INDEX

affirmative action, 73, 127
African American Vernacular English (AAVE), 117
Afro-Latinos, 5, 19–20, 160–68, 174, 185–86, 189–192, 201, 208, 211, 214
Aja, Alan, 19, 169, 215–16
Alabama, 18
Allapattah neighborhood (Miami), 115
Allen, William, 139
Amador, Dora, 125, 148–49, 212–13
anti-blackness, 3, 6, 14–16, 19–21, 28–29, 35,44, 59, 73, 89, 95–101, 109, 118–119, 127, 143, 162–63, 173–75, 185–92, 203–204, 207, 212–214, 218
antiguos, 68–71, 76, 83, 169
Antonio Maceo Park, 76
apartheid, 33, 126–27
Arawak people, 63
Aristide, Jean Bertrand, 130
Asante, Molefi Kete, 105
assimilation, 8–9, 12–14, 19, 26, 43, 46–50, 57, 97, 101–102, 192, 200, 206–208

Bach, Robert, 71–72
Bahamas, 37–38, 116
balsas, 129
Balsero crisis
American Dream goal, 137, 155
black/white frame, 124, 141–43, 152–53
demographic features, 148, 151, 158
El Nuevo Herald linked fates theme, 146–49, 155–56
El Nuevo Herald suffering narrative, 123–24, 133–36, 140, 155–56
good/bad immigrant frame, 123–24, 130, 137–39
Guantánamo navy base detention, 129, 131, 139–41, 147, 152–53
immigration sentiment, impact on, 146
Krome Detention Center processing, 129
mainstream media depictions, 22, 25, 122, 130–31
Miami Times black Haitian vs. white Cuban theme, 29–30, 93–94, 124, 141–43
Miami Times linked fates theme, 146, 149–56
Miami Times native/foreigner theme, 124, 141–45
Miami Times suffering narrative, 141, 143, 156
model immigrant disruption, 146
native/foreigner frame, 20, 124, 141–45, 148–49, 155
public sentiments, 130–32, 140, 145–46
refugee statistics, 7, 129
rescue efforts, 129
shark attacks, 135
Soviet Union collapse, impact of, 122, 129
Valladares Foundation assistance, 136
“Wet Foot, Dry Foot” policy, 129, 144, 155, 217
Batista, Fulgencio, 39–40
Bauzá, Mario, 212
Bean, Frank, 9
Belize, 116
Benmayor, Rina, 213
Bilingual-Bicultural Ordinance, 46, 65, 104
black identity, 17–18, 29, 33, 89, 92, 99, 105, 118–19, 145, 148, 160, 177, 180–181, 185, 191–93, 210, 213
black-Latino relations, 18, 21–22, 30–31, 41–45, 92–94, 112–113, 123, 150–51, 181, 187–88, 195, 199–202
Black Lives Matter movement, 193, 196, 201, 208, 218
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo, 19
boycotts, 34–35, 47
Brazil, 116, 164
Brookings Institute, 71–72
Bush, George H. W., 127, 130

