NOTES

Introduction

1. Keynote remarks of Eleanor Holmes Norton, June 20, 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 1.

2. See, e.g., Thomas J. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Post-War Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Stephen Grant Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighborhoods (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000); Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn against Liberalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985); Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); James Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided: Race and Politics in the City of Brotherly Love (Raleigh: University of North Carolina Press, 2007). For an evaluation of white flight and its aftermath, see Rachael Woldoff, White Flight/Black Flight: The Dynamics of Racial Change in an American Neighborhood (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011).

3. For reference on efforts toward intentional integration, see, e.g., Barbara Ferman, Theresa Singleton, and Don DeMarco, “West Mount Airy, Philadelphia,” Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research 4, no. 2 (1998); Sheryll Cashin, The Failures of Integration: How Race and Class Are Undermining the American Dream (New York: PublicAffairs, 2005); Juliet Saltman, A Fragile Movement: The Struggle for Neighborhood Stabilization (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990); Juliet Saltman, Open Housing: The Dynamics of a Social Movement (New York: Praeger, 1978); William G. Grigsby and Chester Rapkin, The Demand for Housing in Racially Mixed Areas: A Study of the Nature of Neighborhood Change (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960); Phyllis M. Palmer, Living as Equals: How Three White Communities Struggled to Make Interracial Connections during the Civil Rights Era (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2008); Peter R. Eisenstadt, Rochdale Village: Robert Moses, 6,000 Families, and New York’s Greatest Experiment in Integrated Housing (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010).

4. For additional works that discuss Mount Airy as an integrated community, see Ferman, Singleton, and DeMarco, “West Mount Airy, Philadelphia;” Cashin, Failures of Integration; Murray Friedman, ed., Philadelphia Jewish Life, 1940–2000 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003); Jack M. Guttentag, “Racial Integration and Home Prices: The Case of West Mount Airy,” Wharton Quarterly (Spring 1970); Leonard F. Heumann, “The Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration: The Case of West Mount Airy, Philadelphia” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1973); Saltman, Fragile Movement; Saltman, Open Housing; Juliet Anna Sternberg, “Can We Talk about Race? The Racial Discourse of Activists in a Racially ‘Integrated’ Neighborhood” (PhD diss., Rutgers University, 1996); Grigsby and Rapkin, Demand for Housing; Brian F. Leaf, “Breaking the Barrier: The Success of Racial Integration in the Philadelphia Community of Mount Airy, 1950–1975” (Senior honors thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1995); Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008).

5. For reference, see, e.g., Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto; Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door; Rieder, Canarsie; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier; Kevin Michael Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007); Matthew D. Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics and the Sunbelt South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007); Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Post-War Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); Amanda I. Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Kevin Michael Kruse and Thomas J. Sugrue, eds., The New Suburban History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006); David M. P. Freund, Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961).

6. Mario Luis Small, Villa Victoria: The Transformation of Social Capital in a Boston Barrio (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), vii.

7. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 542.

8. The Urban Archives at Temple University in Philadelphia houses eighteen linear feet of material from the West Mount Airy Neighbors Association. Adding to this collection are several smaller archives that contribute to a historical understanding of West Mount Airy, including the Philadelphia City Archives, the University of Pennsylvania Archives, the American Friends Service Committee Archives, the Germantown Historical Society, the Germantown Jewish Centre papers at the Philadelphia Jewish Archives, the Fairmount Park Commission archives, the George Schermer personal papers at the Amistad Archives in New Orleans, LA, the NAACP papers at the Library of Congress, the Philadelphia Tribune and the Philadelphia Inquirer archives, both digitized on Proquest Historical Newspapers, and the Philadelphia Bulletin clippings collection at the Urban Archives.

9. On liberalism in the twentieth century, see, e.g., Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995); Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989); Alonzo L. Hamby, Liberalism and Its Challengers: From FDR to Bush (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

Chapter 1

1. Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948).

2. Peter H. Irons, The Courage of Their Convictions: Sixteen Americans Who Fought Their Way to the Supreme Court (New York: Free Press, 1988).

3. Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948).

4. Ibid.

5. Wendell E. Pritchett, “Shelley v. Kraemer: Racial Liberalism and the U.S. Supreme Court,” in Civil Rights Stories, ed. Myriam E. Gilles and Risa L. Goluboff (New York: Foundation Press, 2008), 16.

6. See U.S. Constitution, article 4, section 3; U.S. Constitution, Third Amendment; U.S. Constitution, Fifth Amendment.

7. See, e.g., Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Kevin Michael Kruse and Stephen G. N. Tuck, eds., Fog of War: The Second World War and the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

8. For a discussion of residential segregation in postwar America, see, introduction, note 5.

9. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided; James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005); Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).

10. Garrett Power, “Apartheid Baltimore Style: The Residential Segregation Ordinances of 1910–1913,” Maryland Law Review 42, no. 289 (1983): 290.

11. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 12.

12. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 30; Julie Winch, Philadelphia’s Black Elite: Activism, Accommodation, and the Struggle for Autonomy, 1787–1848 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993).

13. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 12.

14. Power, “Apartheid Baltimore Style,” 290.

15. Ibid., 299.

16. Ibid., 289.

17. Ibid., 303–304.

18. Buchanan v. Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917).

19. See, e.g., Angela P. Harris, “Equality Trouble: Sameness and Difference in 20th Century Race Law,” California Law Review 88, no. 6 (December 2000).

20. Michael B. Katz and Thomas J. Sugrue, W.E.B. DuBois, Race, and the City: “The Philadelphia Negro” and Its Legacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 200.

21. Frederic Miller, “The Black Migration to Philadelphia: A 1924 Profile,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 108, no. 3 (July 1984): 315–16.

22. John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920–1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 36.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid., 32.

25. Sadie Tanner Mossell, “The Standard of Living among One Hundred Negro Migrant Families in Philadelphia” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1921), 177.

26. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 20.

27. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 203.

28. These legal terms of art describe restrictions on the transfer and use of property. Defeasible fees create a conditional limitation on ownership, where property rights transfer once a particular event has taken place (for instance, the death of the current owner). A negative easement restricts the rights of one property owner from executing an otherwise lawful activity on their property (for instance, constructing a high wall), because of its impact on a second property owner. Finally, an equitable servitude is an interest in land held by a non-owning party (for instance, in a cooperative, condominium, or other common-interest community).

29. Ibid., 202.

30. Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Company, 272 U.S. 365 (1926).

31. Nectow v. City of Cambridge, et al., 277 U.S. 183 (1928).

32. Moore v. City of East Cleveland, 431 U.S. 494 (1977).

33. See, e.g., Freund, Colored Property; Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Live Next Door; Kruse and Sugrue, New Suburban History; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier.

34. See, e.g., Freund, Colored Property, 113–14; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 119–20; Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Live Next Door, 53–54; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 44.

35. Freund, Colored Property, 113, citing Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 119–20. See also Amy Hillier, “Who Received Loans? Home Owners’ Loan Corporation Lending and Discrimination in Philadelphia in the 1930s,” Journal of Planning History 2, no. 1 (February 2003): 3–24, on the causal relationship between Home Owners’ Loan Corporation maps and FHA racially restrictive policies.

36. Freund, Colored Property, 114.

37. FHA Underwriter’s Manual cited in NAACP memo, October 20, 1944, NAACP Papers, Part 5, Group II, Box A–268, “FHA, General 194701948,” Reel Five at 555, as cited in Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Live Next Door, 53–54.

38. Leslie S. Perry, NAACP, Statement before the House Banking and Currency Committee, April 26, 1949, U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Banking and Currency, Housing Act of 1949: Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, 81st Cong., 1st Sess. On H.R. 4009 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1949), 218–20, as cited in Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Live Next Door, 53.

39. For reference, see, e.g., Gary Gerstle, “The Protean Character of American Liberalism,” American Historical Review 99, no. 4 (October 1994); Neil R. McMillen, ed., Remaking Dixie: The Impact of World War II on the American South (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997); David W. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An American Dilemma, 1944–1969 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987).

40. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 63. See also Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper Publishing, 1944); William J. Barber, Gunnar Myrdal: An Intellectual Biography (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); Walter A. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938–1987 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).

41. To Secure These Rights (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1947), 139–48, as cited in Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 80.

42. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 7–13. See also Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

43. Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations, 108–110.

44. Ibid., 113.

45. Pritchett, “Shelley v. Kraemer,” 19.

46. Ibid

47. Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948).

48. Press Release, May 3, 1948, NAACP, Part 5, Reel 2, as cited in Pritchett, “Shelley v. Kraemer,” 21.

49. Lem Graves Jr., “Live Anywhere! High Court Rules,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 8, 1948, as cited in Pritchett, “Shelley v. Kraemer,” 21.

50. See, e.g., Myriam E. Gilles and Risa L. Goluboff, eds., Civil Rights Stories (New York: Foundation Press, 2008); Michael Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

51. See, e.g., Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations; Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).

52. Countryman, Up South, 59–61.

53. See, e.g., Gail F. Stern, Traditions in Transition: Jewish Culture in Philadelphia, 1840–1940: An Exhibition in the Museum of the Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies (Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1989); Murray Friedman, ed., Jewish Life in Philadelphia, 1830–1940 (Philadelphia: Institute for Human Issues, 1983); Friedman, Philadelphia Jewish Life, 1940–2000; Lance Jonathan Sussman, Isaac Leeser and the Making of American Judaism (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1995); Robert Phillip Tabak, “The Transformation of Jewish Identity: The Philadelphia Jewish Experience, 1919–1945” (PhD diss., Temple University, 1990).

54. Friedman, Philadelphia Jewish Life, 1940–2000, xxv.

55. Countryman, Up South, 59–61.

56. George Schermer, interview by Civil Rights Documentation Project, November 4, 1967, written transcription, George Schermer Manuscript Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA.

