1. I’m drawing on a classic definition of “co-optation” that has its origins in Philipp Selznick’s “Foundations of the Theory of Organizations,” American Sociological Review 13, no. 1 (1948): 25–35.

2. Verta Taylor and Nella Van Dyke, “ ‘Get Up, Stand Up’: Tactical Repertoires of Social Movements,” in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, ed. David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 262–93.

3. Ibram H. Rogers, The Black Campus Movement: Black Students and the Racial Reconstitution of Higher Education, 1965–1972 (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2012); Martha Biondi, The Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Joy Ann Williamson, Black Power on Campus: The University of Illinois, 1965–1975 (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Stefan Bradley, Harlem vs. Columbia University: Black Student Power in the Late 1960s (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2009); Wayne C. Glasker, Black Students in the Ivory Tower: African American Student Activism at the University of Pennsylvania, 1967–1990 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002); Donna Murch, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Richard P. McCormick, Black Student Protest Movement at Rutgers (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990). There are exceptions, as some historians have paid more attention to administrators. Fabio Rojas offers the most sophisticated treatment of how institutions responded to the black campus activism. Still, Rojas focuses solely on the rise of black studies: Fabio Rojas, From Black Power to Black Studies: How a Radical Social Movement Became an Academic Discipline (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007). Other exceptions include Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (New York: Mariner Books, 2005); John Aubrey Douglass, The Conditions for Admission: Access, Equity, and the Social Contract of Public Universities (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); Donald Alexander Downs, Cornell ’69: Crisis of the American University (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999). Still, Karabel’s and Downs’s work don’t explain how administrators limited the outcomes of the black campus movement after the 1970s. Douglass’s work largely ignores campus activism.

4. Glasker’s Black Students in the Ivory Tower is an exception, but he quickly moves through activism in the 1980s in a closing chapter. Rojas and Biondi also look at the evolution of black studies past the mid-1970s.

5. Derrick A. Bell, Jr., “Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma,” Harvard Law Review 93, no. 3 (January 1980): 518–33; Kimberlé Crenshaw, “From Racial Liberalism to Racial Literacy: Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Divergence Dilemma,” Journal of American History 91, no. 1 (June 2004): 92–118; Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Twenty Years of Critical Race Theory: Looking Back to Move Forward,” Connecticut Law Review 43, no. 5 (July 2011): 1253–1352.

6. Scholars who have examined the more recent history of racial inclusion in universities include Ellen Berrey, The Enigma of Diversity: The Language of Race and the Limits of Racial Justice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015); Daniel Lipson, “Embracing Diversity: The Institutionalization of Affirmative as Diversity Management at UC-Berkeley, UT-Austin, and UW-Madison,” Law and Social Inquiry 32, no. 4 (2007): 985–1026; Daniel N. Lipson, “The Resilience of Affirmative Action in the 1980s: Innovation, Isomorphism, and Institutionalization in University Admissions,” Political Research Quarterly 64, no. 1 (2011): 132–44; William G. Bowen and Derek Bok, The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999). Jerome Karabel spends the closing chapters of The Chosen on recent inclusion policies.

7. Some researchers have taken advantage of the University of Michigan’s archives and written about the university’s inclusion initiatives. Unfortunately, their use of the archives was limited. Consequently, the conclusions I come to in this book differ from many of their findings: Berrey, Enigma of Diversity; Lisa M. Stulberg and Anthony S. Chen, “The Origins of Race-Conscious Affirmative Action in Undergraduate Admissions: A Comparative Analysis of Institutional Change in Higher Education,” Sociology of Education 87, no. 1 (2014): 36–52; Daniel Hirschman, Ellen Berrey, and Fiona Rose-Greenland, “Dequantifying Diversity: Affirmative Action and Admissions at the University of Michigan,” Theory and Society 45, no. 3 (2016): 265–301.

8. For anyone interested in examining the law school’s affirmative action history, the locator for the school’s records can be accessed online at the Bentley Historical Library’s website: http://bentley.umich.edu.

9. Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003).

1. The University as a Racist Institution, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM [Demands], 1969–70, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, hereafter BHL.

2. Howard H. Peckham, The Making of the University of Michigan, 1817–1992 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 3–7, 63.

3. Laura Calkins, “Samuel Codes Watson,” Michigan History 86, no. 1 (January/February 2002): 8–52; Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 64; Ruth Bordin, Women at Michigan: The “Dangerous Experiment,” 1870s to the Present (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 6; “Third November Meeting, 1839,” Regents’ Proceedings with Appendixes and Index, 1837–1864 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1915), 22.

4. John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 41.

5. Roger L. Geiger, The History of American Higher Education: Learning and Culture from the Founding to World War II (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 187–93.

6. “November Meeting, 1841,” Regents’ Proceedings, 190, http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112111896996;view=1up;seq=200.

7. “December Meeting, 1841,” Regents’ Proceedings, 212.

8. Jana Nidiffer and Jeffrey P. Bouman, “The Chasm between Rhetoric and Reality: The Fate of the ‘Democratic Ideal’ When a Public University Becomes Elite,” Educational Policy 15, no. 3 (July 2001): 441; “December Meeting, 1841,” 222; National Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 1993), 30, 7.

9. Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 36–42.

10. “October Meeting, 1854,” Regents’ Proceedings, 598; Henry Tappan, “Review by Rev. Dr. H. P. Tappan: Historic Statement of my Connection with the University,” Regents’ Proceedings, 1132–33; Geiger, History of American Higher Education, 252–56.

11. Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 8, 12, 23, 66–7; Thelin, History of American Higher Education, 75.

12. Geiger, History of American Higher Education, 254; Harold Wechsler, The Qualified Student: A History of Selective Admission in America (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977), 17–20.

13. Wechsler, Qualified Student, 17–20.

14. Nidiffer and Bouman, “The Chasm Between Rhetoric and Reality,” 442–46.

15. Thelin, History of American Higher Education, 110–11; Edwin E. Slosson, Great American Universities (New York: Macmillan, 1910), vii–x, 474–525.

16. Ira M. Smith, “University of Michigan: Trend of Admission Requirements in the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts,” Michigan History 14 (Spring 1930): 207–20, Ira M. Smith Papers, box 2; Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 127, 156.

17. David O. Levine, The American College and the Culture of Aspiration, 1915–1940 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 39; Thelin, History of American Higher Education, 261.

18. Benjamin Fine, Admission to American Colleges: A Study of Current Policy and Practice (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1946), 25, 148.

19. Smith, “University of Michigan,” 207–20; Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 156.

20. Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 173, 177; C. C. Little, “The Second International Congress of Eugenics,” Eugenics Review 13, no. 4 (1922): 511–24; Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), 69; Adam Cohen, Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics, and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck (New York: Penguin Books, 2016), 4. The army’s use of intelligence tests during World War I proved the turning point: John Carson, The Measure of Merit: Talents, Intelligence, and Inequality in the French and American Republics, 1750–1940 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 197–228.

21. Ira M. Smith, “Freshman Admissions of the University of Michigan: A Review and a Glance Ahead,” Ira M. Smith Papers, box 1, folder: Reminiscences, BHL; Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), 29–30; Carl C. Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1923), 210.

22. Ira M. Smith resume, Ira M. Smith Papers, box 1, folder: Biographical Materials, BHL; Ira M. Smith, “Reminiscences of a Registrar,” August 28, 1961, Ira M. Smith Papers, box 1, folder: Reminiscences, BHL.

23. Smith, “Freshman Admissions of the University of Michigan.”

24. Smith, “Reminiscences of a Registrar.”

25. Smith, “Freshman Admissions of the University of Michigan.”

26. P. S. Dwyer, Charlotte Horner, and C. S. Yoakam, A Statistical Summary of the Records of Students Entering the University of Michigan as Freshmen in the Decade 1927–1936, University of Michigan Administrative Studies, vol. 1, no. 4 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1940), Evaluation and Examinations Division Records, box 2, BHL.

27. Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 77–138; “President Little Resigns,” University of Michigan Faculty History Project, http://faculty-history.dc.umich.edu/faculty/clarence-cook-little/president-little-resigns. There is evidence that there were unwritten quotas in hiring Jewish employees in at least one UM department: Jenner Hodges to Samuel Lipsky, October 2, 1939, President’s Records, box 265, folder: Topical Files, 1991–1992, Minority Affairs, Jewish Community, BHL; Jenner Hodges to Samuel Lipsky, February 1, 1940, President’s Records, box 265, folder: Topical Files, 1991–1992, Minority Affairs, Jewish Community, BHL.

28. Ibram H. Rogers, The Black Campus Movement: Black Students and the Racial Reconstitution of Higher Education, 1965–1972 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 18; Henry Vance Davis, “From Coloreds to African-Americans: A History of the Struggle for Educational Equity at the University of Michigan and an Agenda for the Pluralistic Multicultural University of the Twenty-First Century,” in Sankofa: The University since BAM: Twenty Years of Progress? Conference Report, ed. Henry Vance Davis (Ann Arbor: Office of Minority Affairs, 1991), 33. Population data comes from Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, “Table 37: Michigan-Race and Hispanic Origin: 1880 to 1990,” Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic Origins, 1970 to 1990, for the United States, Regions, Divisions, and States (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2002), 55, https://www.census.gov//content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2002/demo/POP-twps0056.pdf.

29. These insights come from Lani Guinier, The Tyranny of the Meritocracy: Democratizing Higher Education in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 2015), 23, 40.

30. Jeffrey Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1907–81 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 191, 255.

31. Historical certification reports for Detroit schools can be found in Bureau of School Services Records, 1871–1992, boxes 36–48, BHL.

32. Smith, “Freshman Admissions of the University of Michigan”; Smith, “Reminiscences of a Registrar”; Thelin, History of American Higher Education, 261.

33. The President’s Report for 1945–1946 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1946), 195–96, http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015005494730;view=1up;seq=199; Laura M. Calkins, “The Origins of the Modern Multiversity at Michigan: Politics and Discourse on Race, Religion, and Gender, 1940–52,” Laura Calkins Papers, box 1, folder: Reports and Articles, BHL. For Lawrie’s position at the university, see “Alumnae Leaders Discuss Fellowship Programs,” Michigan Alumnus 42, no. 2 (October 12, 1935): 272.

34. Harlan H. Hatcher, transcript of taped interview, December 1992, March 1992, Harlan Hatcher Papers, box 60, folder: Autobiographical-Interview, 1990–1992-Transcript, Tapes 1–3, BHL.

35. Hatcher, transcript of taped interview.

36. Informational Memorandum on Literary College Activities Bearing on Admissions Policy, June 12, 1956, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Records, box 319, folder: Committee on Admissions, BHL.

37. Informational Memorandum on Literary College Activities Bearing on Admissions Policy; Report of the Committee on Admissions, L.S.&A; Faculty Minutes, 1955–56, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Records, box 206; Roger W. Heyns, Memorandum to Vice-President Marvin L. Niehuss, “Experimental Use of Pre-Admissions Examinations for Freshmen Enrolling in This College in 1961–63,” December 16, 1959, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Records, box 319, folder: Admissions Examinations (Report to Niehuss), BHL; “Student Quality, Freshman Grades, and the Admissions Problem at the University of Michigan, 1958,” Evaluation and Examinations Division Records, box 4, folder: Correspondence and Revisions to Report “Academic Quality of Entering Freshmen and the Admissions Problem,” BHL.

38. College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Executive Committee Minutes and Statistical Studies, 1960–61, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 298, BHL.

39. Hatcher, transcript of taped interview.

40. Press release, June 29, 1981, News and Information Services Faculty and Staff Files, box 133, BHL.

41. David Marcus, “Change Affects New Freshmen,” Michigan Daily, February 20, 1963.

42. Biographical Information: Benno G. Fricke, September 1964, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 45, folder: Fricke, Benno G., BHL; E. Lowell Kelly, “The Bureau of Psychological Services,” The University of Michigan: An Encyclopedic Survey (Ann Arbor: Bentley Historical Library, 1977), 163–67; “For Release after 1:30 P.M. Tuesday, March 24, 1959,” News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 45, folder: Fricke, Benno G., BHL; “For Release after 9:30 A.M. Tuesday, September 2, 1958,” News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 45, folder: Fricke, Benno G., BHL; “Academic and Test Performance of Certain University of Michigan Freshmen,” 1956, Evaluation and Examinations Division Records, box 4, folder: Fricke, Benno: Reports, Data, Tables and Correspondence Related to Freshmen Testing, BHL.

43. “Academic and Test Performance of Certain University of Michigan Freshmen, 1956,” Evaluation and Examinations Division Records, box 4, folder: Fricke, Benno: Reports, Data, Tables and Correspondence Related to Freshmen Testing, BHL.

44. “Student Quality, Freshman Grades, and the Admissions Problem at the University of Michigan, 1958,” Evaluation and Examinations Division Records, box 4, folder: Correspondence and Revisions to Report “Academic Quality of Entering Freshmen and the Admissions Problem,” BHL.

45. “Student Quality, Freshman Grades, and the Admissions Problem at the University of Michigan.”

46. Hatcher, transcript of taped interview.

47. “For Release after 9:30 A.M. Tuesday, September 2, 1958,” News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 45, folder: Fricke, Benno G., BHL; “For Release after 1:30 P.M. Tuesday, March 24, 1959,” News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 45, folder: Fricke, Benno G., BHL.

48. Census of Negro Students, Fall Semester 1963–1964, Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census, BHL; “Some Characteristics of Negro Freshmen at the University of Michigan,” Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census 1963, BHL.

49. All the faculty meeting minutes and reports available suggest that eugenics or race didn’t infuse discussions about admissions in the 1920s.

50. Lemann, Big Test, 155–65; Mirel, Rise and Fall of an Urban School System, 255–60.

51. “Medic Admission Policy Defended,” Ann Arbor News, March 9, 1950, Laura Calkins Papers, box 1, folder: Provost Documents, BHL; Lisa M. Stulberg and Anthony S. Chen, “The Origins of Race-Conscious Affirmative Action in Undergraduate Admissions: A Comparative Analysis of Institutional Change in Higher Education,” Sociology of Education 87, no. 1 (2014): 36–52.

52. Calkins, “Origins of the Modern Multiversity at Michigan.”

53. Calkins, “Origins of the Modern Multiversity at Michigan”; To Secure These Rights: The Report of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1947). For an explanation of the rise of racial liberalism, see Leah N. Gordon, From Power to Prejudice: The Rise of Racial Individualism in Midcentury America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015); Walter Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938–1987 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).

54. “Medic Admission Policy Defended.”

55. Calkins, “Origins of the Modern Multiversity at Michigan.”

56. Calkins, “Origins of the Modern Multiversity at Michigan”; Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 33, 286, 292.

57. Census of Negro Students, Fall Semester 1963–1964, Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census, BHL; “Some Characteristics of Negro Freshmen at the University of Michigan,” Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census 1963, BHL; Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 23.

58. Report of the Committee on Intercultural Relations, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Committee on Intercultural Relations, BHL; Center for International Student Affairs … A Prospectus to The Ford Foundation, International Center Records, box 11, folder: Student Relations: International House 1945–1955, BHL; The President’s Report for 1953–1954 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1954), 6.

59. Committee on Admissions Policy, June 27, 1945, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Admission (2-1), BHL; Committee on Admissions Policy, July 18, 1945, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Admission (2-1), BHL; Committee on Admissions Policy, July 25, 1945, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Minutes Committee on Intercultural Relations, 1943–1945, BHL; Committee on Intercultural Relations Meeting, April 30, 1946, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Minutes Committee on Intercultural Relations, 1943–1945, BHL; Committee on Intercultural Relations Meeting, May 28, 1940, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Minutes Committee on Intercultural Relations, 1943–1945, BHL; Earnest Boyco, Robert S. Ford, and Albert H. Marckwardt to Esson M. Gale, May 3, 1951, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Comm. on Intercultural 1946–1963, BHL.

60. The President’s Report for 1951–1952 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1952), 88; “A General Plan for Meeting the Needs of Postwar International Education,” International Center Records, box 2, folder: Minutes Committee on Intercultural Relations, 1943–1945, BHL; “Fostering Intercultural Relations through the Interchange of Students and Teachers,” International Center Records, box 2, folder: Minutes Committee on Intercultural Relations, 1943–1945, BHL; “International Center Spring Manual, 1949,” International Center Records, box 19, folder: International Center Printed Manuals: International Center Manual 1949–1950, BHL.

61. “The International Center,” International Center Records, box 19, folder: International Center Printed Pamphlets, The International Center 1942–1945, BHL; Center for International Student Affairs, A Prospectus to The Ford Foundation, International Center Records, box 11, folder: Student Relations: International House 1945–1955, BHL; Friends International Center, International Center Records, box 11, folder: Student Relations: Housing: Friend’s Center, BHL; International House as an All University International Center, January 17, 1958, International Center Records, box 11, folder: Student Relations: International House 1958, BHL.

62. Proposed Minutes of the February 13, 1961, Faculty Meeting of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1960–1961, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 207, BHL; Proposed Minutes of the March 2, 1964, Faculty Meeting of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, L.S.&A Faculty Minutes, 1963–64, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 207, BHL.

63. Report of the Executive Committee of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts to be Presented at the Meeting of the Faculty on Monday, March 7, 1960, L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1959–60, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Records, box 207, BHL; Proposed Minutes of the November 2, 1959, Faculty Meeting of the College of Literature, Science & the Arts, L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1959–60, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Records, box 207, BHL; Proposed Minutes of the February 13, 1961, Faculty Meeting of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1960–1961, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 207, BHL.

64. The President’s Report for 1945–1946 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1946), 5, 195–96; The President’s Report for 1946–1947 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1947), 9, 214, 225; Committee on Admissions Policy, August 8, 1945, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Admission (2-1), BHL; Committee on Admissions Policy, July 25, 1945, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Minutes Committee on Intercultural Relations, 1943–1945, BHL; Information for Prospective Freshmen, 1946, Office of Undergraduate Admissions, box 1, folder Leaflet-Admissions of Freshmen, BHL.

65. Conference on Foreign Student Problems and Adjustment, Chicago, April 29, 30, and May 1, 1946, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Comm. on Intercultural 1946–1963, BHL; Report of the Committee to Study the Academic Performance of Athletes in the Literary College, L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1959–60, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Records, box 207, BHL; “January Meeting, 1946,” Proceedings of the Board of Regents (1945–1948), 191–93.

66. The President’s Report for 1920–1921, 122; The President’s Report for 1932–1933, 223; The President’s Report for 1921–1922, 142; Michigan: Her Athletic Record, Facilities for Physical Education, the Men Who Supervise the Program, and the Progress They Have Made (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1929).

67. Peckham, Making of the University of Michigan, 190; Davis, “From Colored to African-Americans”; Calkins, “Origins of the Modern Multiversity at Michigan.” For a national context of discrimination in this period, see Rogers, Black Campus Movement, 9–28.

68. “Assignment of Negroes in South, East, and West Quadrangles,” 1958, Housing Division Records, box 1, folder: Residence Halls-Discrimination Issue, 1958; BHL University of Michigan Survey Research Center, Campus Attitudes toward Minority Groups (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1949).

69. “Plan to Open SL Office for Bias Hearing,” Michigan Daily, April 15, 1949; Bob Keith, “SL Asks for Time Limit on Fraternity Bias Clause,” Michigan Daily, November 16, 1950; Rich Thomas, “SL Passes New Anti-Bias Motion,” Michigan Daily, December 14, 1950; “Fraternities Attempt Removal of Bias Clauses,” Michigan Daily, October 9, 1951; Herb Heindenreich to Harlan Hatcher, March 8, 1962, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 6, folder: James A. Lewis, Topical, Human Relations Board (Race Discrimination), 1958–1963, BHL; “Hatcher Restates Bias Stand,” Michigan Daily, February 23, 1963; Report on Interview with Mr. Frank Staffan, 1963, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 6, folder: James A. Lewis, Topical, Human Relations Board (Race Discrimination), 1958–1963, BHL; Report on Telephoning of Landlords, May 1961 Project, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 6, folder: James A. Lewis, Topical, Human Relations Board (Race Discrimination), 1958–1963, BHL; Suzanne M. Meyer, Report of Human Relations Counselor, May 23, 1962, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 6, folder: James A. Lewis, Topical, Human Relations Board (Race Discrimination), 1958–1963, BHL.