Cacho, Lisa Marie, 12, 57, 200
Camayd-Freixas, Yohel, 80
Carter, Jimmy, 60–61, 83
Castro, Fidel
antiguos/recién llegados split blame, 70–71
communist ideologies, 2, 34
Cuban Revolution involvement, 39
death, 217
Mariel exodus, role in, 28, 55, 60–61, 64, 70–71, 84, 88
media coverage, 24, 61, 101
Nelson Mandela friendship, 34
racial democracy discourses, 172, 175, 188, 212
tyranny, 34, 64, 67, 69–70, 127
United States, relations with, 6, 39–40, 43, 60, 99, 110, 133–35, 144, 152, 216
wealth redistribution, 14, 40, 64
See also Cuba
Castro, Raúl, 217
Chang, Ailsa, 194
Chavez, Leo, 145
Chirino, Willy, 138
Christian Community Service Agency, 71
Ciboney people, 63
citizenship. See worthy citizenship
civil rights movement, 8–9, 11, 16, 23, 29, 39, 49, 53, 73, 92–93, 97, 165, 191, 195
Clinton, Bill, 29, 74–75, 129–34, 136, 143, 147, 153, 155
Clinton, Hillary, 196
Cobo, Arturo, 136
Cold War, 6, 35, 41, 44, 49, 98, 107, 124, 127, 129, 131, 134, 202
Cole, Nat King, 118
Colombia, 164
colorblindness, 84, 160–62, 166, 188–89, 192, 195
Colored Town. See Overtown
Columbus, Christopher, 63
communism, 8, 14, 24, 34, 39, 41, 52, 60, 64, 70, 76, 84, 98, 101, 107, 122, 127, 130–31, 134, 173
Congress of Racial Equality, 41
Congressional Black Caucus, 132
Connolly, N. D. B., 36
Constitution, 11
criminalization, 3, 24, 28, 49, 57–67, 72–80, 86–89, 113–115, 131, 134, 137–39, 185, 195, 211, 214
Cruz, Celia, 118, 212
Cuba
black/white frame, 56, 62–65, 89, 170–71, 210
communist ideologies, 39, 60, 64, 70, 76, 84, 101, 130–31, 134
Cuban Democratic Coalition, 150–51
Cuban Revolution, 39, 42, 64, 97, 116, 172
Fulgencio Batista regime, 39–40
Guantánamo navy base, 99, 129, 131–32, 136–37, 139–41, 146–47, 152–53
Malecón riots, 151–52
multiracial categorizations, 164, 170–71
original settlers, 63
Peruvian embassy asylum, 59–60, 64, 85
poverty, 136
racial ideologies, 14–15, 44, 46, 62–64, 151–52, 164, 170–73, 188–89, 210
slavery history, 14, 44, 62–63
Soviet Union, relations with, 7, 39, 122, 129
“special period”, 129, 176, 183
sugar industry, 63
United States occupation, 39
United States trade, 39, 153, 216–17
War of Independence, 39, 63, 183
See also Castro, Fidel
Cuban Adjustment Act, 40, 127, 140
Cuban American National Foundation (CANF), 151
Cuban exile politics, 43–44, 168–69, 217
Cuban Independence Day, 183
Cuban missile crisis, 97
Cuban Refugee Resettlement Center, 80
Curry, Cynthia, 154

Dade County, 23, 46, 74, 95, 97, 108, 113, 141–42, 216. See also Miami
De Genova, Nicholas, 197–98
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), 201
Democratic Party, 44, 131, 144, 197, 216
Diario las Americas, 24
Díaz-Canel, Miguel, 217
Dominican Republic, 116, 164
Dowling, Julie A., 166–67
Du Bois, W. E. B., 150, 197
Duke, David, 74
Dunn, Marvin, 37
Duvalier, Francois “Papa Doc”, 98, 109–10
Duvalier, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc”, 98

Echo Park (Los Angeles), 183
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 39
El Miami Herald
black/white frame, 66, 72, 77–80, 88–89, 119–20, 123
Casanova family exposé, 59, 84–88
Cuban voices, 24–25, 65–66, 70, 76, 81, 83–88
El Nuevo Herald renaming, 24
Fidel Castro opposition, 101
Fort Chaffee rebellion coverage, 74–75, 79, 82
“ghetto” word usage, 77–78, 214
good/bad immigrant frame, 66–72, 80–83, 86–89, 134
Marielitos as compatriots theme, 66–72
Marielitos as criminals theme, 66, 71–80, 134, 214
Marielitos as needing reform theme, 66, 80–83
Miami Herald dissatisfaction, 24
native/foreigner frame, 66, 83
origins, 23–24
story placements, 25
sympathetic voice, 73
El Nuevo Herald
Afro-Cuban voices, 125, 132, 148–49, 153, 156, 213
Balsero crisis linked fates theme, 146–49, 155–56
Balsero crisis suffering narrative, 123–24, 133–36, 140, 146, 155–56
Bill Clinton focus, 133–34, 136
black/white frame, 123
children, plight of, 135–37, 147
circulation figures, 24
Dora Amador contributions, 125, 148–49, 212–13
good/bad immigrant frame, 123–24, 130, 137–39
Guantánamo navy base coverage, 136–37, 139
Haitian refugees coverage, 139–40, 146–49
human-interest stories, 133
Miami Herald independence, 24–25, 133
native/foreigner frame, 148–49
Roberto Fabricio editorship, 68
Roberto Suarez editorship, 24
United States policy critiques, 133–37, 140, 148–49, 156
See also El Miami Herald
Elgin Air Force Base, 115
El Nuevo South, 18, 203
Entman, Robert, 22, 206
Espíritu, Yen Le, 126