57. W. E. B. Dubois, as quoted in Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 11.

58. Baumann, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 122.

59. See, e.g., Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto; Rieder, Canarsie.

60. Countryman, Up South, 14.

61. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 87.

62. W. Benjamin Piggot, “The ‘Problem’ of the Black Middle Class: Morris Milgram’s Concord Park and Residential Integration in Philadelphia’s Postwar Suburbs,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 132, no. 2 (April 2008), citing “Housing Facts and Figures—Philadelphia, 1948,” Philadelphia Housing Authority, July 1948, 1, accession 152.1, box A-622, Philadelphia City Archives.

63. For reference, see, e.g., Arnold R. Hirsch, “Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953–1966,” Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (September 1995): 522–50; Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided.

64. For reference, see, e.g., Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Rieder, Canarsie; Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto.

65. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 85.

66. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 212–14.

67. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 13–14.

68. See, e.g., Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988); Lynn Spigel, Make Room for TV: Television and the Family Ideal in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003).

69. Spigel, Make Room for TV, 32.

70. Thomas Sugrue, “The Unfinished History of Racial Segregation,” in The State of Fair Housing in America, presented by the National Commission on Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity, July 15, 2008. Accessible at http://www.prrac.org/projects/fair_housing_commission/chicago/chicago_briefing.pdf.

71. May, Homeward Bound.

72. See, e.g., W. Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: The Edmondson Village Story (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1997); Meyer, As Long As They Don’t Move Next Door.

73. For reference, see, e.g., Palmer, Living as Equals; Cashin, Failures of Integration; Saltman, Fragile Movement; Saltman, Open Housing.

74. Russell Frank Weigley, Nicholas B. Wainwright, and Edwin Wolf, Philadelphia: A 300-Year History (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1982), 64.

75. Ibid.

76. Weigley, Philadelphia, 64; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 37; David R. Contosta, Suburb in the City: Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, 1850–1990 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1992), 47–52.

77. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 307.

78. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 20–22, 724.

79. Ibid., 29–31.

80. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of the United States, Philadelphia SMSA (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1950).

81. U.S. Bureau of the Census, as cited by Leaf, “Breaking the Barrier,” 10.

82. Memorandum, “History of Church Community Relations Council,” undated, West Mount Airy Neighbors Paper, Manuscripts Collection, Accession 737, Box 20, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA; Meeting Report, Joint Meeting between the West Mount Airy Neighbors Association and the Church Community Relations Council, West Mount Airy Folder, American Friends Service Committee Archives, Philadelphia, PA, March 27, 1954.

83. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 22. Though Heumann’s statistics come from a 1973 survey of the neighborhood, he points out that less than 10 percent of the housing stock resulted from postwar development. Only seven completely new blocks were built between 1951 and 1973, most of which were constructed as high quality one-of-a-kind projects prior to 1954 or after 1964. Thus, the overall physical landscape of the neighborhood changed little once integration began.

84. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 20; Mrs. Hiram MacIntosh, An Incomplete History of West Mount Airy, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 40.

85. Gladys Thompson Norton, interview by Vida Carson, 1993, audio recording, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA

86. Frank Harvey Jr., interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, audio recording, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Jim Foster, “Germantown ‘Monopoly’ Has a Parallel History,” Germantown Courier, November 24, 2011.

87. Bernice Schermer, interview by Marjorie Kopeland, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

88. Steve Sacks, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, February 17, 2011; Suzette Parmley, “The Day That Hollywood Glamour Came to West Mount Airy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 16, 1998.

89. Shirley Melvin, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, November 28, 2006.

90. For a discussion of blue-collar anxiety toward integration, see, e.g., Rieder, Canarsie, 128.

91. For reference on movement toward intentional integration, see introduction, note 3.

Chapter 2

1. Jack Smyth, “Chestnut Hill Is Urged to Seek Integration Now,” Philadelphia Bulletin, May 30, 1967.

2. For reference, see Myrdal, American Dilemma; Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations; Barber, Gunnar Myrdal: An Intellectual Biography.

3. For more on educational integration, see chapter 5.

4. Real estate agents designate 1951 as the start of the interracial housing market in the neighborhood. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 28.

5. Ibid., 235–37.

6. Memorandum, “History of the Church Community Relations Council,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20; Meeting Report, Joint meeting between the West Mount Airy Neighbors Association and the Church Community Relations Council, March 27, 1954, West Mount Airy Folder, American Friends Service Committee Archives, Philadelphia, PA.

7. For reference on the larger struggle over urban residential space, see introduction, note 2.

8. Memorandum, “History of the Church Community Relations Council,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

9. Ibid.

10. Memorandum, “History of West Mount Airy Neighbors,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

11. Meeting Minutes of West Mount Airy Group, March 4, 1954, West Mount Airy Folder, American Friends Service Committee Archives, Philadelphia, PA.

12. Memorandum, “History of West Mount Airy Neighbors,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20; Meeting Minutes of West Mount Airy Group, March 4, 1954, West Mount Airy Folder, American Friends Service Committee Archives, Philadelphia, PA.

13. Memorandum, “History of the Church Community Relations Council,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

14. Letter to George Schermer from Jane Reinheimer, February 19, 1954, West Mount Airy Folder, American Friends Service Committee Archives, Philadelphia, PA.

15. See, e.g., Jeff Woods, Black Struggle, Red Scare: Segregation and Anti-Communism in the South, 1948–1968 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003); Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, Second Edition (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).

16. Meeting Minutes of West Mount Airy Group, March 4, 1954, West Mount Airy Folder, American Friends Service Committee Archives, Philadelphia, PA.

17. Memorandum, “History of the Church Community Relations Council,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

18. “This We Believe About Our Neighborhood: A Statement of Principle Adopted by the Church Community Relations Council, Pelham-Germantown,” 1954, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 16.

19. Ibid.

20. My conception of everyday performance was influenced by Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1959). See also Bryant Simon, Everything but the Coffee: Learning about America from Starbucks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).

21. “This We Believe About Our Neighborhood: A Statement of Principle Adopted by the Church Community Relations Council, Pelham-Germantown,” 1954, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 16.

22. Ibid.

23. For reference, see Saltman, Fragile Movement.

24. Ibid.; Cynthia Mills Richter, “Integrating the Suburban Dream: Shaker Heights, Ohio” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1999).

25. Eunice S. Grier and George W. Grier, Privately Developed Interracial Housing: An Analysis of Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 8–12. During that same time period, there were ten million new housing units constructed across the country.

26. Thomas W. Ennis, “Suburb Breaks Racial Barrier,” New York Times, March 10, 1957.

27. Piggot, “ ‘Problem’ of the Black Middle Class;” Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 232; Saltman, Fragile Movement, 23; Grier and Grier, Privately Developed Interracial Housing, as cited in Piggot, “ ‘Problem of the Black Middle Class;” “Greenbelt Knoll National Register of Historic Places Registration Form” (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 2010); Lawrence Van Gelder, “Morris Milgram, 81: Built Interracial Housing,” New York Times, June 26, 1997. Morris Milgram Papers, Collection 2176, Finding Aid, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

28. George Schermer, interview by Judith Schermer, January 21, 1989, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

29. “George Schermer, Biography,” prepared by Gracia M. Hardacre, May 7, 1982, George Schermer Manuscripts Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA.

30. Ibid.; George Schermer, interview by Civil Rights Documentation Project, November 4, 1967, written transcription, George Schermer Manuscript Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA.

31. “George Schermer, Biography,” prepared by Gracia M. Hardacre, May 7, 1982, George Schermer Manuscripts Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA.

32. George Schermer, interview by Civil Rights Documentation Project, November 4, 1967, written transcription, George Schermer Manuscript Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA; “George Schermer, Biography,” prepared by Gracia M. Hardacre, May 7, 1982, George Schermer Manuscripts Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA.

33. Bernice Schermer, interview by Marjorie Kopeland, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; “This We Believe About Our Neighborhood: A Statement of Principle Adopted by the Church Community Relations Council, Pelham-Germantown,” 1954, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 16.

34. For more on the shifting notions of liberalism, see, e.g., Fraser and Gerstle, Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order; Brinkley, End of Reform, 268; Palmer, Living as Equals, 107.

35. George Schermer, interview by Judith Schermer, January 21, 1989, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

36. “This We Believe About Our Neighborhood: A Statement of Principle Adopted by the Church Community Relations Council, Pelham-Germantown,” 1954, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 16.

37. Ibid.

38. For more on the relationship between religious affiliation and postwar residential patterns, see, e.g., Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Rieder, Canarsie; Michael E. Staub, Torn at the Roots: The Crisis of Jewish Liberalism in Postwar America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Gerald Gamm, Urban Exodus: Why the Jews Left Boston and the Catholics Stayed (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999); John T. McGreevey, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).

39. David P. Varady, “Wynnefield: Story of a Changing Neighborhood,” in Friedman, Philadelphia Jewish Life 1940–2000, 167.

40. Leo Dushoff, From Dream to Reality: Story of the Germantown Jewish Centre (Philadelphia: Germantown Jewish Centre, 1954).

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.

44. “Set Formal Dedication of New Building of Germantown Jewish Centre,” Jewish Exponent, May 21, 1954, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 8, Folder 87.

45. Biographical Sketch, undated, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 8, Folder 87.

46. New Member Correspondence, March 15, 1954, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 2, Folder 58.

47. Personal Correspondence, undated, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 4, Folder 7.

48. Personal Correspondence, August 28, 1951, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 7, Folder 35.

49. Membership Correspondence, August 31, 1951, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 7, Folder 35.

50. Integration Committee Meeting Announcement, October 19, 1955, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 20, Folder 54.

51. E.g., editorial draft for The Family Tree for the Feldman Family, 1951, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 7, Folder 10.

52. Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Shirley Melvin, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

53. Ibid.

54. Background, Fellowship Commission Papers, 1941–1986, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 626; Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Bauman, 122.

55. Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

56. Ibid.

57. Ford Foundation Report, cited in Mie Augier and James G. March, The Roots, Rituals, and Rhetorics of Change: North American Business Schools After the Second World War (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford Business Books, 2011), 100; for reference, see Inderjeet Parmar, Foundations of the American Century: The Ford, Carnegie, and Rockefeller Foundations in the Rise of American Power (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).

58. Augier and March, The Roots, Rituals, and Rhetorics of Change, 101.

59. Allens Lane Arts Center Lease, 1953, Manuscript Collection, Fairmount Park Commission, Philadelphia, PA; Shirley Melvin, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

60. Allens Lane Arts Center Lease, 1953, Manuscript Collection, Fairmount Park Commission, Philadelphia, PA.

61. Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Shirley Melvin, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

62. Bernice Schermer, interview by Marjorie Kopeland, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

63. Ibid.; George Schermer, interview by Judith Schermer, January 21, 1989, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

64. Bernice Schermer, interview by Marjorie Kopeland, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

65. Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Pat Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

66. Shirley Melvin, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

67. Ibid.; Shirley Melvin, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Leaf, “Breaking the Barrier,” 53.

68. Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Pat Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

69. Shirley Melvin, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

70. Shirley Melvin, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, November 28, 2006.

71. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 252.

72. Ibid., 119, 140–142, citing Hammer, Green, Siler Associates, Regional Housing Planning: A Technical Guide (Washington, DC: American Institute of Planners, 1972), 5; Grigsby and Rapkin, Demand for Housing in Racially Mixed Areas; Leaf, “Breaking the Barrier,” 37.

73. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 48–49.

74. Ibid., 57–58.

75. George Schermer, interview by Civil Rights Documentation Project, November 4, 1967, written transcription, George Schermer Manuscript Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA.

76. Ibid.; George Schermer, interview by Judith Schermer, January 21, 1989, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

77. “The Neighbors’ League of West Mount Airy,” November 28, 1958, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

78. WMAN History, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 16.

79. Flier, “Are you interested in the future of your home and neighborhood?” January 13, 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

80. By-laws of Incorporation, “West Mount Airy Neighbors,” January 13, 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

81. “What’s On Your Mind?” 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid.

84. Meeting Minutes, March 16, 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20; Meeting Minutes, December 3, 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20; Meeting Minutes, May 9, 1960, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

85. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 77.

86. Ibid., 74–80.

87. Memorandum, “History of West Mount Airy Neighbors,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

88. Meeting Minutes, January 8, 1962, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 829, Box 1, Folder 4l; “Neighbors Lower Boom on Panic Sales Efforts,” Germantown Courier, November 15, 1962.

89. “Neighbors Lower Boom on Panic Sales Efforts,” Germantown Courier, November 15, 1962; Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 59.

90. “Neighbors Lower Boom on Panic Sales Efforts,” Germantown Courier, November 15, 1962.

91. Ibid.; Meeting Minutes, January 8, 1962, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 829, Box 1, Folder 4.

92. Meeting Minutes, January 8, 1962, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 829, Box 1, Folder 4.

93. Ibid.; Meeting Minutes, February 16, 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 3, Folder 2.

94. Real Estate Practice Committee Meeting Minutes, April 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 35.

95. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 62, citing Hamilton Savings and Loan, “West Mount Airy: Green Country Town in Philadelphia Welcomes You.” Heumann notes in 1971 that the brochure was still in use in the neighborhood, but situates the campaign within WMAN’s early efforts; its origins date to 1962. For a discussion of this brochure and the attendant advertising campaign, see chapter 3. Brochure, “West Mount Airy: Green Country Town in Philadelphia Welcomes You,” 1962, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 16.

96. Ibid., 57–59.

97. Leaf, “Breaking the Barrier,” 38.

98. Church Community Relations Council, “Neighborhood Newsletter,” 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 20.

99. Dennis Clark, “Mount Airy History,” March 31, 1993, Mount Airy Historical Awareness Committee Address at Lovett Library, Philadelphia, PA.

100. Dorothy Anderson, “Germantown Group Assists Mother Mistreated by Neighbors,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 24, 1957.

101. “Mount Airy, Philadelphia,” US News and World Report, July 22, 1991.

102. “Quick Police Action Bags Gang Slayers of Korean Student, 27,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 29, 1958.

103. Don Black, interview by Vida Carson, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

104. “Housing Prices and Racial Integration in West Mount Airy: A Progress Report,” April 9, 1969, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA.

Chapter 3

1. “200 from 31 UN Countries Visit Mt. Airy to Get Close-Up of How Americans Live,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, May 13, 1962.

2. Patricia Henning, “West Mount Airy Neighbors: An Overview of Origins and History,” West Mount Airy Neighbors (Philadelphia: September 2006).

3. For information on other communities in which this white-centric notion of integration held strong, see, e.g., Palmer, Living as Equals, 100–106.

4. For more on this shift in the meaning of liberalism, see chapter 2, note 133.

5. For a discussion of African American conceptions of integration, see chapter 4.

6. See Palmer, Living as Equals, 93–94.

7. See, e.g., May, Homeward Bound; Cohen, Consumer’s Republic.

8. David Ames, “Interpreting Post–World War II Suburban Landscapes as Historic Resources,” in Preserving the Recent Past, ed. Deborah Slaton and Rebecca A. Shiffer (Washington, DC: Historic Preservation Education Foundation, 1995); Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier; Peter O. Muller, Contemporary Suburban America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981), 51–52.

9. Herbert J. Gans, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community (New York: Pantheon Books, 1967), 36.

10. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 236.

11. See Palmer, Living as Equals, 93–94.

12. Brochure, “West Mount Airy: Green Country Town in Philadelphia Welcomes You,” 1962, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 16.

13. Cited in Bauman, Public Housing, 3.

14. For a discussion of the perceived outdatedness of West Mount Airy, see Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 252.

15. Kenneth G. Gehret, “Philadelphia’s Mount Airy: Neighborhood Bucks Decline,” Christian Science Monitor, April 14, 1962.

16. For more on the experience of African Americans in Mount Airy, see chapter 4.

17. The Long Way Home, DVD, directed by Lee R. Bobker (Ashville, NC: Dynamic Films Inc./Quality Information Publishers, 1957).

18. Ibid.

19. Integration Committee Meeting Announcement, October 19, 1955, Germantown Jewish Centre Papers, Philadelphia Jewish Archive Center, Accession 2040, Box 20, Folder 54.

20. Ellsworth Rosen, “When a Negro Moves Next Door,” Saturday Evening Post, April 4, 1959.

21. See, e.g., Robin D. G. Kelley, “Integration: What’s Left?” Nation, December 3, 1998; Michael T. Maly, Beyond Segregation: Multiracial and Multiethnic Neighborhoods in the United States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005); Preston H. Smith, II, “The Quest for Racial Democracy: Black Civic Ideology and Housing Interests in Postwar Chicago,” Journal of Urban History 26, no. 2 (2000).

22. Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

23. Doris Polsky, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

24. See Press Release, “United Nations Delegates Weekend,” April 1962, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12; Letter, Anita Schiff to Germantown Savings Bank, the Broad Street Trust, Liberty Real Estate Bank and Trust, First Pennsylvania Banking and Trust, and Girard Trust Corn Exchange, Re: UN Delegates Weekend Funding Request, April 11, 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12; Letter, Dennis Clark to Marjorie Kopeland, April 26, 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12.

25. For reference on Cold War efforts to bolster the nation’s image abroad, see Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Penny M. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004); Laura A. Belmonte, Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008); Palmer, Living as Equals, 106.

26. Letter, Mrs. John (Elizabeth) Norton, Director, Private Entertainment for UN Delegation, Inc., to Dennis Clark, West Mount Airy Neighbors, April 26, 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12.

27. Letter, Dennis Clark to Marjorie Kopeland, April 26, 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12.

28. Letter, Mrs. John (Elizabeth) Norton, Director, Private Entertainment for UN Delegation, Inc., to Dennis Clark, West Mount Airy Neighbors, April 26, 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12.

29. Ibid.

30. “The Best Kind of Diplomacy,” Philadelphia Sunday Bulletin, May 13, 1962.

31. Press Release, “United Nations Delegates Weekend,” April 1962, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12.

32. David W. Young, “The Battles of Germantown: Public History and Preservation in America’s Most Historic Neighborhood during the Twentieth Century” (PhD diss., Ohio State University Press, 2009); Letter, Anita Schiff to Germantown Savings Bank, the Broad Street Trust, Liberty Real Estate Bank and Trust, First Pennsylvania Banking and Trust, and Girard Trust Corn Exchange, Re: UN Delegates Weekend Funding Request, April 11, 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12.

33. Scholars have written at length about the gender dynamics of social movements. For reference, see, e.g., Gerda Lerner, “Neighborhood Women and Grassroots Human Rights,” in Women’s America: Refocusing the Past, by Linda K. Kerber, Jane Sherron De Hart, and Cornelia Hughes Dayton (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Palmer, Living as Equals, 117.

34. Isador Kranzel, interview by Betty Ann Fellner, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Shirley Melvin, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

35. Press Release, “United Nations Delegates Weekend,” April 1962, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 12.

36. “UN Families Welcomed Saturday for Weekend,” Germantown Courier, May 10, 1962.

37. “The Best Kind of Diplomacy,” Philadelphia Sunday Bulletin, May 13, 1962.

38. “UN Families Welcomed Saturday for Weekend,” Germantown Courier, May 10, 1962.

39. “Philadelphia Visit Set for 200 from UN,” New York Times, April 29, 1962.

40. Kenneth G. Gehret, “Philadelphia’s Mount Airy: Neighborhood Bucks Decline,” Christian Science Monitor, April 14, 1962; Kenneth G. Gehret, “Community Pulls Up: Neighborly Philadelphia,” Christian Science Monitor, April 24, 1962; Kenneth G. Gehret, “Delegates and Families at UN Weekend in Philadelphia Homes,” Christian Science Monitor, August 22, 1962.