70. Dave Chudwin, “HRC Asks Rent Bias Hearing,” Michigan Daily, April 17, 1969.

71. Kenneth F. Herrold, “Evaluation and Research in Group Dynamics,” Educational and Psychological Measurement 10 (1950): 493; Bert Raven, “Workshop Planning and Evaluation—a Problem-Solving Approach,” Journal of Education Sociology 26, no. 7 (March 1953): 318–19.

72. Heindenreich to Hatcher, March 8, 1962; “Hatcher Restates Bias Stand,” 1; “Human Relations Board to Study Discrimination,” Michigan Daily, November 1, 1955.

73. “November Meeting, 1959,” Proceedings of the Board of Regents (1957–1960), 1099.

74. George Palmer to James E. Lewis, May 22, 1958, Housing Division Records, box 1, BHL; “November Meeting, 1959,” 1099.

75. Edd Miller to Roger Heyns, November 19, 1963, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL; E. G. Williamson to Vice President Roger W. Heyns, October 22, 1963, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL; “For Release at 12 Noon, Thursday, March 5, 1964,” Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL; Harlan Hatcher, “The State of the University,” Michigan Quarterly Review 3, no. 1 (Winter 1964): 1–7; Nancy Sundheim, “Tutorial Project Is Helping Culturally Deprived Children,” Michigan Daily, September 2, 1965.

76. “Related Data on Negroes,” Michigan Daily, February 23, 1963. Henry Johnson became the first black executive administrators in 1972: “VP’s Top Priority Is Minorities,” Michigan Daily, August 22, 1972, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 65, BHL.

77. William H. Boone, “Problems of Adjustment of Negro Students at a White School,” Journal of Negro Education 11, no. 4 (October 1942): 481.

78. Marshall B. Clinard and Donald L. Noel, “Role Behavior of Students from Negro Colleges in a Non-segregated University Situation,” Journal of Negro Education 27, no. 2 (Spring 1958): 183–84.

1. Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Fall 1967, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports, 67–69, BHL; Census of Negro Students, Fall Semester 1963–1964, Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census, BHL; “Some Characteristics of Negro Freshmen at the University of Michigan,” Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census 1963, BHL.

2. Thomas J. Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945–1969,” Journal of American History 91, no. 1 (2004): 148–52.

3. Terry H. Anderson, The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 19–27, 35–42, 50–51; Timothy M. Thurber, “Racial Liberalism, Affirmative Action, and the Troubled History of the President’s Committee on Government Contracts,” Journal of Policy History 18, no. 4 (2006): 446–76.

4. Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness, 24–48, 56; Thurber, “Racial Liberalism, Affirmative Action,” 446–76.

5. Matthew J. Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 83, 104–10. Examples of similar protests outside Philadelphia in the early 1960s can be found in Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness, 58; Quintard Taylor, “The Civil Rights Movement in the American West: Black Protest in Seattle, 1960–1970,” Journal of Negro History 80 (Winter 1995): 4; Patrick D. Jones, “ ‘Get Up Off Your Knees!’: Competing Visions of Black Empowerment in Milwaukee during the Civil Rights Era,” in Neighborhood Rebels: Black Power at the Local Level, ed. Peniel Joseph, 56–58 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Thomas Sugrue, “The Tangled Roots of Affirmative Action,” American Behavioral Scientist 41, no. 7 (1998): 891.

6. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 265–66; “1960 Democratic Party Platform,” American Presidency Project, July 11, 1960, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/1960-democratic-party-platform.

7. Hobart Taylor, interview by Stephen Goodell; Hobart Taylor, interview by Ed Edwin, April 2, 1977, transcript, Hobart Taylor Papers, box 1, folder: Personal, Oral History Interview, Middleburg, Virginia, 1977, BHL.

8. Richard L. Zweigenhaft and G. William Domhoff, Diversity in the Power Elite: How It Happened, Why It Matters (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), 95; Hobart Taylor Jr., interview by John F. Steward, January 11, 1967, transcript, Hobart Taylor Papers, box 1, folder: Personal, Oral History Interview, John F. Kennedy Library, 1967 (1), BHL.

9. Hobart Taylor, interview by Ed Edwin.

10. Hobart Taylor, interview by Stephen Goodell; John F. Kennedy, “Executive Order 10925,” March 6, 1961, http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/history/35th/thelaw/eo-10925.html.

11. Jennifer Delton, Racial Integration in Corporate America, 1940–1990 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 178–79; David Hamilton Golland, Constructing Affirmative Action: The Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011), 48–49; Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness, 64–65.

12. Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), 162; Golland, Constructing Affirmative Action, 48; Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 277–78; Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 143–44.

13. Much of the scholarship on activism for jobs in the 1950s and early 1960s has focused on access to blue-collar jobs. One exception is Steven Gelber, Black Men and Businessmen: The Growing Awareness of a Social Responsibility (Port Washington, NY: National University Publication, 1974), 123–38. For Taylor’s speeches, see Hobart Taylor, “Commencement Address at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College,” May 21, 1961, Hobart Taylor Papers, box 1, folder: Addresses, Speeches, and Remarks, 1961–1962, BHL; Hobart Taylor Jr., “Equal Employment Opportunity,” in Proceedings of New York University Fifteenth Annual Conference on Labor, ed. Emanuel Stein, 35–36 (New York: New York University, 1962); Hobart Taylor Papers, box 1, folder: Addresses, Speeches, and Remarks, 1961–1962, BHL.

14. Taylor, “Commencement Address at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College,” May 21, 1961, Hobart Taylor Papers, box 1, folder: Addresses, Speeches, and Remarks, 1961–1962, BHL; Taylor, “Equal Employment Opportunity,” 35–36, Hobart Taylor Papers, box 1, folder: Addresses, Speeches, and Remarks, 1961–1962, BHL; Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 277.

15. Kenneth E. Redd, “Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Making a Comeback,” New Directions for Higher Education 102 (Summer 1998): 35; Enrest M. Collins, “Integration in the State-Supported Colleges and Universities of the South: The Extent of Progress,” Journal of Higher Education 32, no. 5 (May 1961): 241; U.S. Census Bureau, “Table A-1: School Enrollment of the Population 3 Years Old and Over, by Level and Control of School, Race, and Hispanic Origin: October 1955 to 2017,” https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/demo/tables/school-enrollment/time-series/cps-historical-time-series/tablea-1.xlsx.

16. A 1963 PCEEO report suggests that Taylor’s first interventions on university campuses were at the University of Michigan and Wayne State University (President’s Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity, Report to the President [Washington, 1963], 109); Hugh Davis Graham and Nancy Diamond, The Rise of American Research Universities: Elites and Challengers in the Postwar Era (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 38; Paul D. Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action: Fair Employment Law and Policy in America, 1933–1972 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), 188–89; Golland, Constructing Affirmative Action, 41–42; University of Michigan Board of Regents, “March Meeting 1962,” Proceedings of the Board of Regents (1960–1963), 646; “Race Records Not Available,” Michigan Daily, March 17, 1962, 1.

17. “Students, the University of Michigan and Discrimination,” 1960, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 6, folder: James A. Lewis, Topical, Human Relations Board (Race Discrimination) 1958–1963, BHL; “Race Records Not Available”; University of Michigan Board of Regents, “March Meeting 1962,” 646.

18. Gloria Bowles, “Labor Records: ‘U’ to Study Minorities,” Michigan Daily, January 4, 1963, 1; Minutes of the Academic Affairs Advisory Council, January 9, 1963, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Academic Affairs Advisory Council Minutes, 1962–1963, BHL; Bowles, “ ‘U’ to Study Minorities.”

19. “Related Data on Negroes,” Michigan Daily, February 23, 1963, 1; Ralph Gibson, Report Submitted to President Fleming and Members of the Senate, Spring 1968, Assistant to the President Records, box 38, folder: Academic Advisory Committee-Black Students, BHL. PCEEO was not the first agency to do this. While the PCEEO enjoyed more power to collect employment data, Eisenhower’s PCGC understood the limitations of the individual complaint model as early as 1954 and began using workforce data to challenge companies claims that they weren’t discriminating and to push companies beyond token hiring. Thurber, “Racial Liberalism, Affirmative Action,” 454–55; Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action, 181–89; Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 269.

20. James A. Lewis to the President’s Staff, RE: Report—Equal Employment Opportunity Program, May 4, 1966, Vice President Winfred A. Harbison Papers, Walter Reuther Library, Wayne State University, hereafter WRL. The topics of these meetings were later recounted in Inter-University Conference on the Negro in Higher Education, October 21, 1963, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL.

21. Golland, Constructing Affirmative Action, 41; Hobart Taylor, interview by Stephen Goodell, January 6, 1969, transcript, Hobart Taylor Papers, box 1, folder: Personal, Oral History Interview, The University of Texas, 1969, BHL. Emphasis in original.

22. Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Fall 1967, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports, 67–69, BHL. Scholars who emphasize PfP’s failures include Nancy MacLean, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 44; Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action, 197; Golland, Constructing Affirmative Action, 44–50. Jennifer Delton brings to light some of the successes of PfP in Racial Integration in Corporate America, 189–91.

23. Stephen Spurr, who also attended, recounted the meeting eight years later in S. H. Spurr, Draft, April 22, 1970, President’s Records, box 12, folder: Black (Faculty/Students, re), BHL; A. H. Wheeler, NAACP Position Paper on University Student Black Action Movement, March 21, 1970, Center for AfroAmerican and African Studies Records, box 1, folder: BAM, Selected Documents, 1970–1987, BHL. Wheeler describes the same meeting at a recorded conference in 1980: “Prof. Wheeler Foster, Mood, Stone, ‘U of M a Decade After BAM,’ ” Center for AfroAmerican and African Studies Records, box 28, BHL; Roger W. Heyns, interview by Harriet Nathan, Berkeley, 1987, in Berkeley Chancellor, 1965–1971: The University in a Turbulent Society, 54–56, https://archive.org/details/berkeleychancellor00heynrich; Vice-President to Francis A. Kornegay, February 28, 1963, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Tuskegee Institute, 1962–63, BHL.

24. Timothy J. Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 50–51.

25. “Cites Result of Program,” Michigan Daily, June 25, 1963, 1. For concerns about unemployed and underemployed African American youth in cities, see a brief description of the meeting in University of Michigan Board of Regents, “June Meeting, 1963,” Proceedings of the Board of Regents (1960–1963), 1218–19.

26. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 222; Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below,” 161–62; Sugrue, “Tangled Roots of Affirmative Action,” American Behavioral Scientist, 892. For examinations of protests outside Philadelphia, see Brian Purnell, “ ‘The Revolution Has Come to Brooklyn’: Construction Trades Protests and the Negro Revolt of 1963,” in Black Power at Work: Community Control, Affirmative Action, and the Construction Industry, ed. David Goldberg and Trevor Griffey, 1–47 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010); Julie Rabig, “ ‘The Laboratory of Democracy’: Construction Industry Racism in Newark and the Limits of Liberalism, ” in Goldberg and Griffey, Black Power at Work, 48–67.

27. Golland, Constructing Affirmative Action, 50–58; Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 269–70; Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below,” 164; “Supplemental Message on Civil Rights,” June 14, 1963, Papers of John F. Kennedy, Presidential Papers, President’s Office Files, series: Subjects, folder: Civil Rights: General, June 1963: 14–30, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKPOF-097–003.aspx. Just days before Kennedy brought education leaders to the White House, Theodore Sorensen, Kenney’s special counsel, was crafting one of Kennedy’s many 1963 speeches on civil rights. The speech reiterated what Hobart Taylor had been suggesting for the past year: that the United States needed to expand educational opportunities for African Americans because “too many … are equipped to work in those occupations where technology and other changes have reduced the need for manpower.” John F. Kennedy, “Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights and Job Opportunities,” June 19, 1963, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=9283.

28. Harlan Hatcher’s September 30, 1963, speech was reprinted months later as “The State of the University,” Michigan Quarterly Review 3 (Winter 1964): 1–7. Hatcher also admitted in a 1992 interview that his meeting with Kennedy played an important role in what he called the university’s “first efforts … to incorporate … the Black group.” See Harlan H. Hatcher, interview by Enid H. Galler, December 1991, March 1992, transcript, Harlan Hatcher Papers, box 60, folder: Autobiographical-Interview, 1990–1992-Transcript, Tapes 4–8, BHL.

29. Harlan Hatcher, “The State of the University,” Michigan Quarterly Review 3, no. 1 (Winter 1964): 1–7.

30. “Sain Gets Entrance Job at ‘U,’ ” Michigan Daily, September 13, 1963, 1; Leonard Sain, Résumé, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 112, folder: Sain, Leonard, BHL; H. Neil Berkson, “ ‘Small Number’: Surveys Negroes at ‘U,’ ” Michigan Daily, February 16, 1964, 1.

31. Berkson, “ ‘Small Number.’ ”

32. Harlan Hatcher, 1963 date book, Harlan Hatcher Papers, box 60, folder: Autobiographical-Yearly Datebooks-1962–1969, BHL; Heyns is quoted in “Inter-University Conference on the Negro in Higher Education”; Harlan Hatcher, “Michigan and Tuskegee,” Michigan Quarterly Review, Summer 1964, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Black Student Demands, 1970, BHL. For a few examples of other universities that embarked on similar exchange programs in the early 1960s, see Stanley S. Scott, “Spelman Students Return,” Atlantic Daily World, March 3, 1961, 1; “Plan Exchange Program with Negro College,” Chicago Daily Defender, February 20, 1962, 3; “Oberlin and Negro College Plan a Student Exchange,” New York Times, November 7, 1963, 42; “Barnard Students in 2nd Exchange Program,” Chicago Defender, March 3, 1962, 19; “Four Study at Negro Schools,” Los Angeles Times, March 31, 1963, SG10.

33. Census of Negro Students, Fall Semester 1963–1964, Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census, BHL; Warner Rice to Leonard Sain, April 6, 1964, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL; School of Education Faculty Meeting Minutes, January 1964, Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census Correspondence; Notecard, December 17, 1963, Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census Correspondence, BHL.

34. Census of Negro Students, Fall Semester 1963–1964, Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census, BHL; Some Characteristics of Negro Freshmen at the University of Michigan, Opportunity Award Program Records, box 1, folder: Student Census 1963, BHL. For the percentage of black athletes in the first-year student class, see John Chavis, “Words on the Tenth Anniversary of the Opportunity Program: The University of Michigan,” November 14, 1974, 2, John Chavis Papers, box 1, BHL; Berkson, “ ‘Small Number’ ”; “The President’s Report for 1963–1964,” 316, 327.

35. Suzanne M. Meyer to Dr. James Lewis, November 13, 1963, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 6, folder: James A. Lewis, Topical, Human Relations Board (Race Discrimination) 1958–1963, BHL; University of Michigan Board of Regents, “October Meeting 1964,” Proceedings of the Board of Regents, (1963–1966), 563, http://quod.lib.umich.edu/u/umregproc/ACW7513.1963.001/577?rgn=full+text;view=pdf.

36. Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness, 76–80. For the best analysis of attacks on early fair employment legislation, see Anthony Chen, The Fifth Freedom: Jobs, Politics, and Civil Rights in the United States, 1941–1972 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 88–114; Lisa M. Stulberg and Anthony S. Chen, “The Origins of Race-Conscious Affirmative Action in Undergraduate Admissions: A Comparative Analysis of Institutional Change in Higher Education,” Sociology of Education 87, no. 1 (January 2014): 39; Howard Ball, The Bakke Case: Race, Education, and Affirmative Action (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000); Dennis Deslippe, Protesting Affirmative Action: The Struggle over Equality After the Civil Rights Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 111–49.

37. Stulberg and Chen, “Origins of Race-Conscious Affirmative Action in Undergraduate Admissions,” 39–43.

38. “ACE Plans Aid Programs for Negroes,” Michigan Daily, October 19, 1963, 1; “Education Unit Aims to Widen Negro Scope,” Washington Post, October 4, 1963, A13; “Inter-University Conference on the Negro in Higher Education.”

39. Berkson, “ ‘Small Number’ ”; “For Release at 12 Noon, Thursday March 5, 1964,” Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs Records, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL; Leonard Sain to Anne H. Gray, June 30, 1964, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL.

40. Roger W. Heyns to Hobart Taylor, February 8, 1964, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL; W. K. McInally to Roger Heyns, January 24, 1964, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 1, folder: Negro, re 1963–1964, BHL.

41. The University of Michigan Opportunity Award Program, 1964–1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Chavis, John, BHL; John Chavis to VP Allan Smith, November 25, 1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 14, folder: Chavis, John, BHL; John Chavis Biographical Data, John Chavis Papers, box 1, folder: Biographical Info, BHL.

42. University Steering Committee on the Development of Academic Opportunities, Racial Origin Survey, January 1967, Housing Division Records, box 1, folder: Academic Opportunities (Minorities), BHL; John M. Allen to Professor Norman R. Scott, November 7, 1966, Housing Division Records, box 1, folder: Academic Opportunities (Minorities), BHL.

43. John Brubacher, Higher Education in Transition: A History of American Colleges and Universities (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1997), 369.

44. Draft, December 9, 1968, John Chavis Papers, box 1, folder: Opportunity Award Programs, 1965–1968, BHL; Z. A. Johnson to Dr. Vroman, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, box 7, folder: Admissions, BHL; Goodman recounted these practices in a public talk in 1980: George Goodman, “Black Students at U of M in the 1970’s,” February 13, 1980, Tape 1, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies, box 28, BHL.

45. Draft, December 9, 1968, John Chavis Papers, box 1, folder: Opportunity Award Programs, 1965–1968, BHL; Z. A. Johnson to Dr. Vroman, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, box 7, folder: Admissions, BHL; Goodman recounted these practices in a public talk in 1980: George Goodman, “Black Students at U of M in the 1970’s,” February 13, 1980, Tape 1, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies, box 28, BHL.

46. Ruth Eckstein, “Black Opportunity Undergraduates at the University of Michigan, 1964–1970: A Retrospective View,” August 15, 1971, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Black Opportunity Undergraduates at the University of Michigan, 1964–1970, BHL; “The University of Michigan Opportunity Award Program, 1964–1968,” Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Chavis, John, BHL.

47. For an explanation of the difference between “soft” and “hard” programs, see Stulberg and Chen, “Origins of Race-Conscious Affirmative Action in Undergraduate Admissions,” 38.

48. Judith Barnett, “Program Seeks to Help Negro Students,” Michigan Daily, April 26, 1964, 1; Philip Sutin, “Heyns Reveals New Plan to Assist ‘Disadvantaged,’ ” Michigan Daily, March 6, 1964, 1; “The Opportunity Award Program,” 1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Opportunity Awards Program: W. L. Cash, 1968–71, BHL; “The Need to Recruit Poor Cited at U-M,” Ann Arbor News, January 11, 1967, 2.

49. UM administrators didn’t begin tracking the race of all university students until 1967, when HEW began requiring annual compliance reports: Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil rights Act of 1964, Fall 1967, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports, 67–69, BHL.

50. “Need to Recruit Poor Cited at U-M,” Michigan Daily, January 11, 1967, 2; John Chavis to Vice President Allan Smith, Subject: Opportunity Award Program, June 7, 1968, President’s Records, box 4, folder: Opportunity Award Program, BHL.

51. Nellie Varner and George Goodman to Coordinating Committee for Human Relations, February 18, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 60, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Admissions Office: Opportunity Program Office Changes, Sept. 1975–July 1979 and undated, BHL.