Fabricio, Roberto, 68–69
Feagin, Joe, 205
Feliciano, Cynthia, 10
Fiske, John, 78
Flores, Juan, 5, 174
Flores, William, 213
Florida International University, 34
Fort Chaffee, 74–75, 79, 82, 115, 130
Fort Indiantown Gap, 79
Fortune, 43
Frankfort School, 22

Garvey, Marcus, 105
Georgia, 18, 37–38
ghettos, 77–79, 95, 214
Golden Exiles, 28, 43, 52, 66, 68, 77, 80–81, 146
Gonzalez, Juan, 218
Gonzalez, Ricardo E., 151–52
Gray, Herman, 81
Great Freeze, 38
Guantánamo navy base, 99, 129, 131–32, 136–37, 139–41, 146–47, 152–53
Guillén, Nicolás, 116
Guinier, Lani, 50
Guyana, 116, 169

Haiti
Duvalier regimes, 98
independent status, 99
Jean Bertrand Aristide leadership, 130
Kreyol language, 104
military government atrocities, 144
political unrest, 131
poverty, 131
slavery revolt, 37, 99
Tonton Macoutes, 106
United States, relations with, 98–99, 109, 130–32, 144
Haitian immigrants
African American shared identity, 209–10
African American support, 92, 99, 104–9, 118–20, 132
Bill Clinton, role of, 130, 132, 144
Cuban American National Foundation (CANF) contributions, 151
Cuban immigrants, comparison to, 29–30, 93–94, 98–99, 103, 105–10, 119–20, 124, 128, 139–43
El Nuevo Herald coverage, 139–40, 146–49
Guantánamo navy base detention, 99, 132, 139, 141, 146–47
language challenges, 104
Miami Times coverage, 93–94, 98–99, 103–10, 113–15, 118–20, 124, 140–45, 148–50
negative stereotypes, 106
public sentiments, 131–32
raft usage, 131–32
Red Apple boycott, 47
refugee statistics, 98
Hall, Stuart, 105, 209
Hamaludin, Mohamed, 149–50
Henken, Ted, 134
Herrera, Angele, 150–51
Hialeah neighborhood (Miami), 40, 79, 115, 142, 147
Hintzen, Percy Claude, 119
Hispanic American League against Discrimination, 73

ideologies of race, 3–4, 11–15, 25, 35–36, 48, 55–56, 63, 92–94, 104–107, 162, 166, 171, 189–190, 197–99, 204, 207, 219
Immigration and Nationality Act, 67–68
immigration policies, 5, 14–15, 29–30, 35, 41–43, 52, 60–61, 67–68, 85, 94, 99–100, 104–114, 120, 123–25, 128–131, 143, 146, 152–156, 186, 194, 201–203, 217–218
Iraq, 130

Jabali, Haiba, 114
Jackson, Andrew, 37
Jackson, Jesse, 111, 142, 150, 153
Jacobs, Ronald, 23
Jamaica, 114, 116, 154, 210
Jenny Lind (Arkansas), 77
Jim Crow policies, 36, 96–97, 116, 154, 201
Jiménez Román, Miriam, 5, 174
Johnson, Lyndon B., 40, 67–68
Jordan, Vernon, 109, 111
Joseph, Ralina, 165

Kim, Claire Jean, 35, 47–48, 52–53, 204
King, Martin Luther, 97, 117–18
King, Rodney, 127
Knight-Ridder Company, 24
Koppel, Ted, 33
Kreyol language, 104
Krome Detention Center, 129
Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 37, 74
Kwanzaa, 112

Lee, Jennifer, 10
LGBTQ activism, 196
Liberty City neighborhood (Miami), 23, 95
Life, 43
Little Havana district (Miami), 40, 76, 114, 141, 215
López, Antonio, 45, 65, 170
Los Angeles, 30, 51, 79, 116–17, 127, 146, 159, 182–90, 207, 214
Lower Florida Keys Health System, 136