41. Kenneth G. Gehret, “Community Pulls Up: Neighborly Philadelphia,” Christian Science Monitor, April 24, 1962.

42. Ibid.; Kenneth G. Gehret, “Delegates and Families at UN Weekend in Philadelphia Homes,” Christian Science Monitor, August 22, 1962.

43. See, e.g., Elias Charry, “Integration without Disintegration: The Germantown Story,” Jewish Digest, October 1966; Lois Mark Stalvey, “When Women Speak Their Minds about Prejudice,” Women’s Day, March 1968; Lois Mark Stalvey, “The Move We Almost Didn’t Make,” McCall’s, February 1968; Evelyn S. Ringold, “Rearing Children of Good Will,” New York Times, September 22, 1962.

44. Mabel Beverly Williams, interview by Szabi Zee and Vida Carson, 1993, written transcription, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

Chapter 4

1. Gail Tomas, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, February 22, 2011.

2. Dorothy Anderson and Thomas Hanks, “Germantown an Integrated Community, Tribune Survey Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 1, 1957.

3. “Mount Airy, Philadelphia,” U.S. News and World Report, July 22, 1991; “Historic Marker in Mount Airy Honors Sadie Alexander,” Mount Airy Times Express, May 26, 1993; “Mount Airy Hailed for Racial Stability,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 4, 1967; Joseph Coleman, interview by Szabi Zee, written transcription, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA, 1993.

4. Dorothy Anderson and Thomas Hanks, “Germantown an Integrated Community, Tribune Survey Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 1, 1957; Don Black, interview by Vida Carson, written transcription Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA, 1993.

5. For more on the class-based conceptions of integration among African Americans, see Smith, “Quest for Racial Democracy.”

6. Ibid., 135.

7. For reference, see Preliminary Report, Pelham Centennial Oral History Project, undated, West Mount Airy Neighbors Oral History Collection, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

8. Ed Henderson, interview by author, digital recording, Philadelphia, PA, March 22, 2007.

9. Ibid.

10. Eric Springer, “Civil Wrongs and Your Rights,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 28, 1962.

11. For more on the rise of all-black suburban communities, see, e.g., Cashin, Failure of Integration; Mary Pattillo, Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Wiese, Places of Their Own.

12. See, e.g., Pattillo, Black Picket Fences; Wiese, Places of Their Own; Karyn R. Lacy, Blue-Chip Black: Race, Class, and Status in the New Black Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007).

13. “Unitarian Church Points to Evil of Segregated Housing,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 12, 1957. See also Beryl Satter, Family Properties: Race, Real Estate, and the Exploitation of Black Urban America (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2009).

14. Benjamin Mays, “Finance and Equality,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 21, 1964. For more on the material benefits of integration, see “A Significant Study,” Pittsburgh Courier, December 21, 1963. On the value of integrated education, see also Benjamin Mays, “Finance and Equality,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 21, 1964; Richard Elmore, Bruce Fuller, and Gary Orfield, Choice: The Cultural Logic of Families, the Political Rationality of Institution (New York: Teachers College Press, 1995).

15. Dorothy Anderson, “Germantown Group Assists Mother Mistreated by Neighbors,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 24, 1957.

16. Edward Henderson, interview by author, digital recording, Philadelphia, PA, March 27, 2007.

17. Ibid.

18. For more on class distinctions among African Americans, see, e.g., Weise, Places of Their Own; Lacy, Blue-Chip Black, 200; Pattillo, Black Picket Fences; Bettye Collier-Thomas and James Turner, “Race, Class, and Color: The African American Discourse on Identity,” Journal of American Ethnic History 14, no. 1 (Fall 1994): 5–27.

19. 1960 Census Data, as cited by Ferman, Singleton, and DeMarco, “West Mount Airy, Philadelphia,” 29–60.

20. See, e.g., Wiese, Places of Their Own, 131; Maly, Beyond Segregation 15; Dorothy Anderson and Thomas Hanks, “Germantown an Integrated Community, Tribune Survey Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 1, 1957.

21. Ibid.

22. Dorothy Anderson, “Germantown an Integrated Community, Tribune Survey Shows,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 1, 1957.

23. Ibid.

24. “Mount Airy, Philadelphia,’ US News and World Report, July 22, 1991.

25. Don Black, interview by Vida Carson, written transcription, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA, 1993. The dates of the interview are unavailable.

26. Ibid.

27. “Mount Airy, Philadelphia,” US News and World Report, July 22, 1991.

28. Don Black, interview by Vida Carson, written transcription, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA, 1993.

29. Ed Henderson, interview by author, digital recording, Philadelphia, PA, March 22, 2007.

30. See, e.g., Arthur C. Willis, Cecil’s City: A History of Blacks in Philadelphia, 1638–1979 (New York: Carlton Press, 1990); Countryman, Up South; Gerald Early, This Is Where I Came In: Black America in the 1960s (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003).

31. See, e.g., Countryman, Up South; Self, American Babylon; Peniel Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2006); Peniel Joseph, ed., The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights–Black Power Era (New York: Routledge, 2006).

32. See, e.g., Countryman, Up South; Willis, Cecil’s City; Early, This Is Where I Came In.

33. Though scholars record Moore’s date of birth as April 2, 1915, his daughters, Cecily Banks and Alexis Moore Bruton, believe that the actual year is up for debate. See Cecily Banks and Alexis Moore Bruton, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA: September 21, 2009; Paul Lermack, “Cecil Moore and the Philadelphia Branch of the National Association of Colored People: The Politics of Negro Pressure Group Organization,” in Black Politics in Philadelphia, ed. Miriam Ershkowitz and Joseph Zikmund (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 146; Gerald L. Early, “Cecil B. Moore and the Rise of Black Philadelphia, 1964–1968,” in This Is Where I Came In, 89.

34. Cecily Banks, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 21, 2009.

35. Ibid.; Mildred O’Neill, “Councilman Cecil Moore Dies,” Baltimore Afro-American, February 24, 1979.

36. C. Stuart McGegee, “Bluefield State History,” Bluefield State College Archive Collection, http://library.bluefieldstate.edu/archives/history.

37. Cecily Banks and Alexis Moore Bruton, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 21, 2009.

38. Ibid. As scholar Gerald L. Early writes, “Moore’s entire history places him within W. E. B. Du Bois’ ‘talented tenth.’ ” Early, This Is Where I Came In, 89.

39. For more information on the Montford Point Marines, see, e.g., Melton Alonza McLaurin, The Marines of Montford Point: America’s First Black Marines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).

40. Cecily Banks and Alexis Moore Bruton, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 21, 2009.

41. See, e.g., Lawrence P. Scott and William M. Womack, Double V: The Civil Rights Struggle and the Tuskegee Airmen (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1998); Eric Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998).

42. Early, This Is Where I Came In, 91.

43. Samuel Alan Schrager, A Trial Lawyer’s Art (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 91.

44. Cecily Banks and Alexis Moore Bruton, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 21, 2009.

45. Ibid.

46. Early, This Is Where I Came In, 81; Willis, Cecil’s City.

47. See Early, This Is Where I Came In, 82.

48. “Judge Alexander Denies Phila. ‘A Racial Tinderbox,’ Refutes Claims by Urban League Head That City is Headed for Explosion,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 8, 1964.

49. Cecily Banks and Alexis Moore Bruton, interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, September 21, 2009; “Top Negroes Resided in North Philly,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 20, 1965.

50. See, e.g., Countryman, Up South, 84–92; Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction of Black America, 1945–2006, Third Edition (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007); Robin D. G. Kelly, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York: Free Press, 1996); Charles Flint Kellogg, NAACP: A History of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967).

51. Press Release from Moore, August 10, 1964, NAACP Records, Part III: Branch Files, Philadelphia, 1956–65, Box C137, Folder 5, Library of Congress Archives, Washington, DC.

52. “Pennsylvania: The Goddam Boss,” Time Magazine, September 11, 1964. As Countryman writes, “Moore rooted his claim to racial authenticity and identity with the majority of the city’s blacks in his decision to keep his family in North Philadelphia.” Countryman, Up South, 165.

53. “Pennsylvania: The Goddam Boss,” Time Magazine, September 11, 1964.

54. Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (New York: William Morrow, 1967), 548, 564.

55. “Pennsylvania: The Goddam Boss,” Time Magazine, September 11, 1964; Cecily Banks and Alexis Moore Bruton, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 21, 2009.

56. See, e.g., Randall Kennedy, Sellout: The Politics of Racial Betrayal (New York: Pantheon Books, 2008); Joseph, Black Power Movement; Countryman, Up South, chapter 4.

57. Amy Jacques Garvey, Garvey and Garveyism (New York: Collier Books, 1970), 48–49.

58. New York World, August 11, 1920, as cited in C. W. E. Bigsby, The Cambridge Companion to Modern American Culture (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 114.

59. “NAACP to War on Uncle Toms,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 31, 1954.

60. “All Human Life Sacred,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 20, 1954.

61. Ibid.

62. See, e.g., Randall, Sellout.

63. E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie: The Rise of a New Middle-Class in the United States, Revised Edition (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1962).

64. James E. Teele, E. Franklin Frazier and the Black Bourgeoisie (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2002).

65. “Muslims Call Ralph Bunche ‘International Uncle Tom,’ Dare Him to Speak at New York Mass Meeting,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 21, 1961.

66. Cecily Banks and Alexis Moore Bruton, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 21, 2009.

67. C. Eric Lincoln, “The Negro Middle-Class Dream,” New York Times, October 25, 1964.

68. Joseph Lelyveld, “Militant Ex-Marine Leads Philadelphia Negroes,” New York Times, September 2, 1964.

69. Orrin Evans, “Moore Says His Three Critics Are ‘Part-Time Negroes,’ ” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 20, 1967.