52. “Black Opportunity Undergraduates at the University of Michigan, 1964–1970”; “Draft,” December 9, 1968, John Chavis Papers, box 1, BHL.

53. This 1965 study was summarized in “Patricia O’Connor and Doris Miller to Members of the University Steering Committee on the Development of Academic Opportunities,” December 9, 1966, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Committees-University Steering Committee on development of Academic Opportunities II, BHL.

54. “Patricia O’Connor and Doris M. Miller to Members of the University Steering Committee on the Development of Academic Opportunities,” December 9, 1966, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Committees-University Steering Committee on Development of Academic Opportunities II, BHL; Doris Miller, “The Relationship between Achiever Personality Scores and Grade Point Average for Opportunity Award Students,” 1966, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Committees-University Steering Committee on Development of Academic Opportunities II, BHL.

55. Ruth Eckstein, “The State of the Opportunity Undergraduate Enrollment, Fall 1972,” November 17, 1972, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Opportunity Program: Enrollment of Minority Students, 1969–73, BHL; LSA Minority Student Attrition Study, April 8, 1973, Thomas A. Butts Papers, box 1, folder: OFA, Student Loan Programs, Minority Projections since BAM (Black Action Movement, 1972–1973), BHL; Outline of Discussion with Regents on Attrition of Minority Undergraduate Students, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Minority Reports: Miscellaneous U. of M. Reports and Memos (includes notes), June 1975–March 1980, BHL.

56. Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil rights Act of 1964, Fall 1967, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports, 67–69, BHL.

57. Walter Greene to Harlan Hatcher, June 28, 1966, Marvin L. Niehuss Paperes, box 28, folder: Compliance Review, BHL; “The Civil Rights Act of 1964,” National Archives, https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/civil-rights-act-of-1964; Christopher Loss, Between Citizens and the State: The Politics of American Higher Education in the 20th Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 171–76.

58. “For Immediate Release,” March 19, 1967, John Chavis Papers, box 1, folder: Correspondence, BHL.

59. Recommendations for Broadening Equal Opportunities under Provisions of Title VI, Civil Rights Bill, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Equal Employment Opportunity Report, 1967–68, BHL.

60. Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness, 92; Walter Greene to Harlan Hatcher, September 13, 1966, Marvin L. Niehuss Papers, box 28, folder: Niehuss: Compliance Review, 1966–1968, BHL; Jack H. Hamilton to Executive Vice President Marvin Niehuss, Re: Title VII, Civil Rights Act, 1964, Compliance Review Report, March 7, 1967, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Equal Employment Opportunity Report, 1967–68, BHL.

61. Bryce Nelson, Michigan: Ruckus over Race Has Relevance to Other Universities, Science, June 2, 1967, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Equal Employment Opportunity Report, 1967–68, BHL.

62. Nelson, Michigan, BHL.

63. Jack H. Hamilton to Executive Vice President Marvin Niehuss, Re: Title VII, Civil Rights Act, 1964, Compliance Review Report, March 7, 1967, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Equal Employment Opportunity Report, 1967–68, BHL.

64. Hamilton to Niehuss, Re: Title VII, Civil Rights Act, 1964, BHL; “Patricia O’Connor and Doris Miller to Members of the University Steering Committee on the Development of Academic Opportunities,” December 9, 1966, BHL; Doris Miller, “The Relationship between Achiever Personality Scores and Grade Point Average for Opportunity Award Students,” December 9, 1966, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Committees-University Steering Committee on Development of Academic Opportunities II, BHL; Hamilton to Niehuss, March 7, 1967, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Equal Employment Opportunity Report, 1967–68, BHL.

1. Terry Anderson, The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to Wounded Knee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 39. Robert Cohen’s Freedom’s Orato: Mario Salvo and the Radical Legacy of the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 2.

2. Anderson, Movement and the Sixties, 160–61.

3. Cohen, Freedom’s Orator, 2; David Farber, The Age of Great Dreams: America in the 1960s (New York: Hill and Wang, 1994), 78, 156; Bill Ayers, Fugitive Days: Memoirs of an Antiwar Activist (Boston: Beacon Press, 2009), 39–58; Howard H. Peckham, The Making of the University of Michigan, 1817–1992 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 290–93.

4. “Remembering BAM,” Ann Arbor News, March 25, 1990, Vice Provost for Multicultural Affairs, box 4, folder: BAM, BHL; Joy Ann Williamson, Black Power on Campus: The University of Illinois, 1965–75 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 1. For more background on Black Power’s fundamental principles and their influence on college campuses, see Peniel E. Joseph, “The Black Power Movement: A State of the Field,” Journal of American History (December 2009): 752–53; Peniel Joseph, “Dashikis and Democracy: Black Studies, Student Activism, and the Black Power Movement,” Journal of African American History 88, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 182–203; Ibram H. Rogers, “The Black Campus Movement: The Case for a New Historiography,” The Sixties: A Journal of History, Politics and Culture 4, no. 2 (December 2011): 171–86. For the best treatment of Black Power’s adaptation of colonial critiques, see Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 215–327.

5. Donna Jean Murch, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 103–11; Ibram H. Rogers, “The Black Campus Movement and the Institutionalization of Black Studies, 1965–1970,” Journal of African American Studies 16, no. 1 (March 2012): 23–24; Martha Biondi, The Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 31.

6. Sidney Fine, Violence in the Model City: The Cavanagh Administration, Race Relations, and the Detroit Riot of 1967 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2007), 1–125, 155–63, 291, 294, 299; Robben W. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler, Fall 1992, transcript, History and Traditions of the University Committee, box 1, folder: Robben Fleming, BHL.

7. Robben Fleming, Tempest into Rainbows: Managing Turbulence (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 158.

8. Matthew Levin, Cold War University: Madison and the New Left in the Sixties (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2013), 3–7; Fleming, Tempest into Rainbows, 150–51.

9. Fleming, Tempest into Rainbows, 113–21, 147–56; Bruce Weber, “Robben W. Fleming, University President in Turbulent Times, Dies at 93,” New York Times, January 21, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/22/education/22fleming.html; Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler, Fall 1992, transcript, History and Traditions of the University Committee, box 1, folder: Robben Fleming, BHL.

10. Fleming, Tempest into Rainbows, 158.

11. Levin, Cold War University, 149–59.

12. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler, Fall 1992, transcript, History and Traditions of the University Committee, box 1, folder: Robben Fleming, BHL.

13. Fleming, Tempest into Rainbows, 165.

14. “The History of the Negro American Petition,” March 29, 1968, CAAS, box 2, folder: BAM Conferences and Scholarship; Richard H. Ross, “Brief Chronological ‘The History of the Negro American’ Course (Black History Course) and the Early Stages of the Michigan Students Movement on Campus from 1966 to 1970,” Items #1–27, BHL; W. B. Wilcox, “To the Editor,” Michigan Daily, January 17, 1968, 4.

15. Henry Johnson became the first black vice president in 1972; UM didn’t host a black regent in the 1960s until 1967: Otis Smith, “G.M. Executive and Ex-Justice,” New York Times, June 30, 1974, 72, http://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/30/obituaries/otis-smith-72-gm-executive-and-ex-justice.html.

16. “Norman R. Scott,” University of Michigan Faculty History Project, https://www.lib.umich.edu/faculty-history/faculty/norman-r-scott/memoir; Norman R. Scott to President-Designate Robben W. Fleming, December 19, 1967, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Committees-University Steering Committee on Development of Academic Opportunities I, BHL; “Ralph M. Gibson,” University of Michigan Faculty History Project, http://www.lib.umich.edu/faculty-history/faculty/ralph-m-gibson/memoir; Norman Scott to Robben Fleming, July 24, 1967, John Chavis Papers, box 1, folder: Steering Committee for the Development of Academic Opportunities, 1965–1967, BHL; The University Steering Committee on the Development of Academic Opportunities, October 3, 1967, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Committees-University Steering Committee on Development of Academic Opportunities I, BHL; “Albert Wheeler,” in Sankofa: The University since BAM: Twenty Year of Progress? Conference Report, ed. Henry Vance Davis, 64 (Ann Arbor: Office of Minority Affairs, 1991).

17. A. H. Wheeler to Vice Presidents Smith and Pierpont and Steering Committee for Academic Opportunities, Subject: Equal Opportunities Program at the University of Michigan, May 9, 1967, Albert H. and Emma M. Wheeler Papers, box 6, folder: Steering Committee on Academic Opportunities, 1965–67, BHL.

18. The following article comments on Smith’s response to the committee’s policy recommendations: Marcia Abramson, “5 Hours for Grievances: King Shootings Sparks Building Seizure,” Michigan Daily, August 27, 1968, 3; Affirmative Action Plan, 1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Committees-University Steering Committee on Development of Academic Opportunities I, BHL; Allan F. Smith to Deans, Directors and Department Chairman, August 10, 1967, John Chavis Papers, box 1, folder: Steering Committee for the Development of Academic Opportunities, 1965–1967, BHL.

19. Marcia Abramson, “5 Hours for Grievances: King Shooting Sparks Building Seizure,” Michigan Daily, August 27, 1968, 3.

20. “For Release P.M. July 13, 1967,” July 10, 1967, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Equal Employment Opportunity Report, 1967–68, BHL; “Programs of the University of Michigan Related to Minority Groups,” April 16, 1968, Assistant to the President Records, box 38, folder: Black Students, 68–83, BHL; “An Administrative Internship Program for Juniors in Selected Negro Colleges,” President’s Records, box 1, folder: Affirmative Action Programs, BHL; Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Fund, Draft, July 19, 1968, Otis M. Smith Papers, box 2, folder: Regent Papers, Martin Luther King Memorial Scholarship Fund, 1968–1970, BHL.

21. Ibram H. Rogers, The Black Campus Movement: Black Students and the Racial Reconstitution of Higher Education, 1965–1972 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 96; Anderson, The Movement and the Sixties, 192; William Haber to Richard Ross, April 8, 1968, President’s Records, box 1, folder: Affirmative Action Programs, BHL.

22. Fleming started his job in January 1968. Robben Fleming, Tempest into Rainbows, 165; Abramson, “5 Hours for Grievances”; “Black Students: Action, Assurance after Lock-in,” Michigan Daily, August 27, 1968, 3.

23. Abramson, “5 Hours for Grievances,” 3.

24. Abramson, “5 Hours for Grievances.”

25. Marcia Abramson, “Black Student Demands: Finding the Answers,” Michigan Daily, May 16, 1968, 1; Henry Grix, “ ‘U’ May Formalize Black Studies,” Michigan Daily, August 14, 1968, 1.

26. Alvin M. Bentley to Robben Fleming, April 19, 1968, President’s Records, box 1, folder: Bentley, Alvin (Regent), BHL.

27. Otis Smith to President R. W. Fleming and Regents, April 11, 1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 11, folder: Negro, re 1967–1968, BHL.

28. “Michigan University Office Seized by Students,” New York Times, April 10, 1968, 66; Abramson, “Black Student Demands,” 1; Robben Fleming, “Statement on Student Unrest,” May 8, 1969, Otis M. Smith Papers, box 1, folder: Regent Papers, Administration, 1967–1971, BHL.

29. David Cunningham, “State versus Social Movement: FBI Counterintelligence Against the New Left,” States, Parties, and Social Movements (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 48; Anonymous to Director, FBI, Counterintelligence Program: Internal Security: Disruption of the New Left, June 1, 1968, Bret Enyon Papers, box 1, folder: Government Intelligence Activities COINTELPRO (Michigan) 1968, BHL; Friend of the University to Dear X, 1968, Bret Enyon Papers, box 1, folder: Government Intelligence Activities COINTELPRO (Michigan) 1968, BHL. The critical letters Fleming received can be found in: President’s Records, box 1, folder: Complaints (re President Fleming), BHL.

30. Questions & Answers: Information for the Use of Solicitors for the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Fund, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 16, folder: Martin Luther King Fund, 1968–69, BHL.

31. R. W. Fleming to Mr. Anthony G. De Lorenzo, December 20, 1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 51, folder: Martin Luther King Committee, 1968–69, BHL; James M. Roche to R. W. Fleming, May 9, 1969, Otis M. Smith Papers, box 2, folder: Regent Papers, Martin Luther King Memorial Scholarship Fund, 1968–1970, BHL; Robben W. Fleming to Mr. Henry Ford II, Draft, 1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 51, folder: Martin Luther King Committee, 1968–69, BHL; R. W. Fleming to James W. Roche, April 11, 1969, Otis M. Smith Papers, box 2, folder: Regent Papers, Martin Luther King Memorial Scholarship Fund, 1968–1970, BHL; Contribution to the University of Michigan Graduate School of Business, April 25, 1969, Otis M. Smith Papers, box 2, folder: Regent Papers, Martin Luther King Memorial Scholarship Fund, 1968–1970, BHL.

32. “William L. Cash,” University of Michigan Faculty History Project, https://www.lib.umich.edu/faculty-history/faculty/william-l-cash/memoir; “For Release Tuesday A.M. July 16, 1968,” July 15, 1968, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 20, folder: Cash, William L. Jr., BHL.

33. Minutes, April 10, 1968, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Executive Committee Minutes and Statistical Studies, 1967–68, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Records, box 300, BHL; J. Frank Yates, Curriculum Vitae, November 12, 2015, http://www.bus.umich.edu/FacultyBios/CV/jfyates.pdf.

34. George Goodman, “Black Students at U of M in the 1970’s,” February, 13, 1980, Tape 1, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records, box 28, BHL.

35. “For Immediate Release,” December 16, 1968, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 20, folder: Cash, William L. Jr., BHL.

36. Henry Grix, Honors Course: Black History Is Beautiful, Michigan Daily, July 17, 1968, 1; Henry Grix, “Efforts to Expand Black Studies Increase,” Michigan Daily, September 12, 1968, 1; “Harold Wright Cruse,” University of Michigan Faculty History Project, https://www.lib.umich.edu/faculty-history/faculty/harold-wright-cruse/memoir; Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, “Harold Cruse, Social Critic and Fervent Black Nationalist, Dies at 89,” New York Times, March 30, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/30/us/harold-cruse-social-critic-and-fervent-Black-nationalist-dies-at-89.html.

37. Sharon Weiner, ‘U’ Committee Plans Black Major, Michigan Daily, February 6, 1969, 1; Henry Grix, “ ‘U’ May Formalize Black Studies,” Michigan Daily, August 14, 1968, 1; Create Black Major, Michigan Daily, April 8, 1969, 1.

38. Henry Vance Davis, “From Coloreds to African-Americans: A History of the Struggle for Educational Equity at the University of Michigan and an Agenda for the Pluralistic Multicultural University of the Twenty-First Century,” in Sankofa: The University since BAM: Twenty Years of Progress? Conference Report, ed. Henry Vance Davis (Ann Arbor: Office of Minority Affairs, 1991); College of Literature, Science, and the Arts Black Students’ Union, “A Center for Afro-American Studies: A Proposal, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records,” box 16, folder: CAAS: Archives, History of the Center and Program, 1970–2000, BHL.

39. J. F. Yates, “Proposal for a Center for Afro-American Studies,” Madison Foster Papers, box 1, folder: BAM Strike, BHL; Rick Perloff, “Afro-American Center Considered,” Michigan Daily, February 9, 1969, 1.

40. Robben Fleming to Barbara W. Newell, November 7, 1968, University of Michigan Housing Division Records, box 7, BHL.

41. Robben Fleming, Statement on Student Unrest, May 8, 1969, Otis M. Smith Papers, box 1, folder: Regent Papers, Administration, 1967–1971; Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 348.

42. Fleming to Newell, November 7, 1968; Barbara Newell to John Feldkamp, November 12, 1968, Vice President for Student Affairs, box 9, BHL.

43. John Feldkamp to Barbara Newell, “Housing Issues Concerning Black Students,” January 2, 1969, Housing Division Records, box 7, BHL.

44. Williamson, Black Power on Campus, 30; “Black Students Win Many Demands After 38-Hour Bursar’s Office Sit-in,” Daily Northwestern, May 6, 1968, 2; Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus, 91–92; John Feldkamp to Barbara Newell, “Housing Issues concerning Black Students,” January 2, 1969, Housing Division Records, box 7, BHL. Martha Biondi also found that universities created similar living spaces that focused on cultural identity, rather than race, to get around legal problems.

45. John Feldkamp to Barbara Newell, Re: Housing Issues concerning Black Students, January 2, 1969, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 9, folder: B. W. Newell Administrative Student Organization Black Student Union, 1969–1970, BHL.

46. R. W. Fleming, Martin Luther King Jr. Commemoration Service, April 4, 1969, Robben W. Fleming Papers, box 19, folder: R. W. Fleming (Speeches) (Lists II), BHL.

47. Neil Paterson, “Blues Festival: Breathtaking Tour of a Very Rich Sound,” Michigan Daily, August 2, 1969, 2; Lindsay Chaney, “Black Arts Festival Intriguing,” Michigan Daily, November 16, 1969, 2. For work on African Americans’ place in popular culture, see William L. Van Deburg, Black Camelot: African-American Culture Heroes in Their Times, 1960–1980 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).

48. Fleming, Martin Luther King Jr. Commemoration Service.

49. Goodman recounts these problems in George Goodman, “Black Students at U of M in the 1970’s,” February 13, 1980, Tape 1, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records, box 28, BHL.

50. Notes on a Special Two-Year Curriculum for “High Academic Risk” Students, March 25, 1968, President’s Records, box 1, folder: Affirmative Action Programs, BHL; William L. Hays to Professor John Milholland, September 19, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Student Program, 69–70, BHL.

51. Notes on a Special Two-Year Curriculum for “High Academic Risk” Students; William L. Hays to Professor John Milholland, September 19, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Student Program, 69–70, BHL; Black Opportunity Undergraduates at the University of Michigan, 1964–1970: A Retrospective View, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 211, folder: Opportunity Program, 1971–72, BHL; Ruth Eckstein, “A Study of Black Opportunity Award Freshmen at the University of Michigan, 1964–1967,” January 30, 1969, John Chavis Papers, box 1, BHL; Patricia O’Connor and Doris Miller to Members of the University Steering Committee on the Development of Academic Opportunities, December 9, 1966, Housing Division Records, box 1, BHL.

52. “A Proposal for a Freshman Year of Studies Program,” July 9, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs Records, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Student Program, 69–70, BHL.

53. “Proposal for a Freshman Year of Studies Program.”

54. “Proposal for a Freshman Year of Studies Program.”

55. William L. Hays to R.W. Fleming, July 29, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Student Program, 69–70, BHL; William L. Hays to Professor John Milholland, September 19, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Student Program, 69–70, BHL.

56. William L. Hays to Robben Fleming, July 29, 1969; R. W. Fleming to Dean William L. Hays, August 4, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs Records, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Student Program, 69–70, BHL; LSA faculty meeting minutes confirmed that Yates never received funding for the program: “Proposed Meeting Minutes of the November 1, 1971 Faculty Meeting,” L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1970–71, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL.

57. Supplementary Information, March 1969, Otis M. Smith Papers, box 2, folder: Regent Papers, Martin Luther King Memorial Scholarship Fund, 1968–1970, BHL.

58. Affirmative Action Plan, 1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 8, folder: Committees-University Steering Committee on Development of Academic Opportunities I, BHL; For Immediate Release After Regents Meeting Friday, April 19, 1968, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Equal Employment Opportunity Report, 1967–68, BHL.

59. “For Immediate Release,” April 7, 1969, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 20, folder: Cash, William L. Jr., BHL.

60. Equal Employment Opportunity Affirmative Action Program, June 4, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 13, folder: Affirmative Action Program, BHL.

61. “For Immediate Release,” June 27, 1969, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports, 67–69, BHL.

62. William L. Hays and Allan Smith, Request for the Establishment of a Center, Name: Center for Afro-American and African Studies, July 1970, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records, box 16, folder: CAAS: Archives, History of the Center and Program, BHL. This document explains the administrative process involved in approving the center, stretching back to 1969.

