, 21 May 2006.

3. For an earlier version of my analysis of Browne, please see Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, “An African-Vietnamese American: Robert S. Browne, the Anti-War Movement, and the Personal/Political Dimensions of Black Internationalism,” Journal of African American History 92 (Fall 2007): 491–515.

4. Browne would return to a government position in the early 1980s. He relocated to Abidjan, the capital of the Ivory Coast, to serve as the U.S. executive director at the African Development Fund. Robert S. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching: The Memoirs of Robert S. Browne” (unpublished manuscript), chap. 8, p. 1.

5. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Browne founded the Black Economic Research Center and the Emergency Land Fund, which subsequently combined to become the Twenty-First Century Foundation, currently based in Harlem, New York. He also established the journal Review of Black Political Economy, which is still being published.

6. Simon Hall, Peace and Freedom: The Civil Rights and Antiwar Movements in the 1960s (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005); Simon Hall, Rethinking the American Anti-War Movement (New York: Routledge, 2012).

7. Kalamu ya Salaam, “In the Black: A Portrait of Economist Robert S. Browne,” Black Collegian (September–October 1978): 32. Browne’s comment is slightly exaggerated, since he and Bayard Rustin also crossed paths during this period.

8. James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), p. 6.

9. Ibid., p. 7.

10. In his memoirs, Browne also recounted that his family lived for five years, 1930–1935, in the predominantly white West Side of Chicago. When Browne returned to the South Side at the age of ten, he recalled, “I quickly learned that I had a bit of catching up to do in terms of acquiring some understanding of what it meant to be a Negro.” Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 7.

11. Browne, “Passport Application,” 15 February 1952, Department of State, FOIA Documents.

12. Robert S. Browne Papers, “Biographical Sketch,” p. 1, box 1, folder 1, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, the New York Public Library.

13. Wendelle Browne, interview.

14. For an analysis of the significance of patronage politics among African Americans in Chicago, see Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).

15. Wendelle Browne, interview.

16. Ibid.

17. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 9.

18. Ibid., chap. 1, pp. 9–10.

19. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 5.

20. Ibid., chap. 1, p. 10.

21. Ibid., chap. 1, p. 2.

22. Ibid., chap. 1, p. 1.

23. James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).

24. Wendelle Browne, interview.

25. Ibid.

26. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, quoted in Strange, Bronzeville, p. xiii.

27. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 522.

28. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 1.

29. Ibid.

30. Wendelle Browne, interview.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid.

33. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 13. Browne combined his good social skills with an entrepreneurial spirit. He delivered the Chicago Defender, groceries, and even the mail; he sold binoculars at Comiskey Park, shoes at a local store, and Christmas cards all year around. Wendelle recalled, “There he is working on his Christmas card deal in between . . . you know, the social life. . . . Like a good businessman he’d give you something, you know, free” to regular customers. His earnings allowed Browne to make small yet spectacular gestures of thoughtfulness. Wendelle remembered when she and two adult neighbors “dropped in” one hot summer day to socialize with the Brownes; it was “one really dismal afternoon . . . [when] all the windows were up, fan was going.” In “those days people could drop in and they’d stay as long as . . . dinner.” When one of the visitors prepared to leave, Browne said, “ ‘You’re not going right away are you?’ And she said, ‘Robert, I should be going.’ . . . [But] he said, ‘Hang around,’ . . . and in about twenty minutes he came back with huge rainbow ice cream cones.” Wendelle Browne, interview.

34. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 13. All the members of Browne’s cohort graduated from a local public high school that was integrated because it drew students both from Bronzeville and from a predominantly white neighborhood adjacent to the community.

35. Ibid., chap. 2, p. 18. For Lorraine Hansberry’s critique of the materialism exhibited by her family, particularly her mother, see Lorraine Hansberry, To Be Young, Gifted and Black: Lorraine Hansberry in Her Own Words, adapted by Robert Nemiroff (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969).

36. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 6.

37. Ibid., chap. 1, p. 9.

38. Salaam, “In the Black,” p. 28. The NLRA or Wagner Act provided federal protection for workers in private industry to unionize, engage in collective bargaining, and strike. However, agricultural and domestic workers were exempt from the legislation, and these two occupations tended to have heavy concentrations of African Americans.

39. Ibid., p. 28.

40. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, pp. 516, 515.

41. Charles H. Wesley, The History of Alpha Phi Alpha: A Development in College Life, 1906–1969 (Chicago: Foundation, 1969).

42. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 16.

43. Ibid., chap. 1, pp. 18–19.

44. Ibid., chap. 1, p. 17.

45. Albert R. Lee, “The University of Illinois Negro Students: Data Concerning Negro Students at the State University,” 25 June 1940, p. 3, Negro Matriculants List, Record Series Number: 2/9/1, box 1, University of Illinois Archives.

46. Browne completed basic training at Keesler Field, Mississippi, and was permanently stationed at Yuma Army Airfield in Arizona. He also was admitted to Officer Candidate School at Fort Knox, Kentucky, but chose not to complete his training when the war ended.

47. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 16.

48. Michael Cullen Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific: Race in the Making of American Military Empire after World War II (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010).

49. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, p. 19.

50. Ibid., chap. 2, p. 3.

51. Ibid.

52. Ibid., chap. 2, p. 2.

53. Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005).

54. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 2, p. 4.

55. Ibid.

56. Salaam, “In the Black,” p. 28; and Browne, “Background Paper for Ebony,” 14 December 1972, p. 1, box 1, folder “Biographical Information,” Robert S. Browne Collected Papers, Swarthmore College Peace Collection (SCPC).

57. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 1, pp. 19–20.

58. Salaam, “In the Black,” p. 28.

59. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 2, p. 13.

60. Ibid.

61. Browne, “Biographical Sketch,” p. 1.

62. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 2, p. 15.

63. Ibid.,

64. Arvarh E. Strickland, History of the Chicago Urban League (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1966).

65. Salaam, “In the Black,” p. 28.

66. Ibid., p. 30.

67. Ibid.

68. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 2, pp. 20–22.

69. Robert S. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs (Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press, 1961), pp. 1–2.

70. Salaam, “In the Black,” p. 30.

71. For a discussion about the importance of the black press in fostering internationalism, see Robin J. Hayes, “ ‘A Free Black Mind Is a Concealed Weapon’: Institutions and Social Movements in the African Diaspora,” in Transnational Blackness: Navigating the Global Color Line, ed. Manning Marable and Vanessa Agard-Jones (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 175–88.

72. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, p. 7.

73. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Vintage, 2003).

74. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 2, p. 1.

75. Christopher Endy, Cold War Holidays: American Tourism in France (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).

76. For critiques of how Cold War politics shaped these academic fields, see Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); and Bruce Cumings, Parallax Visions: Making Sense of American–East Asian Relations at the End of the Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).

77. Endy, Cold War Holidays, p. 35.

78. See Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); and Penny M. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

79. Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006).

80. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 2, p. 24.

81. Ibid., chap. 2, pp. 24–25.

82. Ibid., chap. 2, p. 25.

83. Kent v. Dulles 357 U.S. 116 (1958).

84. Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans; Plummer, Rising Wind; Von Eschen, Race against Empire.

85. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 3, p. 1.

86. Endy, Cold War Holidays, pp. 7, 128. Partly inspired by the release of the film An American in Paris in 1951, nearly four hundred thousand Americans visited in 1953, and the number would double by the end of the decade.

87. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 3, p. 7.

88. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 4.

89. Browne, “Application for Federal Employment,” 30 May 1955, United States International Cooperation Administration, National Personnel Records Center, St. Louis, Missouri.

90. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 3, p. 8.

91. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 7.

92. Ibid.

93. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 6. Browne’s portrayal of Wright resonates with biographical depictions of the author. Michel Farber describes Wright during the early 1950s as having “a well-established group of friends, admirers and literary acquaintances”; while Wright “avoided formal gatherings . . . he adored discussing politics and literature with Blacks of all nationalities . . . in . . . his regular cafes.” Michel Fabre, The Unfinished Quest of Richard Wright, trans. Isabel Barzun (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), p. 382.

94. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 3, p. 5.

95. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 10.

96. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs, p. 2.

97. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 3, p. 7.

98. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs, p. 2.

99. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 3, p. 40.

100. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 42.

101. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 43.

102. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 45.

103. Quoted in Scott Laderman, Tours of Vietnam: War, Travel Guides, and Memory (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), p. 66.

104. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs, p. 2.

105. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 55.

106. Ibid.

107. Ibid., chap. 3, p. 69.

108. Browne, “Background Paper for Ebony,” p. 2.

109. “Charter of the United Nations,” chap. 1, 26 June 1945, www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter1.shtml.

110. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 3.

111. Ibid.

112. Anderson, Eyes off the Prize.

113. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 3.

114. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 4.

115. Browne, “Biographical Sketch,” p. 2.

116. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, pp. 5–6.

117. Cora Weiss and Peter Weiss, interview with author, New York City, 9 April 2006.

118. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 10.

119. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 11.

120. Browne, “Application for Federal Employment.”

121. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 11; Browne, “Biographical Sketch,” pp. 1–2; Salaam, “In the Black,” p. 30.

122. Michael L. Krenn, Black Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department, 1945–1969 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999).

2. Afro-Asian Alliances

1. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap 4, p. 16.

2. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 12.

3. The scholarship on the Vietnam War is vast. For a sample, see Mark Philip Bradley, Vietnam at War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Stanley Karnow, Vietnam: A History (New York: Penguin, 1983).

4. Bill V. Mullen and Cathryn Watson, W.E.B. DuBois on Asia: Crossing the World Color Line (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), p. viii.

5. Marc Gallicchio, The African American Encounter with Japan and China: Black Internationalism in Asia, 1895–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W.E.B. DuBois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944–1963 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986); Reginald Kearney, African American Views of the Japanese: Solidarity or Sedition? (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998); Yuichiro Onishi, Moving in a Racial Groove: How Afro-Asian Solidarity was Found in Black America, Japan, and Okinawa (New York: New York University Press, 2013); Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism.

6. Mullen, Afro-Orientalism. Also see Jun, Race for Citizenship.

7. Ibid., p. xiv.

8. Kim, “The Racial Triangulation of Asian Americans.”

9. Browne, untitled speech beginning, “I wrote of Indo-China more in sorrow than in anger,” box 1, folder “Writings/Speeches/Statements,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

10. William J. Duiker, Ho Chi Minh (New York: Hyperion, 2000).

11. Quoted in Bradley, Vietnam at War, p. 9.

12. Quoted in David G. Marr, Vietnam, 1945: A Quest for Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 263.

13. Mark Atwood Lawrence, Assuming the Burden: Europe and the American Commitment to War in Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).

14. Seth Jacobs, America’s Miracle Man in Vietnam: Ngo Dinh Diem, Religion, Race, and U.S. Intervention in Southeast Asia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004).

15. The literature on the postwar decolonization movement in Southeast Asia and the Bandung Conference is large. For a selection, see David Chandler, The Tragedy of Cambodian History: Politics, War, and Revolution since 1945 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991); Matthew Jones, “A ‘Segregated’ Asia? Race, the Bandung Conference, and Pan-Asianist Fears in American Thought and Policy, 1954–1955,” Diplomatic History 29, no. 5 (2005): 841–68; Jason Parker, “Cold War II: The Eisenhower Administration, the Bandung Conference, and the Reperiodization of the Postwar Era,” Diplomatic History 30, no. 5 (2006): 867–92; Robert D. Schulzinger, A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941–1975 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Azza Salama Layton, International Politics and Civil Rights Policies in the United States, 1941–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Plummer, Rising Wind; Brenda Gayle Plummer, ed., Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights, and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1988 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Richard Wright, The Color Curtain: A Report on the Bandung Conference (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1956).