70. Countryman, Up South, 165; Chris Perry, “Negro Leaders Mum on Newest Cecil Moore Demands,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 12, 1963; Letter from Raymond Pace Alexander to Mr. James Klash, WDAS, Raymond Pace Alexander Papers, University of Pennsylvania Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 374, Box 89, Folder 19, June 18, 1963; Mark Lloyd, “Re: Raymond Pace Alexander (RPA) Papers,” Personal e-mail, December 18, 2009.

71. Fred Bonaparte, “Big Crowd Jams Arena at NAACP ‘Appreciation’ Rally,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 3, 1964.

72. Countryman, Up South, 167.

73. “Sadie Alexander, Austin Norris, Deny Moore’s ‘Part-Time Negro’ Rap,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 8, 1963.

74. Letter from Raymond Pace Alexander to Dr. Clifton H. Johnson, director, Amistad Research Center and Race Relations Department, Fisk University, 1969, Raymond Alexander Pace Papers, University of Pennsylvania Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 374, Box 89, Folder 19.

75. “Sadie Alexander, Austin Norris, Deny Moore’s ‘Part-Time Negro’ Rap,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 8, 1963.

76. See, e.g., Curley Brown, “Readers Say: We Owe Great Debt to ’Uncle Toms’ Who’ve Never Received Honors Due,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 12, 1963; Louetta Seawell, “Readers Say: Dorothy Anderson Crude: Uncle Tom Not a Weakling but a Great, Good Man,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 17, 1962; C. Eric Lincoln, “The Negro’s Middle-Class Dream,” New York Times, October 25, 1964.

77. Joseph Lelyveld, “Militant Ex-Marine Leads Philadelphia Negroes,” New York Times, September 2, 1964.

78. Letter to Roy Wilkins from G.A. Wilson, with Guardian clippings, June 10, 1963, NAACP Records, Part III: Branch Files, Philadelphia, 1956–65, Box C137, Folder 3, Library of Congress Archives, Washington, DC.

79. Ibid.

80. G.A. Wilson, “Other Look at Him: Cecil Moore Takes a Look at ‘His City,’ ” Pennsylvania Guardian, June 7, 1963.

81. Letter from Herman Price to Roy Wilkins, June 10, 1963, NAACP Records, Part III: Branch Files, Philadelphia, 1956–65, Box C137, Folder 3, Library of Congress Archives, Washington, DC.

82. Letter from Burton Caine to Roy Wilkins, June 10, 1963, NAACP Records, Part III: Branch Files, Philadelphia, 1956–65, Box C137, Folder 3, Library of Congress Archives, Washington, DC.

83. Complaint against Cecil B. Moore, filed to the National Board from Viola Allen, Alphonso Deal, Dolores Tucker, Ethel Barnett, Senora Gratton, and James Smith, June 10, 1963, NAACP Records, Part III: Branch Files, Philadelphia, 1956–65, Box C137, Folder 5, Library of Congress Archives, Washington, DC.

84. “NAACP Tries Its Own,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, December 5, 1964.

85. Owen Evans, “NAACP Votes to Fight Split: Moore Supporters Say They’ll Resist National Policy,” Philadelphia Bulletin, December 5, 1965.

Chapter 5

1. Bernard Watson, Keynote Speech at Thirteenth Annual WMAN Meeting, April 26, 1971, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 38.

2. Ibid.

3. For reference on education in post–World War II cities, see, e.g., John L. Rury, “Race and Politics of Chicago’s Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education,” in Urban Education in the United States: A Historical Reader, ed. John L. Rury (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); John L. Rury, Education and Social Change: Contours in the History of American Schooling (New York: Routledge, 2009); Anne Ellen Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2000); Countryman, Up South, 223–257; Palmer, Living as Equals, 137–69.

4. Peter A. Janssen, “Education and You: Public School Sets Exciting Example,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 18, 1965.

5. Phillips, “Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia.”

6. For more on the Emlen School, see Vincent Paul Franklin, Education of Black Philadelphia: The Social and Educational History of a Minority Community, 1900–1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979).

7. Statistics appeared in WMAN reports, as well as in the Philadelphia Bulletin. Report on the Data Subcommittee to the WMAN Schools Committee, July 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 38; Report, “Elementary School Enrollment in Northwest Philadelphia: A study of enrollment trends in terms of school capacity and racial composition, 1955–1960,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 39; Peter Binzen, “City Schools Accused of Segregation Laxity,” Philadelphia Bulletin, January 15, 1961. Houston, in contrast, dropped from 99 percent white in 1955 to 86 percent white in 1960.

8. Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

9. Report, “Elementary School Enrollment in Northwest Philadelphia: A study of enrollment trends in terms of school capacity and racial composition, 1955–1960,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 39.

10. Ibid.

11. WMAN Meeting Minutes, November 9, 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 33.

12. WMAN Meeting Minutes, April 11, 1960, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 33.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. See Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration”; Saltman, Fragile Movement; Cashin, Failures of Integration.

17. WMAN Meeting Minutes, May 6, 1960, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 33.

18. Report, “Elementary School Enrollment in Northwest Philadelphia: A study of enrollment trends in terms of school capacity and racial composition, 1955–1960,” undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 39.

19. Report of the Data Subcommittee to the WMAN Schools Committee, July 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 38.

20. Ibid.

21. Franklin, Education of Black Philadelphia, 200.

22. Leon J. Obermayer, “For Every Child: The Story of Integration in the Philadelphia Public Schools,” Report by the Philadelphia Board of Public Education, October 1960.

23. Report of the Data Subcommittee to the WMAN Schools Committee, July 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 38.

24. For reference, see, e.g., Bernice Schermer, interview by Marjorie Kopeland, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Don Black, interview by Vida Carson, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

25. Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

26. Don Black, interview by Vida Carson, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

27. Palmer, Living as Equals, 123.

28. Bernice Schermer, interview by Marjorie Kopeland, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Peter A. Janssen, “Public School Sets Exciting Example,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 18, 1965.

29. Peter A. Janssen, “Public School Sets Exciting Example,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 18, 1965.

30. Lois Mark Stalvey, Getting Ready: The Education of a White Family in Inner-City Schools (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1975), 68.

31. Ibid., 21–23.

32. Ibid., 30.

33. Eve Oshtry, interview by Marjorie Kopeland, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Stalvey, Getting Ready; Lois Mark Stalvey, The Education of a WASP (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1970).

34. Minutes of Open Meeting of WMAN Schools Committee, Schools Report, 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 38.

35. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 74.

36. WMAN Proposal on the expansion of the Charles W. Henry School, December 22,1964, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40; Letter from Dr. Robert Rutman to Dr. C. Taylor Whittier, Superintendent, October 9, 1964, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40.

37. Minutes of Open Meeting of WMAN Schools Committee, Schools Report, 1961, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 38.

38. WMAN Proposal on the expansion of the Charles W. Henry School, December 22, 1964, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40; Letter from Dr. Robert Rutman to Dr. C. Taylor Whittier, Superintendent, October 9, 1964, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40.

39. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 167; WMAN Meeting Minutes, March 8, 1965, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 36.

40. Letter from Dr. Robert Rutman to Dr. C. Taylor Whittier, Superintendent, October 9, 1964, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40.

41. Ibid.

42. “West Mount Airy Unit Requests Addition to Henry School,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 25, 1965.

43. Letter from Dr. Robert Rutman to Dr. C. Taylor Whittier, Superintendent, October 9, 1964, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40; Stalvey, Getting Ready, 180; Eve Oshtry, interview by Marjorie Kopeland, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

44. WMAN Proposal on the expansion of the Charles W. Henry School, December 22, 1964, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40.

45. “West Mount Airy Unit Requests Addition to Henry School,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 25, 1965.

46. “WMAN Statement of the Schools Committee on the 1963 Operating Budget of the Philadelphia Board of Public Education,” 1963, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 3.

47. See, e.g., Phillips, “Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia;” Jon S. Birger, “Race, Reaction, and Reform: The Three Rs of Philadelphia School Politics, 1965–1971,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 120, no. 3, (July 2006): 177–78.

48. WMAN Meeting Minutes, March 8, 1965, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 36.

49. Letter from Louis Levy to Dr. C. Taylor Whittier, Superintendent, March 11, 1965, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40.

50. Letter from Dr. Robert J. Rutman to Dr. C. Taylor Whittier, Superintendent, October 9, 1964, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40.

51. Birger, “Race, Reaction, and Reform,” 177–78.

52. J. Donald Porter, “Dr. Whittier, Departing School Head, Didn’t Get Fair Chance, Says Nicholas,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 3, 1966.

53. Burr Van Atta, “Mark R. Shedd Dies; Rebuilt School System,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 18, 1986.

54. J. Donald Porter, “Dr. Whittier, Departing School Head, Didn’t Get Fair Chance, Says Nicholas,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 3, 1966.

55. Henry S. Resnik, Turning on the System: War in the Philadelphia Public Schools (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970), as cited in Ronald Gross, “The Revolution That Failed, And Yet…: Turning on the System,” New York Times, May 24, 1970.

56. “Dr. Mark Shedd Answers Charge of School Conformity,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 29, 1967.

57. By-laws of Incorporation, “West Mount Airy Neighbors,” January 13, 1959, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Manuscripts Collection, Accession 737, Box 20.

58. Robert Allan Sedler, “The Profound Impact of Milliken v. Bradley,” 33 Wayne Law Review, no. 5 (1987).

59. Petition to the Philadelphia Board of Public Education, July 6, 1966, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40.

60. Phillips, “Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia,” 185–86.

61. Ibid.

62. Petition to the Philadelphia Board of Public Education, July 6, 1966, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 40.

63. Ibid.

64. Stalvey, Getting Ready; WMAN Schools Committee Meeting Minutes, May 7, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 42.