Maceo, Antonio, 63, 76
Maceo Movement for Dignity, 151
majority-minority status, 5, 45–46, 96, 194, 203
Malecón riots, 151–52
Mandela, Nelson, 33–35, 45, 126
Marable, Manning, 111, 150
Marcelli, Enrico A., 111
Mariel boatlift. See Mariel exodus
Mariel exodus
American Dream goal, 43, 47, 52, 67–68, 76, 79, 85
antiguos/recién llegados split, 68–71, 76, 83, 88, 169
black/white frame, 19–20, 58, 62–66, 72, 77–80, 88–89, 92–94, 105–10, 119, 123
criminal stigmatization, 7–8, 20, 59, 61–62, 64–66, 71–80, 86, 100, 113, 131, 134
demographic features, 28, 58, 62, 113, 148, 151, 158
El Miami Herald compatriots theme, 66–72
El Miami Herald criminality theme, 66, 71–80, 134, 214
El Miami Herald reform theme, 66, 80–83
family connections, 60, 88
Fidel Castro, role of, 28, 55, 60–61, 64, 70–71, 84, 88
Fort Chaffee rebellion, 74–75, 79, 82, 130
good/bad immigrant frame, 28, 56, 66–72, 81–83, 86–89, 92
immigration sentiment, impact on, 61–62
mainstream media depictions, 24–25, 61, 65–67, 100, 130–31
“Marielito” as pejorative term, 61, 71
Miami Times black Haitian vs. white Cuban theme, 93, 99, 105–10, 120
Miami Times native/foreigner theme, 93–94, 100–105
Miami Times oppressed people unity theme, 93, 110–13, 118, 121, 143
model immigrant disruption, 58, 62, 66, 87, 90
native/foreigner frame, 20, 66, 83, 92–94, 100–105, 113, 119
Peruvian embassy origins, 59–60, 64, 85, 106
refugee statistics, 7, 60
scholarly studies, 19–20, 58
temporary housing, 60, 78, 85, 88
Martí, Jose, 63, 84, 161, 171–72, 183
Martin, Trayvon, 193–95
Mas Canosa, Jorge, 151
McDuffie Riot, 7, 28, 77, 91, 93, 96, 112
mestizos, 160, 163, 188, 207, 213
Mexican immigrants, 17, 30, 146, 159, 166–67, 182–90, 196, 207, 211, 214
Miami
African American living conditions, 94–95
Allapattah neighborhood, 115
Bahamian migrants, 37–38
Bilingual-Bicultural Ordinance, 46, 65, 104
black population origins, 6, 37–39, 43–44, 95
black/white frame, 3–6, 21, 37–38, 46–54, 57, 72, 88, 95–98, 105–6, 118–21, 143, 203
Christian Community Service Agency, 71
Coconut Grove neighborhood, 38
Congress of Racial Equality chapter, 41
crime rates, 61, 75–76, 112
Cuban migration history, 6–7, 39–46, 64
Cuban Refugee Resettlement Center, 80
demographic patterns, 5–6, 19, 42, 45–46, 54, 64, 95–97, 141, 159, 168–69, 188, 209–10, 215–16
good/bad immigrant frame, 48, 51–56, 66–72, 80–83, 86–89, 92, 123–24, 190
Hialeah neighborhood, 40, 79, 142, 147
Interstate 95 division, 95
Krome Detention Center, 129
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) presence, 37
Liberty City neighborhood, 23, 95
Little Havana district, 40, 76, 114, 141, 215
majority-minority status, 5, 9, 45–46, 96, 203
McDuffie Riot, 7, 28, 77, 91, 93, 96, 112
native/foreigner frame, 9, 20, 48, 52–54, 64, 66, 92–94, 96, 100–105
Nelson Mandela speaking tour, 33–35, 45
Opa-locka neighborhood, 95
Overtown (Colored Town) neighborhood, 37–38, 95
police violence, 2, 7, 28, 36, 45, 77, 91–93, 141
racial history, 3, 6–8, 36–46, 49, 54, 154
residential segregation, 2, 6, 35–34, 45, 95
tourism industry, 34, 36, 40, 42, 65
unemployment rates, 95, 112, 141
worthy citizenship principles, 8, 14–17, 22, 27, 31, 48–56, 83, 90, 119,159, 169
Miami Herald, 24–25, 37, 65, 68, 73, 80, 101. See also El Miami Herald
Miami Metropolis, 37
Miami Times
Afro-Cuban voices, 125, 132, 149–56
Balsero crisis black Haitian vs. white Cuban theme, 29–30, 93–94, 124, 141–43
Balsero crisis linked fates theme, 146, 149–56
Balsero crisis native/foreigner frame, 124, 141–45, 155
Balsero crisis suffering narrative, 124, 143, 146, 156
Bill Clinton focus, 153
black/white frame, 93, 99, 105–10, 113, 118–21, 124, 143, 152–53
circulation figures, 23
content range, 23, 111
Fidel Castro opposition, 101
Haitian immigration coverage, 93–94, 98–99, 103–10, 113–15, 118–20, 124, 140–45, 148–50
linguistic discrimination coverage, 101–4, 112–13, 209
Mariel exodus black Haitian vs. white Cubans theme, 93, 99, 105–10, 120
Mariel exodus native/foreigner theme, 93, 100–105, 113
Mariel exodus oppressed people unity theme, 93, 110–13, 118, 121, 143
native/foreigner frame, 28–29, 93, 100–105, 113, 121, 124, 141–45, 155
origins, 23, 92
Pan-African idealism, 114–15, 145, 156, 209
Ricky Thomas columns, 106–8
Rosa Reed contributions, 125, 150, 153–56
United States policy critiques, 143–44, 149–50, 153–56
Vernon Jordan contributions, 109–11
Miami’s Forgotten Cubans, 19
Mirabal, Nancy Raquel, 62, 207
Mizuno, Yuko, 111
model minority stereotype, 47–54, 58, 60, 62, 66, 146, 198
Mohl, Raymond, 39, 45
Monhegan, 136
Montana, Tony, 61
Morrison, Toni, 62
mulattos, 80, 116, 151, 166, 176