16. Von Eschen, Race against Empire.

17. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs, p. 53.

18. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 12.

19. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 13.

20. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 15.

21. Said, Orientalism.

22. Robert McClintock, Foreign Service Despatch No. 114 from Embassy, Phnom Penh to the Department of State, Washington, 25 September 1956, Record Group 469, E. 1115 box 4, folder “Limited Distribution, 1956,” NARA, College Park, MD.

23. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 18.

24. “Report on AID Programs in Cambodia,” November 1956, Record Group 469 E. 1115 box 6, folder “Reports—General 1956.”

25. “Special Study Group Report on Cambodia,” p. 7, Record Group 469 E. 1115, box 6, folder “Study Group, 1956.”

26. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 15.

27. Ibid.

28. Chandler, The Tragedy of Cambodian History, p. 86.

29. McClintock, Foreign Service Despatch No. 114, p. 7.

30. Chandler, The Tragedy of Cambodian History, p. 86.

31. McClintock, Foreign Service Despatch No. 114, p. 8.

32. For a study of how African American military personnel were positioned in relation to the U.S. state and its global mission, see Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific.

33. The dates of Browne’s promotions and transfer to Vietnam are from his ICA personnel file.

34. Milton Esman, telephone interview with author, Ithaca, NY, 26 October 2005. All the quotes attributed to Esman derive from this interview and are based on my notes from the session.

35. For a more critical view of race relations and practices, see Krenn, Black Diplomacy.

36. William J. Lederer and Eugene Burdick, The Ugly American (New York: W. W. Norton, 1958).

37. Elbridge Durbrow, letter to Eric Kocher, 18 December 1958; Elbridge Durbrow, memo to Secretary Robertson, 3 January 1959; and Arthur Z. Gardiner, letter to Raymond T. Moyer, 17 December 1958, Record Group 84 E. 3340 B box 2, folder “Economic Matters 1956–58.”

38. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs, 3. Browne goes on to say, “I don’t adhere to the belief that going abroad necessarily transforms people in any perceptible way, although it certainly does appear to have a liberalizing effect on many of them. There is, however, a degree of subjective selectivity operating in the recruitment of personnel who go abroad to work; a high percentage of them tend to be more broad minded and more adaptable than their stay-at-home countrymen.”

39. Ed Smith, interview with author, Honolulu, HI, 25 April 2009.

40. Kathleen Cleaver, interview with author, New Haven, CT, 22 February 2006.

41. Satoshi Nakano, “South to South across the Pacific: Ernest E. Neal and Community Development Efforts in the American South and the Philippines,” Japanese Journal of American Studies 16 (2005): 181–202. I thank Kathleen Cleaver and Augusto Espiritu for bringing the work of Prof. Satoshi Nakano to my attention.

42. Despite the greater opportunities for racial mixing abroad, Cleaver recalled that her experiences of growing up in Asia and witnessing the development of newly independent nations did not necessarily lead her to promote integration in the United States but rather advanced her support for black nationalism. As she stated, “I lived in India in the ’50s after the British had gone, and lived in the Philippines after the Americans had gone. So it was very clear to me that Brown people, colonized people, could run their own country; they don’t really need white supremacy; they don’t really need white government. So it was obvious to me that Black people in the United States don’t need to be controlled by white people. They’re perfectly capable of running their own lives, running their own schools, running their own states, running their own cities. So it kind of repudiated [white supremacy] completely, blew it away.” Aaron Shuman, “A Sit-Down with Kathleen Cleaver,” Bad Subjects 60 (April 2002).

43. Browne Papers, “Biographical Sketch,” p. 2, box 1, folder 1, Schomburg.

44. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs, p. 49.

45. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, pp. 15–16.

46. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 16.

47. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 20.

48. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 16.

49. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 21.

50. Ibid.

51. Ibid.

52. These critiques were articulated by members of USOM in both Cambodia and Vietnam during this time period.

53. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 20.

54. Ibid., chap. 4, pp. 21–22.

55. Browne Papers, “Resume,” box 1, folder 1, Schomburg. There are several résumés in the Browne papers. This one appears to have been written right after Browne’s return to the United States in 1961.

56. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 37.

57. “Far East Regional Data Book,” 7 March 1956, Record Group 469 E. 1115 box 6, folder “Reports—General 1956.”

58. “ICA Personnel Strength,” 31 August 1955, Record Group 469 E. 1113 box 7, folder “Personnel—General 1955.” In August 1955, the number of ICA employees in Cambodia was thirty-one and in Vietnam was 142.

59. “FY 1955 Funds for Allocations, Allotments, and Obligations, by Region and Type of Assistance,” 15 June 1955, Record Group 59, E 1113, box 5, folder “Funds.” For the fiscal year from June 1954 through March 1955, the aid allotment to Cambodia was 32.6 million while Vietnam’s allotment was 293.5 million.

60. Seth Jacobs, “ ‘No Place to Fight a War’: Laos and the Evolution of U.S. Policy toward Viet Nam, 1954–1963,” in Making Sense of the Vietnam Wars: Local, National, and Transnational Perspectives, ed. Mark Philip Bradley and Marilyn B. Young (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 45–66.

61. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 39.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 38.

64. D. Bosley Brotman, letter to Gerald Windfield and Wallace Gade, 28 June 1956, Record Group 469 E. 1115 box 4, folder “Personnel—General—1956.”

65. Hoa Browne, conversation with author, New York City, 3 May 2005.

66. Houi Browne and Hoa Browne, conversation with author, Teaneck, NJ, 1 December 2006.

67. For a study of how American understandings of race are exported and integrated within Asian countries, in this case South Korea, see Nadia Y. Kim, Imperial Citizens: Koreans and Race from Seoul to L.A. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008).

68. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 41.

69. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 42.

70. Esman, telephone interview.

71. For a study on how American military families are expected to serve as international role models, see Donna Alvah, Unofficial Ambassadors: American Military Families Overseas and the Cold War (New York: New York University Press, 2007).

72. Edward Guinane, memo, 24 September 1959, and Arthur Gardiner, memo, 7 October 1959, Record Group 469 E. 430 box 44, folder “Vietnam—Security-Inspection.”

73. L. Metcalfe Walling, “Memorandum on Reckless Driving of USOM Vehicles,” 20 December 1956, Record Group 469, E. 1113, box 15, folder “Subject—Personnel, General 1956.”

74. Maria Höhn and Seungsook Moon, eds., Over There: Living with the U.S. Military Empire from World War Two to the Present (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); and Susan Zeiger, Entangling Alliances: Foreign War Brides and American Soldiers in the Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 2010).

75. “Official Mission Post Report, Phnom Penh,” p. 4, Record Group 469 E. 1113, box 7, folder “Subject—Personnel Post Reports 1955.”

76. Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (London: Pandora, 1989); Katharine H. S. Moon, Sex Among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); and Ji-Yeon Yuh, Beyond the Shadow of Camptown: Korean Military Brides in America (New York: New York University Press, 2002).

77. Nagel, Race, Ethnicity, and Sexuality, p. 191.

78. Laderman, Tours of Vietnam, pp. 33–35.

79. Smith, interview.

80. Browne, “Biographical Sketch,” p. 2.

81. Browne, “Health Benefits Registration Form,” ICA Personnel File.

82. For a discussion of the obstacles experienced by U.S. military personnel who wanted to marry Asian women, see Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific.

83. J. J. Riley, “Memorandum Regarding Robert S. Browne,” 23 December 1960, Record Group 469 E. 430 box 58, folder “Vietnam—Personnel.”

84. Esman, telephone interview.

85. Freeman Smith, “Memo,” 29 March 1960, Record Group 469 E. 430, box 58, folder “Marriage.”

86. Jacobs, America’s Miracle Man in Vietnam.

87. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, p. 44.

88. “USOM Comments on Evaluation of Vietnam Program,” 24 January 1958, p. 1, Record Group 469 E 430 box 41, folder “Vietnam—Program Evaluations.”

89. Ibid., p. 6.

90. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 4, pp. 49–50.

91. Ibid., chap. 4, p. 50.

92. Robert S. Browne to A. Z. Gardiner, 8 August 1960, ICA Personnel File.

93. For a discussion of African American soldiers’ decision making regarding interracial relationships with Asian women, see Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific.

3. Searching for Home and Peace

1. Hall, Peace and Freedom.

2. Hall, Rethinking the American Anti-War Movement; Daryl J. Maeda, Rethinking the Asian American Movement (New York: Routledge, 2012).

3. Jane Naomi Iwamura, Virtual Orientalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).

4. Ibid., p. 6.

5. Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans, rev. and updated ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1998).

6. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs, p. 56.

7. Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 448.

8. Wendelle Browne, interview.

9. Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific.

10. Charlotte Brooks, “In the Twilight Zone between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942–1945,” Journal of American History 86, no. 4 (2000): 1655–87, and Matthew M. Briones, Jim and Jap Crow: A Cultural History of 1940s Interracial America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2012).

11. Wendelle Browne, interview.

12. Ibid.

13. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 5, p. 2.

14. Ibid., chap. 5, pp. 1–2.

15. Yuh, Beyond the Shadow of Camptown; and Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific.

16. Nora Kerr, “Vietnam’s Closer to Their Hearth,” Sunday Record, 8 February 1970.

17. Ibid.

18. Wendelle Browne, interview.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Browne, “Letter to the Honorable Attorney General of the United States,” 24 January 1963, box 1, folder 4, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

22. Ibid.

23. Salaam, “In the Black,” p. 32.

24. Ibid.

25. Browne, Race Relations in International Affairs, p. 7.

26. Browne to New York Times editor, 3 October 1961 and 22 October 1962, box 20, folder 1, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

27. Browne to NYT, 15 February 1962, box 20, folder 1, Browne Papers, Schomburg; Robert S. Browne, “FDU Prof. Visits Vietnam,” Tarrevir, 25 October 1967, p. 3.

28. Browne to NYT, 23 March 1964, box 20, folder 2, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

29. Ibid.

30. Browne to NYT, 3 October 1961, box 20, folder 2, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

31. Browne to NYT, 6 February 1962, box 20, folder 1, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

32. See Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line; Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Plummer, Rising Wind; Von Eschen, Race against Empire; Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World.

33. Martin Luther King Jr., “Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence,” The King Center, 4 April 1967, www.thekingcenter.org/archive/document/beyond-vietnam.

34. Alfred Hassler to Mildred Olmsted, 28 May 1965, Series II, G, box 9, folder “Trips to South Vietnam, Clergymen’s Visit to Vietnam, 1965, Correspondence: Preparations,” Fellowship of Reconciliation Records (FOR) (DG 013), SCPC, Swarthmore, PA. Coretta Scott King appeared frequently as a substitute for her husband in the peace movement. For more information about the goals and experiences of the 1965 delegation, see Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam, pp. 15–21.

35. Bob Browne to Al Hassler, 18 June 1965, Series II, G, box 9, folder “Trips to South Vietnam, Clergymen’s Visit to Viet Nam, 1965, Correspondence, Preparations,” FOR.

36. Robert S. Browne, “The Freedom Movement and the War in Vietnam,” in Vietnam and Black America: An Anthology of Protest and Resistance, ed. Clyde Taylor (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1973), p. 61. Originally published in Freedomways 5, no. 4 (1965).

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid., p. 75.

39. Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific.

40. James E. Westheider, Fighting on Two Fronts: African Americans and the Vietnam War (New York: New York University Press, 1997); James E. Westheider, The African American Experience in Vietnam: Brothers in Arms (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008).