65. Northwest Philadelphia is home to a number of private schools, including Germantown Friends School, Chestnut Hill Academy, Springside School, Greene Street Friends, and the William Penn Charter School. Many of these schools have long-standing Quaker roots. Until 1960, Germantown Academy was also located in northwest Philadelphia; that year, however, the school relocated to a tract of land in the western suburb of Fort Washington (the land was first offered to the Germantown Friends School, who declined in favor of remaining committed to the Germantown community). The region also had several parochial schools, including Norwood Academy, the Cecilian Academy by the Sisters of St. Joseph, Holy Cross Parochial School; Little Flower Parochial School; and Saint Madeleine Sophie Parochial School. Mount Airy Guide, 1956, Mount Airy Collection, Germantown Historical Society, Box B; Heumann, 26, 306–7.

66. These numbers were gathered through a content analysis of school directories, housed in the Germantown Friends School archives. It should be noted that the 19119 zip code encompasses both East and West Mount Airy; however, the overall trends evidence a marked increase in new student movement from neighborhood public schools to area private schools.

67. Information gathered from a content analysis of school directories housed at the Chestnut Hill Academy archives.

68. Joan Cannady Countryman, telephone interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, April 2, 2010.

69. Ibid.

70. Mark Dixon, “Price of Change: Money was the Motivation when a Local School Accepted its First Black Student,” Main Line Today, August 14, 2007; Joan Cannady Countryman, telephone interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, April 2, 2010.

71. Joan Cannady Countryman, telephone interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, April 2, 2010.

72. This information was gathered through a rather crude content analysis of high school yearbooks at Germantown Friends School, as well as of other area private schools including Chestnut Hill Academy, the William Penn Charter School, and Norwood Academy. Because enrollment statistics in the 1960s were not available, I used the method of counting faces to get a sense of the number of students of color at the schools; while problematic, this was the closest approximation that I could get for a general picture of the student body.

73. Ibid.

74. WMAN Meeting Minutes, May 8, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 38.

75. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 34–36.

76. Ibid., 60–61.

77. WMAN Schools Committee Meeting Minutes, May 7, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274.

78. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 34–36, 101–2, 111.

79. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).

80. On the history of miscegenation and interracial relationships, see, e.g., Delores P. Aldridge, “The Changing Nature of Interracial Marriage in Georgia: A Research Note,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 35, no. 4 (November 1973): 641–42; Phyl Newbeck, Virginia Hasn’t Always Been for Lovers: Interracial Marriage Bans and the Case of Richard and Mildred Loving (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2008); Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Peggy Pascoe, “Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and the Ideologies of ‘Race’ in Twentieth Century America,” in Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History, ed. Martha Elizabeth Hodes (New York: New York University Press, 1999); Renee Christine Romano, Race Mixing: Black-White Marriage in Postwar America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003); Peter Wallenstein, Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and the Law—An American History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). On the culture of dating in post–World War II America more broadly, see Beth L. Bailey, From Front Porch to Back Seat: Courtship in Twentieth Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).

81. Simeon Booker, “A Challenge for the Guy Smiths: Peggy Rusk, Negro Husband Face Their Future with Smile,” Ebony, December 1967.

82. Time Magazine, September 29, 1967.

83. “Races: A Marriage of Enlightenment,” Time Magazine, September 29, 1967, as cited in Mark Harris, Pictures at a Revolution: Five Movies and the Birth of the New Hollywood (New York: Penguin Press, 2008), 371–73.

84. “Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner,” Internet Movie Database, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0061735/; Harris, Pictures at a Revolution, 418.

85. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 111.

86. For a sophisticated analysis of the long history of black power in Philadelphia and a detailed account of the demonstrations of 1967, see Countryman, Up South.

87. Countryman, 225; Henry S. Resnik, “The Shedd Revolution: A Philadelphia Story,” Urban Review 3, no. 3 (January 1969): 22. See also Resnik, Turning on the System.

88. Matthew Countryman, “ ‘From Protest to Politics’: Community Control and Black Independent Politics in Philadelphia, 1965–1984,” Journal of Urban History 32, no. 6 (September 2006): 826.

89. Ron Whitehorne, “1967: African American Students Strike, Survive Police Riot to Force Change,” Philadelphia Public School Notebook 10, no. 1 (Fall 2002).

90. See, e.g., Stalvey Getting Ready; Len Lear, “Demand Student Shooting Probe: 2 Students Shot, Probe Is Demanded,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 21, 1967; Len Lear, “Parents of G’tn High ‘Exiles’ Called Bigots,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 13, 1968; Jeff Zimmerman, interview by author, written transcription, Huntingdon Valley, PA, March 8, 2011.

91. Bruce Ticker, “Samson Freedman Did Not Want Mount Airy to Die,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 22, 1972.

92. Jeff Zimmerman, interview by author, written transcription, Huntingdon Valley, PA, March 8, 2011.

93. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 184.

94. William Mandel and Clemson Page Jr., “Parents of Leeds Pupils Demand Better Security,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 14, 1970.

95. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 184.

96. Laurence Geller, “Jews Aiding Blacks Picketed by Others,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 31, 1970; “Olney Teacher Is Suspended in School Row,” Philadelphia Bulletin, June 20, 1970.

97. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 184; “Olney Teacher Is Suspended in School Row,” Philadelphia Bulletin, June 20, 1970.

98. William Mandel and Clemson Page Jr., “Parents of Leeds Pupils Demand Better Security,” Philadelphia Bulletin, April 14, 1970.

99. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 132.

100. Dennis Clark, “Mount Airy History,” Mount Airy Historical Awareness Committee Address at Lovett Library, Philadelphia PA, March 31, 1993.

101. Palmer, Living as Equals, 150–51.

102. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 306.

103. David J. Merkowitz, “The Segregating City: Philadelphia’s Jews and the Urban Crisis, 1964–1984” (PhD diss., University of Cincinnati, 2010).

104. Charles Montgomery, “Teacher Is Slain, Schools to Come,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 2, 1971.

105. Margaret Halsey, “Youth Sent to Leeds after Father Showed Gun, Principal Says,” Philadelphia Bulletin, February 5, 1971.

106. Charles Montgomery, “Teacher Is Slain, Schools to Come,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 2, 1971.

107. “Wanted to ‘Scare’ Teacher, Not Shoot Him, Youth Says,” Philadelphia Bulletin, March 23, 1972.

108. “Public Schools Closed in Teacher’s Memory,” Philadelphia Bulletin, February 3, 1971.

109. Ibid.

110. Roy Poorman, “Again and Again,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 13, 1971.

111. “Huge, Impersonal School Buildings Factor In Leeds ‘Double Tragedy,’ Group Declares,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 27, 1971.

112. “Saddened,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 13, 1971.

113. Stalvey, Getting Ready, 220.

114. Margaret Halsey, “Slain Teacher Wanted Guards at Leeds School,” Philadelphia Bulletin, February 4, 1971; See also Stalvey, Getting Ready, 220.

115. Margaret Halsey, “Slain Teacher Wanted Guards at Leeds School,” Philadelphia Bulletin, February 4, 1971.

116. Report from the School District of Philadelphia, “Facts and Figures,” 1976, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 2, Folder 10.

117. See note 65.

118. Howard S. Shapiro, “Happy Birthday: Civic Group Celebrates Unique Urban Life-style,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 7, 1979.

Chapter 6

1. Emily Starr, “West Mount Airy: Period of Change?” Chestnut Hill Local, June 19, 1975.

2. Jerome Balka, Esq., WMAN Newsletter, April 1967, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 12, Folder 12.

3. WMAN Newsletter, vol. 9, no. 4, Summer 1967, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 12, Folder 12.

4. WMAN Executive Board Meeting Minutes, November 24, 1969, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 39.

5. Don Black, interview by Vida Carson, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

6. Mabel Beverly Williams, interview by Szabi Zee and Vida Carson, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

7. WMAN Meeting Minutes, June 8, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 38.

8. Ibid.

9. Wellspring Brochure, citing an October 25, 1966 Philadelphia Bulletin article, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

10. Wellspring Brochure, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

11. Program from the Junior League of Philadelphia Black-White Confrontation, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

12. WMAN Meeting Minutes, September 9, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 38.

13. Ibid.; “Confrontation in Black and White,” Face to Face News Release, October 29, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

14. Face to Face Letter to West Mount Airy Residents, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

15. “Confrontation in Black and White,” Face to Face News Release, October 29, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

16. Lillian Williams, Letter to West Mount Airy Neighbors, November 1, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

17. Sybil E. Watson, Letter to West Mount Airy Neighbors, October 20, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

18. Helen Worfman, Letter to Face to Face, undated WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

19. Anonymous Letter to West Mount Airy Neighbors, October 26, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

20. Unsigned Letter to West Mount Airy Neighbors, October 22, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

21. WMAN Meeting Minutes, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

22. Face to Face Brochure, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

23. “Confrontation in Black and White,” Face to Face News Release, October 29, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 5.

24. Matthew Bullock, Letter to Jerry Balka, December 9, 1968, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 5, Folder 6.

25. WMAN Board Minutes, January 13, 1969, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 39.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.

28. For reference, see, e.g., Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Jefferson Cowie, Capital Moves: RCA’s Seventy-Year Quest for Cheap Labor (New York: New Press, 2001); Suleiman Osman, The Invention of Brownstone Brooklyn: Gentrification and the Search for Authenticity in Postwar New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

29. Suleiman Osman, “The Decade of the Neighborhood,” in Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s, ed. Bruce J. Schulman and Julian E. Zelizer (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008).

30. According to the 1970 census, 37.6 percent of the nation was living in suburbs, an increase of 8 percent. In contrast, 31.4 percent were living in cities, a 1 percent drop. In Philadelphia, the shift had taken place a decade earlier; 1960 census data indicated that, for the first time, more people lived in the seven outlying counties of Pennsylvania and New Jersey than within the city’s municipal borders. S. A. Paolantonio, Frank Rizzo: The Last Big Man in Big City America (Philadelphia: Camino Books, 1993), 71.