63. Survey of Progress in Broadening Educational Opportunity for American Negroes at State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, Fall 1969, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports, 67–69, BHL.

64. Ibram X. Kendi, “The Black Campus Movement: The Case for a New Historiography,” The Sixties: A Journal of History, Politics and Culture 4 (December 2011): 175; Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus, 43–78; Donald Alexander Downs, Cornell ’69: Crisis of the American University (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 198–99; “Cornell Officials Yield to Armed Students,” Chicago Tribune, April 21, 1969, 1; “Cornell Students Urged to Turn in Firearms,” Washington Post, April 26, 1969, A8; “36-Hour Seizure: Negro Students End Cornell Armed Sit-In,” Los Angeles Times, April 21, 1969, A5; Stephan Bradley, Harlem vs. Columbia University: Black Student Power in the Late 1960s (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 94–99.

65. Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus, 158–59.

66. Fleming, Tempest into Rainbows, 187, 193, 196, 202.

67. Peter W. Forsythe to Wilber K. Pierpont, Preliminary Memorandum-Confidential, Office of the General Counsel, William P. Lemmer Records, box 1, folder: Student Unrest, Memos from P. W. Forsythe, attorney, to W. K. Pierpont, labeled confidential, 1969, BHL. The memorandum notes that this is in response to questions sent by Fleming on May 18, 1969.

68. Peter W. Forsythe to Wilber K. Pierpont, Preliminary Memorandum-Confidential, Office of the General Counsel, William P. Lemmer Records, box 1, folder: Student Unrest, Memos from P. W. Forsythe, attorney, to W. K. Pierpont, labeled confidential, 1969, BHL.

69. Alan Glenn, “The Battle of Ann Arbor: June 16–20, 1969,” Ann Arbor Chronicle, June 16, 2009, http://annarborchronicle.com/2009/06/16/the-battle-of-ann-arbor-june-16-20-1969/; Bill Schmidt and Gene Goltz, “Tear Gas Scatters Students,” Detroit Free Press, June 18, 1969, 1A, 9A.

70. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler, Fall 1992, transcript, History and Traditions of the University Committee, box 1, folder: Robben Fleming, BHL; Richard L. Kennedy, interview by Enid H. Galler, Winter 1995, transcript, History and Traditions of the University Committee, box 1, folder: Richard Kennedy, BHL; Alan Glenn, “The Battle of Ann Arbor: June 16–20, 1969,” Ann Arbor Chronicle, June 16, 2009, http://annarborchronicle.com/2009/06/16/the-battle-of-ann-arbor-june-16-20-1969/.

71. Glenn, “Battle of Ann Arbor.”

72. Students Seize LSA Building as over 1000 Mass in Support; “ ‘U’ Obtains Injunction: Demand ‘U’ Regents Meet on Bookstore,” September 26, 1969, 1; Fleming, Tempest into Rainbows, 189–92. Fleming mistakenly writes that this unfolded in 1968 in his book.

73. Sharon Weiner, “Discuss Demands: Blacks Call Mass Meeting,” Michigan Daily, February 3, 1970, 1; Sharon Weiner, “Closed Session: Black Students Confer over Admissions Issue,” Michigan Daily, February 5, 1970, 1.

74. United Black Population of the University of Michigan, Black Student Demands, 1970, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 9, folder: B. W. Newell Administrative Student Organization Black Student Union, 1969–1970, BHL; Sharon Weiner and W. E. Schrock, “Blacks Present Demands to Fleming,” Michigan Daily, February 6, 1970, 1; Lynn Weiner, “Increased Minority Admissions asked,” Michigan Daily, January 18, 1970, 1.

75. United Black Population of the University of Michigan, Black Student Demands, 1970, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 9, folder: B. W. Newell Administrative Student Organization Black Student Union, 1969–1970, BHL.

76. “The University as a Racist Institution,” 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM Demands, 1969–70, BHL.

77. “The University as a Racist Institution.”

78. “The University as a Racist Institution.”

79. Rob Bier, “Regents Seek 5-Year Minority Admissions Plan,” Michigan Daily, February 20, 1970, 1.

80. Bier, “Regents Seeks 5-Year Minority Admissions Plan”; Susan Brune, “Conflict and Conciliation: A Review of the Black Action Movement Strike at the University of Michigan,” Michigan Journal of Political Science 5, 46–47; W. Ellison Chalmers, “The University of Michigan and the Black Action Movement,” April 17, 1971, President Records, box 106, BHL.

81. Brune, “Conflict and Conciliation,” 48.

82. William Haber to A. F. Smith et al., March 3, 1970, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 9, folder: B. W. Newell, Topical File Black Action Movement, 1970, BHL.

83. William Haber to A. F. Smith et al., March 3, 1970.

84. William Haber to A. F. Smith et al., March 3, 1970.

85. William Haber to A. F. Smith et al., March 3, 1970; Statement on Increased Enrollment of Black Students, March 4, 1970, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Black Student Demands, 1970, BHL; R. W. Fleming to Members of the Black Action Movement, March 5, 1970, L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1969–70, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL. The proposal is untitled and attached to Fleming’s letter.

86. Jack H. Hamilton to President Fleming et al., Subject: Response to BAM Demands, March 4, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM General, 1969–70, BHL; R. W. Fleming to Members of the Black Action Movement, March 5, 1970, L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1969–70, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL.

87. W. Ellison Chalmers, “The University of Michigan and the Black Action Movement,” April 17, 1971, President Records, box 106, BHL; Bob Bier, “BAM Leaders Reject Regental Resolution,” Michigan Daily, March 20, 1970, 1.

88. Gertrude E. Huebner, interview by Enid H. Galler, April 2004, transcript, History and Traditions of the University Committee, box 1, folder: Huebner, Gertrude E., BHL.

89. Data: Fleming Questions, March 18, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM General, 1969–70, BHL.

90. W. Ellison Chalmers, “The University of Michigan and the Black Action Movement,” April 17, 1971, President Records, box 106, BHL; Bob Bier, “BAM Leaders Reject Regental Resolution,” Michigan Daily, March 20, 1970, 1.

91. Bier, “BAM Leaders Reject Regental Resolution.”

92. Robert Kraftowitz, “BAM Asks U Strike, Rally on Admissions,” Michigan Daily, March 19, 1970, 1, 8; Robert Kraftowitz, “Blacks, Supporters March around Campus,” Michigan Daily, March 20, 1970, 1, 6.

93. Kraftowitz, “Blacks, Supporters March around Campus.”

94. Kraftowitz, “Blacks, Supporters March around Campus.”

95. “Day-by-Day, Here Is a Summary of What Was Reported by the News Media as Happening during the Black Action Movement’s Strike on the Ann Arbor Campus in Late March and Early April,” Michigan Alumnus, May 1970, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Black Action Movement, 1970, BHL.

96. Kim Clarke, “Remembering BAM,” Ann Arbor News, March 27, 1990, Vice Provost for Multicultural Affairs, box 4, folder: BAM, BHL; “Day-by-Day, Here Is a Summary,” BHL.

97. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler.

98. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler.

99. W. E. Schrock, Eric Schenk, and Chris Uhl, “Estimate Effect at Up to 50%,” Michigan Daily, March 24, 1970, 1.

100. Special Meeting of the Senate Assembly Meeting Minutes, March 25, 1970, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 9, folder: B. W. Newell, Topical File Black Action Movement, 1970, BHL; Niara Sudarkasa (formerly Gloria Marshall) Curriculum Vitae, Fall 1974, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Niara Sudarkasa, Personal: Resumes, 1974–1985.

101. “Special Meeting of the Senate Assembly Meeting Minutes,” March 25, 1970, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 9, folder: B. W. Newell, Topical File Black Action Movement, 1970, BHL.

102. “Special Meeting of the Senate Assembly Meeting Minutes”; Executive Committee of the Political Science Department to Regents, Administration, and Colleagues, March 25, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM: Faculty Reactions, 1969–70, BHL; School of Dentistry, Faculty Meeting Minutes of March 27, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Enrollment (Quotas) 1969–70, BHL; School of Public Heath Agenda for Faculty Meeting, March 30, 1970, Eugene Feingold Papers, box 3, folder: UM Minority Concerns: Black Action Movement, 1970, BHL; Minutes of Special Faculty Meeting, March 26, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Enrollment (Quotas) 1969–70, BHL; Graduate School of Business Administration, Special Faculty Meeting, March 30, 1970, Thomas A. Butts Papers, box 1, folder: OFA, Student Loan Programs, Minority Projections Since BAM (Black Action Movement, 1972–1973), BHL; Minutes of the March 27, 1970 Special Faculty Meeting of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM: Black Enrollment (Quotas) 1969–70, BHL.

103. “Day-by-Day, Here Is a Summary,” BHL; Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler.

104. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler.

105. Office of the President, Untitled, April 3, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM General, 1969–70, BHL; Statement of the Board of Regents, the University of Michigan, April 1, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM General, 1969–70, BHL.

106. Office of the President, Untitled, April 3, 1970; Robert Kraftowitz, “Regents Act on Demands,” Michigan Daily, April 2, 1970, 1.

1. Dave Chudwin, “BAM Ends Class Strike: Accepts Regental Statement,” Michigan Daily, April 2, 1970, 1; Manifesto of Intent of the Black Action Movement, Madison Foster Papers, box 1, folder: BAM Strike (aftermath) June 1971-Feb-1980, BHL.

2. “The University as a Racist Institution,” 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM Demands, 1969–70, BHL.

3. “ ‘U’ Commencement: Grads Hear Wharton, Fleming,” Michigan Daily, May 6, 1970, 3; University Relations Office, “Answers to Some Frequently-Asked Questions about the Expanded Opportunity Award Program at the University of Michigan.”

4. Robert J. Donovan, “Michigan U’s Plan for 10% Black Quota Assailed by Agnew,” Los Angeles Times, April 14, 1970, 1; Cheryl Arvidson, “Agnew Hits Colleges’ Open Door Policy,” Chicago Daily Defender, April 15, 1970, 4; “Agnew’s Commons Sense,” Chicago Tribune, April 15, 1970, 20. Only two months earlier, Agnew had scored political points by criticizing what he saw as racial quotas in university admissions. Seth S. King, “Agnew Denounces University Quotas to Help Minorities,” New York Times, February 13, 1970, 1; Arvidson, “Agnew Hits Colleges’ Open Door Policy,” 4; William Godfrey, “At the University of Michigan,” Chicago Tribune, April 28, 1970, 16; Rollin L. McNitt, “Michigan U.’s Cave-In to Blacks’ Demands Will Drag Down Standards,” Los Angeles Times, April 19, 1970, D6.

5. “Answers to Some Frequently-Asked Questions about the Expanded Opportunity Program at the University of Michigan”; Robben Fleming, “ ‘We Must Put Our House in Order’: Fleming Looks at His University,” Detroit Free Press, May 16, 1970, 8A; R. W. Fleming to Douglas G. Wilson, March 24, 1970, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records, box 1, folder: Correspondence Alumni Opposition to the Strike, BHL.

6. Dave Chudwin, “Black Admissions: Seeking Funds to the Pay the Bill,” Michigan Daily, February 3, 1971, 1.

7. On Fleming’s concerns about declining state support and other financial problems, see R. W. Fleming, “The BAM Dispute,” March 23, 1970, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Black Student Demands, 1970, BHL. For information on the College of Engineering’s Minority Projects Office, see Keith Cooley, “Annual Report Minority Projects Office, 1970–71,” Thomas A. Butts Papers, box 1, folder: OFA, Student Loan Programs, Minority Projections since BAM (Black Action Movement, 1972–1973), BHL; Robben Fleming to William Milliken, October 29, 1976, President Records, box 97, BHL; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Budget vs. Expense Report, 1975–76, President Records, box 97, BHL; Rebecca Warner, “Fleming Says Black Enrollment Not ‘Eroding’ Academic Standards,” Michigan Daily, November 6, 1973, 1; Robben W. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler, Fall 1992, History and Traditions of the University Committee Interviews, box 1, BHL.

8. James F. Brinkerhoff, Campus Disorder-Planning, May 10, 1971, Office of the General Counsel, William P. Lemmer Records, box 1, folder: Student Unrest, Planning for Containment, 1970–1971, BHL.

9. Executive Officers to the Regents, March 18, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM (University Statements), BHL.

10. Status of Campus Disruption Proceedings as of November 9, 1971, Office of the General Counsel, William P. Lemmer Records, box 1, folder: Student Unrest, Reports on Status of Campus Disruption Proceedings, 1970–1971, BHL.

11. The rules created on April 17, 1970 were reprinted in “The University of Michigan Interim Rules and Disciplinary Procedures,” Michigan Daily, July 1, 1970, 10.

12. John Zeh, “Closing Coffers to College Protesters,” Michigan Daily, March 28, 1969, 4; Judy Sarasohn, “LSA Sit-In Participants May Lose U.S., State Aid,” Michigan Daily, January 28, 1970, 1; “States Pass Campus Disorder Laws,” June 24, 1970, 10.

13. “Michigan’s Disruption Statute,” Michigan Daily, June 24, 1970, 10.

14. James F. Brinkerhoff, Campus Disorder-Planning, May 10, 1971, Office of the General Counsel, William P. Lemmer Records, box 1, folder: Student Unrest, Planning for Containment, 1970–1971, BHL.

15. Brinkerhoff, Campus Disorder-Planning, May 10, 1971, BHL.

16. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler; Niara Sudarkasa Curriculum Vitae, Fall 1974, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Niara Sudarkasa, Personal: Résumés, 1974–1985, BHL.

17. Rebecca Warner, “ ‘U’ Academic Image Concerns Smith,” Michigan Daily, January 25, 1974, 1.

18. “English 123-A Racially Homogenous Courses for Black Freshmen,” 1973, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 50; Gilbert Maddox, “A Plan for the Creation of a Supportive Environment for Black Students at the University of Michigan,” December 1970, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 51; “Coalition for the Use of Learning Skills: Schedule of Options: Study Groups, Classes, Writers’ Clinic,” Winter 1971, Housing Division Records, box 2, BHL.

19. “Statement of Increased Enrollment of Black Students,” March 4, 1970, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL.

20. Professor P. Roe to Stephen Spurr, April 3, 1970, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 51, BHL.

21. Martha Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 114–41.

22. George Goodman, “Black Students at U of M in the 1970’s,” February 13, 1980, Tape 1, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records, box 28, BHL.

23. Dave Chudwin, “Black Admissions: Seeking Funds to Pay the Bill,” Michigan Daily, February 3, 1971, 1; Questions & Answers: Information for the Use of Solicitors for the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Fund, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 16, folder: Martin Luther King Fund, 1968–69, BHL. Minority Student Survey, April 19, 1973, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Opportunity Program-General, 1969–70, BHL.

24. “Special Report on Opportunity Program,” October 1970, Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 51, BHL; George D. Goodman, Minority Enrollment Report, Ann Arbor Campus, 1974, Vice President for Government Relations Records, box 16, folder: Minorities 1974, BHL.

25. Analysis and Evaluation of the University of Michigan Opportunity Award Program, January 30, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Opportunity Awards Program: W. L. Cash, 1968–71, BHL; George D. Goodman, Minority Enrollment Report, Ann Arbor Campus, 1974, Vice President for Government Relations Records, box 16, folder: Minorities 1974, BHL.

26. “The State of Opportunity Undergraduate Enrollment, Fall 1972,” College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 221, BHL.

27. Education and Housing Program to Wilma Bledsoe, Subject: University of Michigan Fact-Finding, March 7, 1972, Robert E. Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Afro-American Living Quarters, 1972, BHL.

28. Lee Gill, Phone interview with author, January 19, 2011; Education and Housing Program to Wilma Bledsoe, Subject: University of Michigan Fact-finding, March 7, 1972, Robert E. Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Afro-American Living Quarters, 1972, BHL.

29. William L. Hays and Allan F. Smith, Request for the Establishment of a Center: Center for Afro-American and African Studies, July 1, 1970, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records, box 16, folder: CAAS: Archives, History of the Center and Program, BHL; Godfrey Uzoigwe, the Center for Afroamerican and African Studies, 1970–1975, December 6, 1979, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records, box 16, folder: CAAS: Archives, History of the Center and Program, BHL; Rojas, From Black Power to Black Studies, 210.

30. “Press Release,” September 17, 1970, News and Information Services Faculty and Staff Files, box 81, BHL.

31. Maddox, “A Plan for the Creation of a Supportive Environment for Black Students at the University of Michigan”; Dennis Lampron, “Throwing the White Masks Away,” Huron Valley Advisor, October 27, 1971, News and Information Services Faculty and Staff Files, box 81, BHL; “Release on Receipt,” September 17, 1970, News and Information Services Faculty and Staff Files, box 81, BHL.

32. Stephen H. Spurr to Gilbert Maddox, October 24, 1970, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 51, BHL; “Education: Bushwaked in Texas,” Time, October 28, 1974, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,908939,00.html. Spurr also refused to support the admission of friends of regent members to the Law School and refused to discipline the student newspaper, which was especially critical of the regents.

33. Carla Rapoport, “Blacks at ‘U’: Support Lags Behind,” Michigan Daily, December 3, 1971, 6; Carla Rapoport, “ ‘U’: Enrolling Blacks with Both Eyes Closed,” Michigan Daily, December 8, 1971, 4.

34. The first of these studies that questioned prevailing assumptions about attrition was circulated in November 1972: Ruth Eckstein, “The State of the Opportunity Undergraduate Enrollment, Fall 1972,” November 17, 1972, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Opportunity Program: Enrollment of Minority Students, 1969–73, BHL.

35. Rapoport, “Blacks at ‘U’ ”; Support Lags Behind”; Carla Rapoport, “ ‘U.’ ”

36. Rapoport, “ ‘U.’ ”

37. Charles Kidd, Gilbert Maddox, Dave Wesley, and Frank Yates, “Black Administrators: Responsibility without Power,” Michigan Daily, April 10, 1971, 4.

38. Charles Kidd, Curriculum Vitae, News and Information Services Faculty and Staff Files, box 71, BHL; Press Release, April 16, 1971, News and Information Services Faculty and Staff Files, box 71, BHL.

39. “Charles Kidd: Univ. of Michigan: A Decade After B.A.M.,” tape recording, Center for Afroamerican Studies Records, box 25, BHL.

40. P. E. Bauer, “Trotter House to Provide New Services for Blacks,” Michigan Daily, July 20, 1971, 3.

41. Shawn Leigh Alexander, An Army of Lions: The Civil Rights Struggle Before the NAACP (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 187, 244–45; P. E. Bauer, “Trotter House to Provide New Services for Blacks,” Michigan Daily, July 20, 1971, 3. Kidd recalls the conversation with an executive officer in “Charles Kidd: Univ. of Michigan: A Decade After B.A.M,” 1980, CAAS Records, box 28, BHL.

42. Bauer, “Trotter House to Provide New Services for Blacks”; “Press Release,” September 16, 1971, News and Information Services Faculty and Staff Files, box 71, BHL.

43. Georgia Williams to John Feldkamp, Re: Racial Climate in South Quad, February 14, 1972, Detroit Urban League Records, box 79, folder: Kornegay, Exec. Director, 1971 Annual File University of Michigan Black Living Unit, 1971–1972.

44. Education and Housing Program to Wilma Bledsoe; “Proposal for an All-Black Corridor by the Black Women of Stockwell,” December 10, 1971, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 24, BHL.

45. Lee Gill, phone interview with author, January 19, 2011; Wayne C. Glasker, Black Students in the Ivory Tower: African American Student Activism at the University of Pennsylvania, 1967–1990 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002), 89.

46. Lee Gill, phone interview with author; “Proposal for an Afro-American and African Cultural Residence Hall,” January 26, 1972, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 24, BHL.