41. Robert S. Browne, “The Black Man and the War in Vietnam,” Newsletter, Coordinating Committee of Black Organizations against the Draft, no. 1 (April 1967): 5. Over the course of the U.S. war in Vietnam, over 2.5 million Americans served in the military, and three hundred thousand of them were black (Westheider, The African American Experience in Vietnam, p. xix). In response to critiques of racial overrepresentation, black death rates declined from “more than 20 percent of American combat deaths, about twice their portion of the U.S. population,” to “12.5 percent” for the entire war. Christian G. Appy, Working-Class War: American Combat Soldiers and Vietnam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), p. 20, quoted in Natalie Kimbrough, Equality or Discrimination? African Americans in the U.S. Military during the Vietnam War (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2007), p. 81.

42. For more information about these elections, see Brigham, Guerrilla Diplomacy, p. 70.

43. Peter Arnett, “Major Describes Move,” New York Times, 8 February 1968.

44. For more about these military strategies and how American travelers documented their impact, see Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam.

45. Ibid., p. 104.

46. Bradley, Vietnam at War, p. 118.

47. Report, 22 August 1967, box 8, folder 12, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

48. “Uncle Sam Needs YOU Nigger,” box 20, folder 15, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

49. Browne, Letter to the Director of the Passport Office, 28 July 1966, Passport Application File, Department of State, FOIA materials.

50. Director, Passport Office, letter to Robert S. Browne, 3 October 1966, Passport Application File, Department of State.

51. Browne, “The Black Man and the War in Vietnam,” p. 5.

52. Ibid., p. 4.

53. Vincent Harding, “To the Gallant Black Men Now Dead,” box 20, folder 14, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

54. Salaam, “In the Black,” p. 32.

55. Browne, “Address at the Forum ‘Vietnam Aflame: What Are the Issues,’ ” Community Church, New York City, 30 June 1963, p. 1, box 1, folder “Writings/Speeches/Statements,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

56. Ibid., p. 2.

57. Ibid., p. 1.

58. Ibid., p. 2.

59. Robert S. Browne, letter to Captain John R. Spey, 6 November 1964, p. 3, box 1, folder “Correspondence 1964,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

60. Ibid.

61. Bill to Bob Browne, 24 September 1966, box 2, folder “Correspondence 1966 (Jan.–May),” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

62. Hoa Browne indicates that the designation “Vietnamese” may also reflect the personal identity of her mother, who spoke Vietnamese and was given her mother’s last name. Hoa Browne, conversation with author.

63. In contrast, Hoa became involved with antiwar activities and also enjoyed the attentions that she received as public consciousness about Vietnam increased.

64. Interestingly, the invitation was issued by Mary “Yuri” Kochiyama, the veteran Asian American activist who was based in Harlem. She did apologize for not knowing Huoi’s name before the flyer was printed.

65. Hilda Osborne to Mrs. Browne, 28 February 1967, box 2, folder “Correspondence 1967 (Jan.–May),” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

66. Mary E. Macy to Robert S. Browne, 27 January 1965, box 1, folder “Correspondence 1965 (January–May),” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

67. Klein, Cold War Orientalism.

68. Browne, untitled speech, box 1, folder “Writings/Speeches/Statements,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

69. Browne, untitled statement, 26 October 1972, p. 5, box 20, folder 9, Browne Papers, Schomburg. The statement begins, “In 1962, a few months after returning to the U.S.”

70. Robert S. Browne to John A. Schneider, 2 March 1965, box 1, folder “Correspondence 1965 (January–May), Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

71. Robert H. King, Thomas Merton and Thich Nhat Hanh: Engaged Spirituality in an Age of Globalization (New York: Continuum, 2001), pp. 72–77.

72. Browne, unpublished manuscript on Vietnam, chap. 4, p. 5, box 20, folder 3, Browne Papers, Schomburg.

73. Robert J. Topmiller, The Lotus Unleashed: The Buddhist Peace Movement in South Vietnam, 1964–1966 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2006).

74. Robert S. Browne to William Vanden Heuvel, 18 July 1936, box 1, folder “Correspondence 1962–1963,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

75. Nathan B. Lenvin on behalf of J. Walter Yeagley, letter to Robert S. Browne, 24 May 1967, box 2, folder “Efforts Re: Visit of Thich Nhat Hanh (Buddhist Monk), 1966,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

76. Robert S. Browne, letter to Roy Bennett, 9 September 1963, box 1, folder “Correspondence, 1962–1963,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

77. Robert S. Brown, letter to Bao, 21 June 1966, box 2, folder “Effort Re: Visit of Thich Nhat Hanh, 1966,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

78. For a historical overview of the FOR, see “Fellowship of Reconciliation: Historical Introduction,” SCPC, http://swarthmore.edu/Library/peace/DG001-025/DG013/dg13forhistintro.htm.

79. Robert S. Browne to Martin Luther King Jr., 9 April 1966, box 2, folder “Efforts Re: Visit of Thich Nhat Hanh (Buddhist Monk), 1966,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC; Robert S. Browne to Tran Quang Thuan, 15 April 1966, box 2, folder “Correspondence 1966 (Jan.–April), Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

80. Martin Luther King Jr., letter to Nobel Institute, 25 January 1967, The King Center, www.thekingcenter.org/archive/document/letter-mlk-nobel-institute.

81. Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam, pp. 20–21, 61–63.

82. “The Third Solution: A Neutral Coalition,” Vietnam: Matters for the Agenda (Santa Barbara, CA: Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions) 1, no. 4 (1968): 7.

83. Ibid.

84. Thich Nhat Hanh, Vietnam: Lotus in a Sea of Fire (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), p. 83.

85. Alfred Hassler, interoffice memorandum to Ray Gould, 6 October 1966, G-6, box 17, folder “Far East, November–December, 1966,” FOR.

86. Ibid.

87. Alfred Hassler to Thich Nhat Hanh, 14 November 1966, p. 4, G-6, box 16, folder “Correspondence with Hassler,” FOR.

88. Ibid.

89. Nhat Hanh to Al Hassler, 22 November 1966, G-6, box 16, folder “Correspondence with Hassler,” FOR.

90. Alfred Hassler to Nhat Hanh, 23 June 1967, G-6, box 16, folder “Correspondence with Hassler,” FOR. For more information about the collaboration between Browne and Dinh, see box 3, Folder “Involvement with Buddhist Socialist Bloc,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

91. Nhat Hanh to Al Hassler, 30 June 1967, G-6, box 16, folder “Correspondence with Hassler,” FOR.

92. “People of the Fellowship: Alfred Hassler,” International Fellowship of Reconciliation, www.ifor.org/fellowship%20people.htm; and Alfred Hassler, Diary of a Self-Made Convict (London: Victor Gollancz, 1955).

93. Lee, Orientals; Gary Okihiro, Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994); Jennifer Ting, “Bachelor Society: Deviant Heterosexuality and Asian American Historiography,” in Privileging Positions: The Sites of Asian American Studies, ed. Gary Y. Okihiro, Marilyn Alquizola, Dorothy Fugita Rony, and K. Scott Wong (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1995), pp. 271–80.

94. Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace; and Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, “Rethinking Global Sisterhood: Peace Activism and Women’s Orientalism,” in No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism, ed. Nancy Hewitt (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010), pp. 193–220.

95. Bob Browne to Al Hassler, 6 June 1966, G-6, box 17, folder “Speaking Tours, May–June 1966,” FOR.

96. Robert Elliot Fox, “About Ishmael Reed’s Life and Work,” in The Oxford Companion to African American Literature, ed. William L. Andrews, Francis Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/m_r/reed/about.htm; and Kaluma ya Salaam, “Historical Overviews of the Black Arts Movement,” in The Oxford Companion to African American Literature, ed. William L. Andrews, Francis Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), www.english.illinois.edu/maps/blackarts/historical.htm.

97. Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).

98. Alfred Hassler, “Notes of Trip with Nhat Hanh,” 14 June 1966, Section II, Series C, box 6, folder “Travels in Europe with Nhat Hanh, Vietnamese Monk, June–September 1966,” FOR. The same episode appears in the opening of Hanh, Vietnam.

99. The NLF was dominated by Vietnamese communists but also included noncommunists who supported the cause of national self-determination. When the NLF was first founded, it emphasized its goal of neutrality in the Cold War to argue for the need for political self-determination. As Robert Brigham points out, this call for neutrality generated both international recognition and American suspicion. Brigham, Guerrilla Diplomacy, pp. 19–39.

100. “The Third Solution,” p. 11.

101. Robert S. Browne to Alfred Hassler, 30 June 1966, box 2, folder “Efforts Re: Visited Thich Nhat Hanh (Buddhist Monk), 1966,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

102. Robert Comstock, “Peace Candidate Browne Quits Senate Race,” The Record, 29 September 1966, box 18, folder 4, clipping in Browne Papers, Schomburg.

103. “Democratic Unit Backs Frost for Senate,” The Record, box 18, folder 4, clipping in Browne Papers, Schomburg.

104. Ibid.

105. Browne, “The Freedom Movement and the War in Vietnam,” p. 67.

106. Ibid., p. 73.

107. Browne, “Dance as if No One Is Watching,” chap. 5, p. 32.

108. Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen.”

109. Tran Van Dinh to Robert S. Browne, 11 May 1967, box 3, folder “Involvement with Buddhist Socialist Bloc in Vietnam, 1967,” Browne Collected Papers, SCPC.

110. Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (Boston: Twayne, 1991); and William Wei, The Asian American Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993).

111. Diane Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle: The Revolutionary Life of Yuri Kochiyama (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005); Diane Fujino, “Who Studies the Asian American Movement? A Historiographical Analysis,” Journal of Asian American Studies 11, no. 2 (2008): 127–69; and Diane Fujino, Samurai among Panthers: Richard Aoki on Race, Resistance, and a Paradoxical Life (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012); Maeda, Chains of Babylon; and Maeda, Rethinking the Asian American Movement.

4. Anticitizens, Red Diaper Babies, and Model Minorities

1. Originally self-published in a chapbook series in 1984 and reproduced in Eldridge Cleaver, Target Zero: A Life in Writing, ed. Kathleen Cleaver (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 225.

2. Although there were no congressional restrictions against such travel, the State Department decreed that U.S. passports were not valid for travel to select countries. China was placed on the banned list in 1952, and North Korea and North Vietnam were included in 1955. Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam, pp. 32, 33.

3. The official name for the group was the “United States Peoples’ Anti-Imperialist Delegation.” Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Black Panthers Open Office in Algiers,” New York Times, 14 September 1970, p. 2; and Ann Froines, “Know Your Enemy,” Liberation 15, no. 9 (1970), p. 20.

4. “People of the World Unite: An Interview with Alex Hing and Pat Sumi,” Getting Together 1, no. 5 (September–October 1970): 11.

5. Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam, p. xv.

6. Cora Weiss and Dave Dellinger established a regular mail service for POWs and their family members and arranged monthly trips to Hanoi to facilitate the communication. See their interviews in James W. Clinton, “Cora Weiss,” in The Loyal Opposition, pp. 25–61, 165–82; Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam; and Cora Weiss, interviews with author, New York, 7–8 April 2006.

7. Clinton, “Cora Weiss”; and Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace.

8. Hall, Rethinking the American Anti-War Movement, pp. 42, 114.

9. Mitchell B. Lerner, The Pueblo Incident: A Spy Ship and the Failure of American Foreign Policy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002).

10. “People of the World Unite,” p. 12.

11. Clinton, “Cora Weiss,” p. xi.

12. Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam, p. 67.