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 111–12
National Black Election Study, 111
nativism, 4, 7, 52–54, 61, 90, 96, 102–104, 119, 128, 143–45, 189, 198, 206, 210, 218–19
Naturalization Law (1790), 11
New York City, 47
New York Times, 2
Newsweek, 43
Nicaragua, 24, 106–7, 154
Nigeria, 154
Nisei, 51–52
North Carolina, 18, 203

Obama, Barack, 31, 192, 195–96, 201, 216–17
Ochún, 87
Omi, Michael, 10
Ong, Aihwa, 4, 11–12, 16
Opa-locka neighborhood (Miami), 95, 115
Overtown neighborhood (Miami), 37–38, 95

Panama, 116, 137, 154
Pastor Jr., Manuel, 111
Pérez, Lisandro, 40
periodiquitos, 24
Perry, Bill, 112
Peruvian embassy, 59–60, 64, 85, 106. See also Mariel exodus
Picca, Leslie Houts, 205
police violence, 2, 7, 28, 36, 45, 77, 91–93, 141. See also McDuffie Riot
Portes, Alejandro, 43, 68, 80
poverty, 57–58, 73, 78, 86, 95, 124, 127, 131, 136, 141, 202
Proposition 187 (1994), 128, 186
Proposition 227 (1998), 186
Puerto Rico, 116, 164