47. Biondi, Black Revolution on Campus, 91; John Feldkamp to Barbara Newell, Re: Housing Issues concerning Black Students, January 2, 1969, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 9, folder: B.W. Newell Administrative Student Organization Black Student Union, 1969–1970, BHL.

48. Linda Dreeben, “Regents to Consider Afro Housing Units,” Michigan Daily, March 29, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL.

49. R. K. Daane to Robben Fleming, March 17, 1972, Robert Nederlander, box 1, BHL; Dreeben, “Regents to Consider Afro Housing Units.”

50. Civil Rights Commission to William Bledsoe, March 7, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL; “The Michigan Civil Rights Commission & Department of Civil Rights,” Michigan.gov, December 1, 2010, http://www.michigan.gov/mdcr/0,1607,7-138-4951-9283—,00.html.

51. Francis Kornegay to Robben Fleming, March 15, 1972, Robert Nederlander, box 1, BHL; “Resolution Adopted by the Executive Board of the Ann Arbor-Wastenaw County Branch of the American Civil Liberties Union,” March 13, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL; David Holmes to Robben Fleming, March 29, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL.

52. Lee Gill, “Building a Black Power Base in the Dormitories,” Michigan Daily, February 17, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL.

53. “Organizing Structure and Proposed Educational Programs,” March 10, 1972, Campus Broadcasting Network Records, box 3, BHL.

54. Student Government Council, “Position Statement on the Proposed Afro-American/American Cultural Living Unit,” March 16, 1972, Robert Nederlander, box 1, BHL.

55. “Organizing Structure and Proposed Educational Programs.”

56. Barbara Meyer, And the Case Against the Afro-American Units,” Michigan Daily, February 17, 1972, Robert E. Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Afro-American Living Quarters, 1972; Barbara Ann Meyer to Robben Fleming, March 25, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL. Natasha R. Warikoo finds that self interest still frames white students understanding of the benefits of diversity in The Diversity Bargain: And Other Dilemmas of Race, Admissions, and Meritocracy at Elite Universities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).

57. Charles Kidd to University of Michigan Regents, March 8, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL; The first of these studies that supported Kidd was circulated in November 1972: Eckstein, “The State of the Opportunity Undergraduate Enrollment.”

58. Tony Schwartz, “Regents Reject Afro Unit, New Committee Probe,” March 30, 1972, Robert Nederlander, box 1, folder: Afro-American Living Quarters, 1972, BHL.

59. Linda Dreeben, “Regents to Consider Afro Housing Units,” March 29, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Afro-American Living Quarters, 1972, BHL.

60. Schwartz, “Regents Reject Afro Unit, New Committee Probe”; Roy Reynolds, “ ‘Afro’ Housing Vetoed,” Ann Arbor News, March 30, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, BHL; “Special March Meeting, 1972,” Proceedings of the Board of Regents (1969–1972), 1437.

61. Johnson explains his role in this in the following memo: Henry Johnson to Gerald Dunn, 1982, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 17, folder: H. Johnson 1983–1984 Annual File, Trotter House, 1972–1983, BHL; Janet Cooper to Robben Fleming, September 13, 1972, Robert Nederlander Papers, box 1, folder: Afro-American Living Quarters, 1972, BHL; Lee Gill, phone interview by author, January 19, 2011.

62. Melvia Miller, “Proposal for the Establishment of ‘Project Awareness,’ ” June 22, 1972, Vice President of Student Affairs, box 24, BHL; Black History—Lost, Stolen or Strayed? Columbia Broadcasting Company, 1968; G. F. Burkhouse to Leonard Spillane, October 12, 1972, University of Michigan Housing Division Records, box 7, BHL.

63. Georgia Williams to John Feldkamp, August 28, 1972, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 47, folder: Georgia Williams, 1972–73, BHL; John Feldkamp to Georgia Williams, Re: Appointment Status, September 1, 1972, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 47, folder: Georgia Williams, 1972–73 BHL; John Feldkamp to Georgia Williams, Re: Resignation, September 21, 1972, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 47, folder: Georgia Williams, 1972–73, BHL.

64. Marilyn Riley, “VP’s Top Priority Is Minorities,” Michigan Daily, August 22, 1972, 3.

65. Henry Johnson, “Black Students at White Institutions: Coping with Conflicts,” March 26, 1974, Assistant to the President Records, box 38, BHL.

66. Sue Sommer, “ ‘U’ Short of 10% Black Enrollment Goal,” Michigan Daily, April 7, 1973, 1.

67. Sommer, “ ‘U’ Short of 10% Black Enrollment Goal”; Cindy Hill, “ ‘U’ Projects Failure to Meet 10 Per cent Black Enrollment,” Michigan Daily, April 20, 1973, 1.

68. Hill, “ ‘U’ Projects Failure to Meet 10 Per cent Black Enrollment,” 1.

69. Sommer, “ ‘U’ Short of 10% Black Enrollment Goal,” 1; Hill, “ ‘U’ Projects Failure to Meet 10 Per cent Black Enrollment,” 1.

70. Rebecca Warner, “Fleming Says Black Enrollment Not Eroding Academic Standards,” Michigan Daily, November 6, 1973, 1.

71. Ruth Eckstein, “The State of the Opportunity Undergraduate Enrollment, Fall 1972,” November 17, 1972, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Opportunity Program: Enrollment of Minority Students, 1969–73, BHL.

72. President Fleming to W. L. Cash and Jack Hamilton, Subject: Black Student Enrollment, December 13, 1972, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Opportunity Program: Enrollment of Minority Students, 1969–73, BHL; “Attrition Rate: Some Underlying Causes Affecting Michigan Opportunity Students,” Vice President for Government Relations Records, box 16, folder: Minorities 1973, BHL.

73. LSA Minority Student Attrition Study, April 8, 1973, Thomas A. Butts Papers, box 1, folder: OFA, Student Loan Programs, Minority Projections since BAM (Black Action Movement, 1972–1973), BHL.

74. Della Dipietro, “Black Enrollment at 7.3%,” Michigan Daily, December 11, 1973, 1.

75. Office of the President, Untitled, April 3, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM General, 1969–70, BHL; The University as a Racist Institution, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 2, folder: BAM [Demands], 1969–70, BHL.

76. Interview with Bernice Sandler, July 1, 2001, Women’s Activism Against Sex Discrimination: The 1970 HEW Investigation of the University of Michigan Records, box 1, folder: Women’s Activism Against Sex Discrimination: The 1970 HEW Investigation of the University of Michigan-Administrative Files, 2001, Interview Transcripts-Bernice Sandler, BHL.

77. Interview with Bernice Sadler; R. W. Fleming to Don F. Scott, November 3, 1970, in Eric A. Stein, “Women’s Activism Against Sex Discrimination: The 1970 HEW Investigation of the University of Michigan,” Institute for Research on Women and Gender Working Paper Series, Working Paper #63, January 24, 2002, Women’s Activism Against Sex Discrimination: The 1970 HEW Investigation of the University of Michigan Records, box 1; R. W. Fleming to Don F. Scott, November 3, 1970, in Eric A. Stein, “Women’s Activism Against Sex Discrimination: The 1970 HEW Investigation of the University of Michigan,” Institute for Research on Women and Gender Working Paper Series, Working Paper #63, January 24, 2002, Women’s Activism Against Sex Discrimination: The 1970 HEW Investigation of the University of Michigan Records, box 1; Lynn Weiner, “HEW Accepts ‘U’ Proposals to End Sex Bias in Employment,” Michigan Daily, January 6, 1971, 1.

78. News and Information Services, for Release After Regents Meeting Friday, September 15, 1972, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 132, folder: Varner, Nellie Mae (folder 1), BHL.

79. Affirmative Action Progress Report, April 1, 1974–March 31, 1975, Affirmative Action Office, Publications 1973–1995, box 1, folder: Affirmative Action Program Printed Reports, Affirmative Action Program, 1974–1975, BHL.

80. Sara Rimer, “ ‘U’ Keeps Mum on LSA Deanship,” Michigan Daily, January 21, 1975, 1; “Billy E. Frye,” University of Michigan Faculty History Project, https://www.lib.umich.edu/faculty-history/faculty/billy-e-frye/accepts-post-emory-university.

81. “Report on the Cobb Affair: LSA Deanship Probed,” Michigan Daily, May 15, 1975, 6.

82. Sara Rimer, “Search for LSA Dean Set,” Michigan Daily, May 7, 1975, 1; University Steering Committee on the Development of Academic Opportunities, Racial Origin Survey, January 1967, Housing Division Records, box 1, folder: Academic Opportunities (Minorities), BHL; John M. Allen to Professor Norman R. Scott, November 7, 1966, Housing Division Records, box 1, folder: Academic Opportunities (Minorities), BHL; “Billy E. Frye,” University of Michigan Faculty History Project, https://www.lib.umich.edu/faculty-history/faculty/billy-e-frye/accepts-post-emory-university.

83. Robben W. Fleming, interview by Enid H. Galler, Fall 1992, transcript, History and Traditions of the University Committee, box 1, folder: Robben Fleming, BHL; Judy Ruskin, Dan Biddle, and Sara Rimer, “Fleming Hedges on Tenure Issue,” Michigan Daily, February 4, 1975, 1.

84. “Cobb Chronology: Candor Lost,” Michigan Daily, February 18, 1975, 4; Wini Warren, “Jewel Plummer Cobb,” Black Women Scientists in the United States (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), http://www.csun.edu/~ghe59995/MSE302/2-2%20Jewel%20Cobb.pdf.

85. Sara Rimer, Dan Biddle, and Judy Ruskin, “Initial Cobb Offer Sparks Uproar,” Michigan Daily, January 29, 1975, 1.

86. Sara Rimer, “200 Protest Offer to Cobb,” Michigan Daily, January 31, 1975, 1.

87. Sara Rimer and Dan Biddle, “Cobb Rejects Initial 2-Year, No-Tenure Deanship Offer; Regents Meet Again,” Michigan Daily, January 28, 1975, 1; Rimer, “200 Protest Offer to Cobb.”

88. “Cobb Chronology: Candor Lost,” Michigan Daily, February 18, 1975, 4; “Report on the Cobb Affair: LSA Deanship Probed,” Michigan Daily, May 15, 1975, 6; Ann Marie Lipinksi and Ken Parsigian, “Cobb Not among 10 Dean Finalists,” Michigan Daily, February 4, 1976, 1.

89. “Report on the Cobb Affair: LSA Deanship Probed,” Michigan Daily, May 15, 1975, 6; Dan Biddle and Sara Rimer, “’U’ Blasts Cobb Report,” Michigan Daily, May 17, 1975, 1.

90. News and Information Services, Release On Receipt, February 24, 1976, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 132, folder: Varner, Nellie Mae (folder 2), BHL; R. W. Fleming to Executive Officers, Subject: Reorganization of Affirmative Action Programs, March 16, 1976, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 60, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Affirmative Action Office: General Correspondence, March 1976–April 1977, BHL.

91. Ruth Eckstein, Black Opportunity Undergraduates at the University of Michigan, 1964–1970: A Retrospective View, August 15, 1971, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Black Opportunity Undergraduates at the University of Michigan, 1964–1970, BHL; “A Proposal for Presentation to the Regents of the University of Michigan concerning the University’s Obligation to the American Indian,” May 5, 1971, Vice President for Government Relations Records, box 16, folder: Minorities, 1971, BHL; Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 1968, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports, 67–69, BHL; Ruth Eckstein, Black Opportunity Undergraduates at the University of Michigan, 1964–1970: A Retrospective View, August 15, 1971, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Black Opportunity Undergraduates at the University of Michigan, 1964–1970, BHL; “A Proposal for Presentation to the Regents of the University of Michigan concerning the University’s Obligation to the American Indian.”

92. Raymond Padilla, interview with author, 2012; Robert Kraftowitz, “Regents Act on Demands,” Michigan Daily, April 2, 1970, 1.

93. Raymond Padilla, LA RAZA and the University of Michigan Opportunity Program: An Evaluation, August 14, 1970, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Opportunity Program Committee, 1969–72, BHL; The State of Opportunity Undergraduate Enrollment, Fall 1972, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Opportunity Program: Enrollment of University Students, 1969–1973, BHL; Thomas A. Butts to FADs (Financial Aid Officers, Analysts and Directors), Re: United Migrants for Opportunity Incorporated (UMOI), June 13, 1974, Office of Financial Aid Records, box 4, folder: Policies-Opportunity Students-General, 1971–82, BHL; Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Fall 1970, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports 70–71, BHL; Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 Student Enrollment Survey, Fall 1974, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports 72–80, BHL.

94. Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Fall 1970, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports 70–71, BHL; Jim Irwin, “Indians Threaten U with Suit,” Michigan Daily, July 30, 1971, 1.

95. “A Proposal for Presentation to the Regents of the University of Michigan concerning the University’s Obligation to the American Indian.”

96. Irwin, “Indians Threaten U with Suit”; P. E. Bauer and Chris Parks, “Indians File Suit Against U on Treaty,” Michigan Daily, August 7, 1971, 1; Foot of the Rapids (Fort Meigs), 1817, Clarke County Historical Library, https://www.cmich.edu/library/clarke/ResearchResources/Native_American_Material/Treaty_Rights/Text_of_Michigan_Related_Treaties/Pages/Foot-of-the-Rapids-(Fort-Meigs),-1817.aspx.

97. Thomas Butts recounts Daane’s strategy in the following: Thomas A. Butts to Roderick K. Daane, Re: Free Tuition for North American Indian Students, September 17, 1976, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 62, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Financial Aid, Native Americans, July 1976–July 1979, BHL; Thomas A. Butts to Richard A. English, Re: HB4130, Free Tuition for American Indians, August 19, 1976, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 62, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Financial Aid, Native Americans, July 1976–July 1979, BHL; Rene Becker, ‘U’ Challenges Indians in Court, Michigan Daily Sep, 1978, 1; Children of the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomy Tribes v. Regents of the University of Michigan, 305 N.W. 2d 522 (Mich. App. 1981); Allan F. Smith to Dr. Ernest R. Zimmerman, August 18, 1971, Assistant to the President Records, box 38, folder: American Indian, BHL.

98. Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 1968, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports, 67–69, BHL; Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Fall 1970, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports 70–71, BHL; Compliance Report of Institutions of Higher Education under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 Student Enrollment Survey, Fall 1974, Assistant to the President Records, box 39, folder: Compliance Reports 72–80, BHL.

99. Peter S. Xenos, Robert W. Gardner, Herbert R. Barringer, and Michael J. Levin, “Asian Americans: Growth and Change in the 1970s,” special issue, Center for Migration Studies 5, no. 3 (May 1987): 253; Minutes of Opportunity Program Committee, January 30, 1974, Office of Financial Aid Records, box 4, folder: Policies-Opportunity Students-General, 1971–82, BHL.

100. Proposal for an Asian American Advocate, Vice President for Student Affairs Records, box 14, folder: H Johnson, 1977–1978 Annual File, Asian Americans, 1974–1976, BHL.

101. Ellen D. Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014), 2; Proposal for an Asian American Advocate, Vice President for Student Affairs Records, box 14, folder: H Johnson, 1977–1978 Annual File, Asian Americans, 1974–1976, BHL; Confidential Memorandum for the President (Amended), 1944, International Center Records, box 2, folder: Minutes Committee on Intercultural Relations, 1943–1945, BHL; Laura M. Calkins, “The Origins of the Modern Multiversity at Michigan: Politics and Discourses on Race, Religion, and Gender, 1940–52,” Laura Calkins Papers, box 1, folder: Reports and Articles, BHL; Applications from Japanese American students in internment camps can be found in Ira M. Smith Papers, box 3, folder: Papers 1941–42 concerning Admission of Japanese American Students, BHL.

102. Enrollment of Non-Citizen Students Fall Term 1970–71 as Compared with 1969–70, International Center Records, box 19, folder: International Center-printed Statistics, Enrollment of Non-citizen Students, 1965–1970, BHL; Proposal for an Asian American Advocate, Vice President for Student Affairs Records, box 14, folder: H Johnson, 1977–1978 Annual File, Asian Americans, 1974–1976, BHL.

103. Cheryl Pilate, “Asian Discrimination: Activist Battles for Rights,” Michigan Daily, February 24, 1974, 1; Proposal for an Asian American Advocate, Vice President for Student Affairs Records, box 14, folder: H Johnson, 1977–1978 Annual File, Asian Americans, 1974–1976, BHL.

104. “ ‘75 BAM’ Demands,” Michigan Daily, February 19, 1975, 8.

105. “ ‘75 BAM’ Demands.”

106. “ ‘75 BAM’ Demands.”

107. Bob Meachum, “Students End Ad. Bldg. Sit-In,” Michigan Daily, February 21, 1975, 1.

108. Gordon Atcheson, “Tranquil Mood Pervades Takeover,” Michigan Daily, February 19, 1975, 1.

109. David Weinberg, “Sit-in ’75: Ain’t the Old Days,” Michigan Daily, February 27, 1975, 7.

110. Weinberg, “Sit-in ’75.”

1. The University of Michigan Fall 1976 Minority Enrollment Report, December 1976, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: 1976, Minority Enrollment Report, BHL; The University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Enrollments in Degree Credit Programs by Racial/Ethnic Category, Fall 1985–1975, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 187, folder: VPAA-OMA-Enrollment, Comparative 1985–1986, BHL.

2. Cliff Sjogren Résumé, Spring 1974, News and Information Services University of Michigan Faculty and Staff Files, box 119, folder: Sjogren, Clifford F., BHL; Clyde Vroman took the position in 1949: James P. Adams to Ira M. Smith and Clyde Vroman, September 1, 1949, Ira M. Smith Papers, box 4, folder: Correspondence of Clyde Vroman, 1949–1950, BHL; News and Information Services, Release on Receipt, March 26, 1973, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 50, folder: Goodman, George D., BHL.

3. George Goodman, phone interview by author, February 15, 2011. I use “resistance” rather than “backlash” because the term “backlash” is often tied to a specific genre of scholarship in the 1980s and 1990s that sometimes focused too closely on violent resistance and usually avoided investigating how whites’ views of race intertwined with other issues. Still, as this scholarship has evolved, it still focuses on whites who undermined the activism and victories of the civil rights movement. Most often, it focuses on whites who resisted by protesting, moving outside cities, filing lawsuits, and sometimes using violence. That’s why I refer to this scholarship together as work on resistance. Some examples of scholarship on resistance include Dan T. Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995); Kevin Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007); Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Jonathan Rieder, Canarsie: The Jews and Italians of Brooklyn against Liberalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985); Ronald P. Formisano, Boston against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Dennis Deslippe, Protesting Affirmative Action: The Struggle over Equality after the Civil Rights Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).

4. George Goodman, phone interview by author, February 15, 2011; Cliff Sjogren, phone interview by author, August 15, 2010.

5. Committee on Admissions Report, December 4, 1967, L.S.&A. Faculty Minutes, 1967–68, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL; Lance Erickson, “A Discussion of the Current LSA Admissions Situation,” January 21, 1975, LSA, box 237, folder: Admissions, Office of 1974–75, BHL; Proposed Minutes of the November 7, 1977, Faculty Meeting, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1977–78, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL; Freshman Admissions Count for Fall Term 1969, January 16, 1969, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 13, folder Admissions Office, Statistics, BHL.

6. Cliff Sjogren to Richard English, “Item: Comments on Dave Robinson’s ‘Summary Report on Current Admissions Office Effort for Minority Student Recruitment,’ ” January 5, 1978, Provost and Executive VP for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 64, folder: Robert B. Holmes: Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Reports (correspondence) (includes notes and tables), Jan.–Dec. 1978; Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 5, 255, 232–33.

7. Cliff Sjogren to Richard English, January 5, 1978.

8. G. D. Goodman and P. Wilson-Crawford, Proposal for Change in the University of Michigan’s Opportunity Program, March 16, 1976, Office of Financial Aid Records, box 4, folder: Policies-Opportunity Students-General, 1971–83, BHL; Goodman and Wilson-Crawford, Proposal for Change in the University of Michigan’s Opportunity Program; Goodman, phone interview by author.