13. Ibid., p. xvii.

14. Elbaum, Revolution in the Air; Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow and Left.

15. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Sudarshan Kapur, Rising Up a Prophet: The African American Encounter with Gandhi (Boston: Beacon, 1992); Robin D. G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston: Beacon, 2002); Robin D. G. Kelly and Betsy Esch, “Black Like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution,” Souls (Fall 1999): 6–41; Minkah Makalani, In the Cause of Freedom: Radical Black Internationalism from Harlem to London, 1917–1939 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); Ogbar, Black Power; Plummer, Rising Wind; Nikhil Pal Singh, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004); Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism; Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Von Eschen, Race against Empire; Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World.

16. For a wonderful analysis of Eldridge Cleaver’s political orientation toward socialist Asia, see Sean Malloy, “Uptight in Babylon: Eldridge Cleaver’s Cold War,” Diplomatic History (forthcoming). Also see Mullen, Afro-Orientalism.

17. Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow and Left. Also see Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle; Fujino, “Who Studies the Asian American Movement?”; and Fujino, Samurai among Panthers; Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen”; Maeda, Chains of Babylon; Vijay Prashad, Everybody Was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian Connections and the Myth of Cultural Purity (Boston: Beacon, 2001).

18. “Success Story of One Minority Group in U.S.,” U.S. News and World Report, 26 December 1966, reprinted in Roots: An Asian American Reader, ed. Amy Tachiki, Eddie Wong, Franklin Odo, and Buck Wong (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1971), p. 6.

19. Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 420.

20. Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); Estella Habal, San Francisco’s International Hotel: Mobilizing the Filipino American Community in the Anti-Eviction Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007); Fred Ho, with Carolyn Antonio, Diane Fujino, and Steve Yip, eds., Legacy to Liberation: Politics and Culture of Revolutionary Asian Pacific America (Brooklyn, NY: Big Red Media, 2000); Lon Kurashige, Japanese American Celebration and Conflict: A History of Ethnic Identity and Festival in Los Angeles, 1934–1990 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Steve Louie and Glenn Omatsu, eds., Asian Americans: The Movement and the Moment (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press, 2001); Maeda, Chains of Babylon; Linda Trinh Võ, Mobilizing an Asian American Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Wei, The Asian American Movement.

21. Brigham, Guerilla Diplomacy.

22. Chuong also served as a representative and interpreter for important international peace conferences, including the 1967 Bratislava meeting and also one in Paris where he had, in his words, “the privilege and also the heavy task of translating for” African American comedian Dick Gregory. Because of Gregory’s use of black vernacular, the best that Chuong could do was to tell the Vietnamese-speaking audience members, “He must have spoken something very funny, but I did not understand!” However, that comment drew such a positive response from his audience that Gregory complimented Chuong on his translation abilities. Pham Van Chuong, interview with author, Hanoi, Vietnam, 12 August 2009.

23. Trinh Ngoc Thai, “The World People’s Front in Support of Viet Nam: The Paris Agreement Negotiations Period,” in The Historical Negotiations [in Vietnamese, trans. Quynh Phan] (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Chinh Tri Quoc Gia, 2009).

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid.

26. Singh, Black Is a Country.

27. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1978).

28. Manning Marable, Race, Reform and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), p. 110, quoted in Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998), p. 7.

29. The biographical information for Elaine Brown mainly comes from her autobiography, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (New York: Anchor Books, 1994).

30. Ibid., p. 31.

31. Some former Black Panthers have alleged that Brown was an FBI informant. They suggest that Kennedy was a government operative who most likely recruited Brown. In Brown’s autobiography, she hints at autobiographical aspects in her lover’s novel. In that work, the protagonist is a white male CIA operative in love with a black woman who has become a black power radical. However, Brown also suggests that Jay detested the CIA, despite his choice of characters. Ibid., pp. 103–104, 94.

32. Ibid., p. 132; and Tracye Matthews, conversations with author, Chicago, IL, winter 2006.

33. “F.B.I. Brands Black Panthers ‘Most Dangerous’ of Extremists,” New York Times, 14 July 1970, p. 21.

34. Eldridge Cleaver, “Address,” Ramparts 7, no. 9 (14–28 December 1968), p. 6.

35. Ward Churchill, “ ‘To Disrupt, Discredit and Destroy’: The FBI’s Secret War against the Black Panther Party,” in Kathleen Cleaver and George Katsiaficas, eds., Liberation, Imagination, and the Black Panther Party: A New Look at the Panthers and Their Legacy (New York: Routledge, 2001), pp. 78–117.

36. Michael L. Clemons and Charles E. Jones, “Global Solidarity: The Black Panther Party in the International Arena,” in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, Liberation, Imagination, and the Black Panther Party, pp. 20–39.

37. Brown, A Taste of Power, p. 137.

38. Clemons and Jones, “Global Solidarity,” p. 30.

39. Memo from San Francisco to the Director, FBI, 2 August 1970, p. 10, Section 18, Eldridge Cleaver FBI File, 100-HQ-447251.

40. In January 1969, Byron Booth and Clinton Smith hijacked a plane to Cuba but were imprisoned by the authorities. They escaped from a rural labor camp to join Cleaver in Havana. James “Akili” Patterson also hijacked a plane to bring himself, his wife Gwen, and their daughter Tanya to Cuba. Kathleen Neal Cleaver, “Back to Africa: The Evolution of the International Section of the Black Panther Party (1969–1972), in Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, pp. 221–22; and Ruth Reitan, “Cuba, the Black Panther Party, and U.S. Black Movement in the 1960s: Issues of Security,” in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, Liberation, Imagination, and the Black Panther Party, pp. 164–74.

41. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” p. 223; and Clemons and Jones, “Global Solidarity,” p. 33.

42. Pham Khac Lam, interview with author, Hanoi, Vietnam, 12 August 2009.

43. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, p. 149.

44. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” pp. 234–35; William Klein, “Eldridge Cleaver on Political Prisoners,” Black Panther, 1 November 1969, p. 12.

45. Huey P. Newton, “To the Courageous Revolutionaries of the National Liberation Front and Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam We Send Greetings,” Black Panther, 29 August 1970, p. 13. For the Vietnamese response, see “Dear Comrades,” Black Panther, 9 January 1971, p. 11.

46. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” p. 226; Clemons and Jones, “Global Solidarity,” p. 30; Kim Il Sung, “The Decisive Factor in Victory in the Struggle against Imperialist Reaction, Is the Internal Forces of the Country Concerned!” Black Panther, 3 January 1970, p. 18; “Kim Il Sung on the Question of Firmly Establishing ‘Juche’ and Thoroughly Implementing the Mass Line,” Black Panther, 10 January 1970, p. 12.

47. Robin Haynes, conversation with author, Chicago, 9 January 2006; and Barbara Easley Cox, excerpts from interview with Robin J. Haynes, Philadelphia, PA, 22 July 2005. I thank Robin Haynes for generously sharing her research with me.

48. Barbara Easley Cox, telephone interview with author, Philadelphia, PA, 21 December 2006.

49. Kim Il Sung’s portrait appeared on the front cover of the Black Panther, along with a picture of Cleaver, on 25 October 1969. Articles about Kim’s political philosophy and North Korea appeared regularly in the newspaper in the fall of 1969 and 1970.

50. The first issue of the Black Panther that featured an “International News” section was dated 6 September 1969. A headshot of Kim became part of the masthead on 6 June 1970, shortly before the delegation departed on their travels.

51. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” p. 231.

52. Brown, A Taste of Power, p. 201.

53. Eldridge Cleaver, “Gangster Cigarettes,” in Target Zero, p. 225. Cleaver goes on to describe “two white women / with Anglo-Saxon roots,” so the number of Jewish women might be three rather than four (p. 226).

54. Jack Salzman and Cornel West, eds., Struggles in the Promised Land: Toward a History of Black-Jewish Relations in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

55. Ibid., p. 1.

56. Jonathan Kaufman, “Blacks and Jews: The Struggle in the Cities,” in Salzman and West, Struggles in the Promised Land, p. 110.

57. Ibid., p. 111.

58. Terry H. Anderson, The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to Wounded Knee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).

59. Dwight Garner, “Back When Ramparts Did the Storming,” New York Times, 6 October 2009, www.nytimes.com/2009/10/07/books/07garner.html.

60. “About Robert Scheer,” Truthdig, www.truthdig.com/robert_scheer#bio. Scheer is editor in chief of Truthdig.

61. “Selections from the Biography of Huey P. Newton by Bobby Seale, with an Introduction by Eldridge Cleaver,” Ramparts 7, no. 4 (7 September 1968), p. 21.

62. Eldridge Cleaver Papers, BANC MSS 91/213 c, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

63. Robert Scheer, editorial introduction to Eldridge Cleaver, “The Black Moochie: A Novella, Part I,” Ramparts 8, no. 4 (October 1969), p. 21.

64. Randy Rappaport, interview with author, Columbus, OH, 7 July 2007.

65. Ibid.

66. Ann Froines, telephone interview with author, 21 December 2006.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. “History,” Third World Newsreel, www.twn.org/twnpages/about/history.aspx.

70. Anonymous, conversation with author, Berkeley, CA, 21 March 2007.

71. For overviews of Asian American history, see Chan, Asian Americans; and Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore.

72. There are a number of works on the history of San Francisco’s Chinatown. For a selection, see Victor Nee and Brett de Bary Nee, Longtime Californ’: A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); and Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).

73. Alex Hing, interview with author, New York City, 19 March 2005.

74. Fred Ho and Steve Yip, “Alex Hing: Former Minister of Information for the Red Guard Party and Founding Member of I Wor Kuen,” in Ho et al., Legacy to Liberation, pp. 279–98.

75. Hing, interview.

76. Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen.”

77. Hing, interview.

78. Hing, interview; Ho and Yip, “Alex Hing,” pp. 279–96; Laura Ho, “Red Guard Party,” Gidra, May 1969, pp. 4, 7; Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen”; Ogbar, Black Power; “Red Guard Rally,” AAPA Newspaper 1, no. 4 (1969), pp. 1, 4; “Red Guard,” Black Panther, 23 March 1969, p. 9; Vivian and Carol, “AION Finally Arrives,” Gidra, April 1970, p. 31.

79. Him Mark Lai, “The Kuomingtang in Chinese American Communities before World War II,” in Entry Denied: Exclusion and the Chinese Community in America, 1882–1943, ed. Sucheng Chan (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991); Nee, Longtime Californ’; Renqiu Yu, To Save China, to Save Ourselves: The Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance of New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992).

80. Hing, interview.

81. Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen.”

82. Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity.

83. Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow and Left.

84. Anonymous, telephone interview with author, 18 January 2006.

85. Pat Sumi, interview by Ryan Yokota, 1 July 1997, transcript, p. 1. I want to thank Ryan for generously sharing his research with me. Ryan interviewed Pat Sumi twice, once on audiotape on 19 June 1997 and the second time on videotape on 1 July 1997. The second interview session was transcribed, and an edited version of that interview was published in Louie and Omatsu, Asian Americans, pp. 16–31.

86. Frances Fournier, conversation with author, Vancouver, Canada, 31 October 2005; and anonymous, telephone interview with author, 18 January 2006.

87. Jim Hurst and Sam Weaver, eds., Barrister 1962: John Marshall High School (Los Angeles, 1962). My thanks to Frances Fournier for sharing her memories and her yearbooks.

88. Sumi, interview by Yokota, p. 1.

89. Ibid., p. 2.

90. Ryan Yokota, “Interview with Pat Sumi,” in Louie and Omatsu, Asian Americans, pp. 19–20.

91. For information about the Movement for a Democratic Military and about antiwar coffeehouses, see Hall, Rethinking the American Anti-War Movement, p. 124; Stur, Beyond Combat; and Westheider, Fighting on Two Fronts.