31. Osman, “Decade of the Neighborhood,” 110.

32. West Mount Airy Action Mission Statement, 1974, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 7373, Box 10, Folder 23.

33. Ellen V.P. Wells, “ ‘Know Your Neighbor’ is the Best Defense, Mount Airyites Say,” Chestnut Hill Local, January 13, 1972.

34. Leaf, “Breaking the Barrier,” 14–15.

35. “West Mount Airy in Deep Trouble at This Time, WMAN Leader Warns,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 30, 1971.

36. See, e.g., Craig Cox, Storefront Revolution: Food Co-ops and the Counterculture (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994); John Curl, For All the People: Uncovering the Hidden History of Cooperation, Cooperative Movements, and Communalism in America (Oakland, CA: PM Press, 2009).

37. Area Leader-Board member: Job Description, 1969, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 21.

38. Heumann, “Definition and Analysis of Stable Racial Integration,” 67. See also Palmer, Living as Equals, 139.

39. WMAN Newsletter, vol. 11, no. 5, September 1969, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 21; WMAN Board Minutes, September 1970, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 21.

40. WMAN, “Statement of Crisis,” November 8, 1969, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 19.

41. WMAN Board Meeting, September 8, 1969, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 21.

42. West Mount Airy Action Statement, 1974, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23. Crime data specific to West Mount Airy is unavailable.

43. Memo, November 24, 1970, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 1, Folder 37.

44. Philadelphia Bulletin, April 22, 1944, as cited in Paolantonio, Frank Rizzo, 39.

45. Peter Binzen and Joseph R. Daughen, The Cop Who Would Be King: The Honorable Frank Rizzo (New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 1977), 69–70.

46. “Mag. Harris, Rizzo Settle Differences,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 14, 1953.

47. Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigation, 1962 Transcript, as cited in Paolantonio, Frank Rizzo, 70.

48. Paolantonio, Frank Rizzo, 63.

49. Ibid.

50. See Countryman, Up South, 133–34.

51. Richard D. Siegel, “Rights Expert to Move to Washington,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 4, 1965.

52. “George Schermer Resigns,” Detroit News, June 6, 1963.

53. Letter to George Schermer, from C. W. Henry School Home and School Association, June 4, 1963, George Schermer Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA, Box 3, Folder 9.

54. ACLU Press Release, June 4, 1963, George Schermer Collection, Amistad Archives, New Orleans, LA, Box 3, Folder 9.

55. Paolantonio, Frank Rizzo, 92.

56. Countryman, “From Protest to Politics,” 826–27.

57. Bernard McCormick, “The War of the Cops,” New York Times, October 18, 1970.

58. Report to WMAN Board on West Mount Airy Action, Inc., May 12, 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

59. WMAN Meeting Minutes, June 30, 1969, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 274, Box 2, Folder 39.

60. Report to WMAN Board on West Mount Airy Action, Inc., May 12, 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

61. Emily Starr, “West Mount Airy: Period of Change?” Chestnut Hill Local, June 19, 1975. For more on the response of African Americans to increased crime rates in the 1970s, see James Forman Jr., “Racial Critiques of Mass Incarceration: Beyond the New Jim Crow,” New York University Law Review 87, no. 21 (2012).

62. See Forman, “Racial Critiques of Mass Incarceration.”

63. “Curricular Approach to Integration Urged,” Philadelphia Bulletin, July 7, 1969.

64. “Chief Troubleshooter Works to End School Disruption,” Philadelphia Bulletin, September 28, 1970.

65. West Mount Airy Action Mission Statement, 1974, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

66. Ibid.

67. Public Letter from Doug Gaston, WMAN President, November 7, 1974, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

68. “Don’t be a Victim,” WMAA Flyer, April 27, 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

69. “Don’t be a Victim, of Scare Tactics,” WMAN Flyer, April 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

70. Ruth Steele: A Perspective, April 27, 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23; Flora Wolf, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, February 24, 2012,.

71. Letter to the WMAN Board, from Flora Wolf, April 8, 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

72. Emily Starr, “West Mount Airy: Period of Change?” Chestnut Hill Local, June 19, 1975.

73. “Crime Prevention Funding Approved,” WMAN Newsletter, June 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

74. “Opposition to Funding of WMAA,” WMAN Newsletter, June 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

75. Ashley Halsey, III, “Crime Program Funding Approved,” Germantown Courier, May 15, 1975.

76. Ibid.

77. For more on this connection between race, power, and fear, see, e.g., William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Self, American Babylon; Joseph, Black Power Movement.

78. Editorial, “Reunite Mount Airy,” Germantown Courier, May 22, 1975.

79. Bonnie Cook and Ashley Halsey III, “Mount Airy Funding Request Dropped: Disputed Anti-Crime Program Abandoned?” Germantown Courier, May 29, 1975.

80. Oliver Lancaster, Open Letter to the Board of WMAN, May 23, 1975, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 10, Folder 23.

81. See, e.g., Cashin, Failures of Integration; Palmer, Living as Equals; Saltman, Fragile Movement.

82. Saltman, Fragile Movement; Cashin, Failures of Integration; Wiese, Places of Their Own; Lacy, Blue-Chip Black.

83. Chris Van de Velde, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 30, 2011.

84. Ruth R. Russell, “Former Lindsay Aide Heads WMAN,” Chestnut Hill Local, September 18, 1975; Chris Van de Velde, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 30, 2011.

85. Ruth R. Russell, “Former Lindsay Aide Heads WMAN,” Chestnut Hill Local, September 18, 1975.

86. “Mend the Wounds,” Germantown Courier, June 19, 1975.

87. Chris Van de Velde, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 30, 2011.

88. Ibid.; Chris Van de Velde, 1975–76 Annual Report, undated, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 4, Folder 43.

89. Chris Van de Velde, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 30, 2011.

90. Howard S. Shapiro, “Happy Birthday: Civic Organization Celebrates Unique Urban Life-style,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 7, 1979.

Chapter 7

1. Obituary, Patrician Henning, Philadelphia Inquirer, June 11, 2005; Alan Heavens, “A Diverse Enclave Celebrates a Century,” Philadelphia Inquirer, January 17, 2003; “Forty Good Neighbors: Pat Henning,” West Mount Airy Neighbors, available from http://www.wman.net/40-good-neighbors/henning-pat.

2. Laura Siena, “Pat Henning,” Keynote address at the Germantown Historical Society Hall of Fame Induction, May 20, 2005; available from http://www.wman.net/pdfs/pathenning.pdf.

3. For reference on the shift away from integration, see, e.g., Judith Stein, “History of an Idea,” Nation (December 14, 1998); Eric Foner and Randall Kennedy, “Reclaiming Integration,” Nation, December 4, 1998; Robin D. G. Kelley, “Integration: What’s Left?” Nation, December 3, 1998; Matthew Johnson, “The Origins of Diversity: Managing Race at the University of Michigan, 1963–2006” (PhD diss., Temple University, 2011); Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (Boston: De Capo Press, 2002).

4. Marilyn Nolen, letter to the editor, Philadelphia Bulletin, October 20 1978.

5. Johnson, “Origins of Diversity.” See also Frank Dobbin, Inventing Equal Opportunity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009); Nancy MacLean, Freedom Is not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008); Jennifer Delton, Racial Integration in Corporate America, 1940–1990 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Ellen Berrey, “Why Diversity Became Orthodox in Higher Education, and How It Changed the Meaning of Race on Campus,” Critical Sociology 37, no. 5 (2011): 1–24; Marcia Graham Synnott, “The Evolving Diversity Rationale in University Admissions from Regents v. Bakke to the University of Michigan Cases,” Cornell Law Review 90, no. 2 (January 2005): 463–504; Erin Kelly and Frank Dobbin, “How Affirmative Action Became Diversity Management,” in Color Lines: Affirmative Action, Immigration, and the Civil Rights Options for America, ed. John David Skrentny (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.); Schulman, Seventies; Beth L. Bailey and David R. Farber, America in the Seventies (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 50–74.

6. Phrase invoked by Howard Shapiro in “Happy Birthday: Civic Group Celebrates Unique Urban Life-style,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 7, 1979.

7. Ellen Tichenor, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 26, 2012.

8. Ibid.

9. Mark Stein, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves: Lesbian and Gay Philadelphia, 1945–1972 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004), 44.

10. Ellen Tichenor, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 26, 2012.

11. Ibid., 45.

12. Marc Killinger, “As Gay and Lesbians Come Out, ‘Gay Neighborhoods’ Flourish,” Philadelphia Gay News, May 13, 1983.

13. Ibid.; Ellen Tichenor, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 26, 2012.

14. Ibid.

15. Ewart Rouse, “Food Buyers of the World, Unite!” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 12, 1981. For more on the cooperative movement of the 1960s and 1970s, see Cox, Storefront Revolution.

16. Ellen Tichenor, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 26, 2012.

17. Linda Holtzman, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, October 3, 2012.

18. Richard Hirsh, “The Founding of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College: A Retrospective from the Pages of the Reconstructionist,” Reconstructionist 63, no. 1 (Fall 1998): 101. For more on the institutional history of Reconstructionism, see Deborah Waxman, “Faith and Ethnicity in American Judaism: Reconstructionism as Ideology and Institution, 1935–1959” (PhD diss., Temple University, 2010); Ira Eisenstein, “From School of Thought to Movement.” Reconstructionist 41, no. 1 (February 1975): 5.

19. Rebecca Alpert, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, June 13, 2012.

20. Ibid.

21. See Mark Oppenheimer, Knocking on Heaven’s Door: American Religion in the Age of Counterculture (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 95–129; Riv-Ellen Prell, Prayer and Community: The Havurah in American Judaism (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1989).