9. Richard A. English to Frank H.T. Rhodes, December 9, 1976, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Registrar’s Office: Racial Ethnic Information, Aug. 1976–June 1978, BHL.

10. Nili Tannenbaum, “Building Diversity in Leadership: The Joint Doctoral Program in Social Work and Social Science,” UM School of Social Work website, August 5, 2002, https://ssw.umich.edu/stories/48880-building-diversity-in-leadership-the-joint-doctoral-program-in-social-work-and-social-science.

11. Richard A. English, “Trends in Undergraduate Enrollment Quality Indicators, and Financial Support,” October 18, 1976, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 44, folder: Scholarships-Merit vs. Need issue, 1976–77, BHL.

12. Harris D. Olson to William L. Cash and Richard A. English, Re: Degrees by Racial/Ethnic Group and Level, September 10, 1976, Vice President of Student Affairs, box 29, folder: VPSA Topical Files, Minority Affairs, Office of-General, BHL.

13. Richard A. English to Frank H. T. Rhodes.

14. George Goodman, “Proposed New Directions for the Opportunity Program,” November 1975, Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 60, BHL.

15. Cliff Sjogren to Richard English, January 5, 1978.

16. “U Short of 10% Black Enrollment,” Michigan Daily, April 7, 1973, 1; Ruth Eckstein, “The State of the Opportunity Undergraduate Enrollment, Fall 1972,” November 17, 1972, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 50, folder: Opportunity Program: Enrollment of Minority Students, 1969–73, BHL; LSA Minority Student Attrition Study, April 8, 1973, Thomas A. Butts Papers, box 1, folder: OFA, Student Loan Programs, Minority Projections since BAM (Black Action Movement, 1972–1973), BHL; Outline of Discussion with Regents on Attrition of Minority Undergraduate Students, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Minority Reports: Miscellaneous U. of M. Reports and Memos (includes notes), June 1975–March 1980, BHL.

17. Cliff Sjogren to Richard English, Re: Grand Rapids Adjunct Office, June 9, 1976, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 60, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Admissions Office: General Correspondence, Jan. 1976–July 1977, BHL.

18. Sjogren, phone interview with author. I searched through all the LSA meeting minutes, correspondence between the admissions office and other officials available in the archives, and the student newspaper to make this conclusion.

19. Proposed Minutes of the January 7, 1974, Faculty Meeting, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1973–74, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL; Proposed Minutes of the April 14, 1975, Faculty Meeting, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1975–76, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL; Proposed Minutes of the September 13, 1976, Faculty Meeting, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1976–77, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL.

20. Thomas A. Butts to David Aminoff, Re: Scholarships, March 15, 1977, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 44, folder: Scholarships-Merit vs. Need issue, 1976–77, BHL.

21. Pat Wilson, “Changes in Admissions Guidelines for Opportunity Program Applicants,” September 22, 1975, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 60, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Admissions Office: Opportunity Program Office Changes, Sept. 1975–July 1979 and undated, BHL.

22. Proposed Minutes of the January 7, 1974, Faculty Meeting; Minutes of the April 14, 1975, Faculty Meeting; Proposed Minutes of the September 13, 1976, Faculty Meeting.

23. Adon Gordus, “Some Projections and Problems for the Future,” L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1975–76, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL.

24. For an excellent overview of the austerity politics of the 1970s, see Kim Phillips-Fein, Fear City: New York’s Fiscal Crisis and the Rise of Austerity Politics (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2017); The President’s Report to the Board of Regents for 1974/1975, vol. 2 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1975), 3; “September Meeting, 1975,” Proceedings of the Board of Regents, 58; University of Michigan Ann Arbor General Fund Budget vs. Expense Report, 1975–76, President Records, box 97, folder: Budgets, 1975–76, BHL; Ellen Berrey, The Enigma of Diversity: The Language of Race and the Limits of Racial Justice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 63.

25. Proposed Minutes of the January 7, 1974, Faculty Meeting; Jim Danzinger, “Freshperson SAT Marks Drop,” Michigan Daily, August 7, 1976, 5; “Release on Receipt,” November 20, 1975, Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: 1975 Enrollment Report, BHL; Lance Erickson, “A Discussion of the Current LSA Admissions Situation,” January 21, 1975, LSA, box 237, folder: Admissions, Office of 1974–75, BHL.

26. Sjogren, phone interview with author.

27. William M. Bulkeley, “Learning Frugality,” Wall Street Journal, May 31, 1977, 1.

28. Joyce A. Baugh, The Detroit School Busing Case: Miliken v. Bradley and the Controversy over Desegregation (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2011); Paul A. Sracic, San Antonio v. Rodriguez and the Pursuit of Equal Education: The Debate over Discrimination and School Funding (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006).

29. Baugh, Detroit School Busing Case.

30. Paul A. Sracic, San Antonio v. Rodriguez and the Pursuit of Equal Education.

31. Jeffrey Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1907–81 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 353; Bulkeley, “Learning Frugality.” By 1978, Sjogren was placing more emphasis on advanced placement courses: Proposed Minutes of the November 6, 1978 Faculty Meeting, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1978–79, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL.

32. Julilly Kohler-Hausmann, Getting Tough: Welfare and Imprisonment in 1970s America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 6.

33. “ ‘Small Scale Riot’ in Detroit Brings Curfew on Youth,” Washington Post, August 18, 1976, A20; Charles A. Krause, “Motor City Fighting for Its Life Again,” Washington Post, August 23, 1976, A1; William Grant and Billy Bowles, “Schools Learn to Live with Violence,” Detroit Free Press, September 30, 1976, 1A, 12A.

34. William Serrin, “Detroit: A Midsummer’s Nightmare,” New York Times, August 25, 1976, 29.

35. Heather Ann Thompson, Whose Detroit? Politics, Labor, and Race in a Modern American City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001).

36. Recall the backlash to William Haber’s statement about changing the character of the institution during the BAM strike in chapter 3.

37. Sjogren, phone interview by author.

38. Proposed Meeting Minutes of the April 14, 1975, Faculty Meeting of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, Carl Cohen, Remarks before the University of Michigan Senate Assembly, November 15, 1976, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1975–76, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208; Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 62, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Financial Aid, Merit Scholarships, February 1976–June 1978, BHL.

39. Examples of Cohen’s comments on improving the quality of the student body include Proposed Minutes of the December 3, 1973, Faculty Meeting of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1973–74, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL; Proposed Meeting Minutes of the April 14, 1975, Faculty Meeting of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, Carl Cohen, Remarks before the University of Michigan Senate Assembly, November 15, 1976, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1975–76, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208; Proposed Minutes of the October 6, 1975, Faculty Meeting, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1975–76, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL; Proposed Minutes of the September 13, 1976, Faculty Meeting of Literature, Science, and the Arts, L.S.A. Fac. Min., 1976–77, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 208, BHL.

40. Reynold H. Colvin to Carl Cohen, May 10, 1977, Carl Cohen Papers, box 46, folder: Bakke Correspondence, Miscellaneous, BHL; Carl Cohen to Reynold H. Colvin, June 1, 1977, Carl Cohen Papers, box 46, folder: Bakke Correspondence, Miscellaneous, BHL; Carl Cohen to Terry, June 30, 1977, Carl Cohen Papers, box 46, folder: Bakke Correspondence, Miscellaneous, BHL; John Bennett to Carl Cohen, November 15, 1977, Carl Cohen Papers, box 46, folder: Bakke Correspondence, Miscellaneous, BHL; Terry H. Anderson, The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative action (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 151.

41. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978).

42. Rene Becker, “ ‘U’ Says Programs Safe,” Michigan Daily, June 29, 1978, 1. The analyses of the case that administrators collected made no suggestion that universities needed to emphasize the educational benefits of diversity in order to comply with Bakke: “Responding to the Bakke Decision,” June 29, 1978, VP for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 100, folder: Bakke (re: alleged discrimination at UC-Davis in admissions) (2011, doc. 56, p. 23); Professional Education after Bakke: A Report on Eleven Post-Bakke Policy Conferences of High-Demand Academic Programs (American Council of Education, 1979).

43. Lance Erickson to Counselors, Supervisors, and Secretaries, Re: Guidelines for Minority and Opportunity Recruitment Policies and Procedures, September 6, 1979, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 60, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Admissions Office: General Correspondence, July 1979–July 1980, BHL.

44. “Who Won?” New York Times, June 29, 1978, A24.

45. Thomas J. Kane, “College Entry by Blacks since 1970: The Role of College Costs, Family Background, and the Returns of Education,” Journal of Political Economy 102, no. 5 (1994): 878–82.

46. The University of Michigan Ann Arbor Undergraduate Enrollment in Degree Credit Programs by Racial/Ethnic Category and Unit, Fall 1983–Fall 1975, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 187, folder: VPAA-OMA-Enrollment, comparative (for years 1971–1984), BHL.

47. George D. Goodman, Minority Enrollment Report, Ann Arbor Campus, 1974, Vice President for Government Relations Records, box 16, folder: Minorities 1974, BHL; Applications, Admissions Offers and New Enrollment for the Ann Arbor Campus, Fall 1978 through 1982, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 108, folder: Minority Enrollment, 1983–84, BHL; The University of Michigan Ann Arbor Undergraduate Enrollment in Degree Credit Programs by Racial/Ethnic Category and Unit, Fall 1983–Fall 1975, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 187, folder: VPAA-OMA-Enrollment, comparative (for years 1971–1984), BHL.

48. Evaluative Reports of Special Recruiting Activities, 1979–1980. Office of Undergraduate Admissions, box 3, folder: Evaluative Reports of Special Recruiting Activities, 1979–80, BHL.

49. David Robinson to Richard English, Re: Minority Students Selected for Academic Recognition Scholarship Program, April 14, 1977, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 60, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Admissions Office: General Correspondence, Jan. 1976–July 1977, BHL; William L. Grothe to Richard English, Re: Interim Report on Selections for the Academic Recognition Scholarship (ARS) Program, the Regents-Alumni Scholarship Program (RAS), and the Michigan Annual Giving (MAG) Program, March 13, 1979, Provost and Executive VP for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 62, Robert Holmes: Topical Files: Financial Aid: Native Americans (includes notes, tables, and graphs), July 1976–July 1979 and undated, BHL.

50. David Robinson, Cancellation Survey of Midwest Black Students Admitted to the University of Michigan for Fall Term, 1984, September, 19, 1984, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 102, BHL.

51. Carla Rapoport, “Black Enrollment Swells,” Michigan Daily, December 2, 1971, 1; Ruth Eckstein, “Entry Characteristics of New Freshmen, Fall 1976–1978,” July 1978, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 63, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Ruth Eckstein (includes notes and reports), Dec. 1975–Sept. 1980 and undated, BHL.

52. Edward P. St. John and Eric H. Asker, Refinancing the College Dream: Access, Equal Opportunity, and Justice for Taxpayers (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 18–22, 80.

53. Office of Financial Aid, “Report on Minority Student Recruitment and Retention,” January 1982, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 108, BHL; Niara Sudarkasa, Undergraduate Minority Enrollment: Policy Issues and Recommendations Related to Recruitment and Financial aid, October 1984, Office of Financial Aid Records, box 3, folder: Policies-Minority Student Programs-Recruitment and Retention, 1982–86. I used the inflation calculator on the Bureau of Labor Statistics website to determine inflation: http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm.

54. Office of Financial Aid, “Report on Minority Student Recruitment and Retention”; United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm.

55. Cliff Sjogren to Robert B. Holmes, September 22, 1983, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 102, folder: VPAA Staff-Holmes-Admissions-General-1983/84 (2), BHL.

1. Pam Gordon, “University Budget Speech,” Vice President for Government Relations Records, 1979, box 16, folder: Minorities-1979, BHL; Susan R. Pollack, “Colleges Grapple with Lag in Minority Enrollment,” Detroit News, February 18, 1979, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Supplemental Files, box 1, folder: Minority Enrollment, Fall 1978, BHL.

2. Gordon, “University Budget Speech,”

3. Gordon, “University Budget Speech.”

4. Black Student Union Presentation, April 19, 1979, Eugene Feingold Papers, box 3, folder: UM Minority Concerns: Minority Student Concerns Task Force-Correspondence, 1979–1981, BHL.

5. Harold T. Shapiro to President Allan F. Smith, May 29, 1979, Subject: Regent Waters Resolution of April 19, 1979, Vice President for Government Relations Records, box 16, folder: Minorities-1979; Report of the Task Force on Minority Student Concerns, March 1981 (revised), Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 108, folder: VPAA Staff-Holmes-Topical-Minority Enrollment, 1981/2 (1), BHL.

6. George D. Goodman to President Harold T. Shapiro, Re: Thoughts on Minority Enrollment, March 12, 1980, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Reports (correspondence) Jan.–May 1980, BHL.

7. Carl Cohen, “Racial Preference Is Dynamite,” Chronicle of Higher Education, May 2, 1977, 10, 40; Carl Cohen, “The DeFunis Case: Race & the Constitution,” Nation, February 8, 1975, 145.

8. George Goodman, “Black Students at U of M in the 1970’s,” February 13, 1980, Tape 1, Center for Afroamerican and African Studies Records, box 28, BHL.

9. Steve Raphael, “Opportunity Knocks,” Detroit News Magazine, June 22, 1980, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Reports (correspondence) Jan.–Sep. 1981, BHL.

10. Task Force on Minority Concerns Statement, Eugene Feingold Papers, box 3, folder: UM Minority Concerns: Minority Student Concerns Task Force-Correspondence, 1979–1981, BHL.

11. Task Force on Minority Student Concerns Minutes, February 28, 1980, Eugene Feingold Papers, box 3, folder: UM Minority Concerns: Minority Student Concerns Task Force-Minutes, 1979–1980, BHL.

12. Cliff Sjogren and Lance Erickson to Vice President B. E. Frye, Subject: Minority Student Enrollment, February 11, 1981, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Robert B. Holmes, Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Reports (correspondence) Jan.–Sep. 1981, BHL.

13. Task Force on Minority Student Concerns Minutes, February 28, 1980.

14. “Q. Harold Shapiro: What’s Next for U-M?” Detroit Free Press, July 29, 1979, 1A.

15. “U-M Conference Will Explore Impact of BAM,” Ann Arbor News, March 17, 1980, A4, CAAS box 2, folder: BAM Conferences and Scholarship, Decade after BAM (1980), BHL.

16. Harold Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M: A Decade after BAM, Panel: The organization and significance of BAM,” March 20, 1980, CAAS Records, box 29, BHL.

17. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M.”

18. Rene Becker, “ ‘U’ Says Programs Safe,” Michigan Daily, June 29, 1978, 1; “Responding to the Bakke Decision,” June 29, 1978, VP for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 100, folder: Bakke (re: alleged discrimination at UC-Davis in admissions), BHL; Professional Education after Bakke: A Report on Eleven Post-Bakke Policy Conferences of High-Demand Academic Programs (American Council of Education, 1979).

19. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M.”

20. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M.”

21. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M.”

22. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M.”

23. Cliff Sjogren to Richard English, “Item: Comments on Dave Robinson’s ‘Summary Report on Current Admissions Office Effort for Minority Student Recruitment,’ ” January 5, 1978, Provost and Executive VP for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 64, folder: Robert B. Holmes: Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Reports (correspondence) (includes notes and tables), Jan.–Dec. 1978, BHL; Minority Data, 1990, Minority Data, 1990, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 4, folder: Speeches-Michigan Mandate, Two Year Status Report, 1990, BHL.

24. Sean Jackson, “Panel Says ‘U’ Support for Minorities Must Increase,” Michigan Daily, September 8, 1984, 1.

25. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M”; Harold Shapiro, “Inauguration Address: Critic and Servant; The Role of the University,” April 14, 1980, http://um2017.org/2017_Website/Shapiros_Inauguration_Address.html.

26. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M.”

27. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M”; “Partners in Growth,” Michigan Alumnus, May 1981, 9.

28. Shapiro, “Harold Shapiro’s Address, U of M.”

29. Report of the Task Force on Minority Concerns, March 1981 (revised), Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 108, folder: VPAA Staff-Holmes-Topical-Minority Enrollment, 1981/2 (1), BHL.

30. Report of the Task Force on Minority Concerns, March 1981.

31. Report of the Task Force on Minority Concerns, March 1981.

32. Wiliam L. Grothe to Richard English, Re: Interim Report on Selections for the Academic Recognition Scholarship (ARS) Program, the Regents-Alumni Scholarship Program (RAS), and the Michigan Annual Giving (MAG) Program, March 13, 1979, Provost and Executive VP for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 62, Robert Holmes: Topical Files: Financial Aid: Native Americans, BHL; Robert Seltzer to Robert Holmes, Re: Recruiting and Enrolling Outstanding Minority Students, November 2, 1982, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 103, folder: Admissions: Adm Issues, 1983–1983 (2), BHL.

33. Elizabeth M. Hawthorne to Associate Dean Jack Walker, February 6, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 102, folder: VPAA-Staff-Holmes-Admissions-General-1984/85 (1), BHL.

34. Report of the Task Force on Undergraduate Student Aid, June 1984, President’s Records, box 207, folder: Undergraduate Student Aid, Report of the Task Force on, 1984, BHL.

35. George Kovanis, “Sudarkasa Set to Challenge ‘U,’ ” Michigan Daily, February 12, 1984, 2; “Dr. Niara Sudarkasa,” Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Sudarkasa, Niara, Personal: Background Materials, 1984–1986 and undated, BHL; Lincoln University Appoints First Woman President, September 29, 1986, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Sudarkasa, Niara, Personal: Background Materials, 1984–1986 and undated, BHL.

36. Lawes, “Black Student Union Making a Comeback,” 1; Sharon Silbar, “Black Student Groups Tries to Revive Spirit of BAM,” Michigan Daily, November 21, 1982, 1.

37. Niara Sudarkasa to Provost James J. Duderstadt, Re: Minority Student Recruitment and Retention: What Have We Accomplished? Where Do We Go from Here?, July 23, 1986, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 67, folder: Staff Files: Sudarkasa, N: Minority Issues Briefing Book 1987, BHL.

38. Niara Sudarkasa, U-M Steps Up Minority Recruitment, September 1984, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Sudarkasa, Niara, Personal: Appearance, Speeches, Articles, March 1985–April 1986 and undated, BHL.

39. Niara Sudarkasa, Admissions and Recruitment Activities, Discussion Paper on Undergraduate Minority Enrollment, the University of Michigan, October 1984, VP for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 202, Minorities: Minority Student Recruitment and Retention Unit Task Force, BHL; Niara Sudarkasa to Mr. Carl Tidd, November 14, 1984, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 103, folder: VPAA-Staff-Holmes-Admissions-General-1984/85 (3), BHL; Niara Sudarkasa to Ron Aramaki, April 22, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 66, folder: Topical Files: Niara Sudarkasa: Council for Minority Concerns, April 1985, BHL.

40. Niara Sudarkasa, Admissions and Recruitment Activities, Discussion Paper on Undergraduate Minority Enrollment, the University of Michigan, October 1984, VP for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 202, Minorities: Minority Student Recruitment and Retention Unit Task Force, BHL.

41. Niara Sudarkasa, Undergraduate Minority Enrollment: Issues and Recommendations Related to Recruitment and Financial Aid: Summary, March 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 108, folder: VPAA-Staff-Holmes-Minority Enrollment-1984/85 (3), BHL; Niara Sudarkasa, Admissions and Recruitment Activities, Discussion Paper on Undergraduate Minority Enrollment, the University of Michigan, October 1984, VP for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 202, Minorities: Minority Student Recruitment and Retention Unit Task Force, BHL; Warner V. Slack and Douglas Porter, “The Scholastic Aptitude Test: A Critical Appraisal,” Harvard Education Review 50, no. 2 (1980): 170–72; Cliff Sjogren to Vice President B. E. Frye, Subject: Minority Student Enrollment, February 11, 1981, Provost and Executive VP for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 64, folder: Robert B. Holmes: Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Reports Jan.–Sept. 1981, BHL.