92. Investigation of Attempts to Subvert the United States Armed Services, “Hearings before the Committee on Internal Security,” House of Representatives, 92nd Congress, 1st session, 20, 21, 22, 27, and 28 October 1971; and 2nd sessions 9 and 10 May, and 1 and 20 June 1972 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972). My thanks to Daryl Maeda for sharing these materials with me.

93. Pat Sumi, interview by Ryan Yokota, 19 June 1997.

94. Cindy Takemoto, “Pat Sumi: Off the Pedestal,” Asian Women’s Journal (1971; 3rd printing, 1975), p. 109.

95. Ibid.

96. Stur, Beyond Combat, p. 187.

97. Ibid., pp. 186–87.

98. Caroline Chung Simpson, An Absent Presence: Japanese Americans in Postwar American Culture, 1945–1960 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).

99. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 1 July 1997, transcript, p. 1.

100. Larry Kobota, “Yellow Power!” Gidra, April 1969, pp. 3–4; Amy Uyematsu, “The Emergence of Yellow Power in America,” Gidra, October 1969, pp. 8–11.

101. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 1 July 1997, transcript, p. 10.

102. Pat Sumi, “A Mountain Was Moved,” Gidra, June 1971, p. 14.

103. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 1 July 1997, transcript, p. 11.

104. “People of the World Unite,” p. 11.

105. “Asian Americans for Peace Rally,” Gidra, January 1970, p. 15; Yuji Ichioka, “Hiroshima-Nagasaki, Twenty-Five Years Ago,” and Joanne Miyamoto and Foo Gwah, “People’s Page: Hiroshima-Nagasaki and Hiroshima Revisited,” both in Gidra, August 1970, pp. 6–9; and Patricia Sumi, “Hiroshima-Nagasaki Indochina,” Gidra, August 1971, p. 15.

106. “Chinese Workers Support Afro-American Struggle,” Black Panther, 27 April 1969, p. 12; “The Just Struggle of Afro-Americans Is Sure to Win,” Black Panther, 11 May 1969, reprinted on 25 May 1969; Ho Chi Minh, “Lynching,” Black Panther, 13 September 1969, p. 16, reprinted from La Correspondence International, no. 59 (1924); “The Association of Democratic Jurists of Korea, the Committee for Afro-Asian Solidarity of Korea, Telegram to Mr. Bobby Seale,” Black Panther, 4 October 1969, p. 10; “Copy of Telegram from Korea,” Black Panther, 20 December 1969, p. 16; Rochom Briu, “Letter to Black Americans,” Black Panther, 11 April 1970, p. 15; “Telegram from Comrade Kim Il Sung, the Courageous Revolutionary Leader of the 40 Million Korean People,” Black Panther, 29 August 1970, p. 16.

5. A Revolutionary Pilgrimage

1. “Cleaver in North Korea,” New York Times, 15 July 1970, p. 11.

2. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 1 July 1997, transcript, p. 12.

3. Director, FBI, “Memo to SACs,” 20 August 1970, p. 2, Section 18, Eldridge Cleaver FBI File, 100-HQ-447251.

4. “Cleaver and 10 Others Flying into North Korea,” Evening Star, 13 July 1970. Clipping found in Section 18, Cleaver FBI File, 100-HQ-447251.

5. Alex Hing to Dear Comrades, Gidra, August 1970, p. 17.

6. Martin Wong, “Alex Hing: IWK,” Giant Robot no. 10 (Spring 1998): 81.

7. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 19 June 1997.

8. Tranh Minh Quoc, interview with author, Hanoi, Vietnam, 10 August 2009.

9. “In North Korea, North Vietnam, Peking China, We Were Greeted as the Anti-Imperialist Delegation and Treated as Human Beings as Respected Members of the Human Race: An Interview with Elaine Brown, Deputy Minister of Information Black Panther Party, Los Angeles, California,” Black Panther, 3 October 1970, p. B.

10. Eldridge Cleaver, “Gangster Cigarettes,” in Target Zero, p. 225.

11. Gitlin, The Sixties, pp. 262–63. My thanks to Bob McMahon and Michael Flamm for reminding me of Gitlin’s work.

12. Ibid., p. 264.

13. Venceremos Brigade, The Venceremos Brigade: Four Years Building Solidarity with Cuba (New York: Educational Commission, 1974); Lekus, “Queer Harvests.”

14. Gitlin, The Sixties, p. 264.

15. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 7.

16. Bruce Cumings, Korea’s Place in the Sun: A Modern History, updated ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), p. 270.

17. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” p. B.

18. Suzanne Kelly McCormack, “ ‘Good Politics Is Doing Something’: Independent Diplomats and Anti-War Activists in the Vietnam-Era Peace Movement, a Collective Biography,” PhD diss., Boston College, 2002, p. 205.

19. “This is the second in a series of programs . . . ,” p. 1, box 5, folder 7, Eldridge Cleaver Papers.

20. Ibid., p. 4.

21. Cumings, Korea’s Place in the Sun, p. 293.

22. Ibid., p. 295.

23. Ibid., p. 269.

24. Ibid., p. 271.

25. Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific, p. 114.

26. Ibid., pp. 115, 114.

27. Rappaport, interview.

28. “People of the World Unite,” p. 11.

29. Ibid.

30. Pat Sumi, “Laos: A Nation in Struggle,” Gidra, March 1971, p. 14.

31. Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Black Panthers Open Office in Algiers,” New York Times, 14 September 1970, p. 2.

32. “People of the World Unite,” p. 12.

33. Thai, “The World People’s Front in Support of Viet Nam.”

34. Maeda, Chains of Babylon; Maeda, Rethinking the Asian American Movement.

35. Farnsworth, “Black Panthers Open Office in Algiers”; also see McCormack, “ ‘Good Politics Is Doing Something,’ ” p. 205.

36. Section 19, p. 102, Eldridge Cleaver FBI File, 100-HQ-447251.

37. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” p. D.

38. Eldridge Cleaver, “The Black Man’s Stake in Vietnam,” Black Panther, 23 March 1969, p. 16, which was reprinted in later issues as well; and Eldridge Cleaver, “To My Black Brothers in Viet Nam,” Black Panther, 31 January 1970, p. B.

39. Director, FBI, “Memo,” 26 September 1970, Section 18, Eldridge Cleaver FBI File, 100-HQ-447251.

40. Westheider, Fighting on Two Fronts, p. 109.

41. Ibid., pp. 154–56.

42. Ibid., p. 156.

43. Pham Khac Lam, interview.

44. “Cleaver and Black Panther Group Attend Hanoi Observance,” New York Times, 19 August 1970, p. 13.

45. Kathleen Neal Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, ed. Charles E. Jones (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998), p. 234.

46. Farnsworth, “Black Panthers Open Office in Algiers.”

47. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, pp. 148–49.

48. “Pacifists and Panthers Get P.O.W. Letters from Hanoi,” New York Times, 4 September 1970, p. 5.

49. Hing, interview.

50. Kristi Siegel, ed. Issues in Travel Writing: Empire, Spectacle, and Displacement (New York: Peter Lang, 2002), p. 4.

51. Elaine Brown, “Transcript of Speech,” box 5, folder 6, Eldridge Cleaver Papers.

52. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” pp. B–C.

53. Ibid., p. C.

54. Brown, A Taste of Power, p. 226.

55. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” pp. B–C.

56. Cumings, Korea’s Place in the Sun, p. 433.

57. Ibid.

58. The United States gave an estimated twelve billion dollars to South Korea from 1945 to 1965 (ibid., p. 307).

59. Ibid., p. 310.

60. Ibid., p. 309.

61. Ibid., p. 429.

62. Ibid., p. 435.

63. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” p. B.

64. “Life in New Asia,” Getting Together 1, no. 6 (November–December 1970): 16.

65. Kyung Ae Park, “Women and Revolution in North Korea,” Pacific Affairs 65, no. 4 (1992–1993), p. 532. My thanks to Suzy Kim for suggesting this source.

66. Ibid., p. 536.

67. Ibid.

68. Alex Hing, “Dear Comrades,” Gidra, October 1970, p. 6.

69. Hing, interview.

70. “Pacifists and Panthers Get P.O.W. Letters from Hanoi,” p. 5.

71. Hing, “Dear Comrades,” p. 6.

72. Edward Wong, dir., Comrades: A Documentary (San Francisco: National Asian American Telecommunications Association, 1999).

73. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” p. E.

74. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, p. 147.

75. Chinese tend to use the measurement of wan or ten thousand for expressing large numbers. It is possible that the Chinese official misinterpreted Cleaver’s claim of forty million as forty wan, the equivalent of four hundred thousand. My thanks to Gordon Chang for suggesting this interpretation.

76. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” p. E.

77. Ibid., pp. C–D.

78. Ibid., p. D.

79. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 1 July 1997, pp. 13–14.

80. Ibid., p. 14.

81. Ibid., p. 15.

82. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 96. For analyses of the Madame Butterfly storyline, which surfaces in popular culture, see Lee, Orientals; Gina Marchetti, Romance and the “Yellow Peril”: Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood Fiction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); and Yoshihara, Embracing the East.

83. McCormack, “Good Politics Is Doing Something,” p. 204. McCormack studied the delegation from the perspective of Ann Froines. She interviewed Froines and also had access to her travel diaries.

84. Ibid., p. 205. Alex Hing’s recollections of the tour suggest that this sense of cohesiveness might have been particularly strong among the five white women on the tour. Hing, interview.

85. June Culberson, “The Role of the A [sic] Revolutionary Woman,” Black Panther, 4 May 1969, p. 9; “Sisters,” Black Panther, 13 September 1969, pp. 12–13.

86. Brown, A Taste of Power, pp. 136–37.

87. Stur, Beyond Combat, p. 39.

88. In the DPRK, the Korean Democratic Women’s Union was formed in 1946. In the PRC, the All-China Women’s Democratic Foundation formed in 1949 and became the All-China Women’s Federation in 1957.

89. Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace.

90. “Life in New Asia,” p. 16.

91. Ibid.

92. Ibid.

93. Ibid.

94. Ibid., p. 15.

95. Suzy Kim, “Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950,” Contemporary Studies in Society and History 52, no. 4 (2010): 742–67; Park, “Women and Revolution in North Korea”; and Sonia Ryang, “Gender in Oblivion: Women in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea),” Journal of Asian and African Studies 35, no. 3 (2000): 325–49.

96. Ryang, “Gender in Oblivion,” p. 332.

97. Park, “Women and Revolution in North Korea,” p. 536.

98. Quoted in Ryang, “Gender in Oblivion,” p. 335.

99. “Life in New Asia,” p. 15.

100. Ibid.

101. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” p. E.

102. Emily Honig, “Maoist Mappings of Gender: Reassessing the Red Guards,” in Chinese Femininities, Chinese Masculinities: A Reader, ed. Susan Brownell and Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), p. 255.

103. Ibid.

104. Ibid., pp. 255–56.

105. Quoted in McCormack, “Good Politics Is Doing Something,” p. 207. Originally from Ann Froines, 7 August 1970, Personal Journal #5.

106. Park, “Women and Revolution in North Korea,” p. 540.

107. Ibid. Park is utilizing Gerhard Lenski’s theory of social inequality, in which he “identifies three sources of power influencing inequality in society: the power of property (economic power), the power of position, and the power of force.” Gerhard Lenski, Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966).

108. Park, “Women and Revolution in North Korea,” p. 542. Park is also citing the work of Janet Salaff and Judith Merkle, “Women in Revolution: The Lessons of the Soviet Union and China,” Berkeley Journal of Sociology 15 (1970): 182.

109. Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace, p. 216.

110. “Life in New Asia,” p. 15.

111. “In North Korea, North Vietnam,” p. D.

112. This image appeared in the Black Panther, 20 September 1969, p. 3, and on the cover of Gidra, March 1970, with an accompanying article, “Vietnamese Sisters,” reprinted from Sisters United no. 1 (January 1970): p. 10.

113. Sandra C. Taylor, Vietnamese Women at War: Fighting for Ho Chi Minh and the Revolution (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999), p. 12.

114. Ibid.

115. Ibid., p. 9.

116. Cynthia Enloe, “Women after Wars: Puzzles and Warnings,” in Kathleen Barry, ed., Vietnam’s Women in Transition (Houndsmill, UK: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 299–315. Also see Lisa Drummond and Helle Rydstrom, Gender Practices in Contemporary Vietnam (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2004); and Arlene Eisen, Women and Revolution in Viet Nam (London: Zed Books, 1984).

117. Taylor, Vietnamese Women at War, p. 9.

118. Pham Khac Lam, interview.

119. Ibid.

120. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 19 June 1997.

121. Mullen, Afro-Orientalism.

6. The Belly of the Beast

1. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 19 June 1997.

2. I do not want to suggest that the private or later sources are somehow more “true.” In fact, they need to be closely scrutinized and contextualized, because the writings also reveal the influence of political calculation and conflict.

3. For a wonderful analysis of how sexuality, race, and gender shaped the dynamics within Venceremos Brigades, see Lekus, “Queer Harvests.”

4. Kathleen Neal Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, p. 216.

5. For one account of the split, see ibid., pp. 211–54.

6. Churchill, “ ‘To Disrupt, Discredit and Destroy,’ ” in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party, pp. 78–117; Eldridge Cleaver FBI Files.

7. Elaine Brown, “Hidden Traitor,” p. 1, box 48, folder 16, Dr. Huey P. Newton Foundation Incorporation Collection, MS M0864, Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.

8. Brown, A Taste of Power, pp. 220–21.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., , pp. 227–28.

11. Brown, “Hidden Traitor,” p. 17.

12. Elaine Brown, “Free Kathleen Cleaver: And All Political Prisoners,” Black Panther Party Intercommunal News Service, 6 March 1971, pp. A–D.

13. Tracye Matthews, “ ‘No One Ever Asks, What a Man’s Role in the Revolution Is’: Gender and the Politics of the Black Panther Party, 1966–1971,” and Angela D. LeBlanc-Ernest, “ ‘The Most Qualified Person to Handle the Job’: Black Panther Party Women, 1966–1982,” both in Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, pp. 267–334.

14. Susie Linfield, “The Education of Kathleen Neal Cleaver,” Transitions 77 (1998), p. 195.

15. Ibid., p. 182.

16. Ibid., p. 191.

17. Kathleen Cleaver, interview.

18. Kathleen Cleaver, interview; Kathleen Cleaver, transcript of speech given at the University of California, Los Angeles, 22 October 1971, p. 120, Section 22, Eldridge Cleaver FBI Files, 100-HQ-447251.

19. Brown, “Hidden Traitor,” p. 4.

20. Ibid., pp. 4–5.

21. Ibid., p. 5.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid., p. 36.

24. Eldridge Cleaver, “On Becoming,” in Soul on Ice (New York: Dell, 1968), p. 6.

25. Ibid., p. 10.

26. Ibid., p. 14.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid., p. 15.

29. Eldridge Cleaver, “Enter the Devil,” box 2, folder 31, Eldridge Cleaver Papers.

30. Eldridge Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba,” box 2, folder 31, Eldridge Cleaver Papers.

31. Alex Hing, e-mail correspondence, 26 February 2006.

32. Beth L. Bailey, Sex in the Heartland (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002).

33. Eldridge Cleaver, notebook, folder “U.S. Peoples’ Anti-Imperialist Delegation, Korea Trip Notebooks, 1970,” Eldridge Cleaver Papers.

34. Jeremy Varon, Bringing the War Home: The Weather Underground, the Red Army Faction, and Revolutionary Violence in the Sixties and Seventies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).

35. Rappaport, interview.

36. Ibid.

37. Randy Rappaport, conversation with author, Amherst, MA, 11 June 2011.

38. Rappaport, interview.

39. Ibid.

40. Brown, “Hidden Traitor,” p. 36.

41. Froines, telephone interview.

42. Rappaport, interview.

43. Rappaport, conversation.

44. Brown, “Hidden Traitor,” p. 6.

45. Ibid., p. 39.

46. Ibid., p. 29.

47. Froines, telephone interview.

48. Rappaport, interview.

49. Ibid.

50. Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, Troubling the Water: Black-Jewish Relations in the American Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).

51. Ibid., p. 9.

52. It appeared originally as James Baldwin, “Negroes Are Anti-Semitic because They’re Anti-White,” New York Times Magazine, 9 April 1967, www.nytimes.com/books/98/03/29/specials/baldwin-antisem.html.

53. Greenberg, Troubling the Water, p. 6.

54. Baldwin, “Negroes Are Anti-Semitic.”

55. Earl Lewis, “The Need to Remember: Three Phases in Black and Jewish Educational Relations,” in Salzman and West, Struggles in the Promised Land, p. 246. Also see Wendell Pritchett, Brownsville, Brooklyn: Blacks, Jews, and the Changing Face of the Ghetto (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).

56. Lewis, “The Need to Remember,” p. 246.

57. Salzman and West, Struggles in the Promised Land.

58. Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba,” p. 11.

59. Ibid., p. 9. Some of the names are misspelled in this draft essay.

60. Cleaver, “Enter the Devil,” p. 32.

61. Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba,” p. 12.

62. For discussions about the controversy regarding Palestine and black power leader Stokely Carmichael, see Clayborne Carson, “Black-Jewish Universalism in the Era of Identity Politics,” and Waldo E. Martin Jr., “ ‘Nation Time!’ Black Nationalism, the Third World, and Jews,” both in Salzman and West, Struggles in the Promised Land, pp. 177–96, 341–55.

63. Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba,” p. 13.

64. Memo from San Francisco Office to the Director of the FBI, 9 February 1970, box 24, folder 1, Eldridge Cleaver Papers.

65. Anonymous, conversation with author, Berkeley, CA, 21 March 2007.

66. Brown, A Taste of Power, p. 220.

67. Hing, interview; and Sumi, interview by Yokota, 19 June 1997.

68. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, p. 122.

69. Ibid., p. 134.

70. Hing, interview.

71. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, p. 122.

72. Ibid.

73. Eldridge Cleaver, “Gangster Cigarettes,” in Target Zero, p. 225.

74. Hing, interview.

75. Cleaver, “Gangster Cigarettes,” p. 227.

76. Rappaport, interview.

77. Hing, e-mail correspondence.

78. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 19 June 1997.

79. Rappaport, interview.

80. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 1 July 1997, p. 9.

81. Rappaport, interview.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid.

84. Ibid.

85. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, p. 149.

86. Brown, A Taste of Power, p. 229.

87. “Black Panthers Open Office in Algiers,” New York Times, 14 September 1970, p. 2.

88. Kathleen Cleaver, interview.

89. Director, FBI to SAC, New York, 16 September 1970, Section 18, Cleaver FBI Files, 100-HQ-447251.

90. Brown, A Taste of Power.

91. Ibid., p. 313.

92. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 1 July 1997, p. 12.

93. “I Wor Kuen,” Gidra, June 1971, pp. 12–13; also see Getting Together, the periodical published by I Wor Kuen.

94. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 19 June 1997.

95. Takemoto, “Pat Sumi”; anonymous, telephone interview with author, 23 January 2006; and Jeffrey Chan, telephone interview with author, San Rafael, CA, 17 January 2005.

96. Ann Froines, letter to Eldridge Cleaver, 20 November 1970, box 5, folder 36, Eldridge Cleaver Papers.

97. Quote from an interview conducted by Suzanne McCormack, which appears in McCormack, “ ‘Good Politics Is Doing Something,’ ” p. 213.

98. Rappaport, interview.

99. Ibid.

100. Siegel, Issues in Travel Writing, p. 4.

7. “We Met the ‘Enemy’—and They Are Our Sisters”

1. The title “We Met the ‘Enemy’—and They Are Our Sisters” was a headline in Memo 2, no. 1 (Fall 1971): 14–15. Memo is a newsletter published by Women Strike for Peace.

2. Grewal, Transnational America; Mohanty, “Under Western Eyes”; Rupp, Worlds of Women; Wu, “Journeys for Peace and Liberation”; Wu, “Rethinking Global Sisterhood.”

3. Scholars of 1960s radicalism are increasingly emphasizing the diversity of backgrounds and political perspectives of activists from this era. Stephanie Gilmore, ed., Feminist Coalitions: Historical Perspectives on Second-Wave Feminism in the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008); and Young, Soul Power.

4. Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace.

5. Ibid., p. 15.

6. Andrea Estepa, “Taking the White Gloves Off: Women Strike for Peace and ‘the Movement,’ 1967–73,” in Gilmore, Feminist Coalitions, p. 87.

7. Jill Vickers, “The Intellectual Origins of the Women’s Movements in Canada,” in Challenging Times: The Women’s Movement in Canada and the United States, ed. Constance Backhouse and David H. Flaherty (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992), pp. 53–55; and Candace Loewen, “Making Ourselves Heard: ‘Voice of Women’ and the Peace Movement in the Early Sixties,” in Framing Our Past: Canadian Women’s History in the Twentieth Century, ed. Sharon Anne Cook, Lorna R. McLean, and Kate O’Rourke (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001), p. 248.

8. Quoted in Judy Rebick, Ten Thousand Roses: The Making of a Feminist Revolution (Toronto: Penguin Canada, 2005), p. 3.

9. Quoted in Harriet Hyman Alonso, Peace as a Women’s Issue: A History of the U.S. Movement for World Peace and Women’s Rights (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1993), p. 86. WILPF was officially founded in 1919, but the organization evolved from the U.S. Women’s Peace Party, which was established in 1915.

10. Estepa, “Taking the White Gloves Off,” p. 88.

11. “Paris,” Memo 6, no. 4 (March 1968): 2.

12. “To Canadian Press Representatives, London,” 15 May 1968, vol. 3, file Hanoi Trip, Voice of Women (VOW) Fonds, Library and Archives Canada.

13. Ethel Taylor, “Conference: Paris, April 23–26,” Memo 6, no. 5 (May–June 1968): 6.

14. Kay MacPherson, “October 9th 1967, Cambridge,” vol. 3, file Hanoi Trip, VOW Fonds.

15. Cora Weiss, “The Face of the Enemy,” Memo (Fall 1969): 4–7.

16. Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace, p. 222.

17. Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam.

18. Cora Weiss, interviews, 7 and 8 April 2006 and 4 May 2006. Also see Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace, and Clinton, “Cora Weiss.”

19. Taylor, Vietnamese Women at War, p. 123.

20. Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace, p. 216.

21. “Madame Nguyen Thi Binh Speaking to American Women,” text of film, October 1970, p. 1, series A, 2, box B, 2, Women Strike for Peace (WSP) Records (DG 115), SCPC, Swarthmore, PA.

22. “Talks Began in 1965 . . .” Memo 6, no. 8 (November–December 1968): 2.

23. Vietnamese Women, Vietnam Studies No. 10 (Hanoi, DRV: Xunhasaba, 1966), p. 42.

24. Ibid., p. 33.

25. Mary Ann Tetreault, “Women and Revolution in Vietnam,” in Barry, Vietnam’s Women in Transition, p. 45. Tetreault cites Frances Fitzgerald, Fire in the Lake: The Vietnamese and the Americans in Vietnam (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972).