racial attitudes, 11, 15–16, 21, 29, 44–45, 55, 69, 101, 130–31, 170–75, 185, 201, 204, 214
racial categories, 9–10, 16, 19–21, 27, 35–36, 46–47, 97, 117, 151, 159–166, 181–82, 187–192, 213
racial democracy, 19–20, 30, 63, 84, 89, 162, 165–67, 171–72, 175, 188–89
racial frames
black/white frame, 3–10, 13, 16, 19–21, 27, 37–38, 45–54, 57, 62–66, 72, 77–80, 88–89, 92–94, 105–10, 118–21, 124, 143, 152–53, 163, 192, 198, 203–6, 210
good/bad immigrant frame, 4, 13, 27, 48, 51–52, 56, 66–72, 80–83, 86–89, 92, 123–24, 130, 134, 139–40, 143, 174, 190, 198, 204
native/foreigner frame, 4, 9–10, 13, 27–30, 48, 51–56, 64, 66, 83, 92–94, 96, 100–105, 113, 119, 121, 124, 141–45, 155, 164, 180, 186, 198, 210, 218
racialization, 5, 15, 19–22, 149, 168, 199, 212
Radio Mambí, 141
Rafter crisis. See Balsero crisis
Rahier, Jean Muteba, 119
recién llegados, 69
Red Apple boycott, 47
Reed, Rosa, 125, 150, 153–56
Refugee Act (1980), 128–29
Republican Party, 6, 43–44, 131, 154, 194, 196, 216
residential segregation, 2, 6, 35–38, 45, 95, 211
resistance movements, 13, 34, 41, 59–60, 75, 105, 120, 133, 194–97, 210. See also civil rights movement
Robinson, Piers, 131
Rodríguez, Dylan, 195
Rojecki, Andrew, 22, 206
Romney, Mitt, 196
Ruiz, Joel, 2–5
Russia, 39
Rustin, Bayard, 111–12

Saito, Leland, 51–52
Santa Ana, Otto, 145
Santería, 87, 181
Scarface, 61
Seminole Indians, 37
September 11 terror attacks, 202
Shell-Weiss, Melanie, 44
slavery, 11, 14, 17, 36–38, 44–45, 49, 62–63, 99, 112, 116, 195, 211
Small Business Administration, 97
South Africa, 33, 126–27
South Carolina, 37–38
Soviet Union, 7, 39, 122, 129
Spain, 39, 63, 200
Statue of Liberty, 67–68, 125, 147, 218
Stepick, Alex, 43, 68, 80
Suarez, Roberto, 24

Taino people, 63
Teele, Arthur, 154
Thomas, Ricky, 106–8
Thornton, Michael C., 111
Ticktin, Miriam, 126
Tonton Macoutes, 106
Torres, Gerald, 50
Transit Home for Cuban Refugees, 136
Trinidad, 116, 194
Trump, Donald, 31, 195–97, 201, 217, 219
Turner, Nat, 37

unemployment, 41, 58, 73, 92, 95, 112, 115, 141, 202, 210
United Nations, 126

Valdés, Achmed, 2–3
Valdez, Zulema, 8–9
Valladares Foundation, 136
Van Hook, Jennifer, 10
Versailles restaurant, 2
Vidal, Armando, 154
Vietnam, 106–7, 126, 194
Vírgen de la Caridad, 87

Washington, Booker T., 105
“Wet Foot, Dry Foot” policy, 129, 144, 155, 217. See also Balsero crisis
whiteness, 4, 13–16, 20, 49–51, 54, 62–65, 73, 89, 98, 108, 119–120, 126, 140, 147, 150–52, 161, 165–175, 189–190, 194, 197, 199, 202, 204, 207
Women’s March, 196
World War II, 17, 37, 39, 125
worthy citizenship
Aihwa Ong research, 4, 11–12, 16
black/white frame, role of, 4, 13–14, 16, 27–28, 31, 48–51, 58–59, 72–73, 80, 88–89, 92, 110, 119–20, 134, 163, 167, 190, 198–99
exclusionary ideals, 12–13, 53, 93, 119, 159, 197, 219, 204
good/bad immigrant frame, role of, 4, 13, 27–28, 31, 48–52, 66, 72, 81, 88–89, 92, 123, 134, 167, 190, 198–99
interminority conflict encouragement, 4, 12–13, 30, 35–36, 52, 58, 110, 123, 190, 194–95, 198–200
Los Angeles model, 159, 185–86
Miami model, 8, 14–17, 22, 27, 31, 48–56, 83, 90, 119, 159, 169
moral standards conforming, 4, 12, 48, 55, 72, 81, 89, 103, 138–39, 197–98, 219
native/foreigner dichotomy, role of, 4, 13, 27–28, 31, 48, 52–54, 83, 93–94, 119, 124, 167, 198–99, 219
self-policing aspect, 12, 198
suffering component, 123–27, 132–34, 139–40, 143, 155, 198

Zimmerman, George, 193–95

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