42. Niara Sudarkasa, Admissions and Recruitment Activities, October 1984.

43. Notes for HTS Interview with Detroit Free Press from N. Sudarkasa, May 7, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 67, folder: Staff Files: Sudarkasa, N: Minority Issues Briefing Book 1987.

44. Blue Ribbon Commission Meeting Minutes, December 5, 1983, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 66, folder: Topical Files: Niara Sudarkasa: Admissions, Office of, March 1983–October 1986, BHL; Sean Jackson, “LSA’s Inside Review,” Michigan Daily, November 16, 1984, 3.

45. Bill Frye to Clifford F. Sjogren, July 15, 1982, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 102, folder: Admissions: General, 1982–1984 (2), BHL; Cliff Sjogren to Vice President B. E. Frye, Subject: Minority Student Enrollment, February 11, 1981, Provost and Executive VP for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 64, folder: Robert B. Holmes: Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Reports Jan.–Sept. 1981, BHL; B. E. Frye to Clifford Sjogren and Lance Erickson, February 19, 1981, Provost and Executive VP for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 64, folder: Robert B. Holmes: Topical Files: Minority Enrollment: Reports Jan.–Sept. 1981, BHL; Bill Frye to Clifford F. Sjogren, July 15, 1982, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 102, folder: Admissions: General, 1982–1984 (2), BHL; Cliff Sjogren to Robert Holmes, May 31, 1983, Provost and Executive Vice Present for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 66, folder: Niara Sudarkasa Topical Files: Admissions, Office of, March 1983–Oct. 1986, BHL; Cliff Sjogren to Robert Holmes, June 7, 1983, Provost and Executive Vice Present for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 66, folder: Niara Sudarkasa Topical Files: Admissions, Office of, March 1983–Oct. 1986, BHL; Robert B. Holmes to Lance Erickson and Clifford Sjogren, March 24, 1983, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 103, folder: Admissions Issues, July 1982–June 83 (1), BHL.

46. Sjogren references Sudarkasa’s criticism in Cliff Sjogren to Niara Sudarkasa, November 8, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 103, folder: VPAA-Staff-Holmes-Admissions-General-1985-1986 (1), BHL.

47. Cliff Sjogren to Niara Sudarkasa, November 8, 1985.

48. Niara Sudarkasa to Cliff Sjogren, November 12, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 103, folder: VPAA-Staff-Holmes-Admissions-General-1985-1986 (1), BHL.

49. Robert B. Holmes to Clifford Sjogren, December 17 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 103, folder: VPAA-Staff-Holmes-Admissions-General-1985-1986 (3), BHL; Clifford Sjogren to Niara Sudarkasa, Draft, December 13, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 103, folder: VPAA-Staff-Holmes-Admissions-General-1985-1986 (3), BHL.

50. Billy E. Frye to Niara Sudarkasa, November 18, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 66, folder: Topical Files: Niara Sudarkasa: Admissions, Office of, March 1983–October 1986, BHL.

51. Notes for HTS Interview with Detroit Free Press from N. Sudarkasa, May 7, 1985; “At Michigan … Shapiro Talks about Effort to Reach Elusive 10% Black Enrollment Goal,” 1B, 4B.

52. Niara Sudarkasa to B. E. Frye, November 26, 1985, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 202, folder: Minorities, BHL; Charles Kidd, Gilbert Maddox, Dave Wesley, and Frank Yates, “Black Administrators: Responsibility without Power,” Michigan Daily, April 10, 1971, 4.

53. Walter R. Allen, Résumé, Summer 2004, http://www.unc.edu/edp/people/cv/pdf/allen.pdf.

54. Barry Beckham, ed., The Black Student’s Guide to Colleges (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1982); Barry Beckham, ed., The Black Student’s Guide to Colleges, 2nd ed. (Providence, RI: Beckham House 1984), 281–82; Veronica Woolridge, “University of Michigan,” New York Times, April 5, 1985, Vice Provost for Multicultural Affairs, box 1, folder: Articles and Clippings, BHL; Eric Young, “Stanford University,” New York Times, April 5, 1985, Vice Provost for Multicultural Affairs, box 1, folder: Articles and Clippings, BHL; Jeff Turner, “University of Georgia,” New York Times, April 5, 1985, Vice Provost for Multicultural Affairs, box 1, folder: Articles and Clippings, BHL.

55. Bill Spindle, “Are Blacks on Campus Losing Out?” Michigan Daily, October 22, 1982, 1, 4, 5; “New Black Student Union,” Michigan Daily, September 30, 1982, 4.

56. Niara Sudarkasa, Undergraduate Minority Enrollment: Issues and Recommendations Related to Recruitment and Financial Aid: Summary, March 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President of Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 186, folder: VPAA-OMA-Admissions Task Force, 1986 (4), BHL.

57. Joel Thurtell, “Being Black at UM,” Detroit Free Press, March 31, 1985, B1.

58. News and Information Services, 2nd Draft, April 3, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 66, folder: Topical Files: Niara Sudarkasa: Detroit Free Press, April–May 1985 and undated, BHL; Harold T. Shapiro to David Lawrence Jr., April 8, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 66, folder: Topical Files: Niara Sudarkasa: Detroit Free Press, April–May 1985 and undated, BHL; Joel Thurtell, “Report of Bias Unfair, U-M Officials Charge,” Detroit Free Press, April 7, 1985, 14A, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 66, folder: Topical Files: Niara Sudarkasa: Detroit Free Press, April–May 1985 and undated, BHL.

59. “U-M ‘Insensitive’ to Blacks, Lawyer Says,” Enquirer and News, June 27, 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Sudarkasa, Niara, Personal: Appearance, Speeches, Articles, March 1985–April 1986 and undated, BHL.

60. Ellen Berrey, The Enigma of Diversity: The Language of Race and the Limits of Racial Justice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 61, 71.

61. Sudarkasa describes these meetings in “Proposal for a Year on Understanding the Value of Diversity at the University and in Society,” November 20, 1985, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 202, folder: Minorities, BHL.

62. “Proposal for a Year on Understanding the Value of Diversity at the University and in Society,” November 20, 1985, Vice President for Academic Affairs, Central Files, box 202, folder: Minorities, BHL.

63. “Proposal for a Year on Understanding the Value of Diversity at the University and in Society.”

64. Committee on Diversity, Report to the President, “A Year on Understanding the Value of Diversity at the University and in Society,” July 11, 1986, VP for Student Affairs, box 22, folder: Diversity-Task Force.

65. Harold Shapiro to Colleagues, July 22, 1986, Vice President for Student Affairs Records, box 22, folder: Diversity-Task Force, 1986, BHL.

66. Niara Sudarkasa to Provost James J. Duderstadt, Re: Minority Student Recruitment and Retention: What Have We Accomplished? Where Do We Go from Here? July 23, 1986, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 67, folder: Staff Files: Sudarkasa, N: Minority Issues Briefing Book 1987, BHL.

67. Lincoln University Appoints First Woman President, September 29, 1986, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Sudarkasa, Niara, Personal: Background Materials, 1984–1986 and undated, BHL.

1. James Tobin, “Big Man on Campus,” Michigan: The Magazine of the Detroit News, May 21, 1989, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 4, folder: Atkins, Daniel, BHL.

2. Dinesh D’Souza, Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus (New York: Free Press, 1991), 15–21.

3. Rebecca Blumenstein, “Dudserstadt Assumes Interim Presidency,” Michigan Daily, January 7, 1987, 1.

4. Paul McNaughton, Open Letter to the Residents of Couzens, January 29, 1987, CAAS, box 55, BAM III, UCAR Racist Flyers at Couzens Hall, 1987, BHL; Eugene Pak, “Racist Flier Sparks Forum at Couzens,” Michigan Daily, February 2, 1987, 1.

5. Pak, “Racist Flier”; Jerry Markon, “Student Admits He Sent Flier,” Michigan Daily, March 10, 1987, 1.

6. George Curry, “Racial Climate Turns Cool on College Campuses,” Chicago Tribune, February 17, 1987, 1, 8; Lee Altken, “Racism on Campus: Beyond the Citadel,” People Weekly, December 15, 1986, 58; Raoul Dennis, “Racism on the Rise,” Black Enterprise, April 1987, 17; Dudley Clendines, “Citadel’s Cadets Feeling Effects of a Klan-Like Act,” New York Times, November 23, 1986, 26; Carolyn Lumsden, “Race Tensions Smolder in College Community,” Washington Post, November 11, 1986; “Racism Rising at Colleges,” New Pittsburgh Courier, January 10, 1987, 3; “Racism: From Closet to Quad,” New York Times, April 1, 1987, A30.

7. Lisa Pollak, “Ransby Speaks Out on Campus,” Michigan Daily, September 10, 1987, Section: “Activism,” 3; Dov Cohen, “Apartheid Protesters Fight Racism with Shanty,” Michigan Daily, March 24, 1986, 3.

8. David Webster, “Diag Rally Fights ‘U’ Racism,” February 9, 1987, 3; Eugene Pak, “Coalition Organizes against Racism,” Michigan Daily, February 18, 1987, 1.

9. Rebecca Blumenstein, “Affirmative Action Initiative Disclosed,” Michigan Daily, February 12, 1987, 1.

10. Ted Sevransky Show, “Racial Jokes,” Tape recording, February 4, 1987, CAAS, box 34, BHL.

11. Barbara Ransby, “UCAR Continues Fight,” Michigan Daily, April 9, 1987, 4; Barbara Ransby, “UCAR Keeps Up Pressure,” Michigan Daily, April 10, 1987, 4.

12. Wendy Lews, “Confrontation: Coalition Demands Action on Racism,” Michigan Daily, March 5, 1987, 1; “Duderstadt: Country Boy with a New Image,” Ann Arbor News, June 10, 1988, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 31, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 31, folder: Daane, Roderick K, BHL.

13. “Harold T. Shapiro” University of Michigan Faculty History Project, https://www.lib.umich.edu/faculty-history/faculty/harold-t-shapiro/memoir; “Duderstadt: Country Boy with a New Image.”

14. Morris Hood Hearings, 1987, Tape 1, CAAS, box 34; Morris Hood Hearings, Tape 2, CAAS, box 34; Morris Hood Hearings, Tape 3, CAAS, box 34; Morris Hood Hearings, Tape 4, CAAS, box 34; Morris Hood Hearings, Tape 5, CAAS, box 34; Hood Hearing: Higher Education Subcommittee of the Appropriations Committee, Office of Human Resources and Affirmative Action box 8, folder: State of Michigan, Morris Hood Inquiry, Re: Racism 3/87, BHL; David Webster, “ ‘U’ Draws National Attention,” Michigan Daily, March 6, 1987, 5; Stephen Gregory, “Hearing on Racism Sparks Emotion,” Michigan Daily, March 6, 1987, 1.

15. Martha Sevetson, “Students Unite Against Racism,” Michigan Daily, February 17, 1987, 3; Stephen Gregory, “Hearing on Racism Sparks Emotion,” Michigan Daily, March 6, 1987, 1.

16. “Black Action Movement III Demands,” University Record, March 23, 1987, CAAS, box 1, folder: BAM III: Newspaper Clippings, Ann Arbor News, Detroit Free Press, Michigan Daily, BAM/UCAR Demands, BHL.

17. Wendy Lewis, “UCAR Stages Sit-In at Fleming Building,” Michigan Daily, March 20, 1987, 1; Ruth Seymour, “New Breed of Protesters Focuses on U-M Racism,” Detroit Free Press, March 22, 1987, 1B.

18. Eugene Pak, “Rev. Jesse Jackson Speaks at Hill Today,” Michigan Daily, March 23, 1987, 1; Bill McGraw, “Jackson Managed to Defuse Racial Tension,” Detroit Free Press, March 29, 1987, 5B; James Duderstadt, “The History of the Michigan Mandate: A Personal Narrative,” June 15, 1991, 7, in author’s possession.

19. James Duderstadt, “The History of the Michigan Mandate: A Personal Narrative,” June 15, 1991, 9.

20. Brodie and Banner, The Research Presidency, 172–73; Duderstadt, “The History of the Michigan Mandate: A Personal Narrative,” 9; Keith Brodie and Leslie Banner, The Research University Presidency in the late Twentieth Century: A Life Cycle/Case History Approach (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005), 81–82; Barbara Ransby, “UCAR Continues Fight,” Michigan Daily, April 9, 1987, 4.

21. Brodie and Banner, Research University Presidency in the Late Twentieth Century, 81–82; James Duderstadt, “The History of the Michigan Mandate: A Personal Narrative,” June 15, 1991, 6, in author’s possession.

22. The Diversity Agenda, November 6, 1987, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 23, folder: Strategic Planning, Increasing Diversity, University of California Study (September 1987), BHL.

23. Interview with James Duderstadt, March 15, 2017.

24. Diversity Strategic Plan, February 16, 1988, Vice President for Academic and Multicultural Affairs Records, box 5, folder: Diversity Agenda, 1987–1990, BHL.

25. Diversity Strategic Plan, February 16, 1988; Mary Jo Frank, “ ‘Raiding’ for Faculty is Encouraged by Moody,” University Record, May 15, 1988, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 91, folder: Moody Charles (folder 2), BHL.

26. Diversity Strategic Plan, February 16, 1988.

27. “Fleming Considers Changing Racial Harassment Proposal,” Ann Arbor News, January 16, 1988, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 132, folder: Varner, Nellie Mae (folder 2), BHL; Steve Knopper, “Fleming’s New Policy Debated,” Michigan Daily, March 1, 1988, 1; “Offensive Speech,” Michigan Daily, January 11, 1988, 1; Steven Knopper, “Officials Discuss Code Draft,” Michigan Daily, January 18, 1988, 1; January Meeting, January 15, 1988, Proceedings of the Board of Regents, 1987–1988, http://quod.lib.umich.edu/u/umregproc/acw7513.1987.001/163?page=root;size=100;view=imag.

28. “The University of Michigan Policy on Discrimination and Discriminatory Harassment by the Students in the University Environment,” Fall 1988 Eugene Feingold Papers, box 3, folder: UM Minority Concerns: Harassment Policies 1988–1989, BHL; Jim Poniewozik, “Code Vote Prompted Mixed Reaction,” Michigan Daily, March 21, 1988, 1; Jim Poniewozik and Ryan Tutak, “Anti-Code Group Storms Fleming Building Lobby,” Michigan Daily, April 15, 1988, 1; David Schwartz, “Code Approval Prompts Protests,” Michigan Daily, April 18, 1988, 1; Noah Finkel, “President Invokes New Policy,” Michigan Daily, September 18, 1989, 1.

29. “What Students Should Know about Discrimination and Discriminatory Harassment by Students in the University Environment,” Fall 1988 Eugene Feingold Papers, box 3, folder: UM Minority Concerns: Harassment Policies 1988–1989, BHL.

30. Ryan Tutak, “It’s President Duderstadt,” Michigan Daily, June 10, 1988, extra ed., 1.

31. The Michigan Mandate: A Strategic Linking of Academic Excellence and Social Diversity, Draft 5.1, March 1989, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 4, folder: Speeches-Michigan Mandate, 1989 (1), BHL.

32. The Michigan Plan: A Strategy for the Enhancement of Excellence through Diversity, Version 1.2 May 1, 1988, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 22, folder: Michigan Plan, Comments on Draft (1989), BHL; James Duderstadt, “Appendix A: The Early History of the Michigan Mandate,” The 50 Year History of Social Diversity at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor: Millennium Project, 2015), 36; Draft 3.0: The Michigan Mandate: A Strategic Linking of Academic Excellence and Social Diversity, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 4, folder: Speeches-Michigan Mandate, 1989 (2), BHL.

33. The Michigan Mandate, September 11, 1988, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 23, folder: Michigan Mandate, Reflected Materials (scattered dates), BHL; James Duderstadt, “The History of the University of Michigan: A Personal Narrative,” June 15, 1991, 11, unpublished in author’s possession.

34. Duderstadt talked about the apathetic environment in James Duderstadt, interview with author, March 15, 2017.

35. Charles David Moody Sr., Biography, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 91, folder: Moody Charles (folder 1), BHL; Mark Chesler to Shirley Jackson, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 22, folder: Michigan Plan, Comments on Draft (1989); Duderstadt, “Appendix A: The Early History of the Michigan Mandate,” 34.

36. “U Goals Examined: EOs, Faculty Begin Racism Awareness Retreats,” University Record, June 22, 1987, Lana Pollack Papers, box 4, folder: MI Senate, Org., UM, Racism Hearing, 1987–1990, BHL.

37. “U Goals Examined.” On backlash against affirmative action, see Dennis Deslippe, Protesting Affirmative Action: The Struggle over Equality After the Civil Rights Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012); Lee Cokorinos, The Assault on Diversity: An Organized Challenge to Racial and Gender Justice (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003).

38. The Diversity Agenda, November 6, 1987, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 23, folder: Strategic Planning, Increasing Diversity, University of California Study (September 1987), BHL; ABPA Michigan Plan Committee to James J. Duderstadt, Subject: The Michigan Plan, July 5, 1988, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 23, folder: Diversity Reading Materials, BHL.

39. The Michigan Mandate: A Strategic Linking of Academic Excellence and Social Diversity, Draft 6.0, March 1990, 3–4, https://books.google.com/books?id=AufhAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP7&lpg=PP7&dq=michigan+mandate+march+1990&source=bl&ots=khUrAxDZWg&sig=toVBvt0pnBYzqdDLn40PrCDEhe4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip9YvmsuPTAhULjVQKHU_kDyQQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=michigan%20mandate%20march%201990&f=false.

40. The Michigan Mandate, September 11, 1988, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 23, folder: Michigan Mandate, Reflected Materials (scattered dates), BHL; Barbara Misle, “Black Students Express Concern over Pact,” Ann Arbor News, April 29, 1987, A4, CAAS box 1, folder: BAM III, Newspaper Clippings, President Harold Shapiro Resignation, BHL; Barbara Ransby, “UCAR Continues Fight,” Michigan Daily, April 9, 1987, 4, CAAS box 1, folder: BAM III: Newspaper Clippings, Ann Arbor News, Detroit Free Press, Michigan Daily, BAM/UCAR Demands, BHL.

41. The Michigan Plan: A Strategy for the Enhancement of Excellence through Diversity, Version 1.2 May 1, 1988, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 22, folder: Michigan Plan, Comments on Draft (1989), BHL.

42. Ryan Tutak, “It’s President Duderstadt,” Michigan Daily, June 10, 1988, extra ed., 1

43. Jack W. Meiland to James J. Duderstadt, January 20, 1989, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 4, folder: Speeches-Michigan Mandate, 1989 (1), BHL; James S. Jackson to Shirley Clarkson, Subject: Michigan Mandate, January 29, 1989, email, James J. Duderstadt Papers, box 22, folder: Michigan Plan, Comments on Draft (1989), BHL; Mark Chesler, Dealing with Racism at the University of Michigan, March 18, 1987, CAAS, box 55, BAM III, UCAR Recommendations on Negotiated Agreements, 1987, BHL; James Duderstadt, interview with author, March 15, 2017.

44. “Introducing Our New Director,” Points of Entry 2, no. 1 (Winter 1989), Office of Undergraduate Admissions, Publications, box 1, folder: Office of Undergraduate Admissions, Newsletter, Points of Entry (for Faculty and Staff), BHL.

45. “Admissions Office’s Shaw Heads for Yale: Ted Spencer Appointed Interim Chief,” University Record, June 22, 1992, News and Information Services University of Michigan Faculty and Staff Files, box 121, folder: Spencer, Ted (doc. 1, p. 21); Theodore L. Spencer, Résumé, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 121, folder: Spencer, Ted, BHL.