26. For an analysis of how WSP emphasized a maternalist construction of Vietnamese female identity to foster a common politics based on pacifism, see Jessica M. Frazier, “Collaborative Efforts: Women Strike for Peace’s Interactions with Vietnamese Women during the Vietnam War, 1965–1968,” paper presented at the Berkshires Conference on the History of Women, Amherst, MA, June 2011.

27. Nancy Hewitt, ed., No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010).

28. Vietnamese Women, p. 3.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid., p. 307.

31. Agatha Beins’s dissertation and forthcoming book will examine how women’s movement periodicals created political meaning and fostered a sense of community among activists. She places a strong emphasis on the representations of Vietnamese women in American women’s movement periodicals. Agatha Beins, “Free Our Sisters, Free Ourselves! Locating U.S. Feminism through Feminist Publishing” (PhD diss., Rutgers University, 2011); Agatha Beins, “Sisters Rise Up! Feminist Identities and Communities in the Women’s Liberation Movement,” paper presented at NEH Summer Institute, Sequel to the 60s, Schlesinger Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 2008; and Agatha Beins, “Radical Others: Women of Color and Revolutionary Feminism” (unpublished manuscript, 2011).

32. Taylor, Vietnamese Women at War.

33. Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam, p. 139.

34. Vivian Rothstein, telephone interview with author, 9 March 2007.

35. Ibid.

36. Charlotte Bunch, interview with author, New York City, 30 November 2006. Also see Sara Evans, ed., Journeys That Opened Up the World: Women, Student Christian Movements, and Social Justice, 1955–1975 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003).

37. Anne M. Valk, Radical Sisters: Second-Wave Feminism and Black Liberation in Washington, D.C. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010).

38. Charlotte Bunch-Weeks and Frank Joyce, “North Vietnam: A Photo Essay,” Motive (February 1971), p. 18.

39. Ibid., p. 20.

40. Jan Fenty and Charlotte Bunch-Weeks, “Women and the Anti-War Movement,” box 1, folder 33, Charlotte Bunch Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA.

41. Bunch, interview.

42. Nguyen Thi Ngoc Dung, interview with author, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, 19 August 2009.

43. Phan Thi Minh, interview with author, Da Nang, Vietnam, 17 August 2009. I am uncertain as to the spelling of the names of the two non-Vietnamese women who helped Dung and Minh produce their newspaper.

44. Alice Wolfson to “Companeras,” n.d., pp. 1–2, box 1, folder 34, Charlotte Bunch Papers.

45. Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam; and Joyce Blackwell, No Peace without Freedom: Race and the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, 1915–1975 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004).

46. “New President, Board Elected,” Peace and Freedom 31, no. 7 (July 1971): 1.

47. Other religiously inspired social organizations and women’s reform organizations, like the American Friends Service Committee and the Young Women’s Christian Association, also provided similar services for Japanese American internees.

48. Wu, “Journeys for Peace and Liberation.”

49. Frances Beale, “Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female,” Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women’s Liberation Movement, ed. Robin Morgan (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), pp. 382–96; and Benita Roth, Separate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America’s Second Wave (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

50. Betita Martinez, telephone interview with author, 7 December 2006. Also see Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!

51. Martinez, telephone interview.

52. Ibid.

53. Ibid.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!, pp. 99–100.

59. Lorena Oropeza points out that by 1960, 80 percent of Mexican Americans were living in urban areas. However, the Chicano/a movement was heavily invested in the symbolic identity of being “agricultural people tied to the land.” Ibid., p. 86.

60. “Viet Nam War—Why? Their People . . . Our People . . .” El Grito del Norte, 29 August 1970. Betita Martinez also reported on the treatment of ethnic minorities in Vietnam, who had the right to bilingual education.

61. Martinez, telephone interview.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid.

65. Loreno Oropeza makes a similar argument about the significance of the Vietnam War for the Chicano/a movement. Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!

66. Maylei Blackwell, ¡Chicana Power! Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011).

67. Martinez, telephone interview. For more information about La Alianza Federal de Pueblos Libres, see Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!

68. Martinez, telephone interview.

69. “The Land: A Constant Struggle,” El Grito del Norte, 7 December 1970.

70. Martinez, telephone interview. Lorena Oropeza also concurs with Betita Martinez’s characterization of El Grito del Norte as being on the forefront of Third World politics in the Chicano/a movement. Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!

71. Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!

72. Ibid., p. 6.

73. Ibid.

74. Martinez, telephone interview.

75. “Chicanas Meet Indo-Chinese,” El Grito del Norte, 5 June 1971, p. K.

76. Ibid.

77. Rothstein, telephone interview.

8. War at a Peace Conference

1. “Curses,” Georgia Straight, 8–13 April 1971, p. 17.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. Canada’s support for the U.S. antiwar movement should not be overstated. Although the country was officially neutral, Canadian citizens volunteered to fight in the U.S.-led war in Southeast Asia. In addition, the Canadian government engaged in “secret missions, weapons testing and arms production.” “Canada, Vietnam, and the Pentagon Papers,” www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/war-conflict/vietnam-war/canadas-secret-war-vietnam/canada-and-the-pentagon-papers.html.

5. Vo Thi The, a professor of literature at Hanoi University and an executive of the Vietnam Women’s Union, participated in the 1969 delegation and would return again in 1971. Le Thi Cao, a former teacher and an organizer for the National Liberation Front, came directly from South Vietnam, while Madame Nguyen Ngoc Dung, an executive of the Women’s Union for the Liberation of South Vietnam as well as the Students’ Liberation Movement, arrived from Paris where she had recently been appointed to the staff of the peace talks. They made public presentations and attended meetings in Vancouver, Nanimo, Regina, Winnipeg, Toronto, Niagara Falls, Ottawa, North Hatley, and Montreal. “Vietnamese Women Visit Canada,” July 1969, vol. 18, folder “Vietnam Visits and Visas 1965–1971,” VOW Fonds.

6. Muriel Duckworth, “VOW Visit Information (from Visit Committee),” vol. 45, folder 28, VOW Fonds.

7. Voice of Women/La Voix des Femmes, “Visit of the Indochinese Women to Canada, April 1971: An Assessment,” September 1971, p. 2, vol. 3, file “Indochina Visit,” VOW Fonds.

8. “Projected Conference in North America with Indochinese Women,” pp. 1–2, subject files, folder “Indochinese Women Conference,” Kathleen Hudson Women’s Bookstore Collection Fonds, F-111, Archives and Records Management Department, Simon Fraser University.

9. Kristin Anderson-Bricker, “ ‘Triple Jeopardy’: Black Women and the Growth of Feminist Consciousness in SNCC, 1964–1975,” in Kimberly Springer, ed., Still Lifting, Still Climbing: African American Women’s Contemporary Activism (New York: New York University Press, 1999); Kimberly Springer, “Black Feminists Respond to Black Power Masculinism,” and Stephen Ward, “The Third World Women’s Alliance: Black Feminist Radicalism and Black Power Politics,” in Peniel E. Joseph, ed., The Black Power Movement (New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 105–44; and Kimberly Springer, Living for the Revolution: Black Feminist Organizations, 1968–1980 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).

10. “An Evaluation of the Canadian Conference Process,” p. 11, box 1, folder 34, Charlotte Bunch Papers.

11. Ibid., p. 10.

12. “We as Third World Women . . . ,” subject files, folder “Indochinese Women Conference,” Kathleen Hudson Women’s Bookstore Collection.

13. “Statement from a Number of the White Women in Los Angeles Who Are Working on the Indochinese Women’s Conference,” p. 2, subject files, folder “Indochinese Women Conference,” Kathleen Hudson Women’s Bookstore Collection.

14. “An Evaluation of the Canadian Conference Process,” p. 11.

15. Naomi Weisstein, telephone interview with author, 5 February 2007.

16. “An Evaluation of the Canadian Conference Process,” p. 13.

17. Ibid., p. 16.

18. Jeremy Varon points out that white activists in the United States tended not to face the same type of state-sponsored repression as activists of color. See Varon, Bringing the War Home. For an account of Canadian state surveillance of the IWC, see Steve Hewitt and Christabelle Sethna, “ ‘Sweating and Uncombed’: Canadian State Security, the Indochinese Conference and the Feminist Threat, 1968–1972,” paper presented at the Canadian Historical Association, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, May–June 2008.

19. Letter to “Dear Sisters” from the Indochinese Conference Committee, pp. 1–2, folder “Indo-Chinese Women’s Conference” no. 3, Anne Roberts Women’s Movement Collection Fond, Archives and Records Management Department, Simon Fraser University.

20. “General Information for all Third World Delegates,” folder “Indo-Chinese Women’s Conference” no. 3, Anne Roberts Women’s Movement Collection Fond.

21. Nina Genera and Maria Ramirez, interview with author, Hayward, CA, 27 February 2007.

22. “Indochinese Women’s Conference,” Asian Women’s Journal (1971; 3rd printing, 1975), p. 79.

23. “An Evaluation of the Canadian Conference Process,” p. 12.

24. Weisstein, telephone interview.

25. Anne Roberts and Barbara Todd, “Murmurings after the Indochinese Conference,” The Pedestal (May 1971): 6.

26. In an assessment of the conference, VOW indicated that “109 women from 6 states and 5 provinces” attended the Vancouver conference. In Toronto, “388 women from 19 states, 3 provinces and Australia” participated. These numbers do not include WL and TWWA women, which the memo indicates “had the maximum numbers for the available accommodation—approximately 500.” Voice of Women/La Voix des Femmes, “Visit of the Indochinese Women to Canada,” p. 1.

27. Madeline Duckles, interview with author, Berkeley, CA, 21 October 2006.

28. “We as Third World Women . . . .”

29. For an analysis of how sexuality constituted a key source of conflict in other international gatherings, see Lekus, “Queer Harvests”; and Jocelyn Olcott, “Cold War Conflicts and Cheap Cabaret: Sexual Politics at the 1975 United Nations International Women’s Year Conference,” Gender and History 22, no. 3 (2010): 733–54.

30. Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000).

31. “Hello Sisters! We Are Radicalesbians . . . ,” p. 1, folder “Indo-Chinese Women’s Conference” no. 3, Anne Roberts Women’s Movement Collection Fond.

32. Rosen, The World Split Open, p. 166.

33. “Hello Sisters!,” p. 1.

34. Ibid., p. 2.

35. Barbara Burris, Kathy Barry, Terry Moon, Joann DeLor, Joann Parent, and Cate Stadelman, “Fourth World Manifesto,” folder “Indo-Chinese Women’s Conference” no. 1, Anne Roberts Women’s Movement Collection Fond.

36. Ibid., p. 1.

37. Genera and Ramirez, interview. Also see Lorena Oropeza’s discussion about how gender shaped Chicana activists’ reactions to white feminists and to Vietnamese women. Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!, pp. 111–12.

38. Judy Drummond, interview with author, San Francisco, CA, 21 March 2007.

39. These debates resonate with Jasbir K. Puar’s critique of homonationalism. See Jasbir K. Puar, Terrorist Assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer Times (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007).

40. Rita Mae Brown, “Hanoi to Hoboken, a Round Trip Ticket,” in Out of the Closets: Voices of Gay Liberation, ed. Karla Jay and Allen Young (New York: Douglas, 1972).