22. Jonathan D. Sarna, American Judaism: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 319.

23. Julia Cass, “A Jewish Rebirth in Mount Airy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 15, 1987.

24. Ibid.

25. Sarna, American Judaism, 323.

26. Rebecca Alpert, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, June 13, 2012; David Teutsch, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 23, 2012.

27. Sarna, American Judaism, 323; David Teutsch, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 23, 2012; Rebecca Alpert, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, June 13, 2012.

28. David Teutsch, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 23, 2012.

29. Rebecca Alpert, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, June 13, 2012.

30. David Teutsch, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 23, 2012.

31. Rebecca Alpert, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, June 13, 2012.

32. David Teutsch, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 23, 2012.

33. Julia Cass, “A Jewish Rebirth in Mount Airy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 15, 1987.

34. David Teutsch, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, July 23, 2012.

35. WMAN Newsletter, “Gray Panther Maggie Kuhn to Speak at Summit Church,” March 1981, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 829, Box 4, Folder 44.

36. WMAN Newsletter, May 1981, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 829, Box 4, Folder 44.

37. Mount Airy Times Express Annual Report, 1982, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 8.

38. Annual Report, 1983–1984, WMAN, Urban Archives, Philadelphia, PA, Accession 737, Box 1, Folder 9.

39. Beth Gillin, “Co-op Troubled by Doing So Well as It Does Good,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 25, 1985.

40. Beth Gillin, “A Learning Tree Takes Root in Mount Airy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 27, 1986.

41. Vernon Loeb, “Selling Desegregation—One School’s Struggle for the Hearts and Minds,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 6, 1984.

42. Ibid.

43. Dale Mezzacappa and Aletta Emeno, “Grassroots Integration—Parents in an Integrated Neighborhood Struggle to Keep a School Racially Balanced,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 17, 2004.

44. Vernon Loeb, “Selling Desegregation—One School’s Struggle for the Hearts and Minds,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 6, 1984.

45. Michael Ruane, “A Boom Is Testing Mount Airy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 25, 1987.

46. Ibid.

47. For more on liberalism and Ronal Reagan, see Gil Troy and Vincent J. Cannato, eds., Living in the Eighties (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Gil Troy, Morning in America: How Ronald Reagan Invented the 1980s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007); Robert M. Collins, Transforming America: Politics and Culture during the Reagan Years (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007); Daniel Rogers, Age of Fracture (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2012).

48. David Greenberg, “The Reorientation of Liberalism in the 1980s,” in Troy and Cannato, Living in the Eighties, 54.

49. For a discussion on the legacy of deindustrialization, see, e.g., Jefferson Cowie and Joseph Heathcott, eds., Beyond the Ruins: The Meaning of Deindustrialization (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 2003); Jefferson Cowie, Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class (New York: New Press, 2012); Judith Stein, Pivotal Decade: How the United States Traded Factories for Finance in the Seventies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011); Rogers, Age of Fracture.

50. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2012), 51.

51. See, e.g., Alexander, New Jim Crow; Troy and Cannato, Living in the Eighties, 33–34.

52. Thomas Gibbins and Mark Wagenveld, “Bystander Hit in Drug Shootout,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 16, 1989; Jack McGuire and Leon Taylor, “Shootout Wounds Teen, Two Arrested,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 16, 1989; Ginny Weigand, “On Besieged Street, a Blessed Peace Follows Shootout,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 17, 1989.

53. Beth Gillin and Robert Terry, “Police Think Drugs Figured in Mount Airy Killings,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 10, 1989; Beth Gillin, “A Neighborhood’s Fear of Drugs Is Tie That Binds—and Terrifies,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 14, 1989.

54. Terence Samuel, “AIDS Center Opens Doors in Mount Airy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 7, 1991.

55. Terence Samuel, “Unease over Home for Youths: Mount Airy Residents Near the Planned Home Fear for Their Children’s Safety,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 29, 1992.

56. Dale Mezzacappa and Aletta Emeno, “Grassroots Integration,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 17, 2004.

57. Dale Mezzacappa, “A Struggle with Crowded Schools: High Schools, Especially, Are Brimming, Enrollment Rose by 2,300,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 11, 1992.

58. Martha Woodall, “Private School Costs Up, Top Tuition Nearing $10,000,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 24, 1991.

59. On the links between oral history and historical memory, see, e.g., Lynn Abrams, Oral History Theory (New York: Routledge, 2010); Michael H. Frisch, A Shared Authority: Essays on the Craft and Meaning of Oral and Public History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990); Leslie Roy Ballard, Thomas L. Charlton, Lois E. Myers, Rebecca Sharpless, Ronald J. Grele, Mary A. Larson, Linda Shopes, Charles T. Morrissey, James E. Fogerty, and Elinor A. Maze, History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology (Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2007); Paula Hamilton and Linda Shopes, eds., Oral History and Public Memories (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008); Luisa Passerini, Fascism in Popular Memory: The Cultural Experience of the Turin Working Class (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Alessandro Portelli, The Death of Luigi Trastulli and Other Stories: Form and Meaning in Oral History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991).

60. Patricia Henning, Mount Airy Historical Awareness Committee Statement, May 1993, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

61. Project Report, November 28, 1993, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

62. Grant Application, Undated, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid.

65. Patricia Henning, Mount Airy Historical Awareness Committee Statement, May 1993, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

66. Mount Airy Times Express, December 9, 1992, 26.

67. Project Report, November 28, 1993, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

68. Wright is the father of Pastor Jeremiah Wright Jr., of Trinity United Church of Christ, President Barack Obama’s former church. The junior Wright grew up a product of the integrationist West Mount Airy.

69. Joseph Coleman, interview by Szabi Zee, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Marjorie Kopeland, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Shirley Melvin, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Doris Polsky, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; Jeremiah Wright Sr., interview by Vida Carson, 1993, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA; George Schermer, interview by Judith Schermer, 1989, written transcription, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

70. Frank Harvey, interview by Patricia Henning, 1993, audio recording, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

71. Gladys Thompson Norris, interview by Vida Carson, 1993, audio recording, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

72. For a discussion of the relationship between oral history and history “from above,” see Kevin Blackburn, “History from Above,” in Hamilton and Shopes, Oral History and Public Memories, 31–32.

73. Project Report, November 28, 1993, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

74. Ibid.

75. This conception of mediation comes from Hamilton and Shopes, Oral History and Public Memories, introduction.

76. Project Report, November 28, 1993, WMAN Oral History Project, Germantown Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

77. Alan Heavens, “A Diverse Enclave Celebrates a Century,” Philadelphia Inquirer, January 17, 1993.

78. Roxanne Jones, “City Community Prides Itself on its Diversity, Country Beauty,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 13, 1994.

79. See, e.g., Vernon Loeb, “Selling Desegregation—One School’s Struggle for Hearts and Minds,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 6, 1984; Beth Gillin, “A Learning Tree Takes Root in Mount Airy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 27, 1986; Michael Ruane, “A Boom Is Testing Mount Airy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 25, 1987.

80. Ferman, Singleton, and DeMarco. “West Mount Airy.”

81. The article contains thirty-five footnotes; notes 9, 16, 26–31, and 33 cite either the Oral History Project or these newspaper articles. The Oral History Project is also cited as a general reference of the research.

82. Ferman, Singleton, and DeMarco, “West Mount Airy,” 44.

Epilogue

1. Christie Balka, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA., September 20, 2012.

2. “Healthy Places: A Study of 45 Philadelphia Neighborhoods Shows a Connection between Social Bonds and Personal Wellness,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1, 2004; Sheila Dyan, “Architecture Worthy of a Notable Neighborhood—Greene Manor, West Mount Airy, Philadelphia,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 9, 2004.

3. Lise Funderberg, “Our Town,” O, the Oprah Magazine, April 2006; Lise Funderberg, “Bloodlines,” Breathe Magazine, March–April 2005.

4. Lise Funderberg, “Our Town,” O, the Oprah Magazine, April 2006.

5. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 542; Rory Kramer, “What Is on the Other Side of the Tracks?: A Spatial Examination of Neighborhood Boundaries and Segregation (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2012). Kramer notes that between 2000 and 2010, the neighborhood shifted from majority-black (52 percent) to majority-white (54 percent). Additional data reported by sociologist Sarah Johnson. Special thanks to Johnson for sharing with me an unpublished ethnographic study on the community.

6. U.S. Census Data from the American Community Survey, cited by John Duchneskie and Dylan Purcell, “Average Household Income in Philadelphia,” Philly.com, available at http://www.philly.com/philly/news/2010_Census_Philly.html?c=r; Ferman, Singleton, and DeMarco, “West Mount Airy,” 44. National median household income for 2005–2009 was $50,221.

7. “The Ten Richest Zip Codes in Philadelphia,” Philly.com PhillyLists, March 29, 2013, available at http://www.philly.com/philly/blogs/phillylists/The-10-richest-zip-codes-in-Philadelphia.html.

8. Kramer, “What Is on the Other Side of the Tracks?” chapter 6. According to Kramer, the decrease in population in West Mount Airy is reflective of broader population depletion in Philadelphia; the city lost 200,000 white residents between 1990 and 2000. During that same period, the black population rose by close to 40,000, the Latino population by 60,000, and the Asian population by 30,000. See also Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 542–43; Johnson, ethnographic study, 2012. Johnson notes the limitations of using “mean household income,” rather than “median;” however, median data was not available at the tract level.

9. See chapter 6.

10. Nation, December 1998.

11. Eric Foner and Randall Kennedy, “Reclaiming Integration,” Nation, December 4, 1998.

12. Judith Stein, “History of an Idea,” Nation, December 14, 1998.

13. Foner and Kennedy, “Reclaiming Integration.”

14. Robin D. G. Kelley, “Integration: What’s Left?,” Nation, December 3, 1998.

15. Foner and Kennedy, “Reclaiming Integration.”

16. Christie Balka, interview by author, written transcription, Philadelphia, PA, September 20, 2012.

17. Ibid.