41. Bunch, interview.

42. Liz Breimberg, interview with author, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 2 November 2005. For related accounts of U.S.-Canadian tensions, see Hewitt and Sethna, “ ‘Sweating and Uncombed.’ ”

43. Breimberg, interview.

44. The original publication was authored by the Vancouver “Corrective Collective” in 1971. The members were identified as Karen Cameron, Collette French, Pat Hoffer, Marge Hollibaugh, Andrea Lebowitz, Barbara Todd, Cathy Walker, and Dodie Weppler.

45. The Montreal International Collective, “Memorandum to the Interim Work Committee,” 19 December 1970, folder “Indo-Chinese Women’s Conference” no. 2, Anne Roberts Women’s Movement Collection Fond. The signers of the memo were Anne Cools, Marlene Dixon, Estelle Dorais, Susan Dubrofsky, Vickie Tabachnik, and Eileen Nixon.

46. Vickers, “The Intellectual Origins of the Women’s Movements in Canada,” p. 43.

47. Letter, CWLU (Chicago Women’s Liberation Union) News, late January 1971, pp. 2–3, box 19, folder “News 1971,” Chicago Women’s Liberation Union Records, Research Center, Chicago History Museum.

48. “Dear Sisters, Greetings of Solidarity,” p. 2, Charlotte Bunch Papers, box 1, folder 34, “Indo-China Women’s Conference”; and Front de liberation des femmes du Quebec, “Letter,” 4 December 1970, Quebecoises Deboutte! 1 (Quebec: Les éditions du remue-ménage), pp. 79–80. My thanks to Katie Bausch for translating the materials.

49. Voice of Women/La Voix des Femmes, “Visit of the Indochinese Women to Canada,” p. 1.

50. Gerry Ambers, telephone interview with author, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 4 April 2007.

51. Ibid.

52. Lydia Sayle, “A Subjective Postmortem of the Indochinese Conference—Held in Vancouver April 1971,” vol. 3, folder “Indochina Visit,” VOW Fonds.

53. Peter Lee, “Indo-Chinese Women’s Conference,” New Bridge 1, no. 3 (May 1971): 15.

54. Genera and Ramirez, interview.

55. Sayle, “A Subjective Postmortem,” p. 1.

56. Voice of Women / La Voix des Femmes, “Visit of the Indochinese Women to Canada,” p. 3.

57. Mary Bolton, “Sisterhood at the Conference,” entry in a collection of reflections about the conference, titled “Vietnamese Conference,” partially archived as part of VOW Fonds, vol. 3, folder “Indochina Visit,” p. 22.

58. Holly Near, telephone interview with author, 12 February 2007.

9. Woman Warriors

1. “The Indochinese Women’s Conference,” Goodbye to All That (“The Newspaper by San Diego Women”). 13, 20 April–4 May 1971, p. 3.

2. Each group was accompanied by a male translator: Nguyen Tri, forty-six, from North Vietnam; Trinh Van Anh, thirty-three, from the South; and Soukanh Srithirath, thirty-four, from Laos (ibid.).

3. Kathleen Gough, “An Indochinese Conference in Vancouver,” p. 2, folder “Indo-Chinese Women’s Conference” no. 1, Anne Roberts Women’s Movement Collection Fond.

4. “Dinh Thi Huong: A Prisoner of War,” Goodbye to All That, no. 13, 20 April–4 May 1971, p. 4.

5. Ibid.

6. “Indochinese Women’s Conference,” Asian Women’s Journal (1971; 3rd printing, 1975), p. 84.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9. Cynthia Frederick, “Women Play Key Role in Growing Saigon Peace Movement,” Memo 1, no. 3 (January 1971): 13.

10. “Women’s Liberation: Boston Solidarity Saigon,” flyer, box 1, folder 35, Charlotte Bunch Papers.

11. DC WLM Anti-Imperialist Collective, “Thoughts about the Women’s Proclamation,” 28 November 1970, box 1, folder 35, Charlotte Bunch Papers.

12. “Dear Mr. Agnew . . . ,” Peace and Freedom, November 1970, p. 2.

13. Ngo Ba Thanh, letter to Mr. Vice President Agnew, box 1, folder 35, Charlotte Bunch Papers. Also see Memo Quarterly 1, no. 3 (Winter 1971): 13; Memo Quarterly 1, no. 4 (Spring 1971): 11; and Memo Quarterly 2, no. 2 (Winter 1972): 27.

14. “Indochinese Women’s Conference,” Goodbye to All That, no. 13, 20 April–4 May 1971, p. 3.

15. “A Reaction,” Goodbye to All That, no. 13, 20 April–4 May 1971, p. 2.

16. Quoted in Michal R. Belknap, The Vietnam War on Trial: The My Lai Massacre and the Court-Martial of Lieutenant Calley (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002), p. 65.

17. Ibid., pp. 69, 60.

18. Ibid., p. 72.

19. Ibid., p. 73.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid., p. 75.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid., p. 4.

24. Gough, “An Indochinese Conference in Vancouver,” p. 10.

25. “U.S. Govt. Blamed for My Lai Deaths,” Winnipeg Free Press, 31 March 1971, reproduced in The Visit (March–April 1971), Voice of Women/La Voix des Femmes Supplementaire/Supplement (July 1971).

26. Bradley, Vietnam at War, p. 160.

27. Ibid., p. 158.

28. The Visit, VOW supplement.

29. Chandra Mohanty, Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).

30. “Impressions from the Conference of Indochinese and North American Women, April 1971, Sponsored by Voice of Women, WILPF, WSP,” Memo 2, no. 1 (Fall 1971): 16.

31. “A Reaction,” Goodbye to All That, p. 2.

32. “Indochinese Women’s Conference,” Asian Women’s Journal, p. 78.

33. Genera and Ramirez, interview.

34. Kiku Uno, “Open Letter to Sansei,” Asian Women’s Journal (1971; 3rd printing, 1975), p. 82.

35. Cindy Takemoto, “Pat Sumi: Off the Pedestal,” Asian Women’s Journal (1971; 3rd printing, 1975), p. 107. Sumi also was the likely source for an essay profiling a North Korean manager of a large cooperative farm as well as a song by Korean women guerrillas about their struggles against Japanese colonialism. The contributor, who chose to remain anonymous, is described having “recently returned from North Korea.” Anonymous, “Chairwoman of Chongsan-ri” and “Women’s Guerrilla Song,” Asian Women’s Journal (1971; 3rd printing, 1975), pp. 72–73.

36. Donna Kotake, interview with author, San Francisco, CA, 31 May 2006.

37. Maeda, Chains of Babylon.

38. Kotake, interview.

39. Uno, “Open Letter to Sansei,” p. 82.

40. Evelyn Yoshimura, “GI’s and Racism,” Asian Women’s Journal (1971; 3rd printing, 1975), p. 74.

41. Ibid.

42. Enloe, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases; Moon, Sex among Allies; and Yuh, Beyond the Shadow of Camptown.

43. Yoshimura, “GI’s and Racism,” p. 74.

44. For a similar analysis of how racialized sexuality fostered male bonding within the U.S. military, see Stur, Beyond Combat. Stur includes quotes from an article that appears to replicate Yoshimura’s essay. Titled “Asian Women and the Lifer Mind,” it appeared in Dare to Struggle, a newsletter published by Movement for a Democratic Military in San Diego. Given Pat Sumi’s connections to both MDM and the Asian American movement, she very likely facilitated the reproduction of Yoshimura’s essay in Dare to Struggle. Stur, Beyond Combat, pp. 198–99.

45. Yoshimura, “GI’s and Racism,” p. 76.

46. Kim, Ends of Empire; Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Lee, Orientals; and David Roediger, “Gook: The Short History of an Americanism,” Monthly Review 43 (March 1992): 50.

47. Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Women and Men: Labor, Laws and Love (Sage, 1996).

48. “Learning How to Do It,” The Pedestal (May 1971), p. 11.

49. Kathleen Aberle, “An Indochinese Conference in Vancouver,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 3, no. 3–4 (1971): 20.

50. Ibid., p. 21.

51. Ibid., p. 23.

52. Ibid., p. 19.

53. Ibid., pp. 19, 21.

54. Juanita Tamayo, “Tripping to Vancouver,” Asian Women’s Journal (1971; 3rd printing, 1975), p. 81. The poem was originally published in Kalayaan, a Filipino American activist publication. My thanks to Juanita Tamayo Lott for giving me permission to republish portions of this poem.

55. Ibid.

56. “Indochinese Women’s Conference,” Asian Women’s Journal, p. 78.

57. Genera and Ramirez, interview.

58. For more about the antiwar activism of Maria Ramirez and Nina Genera and how they articulated an alternative understanding of masculinity, see Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!

59. In fact, Maria attended the August 1970 Chicano Moratorium with her mother and sisters because it was “a family thing.” When the police attacked with tear gas and helicopters, they sought refuge in “some old grandmother’s house. Luckily, it was in East Los Angeles, you know. . . . She let us in . . . because it was like pandemonium outside.”

60. Genera and Ramirez, interview.

61. Judy Drummond, interview.

62. Blackwell, ¡Chicana Power!

63. Georgia Straight, 7–13 April 1971, cover.

64. M. Tongue, “Straight Responds to Women’s Demands,” Georgia Straight, 16–20 April 1971, p. 3.

65. Union of Vietnamese Women Cable to Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF), 1 January 1973, part II, H, 4, box 20, folder “Visit to Hanoi (Vietnam), Feb. 1973,” Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom Collection (WILPF) (DG 043), SCPC, Swarthmore, PA.

66. “Statement of Dorothy R. Steffens, National Director of Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, on her return from Hanoi,” 7 February 1973, p. 1, series H, 4, box 20, folder “WILPF delegation to Hanoi (Vietnam), Jan. 1973,” WILPF Collection.

Legacies

1. Genera and Ramirez, interview.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. United Nations Viet Nam, “Survivors Need Social and Economic Support to Avoid Life of Poverty Says UN on International Mine Awareness Day,” 4 April 2008, www.un.org.vn/en/feature-articles-press-centre-submenu-252/443-survivors-need-social-and-economic-support-to-avoid-life-of-poverty-says-un-on-international-mine-awareness-day.html.

5. Brown, A Taste of Power, p. 229.

6. Froines, telephone interview.

7. Nancy Stearns, interview with author, New York City, 3 May 2006.

8. Ibid.

9. Quoted in Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, p. 461.

10. Tom Wolfe, “The ’Me’ Decade and the Third Great Awakening,” New York Magazine, 23 August 1976, pp. 26–40.

11. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, p. 5.

12. Ibid., p. 244.

13. Sumi, interview by Yokota, 1 July 1997, p. 9.

14. Maria Ramirez, e-mail correspondence with author, 29 January 2011.

15. Pham Van Chuong, interview.

16. Olcott, “Cold War Conflicts and Cheap Cabaret”; and Ara Wilson, “Lesbian Visibility and Sexual Rights at Beijing,” Signs 22, no. 1 (1996): 214–18.

17. Pham Thi Hoai Giang and Nguyen Thi Tuyet, interview with author, Hanoi, Vietnam, 12 August 2009.

18. Memorandum from Linda Forrest to FOR Staff, 13 February 1968, G-6, B. 17, folder “U.S. 1967–1968,” FOR Records.

19. For a critique of how humanitarian aid enabled U.S. military destruction, see Hershberger, Traveling to Vietnam.

20. Cora Weiss, interview, 9 April 2006.

21. Robert Browne, “Vietnam’s New Economics,” New York Times, 6 July 1978.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Robert S. Browne, “America’s Overdue Debt to Indochina,” New York Times, 17 August 1979.

25. Ibid.

26. Church World Service Sailed a Ship of Wheat to Viet Nam (New York: Church World Service, [1978]), p. 8.

27. Ibid., p. 11.

28. Ibid., p. 14.