46. Cliff Sjogren, Monique Washington, and Don Swain to Counseling Staff, Supervisors, Secretaries, Re: Guidelines for the admission to the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts for All Terms, 1987, August 1986, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Records, box 342, folder: Dean’s Files-Topical-Admissions and Admissions Committees, 1987–1988, BHL.

47. Preliminary Expert Witness Report of William T. Trent, Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al., June 17, 2000, Admissions Lawsuit Collection, box 15, BHL; Sjogren, Washington, and Swain to Counseling Staff, Supervisors, Secretaries, August 1986.

48. Richard Shaw, interview with author, April 5, 2017; Theodore Spencer, interview with author, May 19, 2017; Sjogren, Washington, and Swain to Counseling Staff, Supervisors, Secretaries, August 1986; Office of Undergraduate Admissions, College of Literature, Science and the Arts Guidelines for All Terms of 1996, Vice Provost for Academic and Multicultural Affairs Records, box 38, folder: Student Academic Services, Admissions-Carl Cohen, 1996, BHL.

49. Theodore Spencer, interview with author, May 19, 2017.

50. Richard Shaw, interview with author, April 5, 2017; Theodore Spencer, interview with author, May 19, 2017.

51. Richard Shaw, interview with author, April 5, 2017.

52. Lydia Smigielski, State Offers Free Tuition to Minorities, Detroit Free Press, June 17, 1988, 1A; James Duderstadt to Bob Rorke, September 15, 1989, Vice Provost for Academic and Multicultural Affairs Records, box 3, folder: Topical, DPS, Wade McCree Incentive Scholarship Program, General, 1987–92, BHL.

53. “Table 2. Michigan Public High Schools (Sorted by % Black),” in Preliminary Expert Report of William T. Trent, Gratz v. Bollinger No. 97-75231 (E.D.) Mich.), Admissions Lawsuit Collection, box 15, BHL.

54. Ted Spencer and Rob Seltzer, Undergraduate Admissions Data, Fall 1995, Office of Undergraduate Admissions, Publications, box 1, folder: Repots: Undergraduate Admissions Data, Fall 1995, BHL.

55. Office of the Registrar, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor, Enrollment in Degree Credit Programs by Ethnicity, Fall 1996–Fall 2006, http://www.ro.umich.edu/report/06fa837.xls. The university almost reached 9 percent in fall 1995: Josh White, “ ‘U’ Minority Enrollment Rises to 25%,” Michigan Daily, October 20, 1995, 1.

56. Recall black students’ efforts to create intraracial spaces in chapters 3 and 4. They emphasized the importance of addressing social alienation over UM officials’ vision for improving race relations.

57. Henry Goldblatt, “Mandate Promises Racial Equality,” Michigan Daily, September 5, 1991, 6.

58. Proposed Minutes of the October 4, 1990, Meeting of the Faculty of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, LSA Records, box 373, folder: ROE/UC Adoption, 89–90, BHL.

59. Living-Learning Intervention to Improve Student Retention, April 24, 1990, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 287, folder: VPAA, Staff, Swain, Topical: Steele, Claude (retention project), BHL; Supplement to Proposal: “Protective Dis-Identification and Its Mediation of Academic Outcomes among Black College Students,” Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 287, folder: VPAA, Staff, Swain, Topical: Steele, Claude (retention project), BHL.

60. Living-Learning Intervention to Improve Student Retention; Supplement to Proposal: “Protective Dis-Identification and Its Mediation of Academic Outcomes among Black College Students.”

61. Living-Learning Intervention to Improve Student Retention; Supplement to Proposal: “Protective Dis-Identification and Its Mediation of Academic Outcomes Among Black College Students.”

62. Karen Emerson, “New Living Arrangement Stresses Academic Success,” September 3, 1991, News and Information Services University of Michigan Faculty and Staff Files, box 123, folder: Steele, Claude Mason, BHL.

63. Monita C. Thompson, Teresa Graham Brett, and Charles Behling, “Educating for Social Justice: The Program on Intergroup Relations, Conflict, and Community at the University of Michigan,” in Intergroup Dialogue: Deliberative Democracy in School, College, Community, and Workplace, ed. David Schoem and Sylvia Hurtado, 99–114 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001).

64. Thompson, Brett, and Behling, “Educating for Social Justice,” 99–114; “ ‘U’ Should Invest in Group Relations,” Michigan Daily, March 9, 1992, 4.

65. Thompson, Brett, and Behling, “Educating for Social Justice,” 99–114.

66. Charles D. Moody Sr. to James J. Duderstadt, Re: Update on Research Study on Racial and Gender Perspective of UM Fall Term 1990, Freshpersons and First Time Teaching Assistants in LSA and Engineering, June 26, 1990, Vice Provost for Academic and Multicultural Affairs Records, box 11, folder: Administrative, Committees, Advisory Committee to Study of Racial, Ethnic and Diversity Attitudes of Freshpersons, 1990, BHL.

67. John Matlock, Gerald Gurin, and Katrina Wade-Golden, The Michigan Student Study: Students’ Expectations of and Experiences with Racial/Ethnic Diversity (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Office of Academic Multicultural Initiatives, 2002).

68. Ted Spencer and Rob Seltzer, Undergraduate Admissions Data, Fall 1995, Office of Undergraduate Admissions, Publications, box 1, folder: Repots: Undergraduate Admissions Data, Fall 1995, BHL; Office of the Registrar, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Enrollment in Degree Credit Programs by Ethnicity, Fall 1996–Fall 2006, http://www.ro.umich.edu/report/06fa837.xls. The university almost reached 9 percent in fall 1995: Josh White, “ ‘U’ Minority Enrollment Rises to 25%,” Michigan Daily, October 20, 1995, 1.

1. Greg Stohr, A Black and White Case: How Affirmative Action Survived Its Greatest Legal Challenge (Princeton, NJ: Bloomberg Press, 2004), 2–3.

2. Michel Marriot, “Black Enrollment in College Up after Long Decline, U.S. Says,” New York Times, March 30, 1990, A1; Jennifer Toth, “College Affirmative Action: How Serious Is the Backlash?,” Los Angeles Times, May 16, 1991, SBA5; Carol Jouzaitis, “Affirmative Action under Campus Attack,” Chicago Tribune, May 28, 1991, N1; Carol Jouzaitis, “Affirmative Action Feels Student Heat,” Chicago Tribune, May 28, 1991, C1.

3. Andrew Hartman, A War for the Soul of America: A History of the Culture Wars (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 227–33; Charles Krauthammer, “A Battle Lost at Stanford,” Washington Post, April 22, 1988, A23; George F. Will, “Stanford’s Regression,” Washington Post, May 1, 1988, 53; Dinesh D’Souza, “The Politics of Force-Fed Multiculturalism,” Christian Science Monitor, April 22, 1991, 19. For the most comprehensive scholarly coverage of the Stanford curriculum debate, see Lora Dawn Burnett, “Canon Wars: The Stanford ‘Western Culture’ Debates and the Neoliberal Assault on American Higher Education” (PhD diss., University of Texas-Dallas, 2015).

4. Brian Pusser, Burning Down the House: Politics, Governance, and Affirmative Action at the University of California (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2004), 36–39; Amy Wallace and Dave Lesher, “UC Regents, in Historic Vote, Wipe Out Affirmative Action,” Los Angeles Times, July 21, 1995, http://articles.latimes.com/1995-07-21/news/mn-26379_1_regents-vote-affirmative-action-university-of-california-regents; James Carney, “Affirmative Action: Mend It, Don’t End It,” Time, Monday July 31, 1995, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,983257,00.html; Ethan Bronner, “U. of Washington Will End Race-Conscious Admissions,” New York Times, November 7, 1998, A12; Charles Krauthammer, “Taking Affirmative Action Out of the Judges’ Hands,” Seattle Times, June 19, 1995, http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19950619&slug=2127126; “How Affirmative Action Will Meet Its Demise,” Chicago Tribune, June 16, 1995, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1995-06-16/news/9506160090_1_adarand-constructors-affirmative-action-abortion-law; “Legislative Death Awaits Affirmative Action,” Desert News, June 18, 1995, http://www.deseretnews.com/article/423228/LEGISLATIVE-DEATH-AWAITS-AFFIRMATIVE-ACTION.html.

5. Sean Wilentz, The Age of Reagan: A History, 1974–2008 (New York: Harper, 2008), 187–88, 311–12.

6. Girardeau A. Spann, The Law of Affirmative Action: Twenty-Five Years of Supreme Court Decisions on Race and Remedies (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 164–65; Ashutosh Bhagwat, “Affirmative Action and Compelling Interests: Equal Protection Jurisprudence at the Crossroads,” University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law 4 (January 2002): 270.

7. Goodwin Liu, “Affirmative Action in Higher Education: The Diversity Rationale and the Compelling Interest Test,” Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 33 (Summer 1998): 385; City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co., 488 U.S. 493 (1989) (plurality opinion).

8. “White Woman Denied to Law School Challenges Texas Affirmative Action,” Baltimore Sun, July 13, 1994, 10A.

9. Stohr, Black and White Case, 27; Lee Cokorinos, The Assault on Diversity: An Organized Challenge to Racial and Gender Justice (Lanham, MD: Roman & Littlefield, 2003), 60, 66–67.

10. Carl Cohen to Lewis A. Morrissey, December 19, 1995, Vice Provost for Academic and Multicultural Affairs Records, box 38, folder: Student Academic Services, Admissions-Carl Cohen, 1996, BHL.

11. Lewis A. Morrissey to Carl Cohen, March 12, 1996, Vice Provost for Academic and Multicultural Affairs Records, box 38, folder: Student Academic Services, Admissions-Carl Cohen, 1996, BHL; Stohr, Black and White Case, 17–19.

12. Stohr, Black and White Case; Brent E. Simmons, “Affirmative Action: The Legislative Debate in the Michigan House of Representatives,” Thomas M. Cooley Law Review 14 (1997): 267–316.

13. Stohr, Black and White Case, ix, 36–37, 46–49; Dawson Bell, “Legislators Aim to Sue U-M over Race Policy,” Detroit Free Press, May 2, 1997, 1B.

14. Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978); Hopwood v. Texas, 78 F.3d 932 (5th Cir. 1996).

15. He explained this in a public event: “Affirmative Action: Where Do We Stand?” Tape recording, September 29, 1999, Affirmative Action Lawsuits Collection, box 27, BHL.

16. The Michigan Mandate: A Strategic Linking of Academic Excellence and Social Diversity, Draft 6.0, March 1990, 3–4, https://books.google.com/books?id=AufhAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP7&lpg=PP7&dq=michigan+mandate+march+1990&source=bl&ots=khUrAxDZWg&sig=toVBvt0pnBYzqdDLn40PrCDEhe4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip9YvmsuPTAhULjVQKHU_kDyQQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=michigan%20mandate%20march%201990&f=false.

17. Maryanne George, Hugh McDiarmid, and Matthew G. Davis, “Duderstadt Steps Down, Denies Ouster,” Detroit Free Press, September 29, 1995, 1A; Maryanne George, “Deal Sealed for Bollinger, U-M,” Detroit Free Press, November 13, 1996, 1B; Stohr, Black and White Case, 34; Lee Bollinger, “Inauguration Address,” September 19, 1997, http://um2017.org/2017_Website/Bollingers_Inaugural_Address.html. Quotes from admissions office documents, which were submitted as exhibits in the case, come from Duggan’s decision against the intervenors; Payton used the other documents as exhibits in the case; see Defendants’ Opposition to Plaintiffs’ Motion for Partial Summary Judgment.

18. Laura Calkins, interview with author, May 8, 2017.

19. Calkins, interview with author.

20. James B. Angell, The Higher Education: A Plea for Making It Accessible to All (Ann Arbor: Board of Regents, 1879), http://umich.edu/~bhlumrec/c/commence/1879-Angell.pdf.

21. See footnote 34 in Brief for Respondents, Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003).

22. Deposition of James Duderstadt, January 8, 1999, Admissions Lawsuit Collection, box 14, BHL; The Michigan Mandate: A Strategic Linking of Academic Excellence and Social Diversity, Draft 6.0, March 1990, 3–4, https://books.google.com/books?id=AufhAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP7&lpg=PP7&dq=michigan+mandate+march+1990&source=bl&ots=khUrAxDZWg&sig=toVBvt0pnBYzqdDLn40PrCDEhe4&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwip9YvmsuPTAhULjVQKHU_kDyQQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&q=michigan%20mandate%20march%201990&f=false.

23. Neil H. Berkson, “ ‘Small Number’: Surveys Negroes at ‘U,’ ” Michigan Daily, February 16, 1964, 1; O. Jackson Cole and J. Frank Yaes, “BAM Demands: Meeting the Needs of the People,” Michigan Daily, April 2, 1970, 4; Niara Sudarkasa, Undergraduate Minority Enrollment: Issues and Recommendations Related to Recruitment and Financial Aid: Summary, March 1985, Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, Staff Files, box 65, folder: Sudarkasa, Niara, Personal: Appearance, Speeches, Articles, March 1985–April 1986 and undated, BHL; Kim Clarke, “Minorities at U-M: Progress, but ‘a Long Way to Go,’ ” Ann Arbor News, March 25, 1990, News and Information Services, Faculty and Staff Files, box 91, folder: Moody Charles (folder 1), BHL.

24. First Amended Motion to Intervene, Gratz v. Bollinger, E.D. Mich. 97-CV-75231-DT.

25. Stohr, Black and White Case, 127–31; Plaintiff’s Memorandum in Opposition for Intervention, Gratz v. Bollinger, 97-75231.

26. Expert Report of James Anderson, Admissions Lawsuit Collection, box 15, BHL.

27. Preliminary Expert Witness Report of William T. Trent, Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al., June 17, 2000, Admissions Lawsuit Collection, box 15, BHL; Stohr, Black and White Case, 49.

28. Preliminary Expert Witness Report of William T. Trent, Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al., June 17, 2000, Admissions Lawsuit Collection box 15, BHL.

29. Brief for Patterson Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 244 (2003).

30. Defendants’ Opposition to Plaintiffs’ Motion for Partial Summary Judgment, 9–10.

31. Expert Report of Patricia Gurin, Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al., No. 97-75321 (E.D. Mich.).

32. Expert Report of Patricia Gurin.

33. Expert Report of Patricia Gurin.

34. Expert Report of Patricia Gurin.

35. Expert Report of Patricia Gurin; Brief for Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 244 (2003).

36. Expert Report of Joe Feagin, Admissions Lawsuit Collection, box 15, BHL; Expert Report of Walter Allen, Admissions Lawsuit Collection box 15, BHL.

37. Expert Report of Joe Feagin.

38. Walter Allen, “Campus Racial Climate at the University of Michigan: A Case Study,” October 11, 2000, in Expert Report of Walter Allen, Admissions Lawsuit Collection, box 15, BHL.

39. Brief for Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger; Defendants’ Opposition to Plaintiff’s Motion for Partial Summary Judgment, Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al.

40. “Transcript of Oral Arguments,” December 6, 2001, Gratz v. Bollinger, https://diversity.umich.edu/admissions/legal/gratz/gra-oatrans2.html; “Transcript of Oral Arguments,” Grutter v. Bollinger, https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/2002/02-516.pdf.

41. Expert Report of Joe Feagin; Expert Report of Walter Allen.

42. Brief of the Authors of the Texas Tech Percent Plan as Amicus Curiae in Support of Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger.

43. Brief for Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger.

44. Brief for Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger; William Haber to A. F. Smith et al., March 3, 1970, Vice President of Student Affairs Records, box 9, folder: B. W. Newell, Topical File Black Action Movement, 1970.

45. Expert Report of William G. Bowen, Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al.; William G. Bowen and Derek Bok, The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).

46. Expert Report of William G. Bowen, Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al.; Bowen and Bok, Shape of the River, 46–52.

47. Expert Report of William G. Bowen, Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al.; Bowen and Bok, Shape of the River.

48. Brief for the University of Pittsburgh, Temple University, Wayne State University, and the University of Arizona, Gratz v. Bollinger.

49. Brief for Amherst College, et al., Gratz v. Bollinger.

50. Brief of the Authors of the Texas Tech Percent Plan.

51. Brief for Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger; Brief of Amici Curiae Columbia University, Cornell University, Georgetown University, Rice University, and Vanderbilt University in Support of Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger.

52. Brief for the Patterson Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger.

53. Frank Dobbin, Inventing Equal Opportunity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 133–60.

54. Brief for 65 Leading American Businesses as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger; Brief of MTV Networks as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger; Brief of General Motors Corporation as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondents, Gratz v. Bollinger.

55. Brief for 65 Leading American Businesses as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondents; Brief of MTV Networks as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondents; Brief of General Motors Corporation as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondents.

56. Brief of General Motors Corporation as Amicus Curiae Supporting Respondents.

57. Gratz v. Bollinger; Grutter v. Bollinger.

58. Gratz v. Bollinger; Grutter v. Bollinger.

59. Grutter v. Bollinger.

60. Grutter v. Bollinger.

61. Grutter v. Bollinger.

62. Grutter v. Bollinger.

63. Gratz v. Bollinger; Grutter v. Bollinger.

64. Grutter v. Bollinger.

65. Grutter v. Bollinger.

66. Grutter v. Bollinger.

67. Grutter v. Bollinger.

68. James Kolvunen and Samantha Woll, “Students Divided over Methods Used to Achieve Diverse Campus,” Michigan Daily, June 24, 2003, 1; Linda Greenhouse, “Justices Back Affirmative Action by 5 to 4 Vote, but Wider Vote Bans a Racial Point System,” New York Times, June 24, 2003, A1; Jeffrey Brainard and Julianne Basinger, “Bollinger Accepts ‘Once-in-a-Lifetime’ Chance to Lead Columbia University,” Chronicle of Higher Education, October 8, 2001, https://www.chronicle.com/article/Bollinger-Accepts/109232.

1. Suzette Hackney, “Affirmative Action Ban Ok’d,” Detroit Free Press, November 8, 2006, 9A.

2. “Summary of Workshop on the Judicial Impact of Ballot Initiatives and Judicial Decisions,” January 23–24, 2007, in author’s possession.

3. “University of Michigan 2010–2011 Undergraduate Application,” in author’s possession.

4. Kristen Jordan Shamus, “U-M Targets a Mix of Traits,” Detroit Free Press, March 29, 2007, http://www.freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=2007112130044.

5. Chris Herring, “Minority Enrollment Dips for 2008 Class,” Michigan Daily, October 22, 2008, 1A.

6. Rather than archiving annual tables with data on race and ethnicity online, the University of Michigan’s Office of the Registrar now allows researchers to search for data and create their own data tables. See the “Ethnicity Reports,” https://ro.umich.edu/reports/ethnicity.

7. Chris Herring, “Minority Enrollment Dips for 2008 Class,” Michigan Daily, October 22, 2008, 1A; Stephanie Steinberg, “In typically Low-Key Setting, Students Press Coleman on Diversity Issues,” Michigan Daily, October 28, 2009, https://www.michigandaily.com/content/fireside-chat-students-press-coleman-diversity-issues.

8. Christopher E. D’Alessio, “A Bridge Too Far: The Limits of the Political Process Doctrine in Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action,” Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy Sidebar 9 (2013): 104–24; David Bernstein, “Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action and the Failed Attempt to Square a Circle,” Journal of Law and Liberty 8, no. 1 (2013): 210–27.

9. Motion of the Regents of the University of Michigan, the Board of Trustees of Michigan State University, and the Board of Governors of Wayne State University for Preliminary Injunction Relief, December 11, 2006, Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, E.D. Mich. 2-06-CV-15024, http://diversity.umich.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/1442_001.pdf. On Spencer’s testimony, see Brief for Respondents the Regents of the University of Michigan, the Board of Trustees of Michigan State University, Mary Sue Coleman, and Lou Anna K. Simon, Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, 572 U.S. (2014), http://diversity.umich.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/12-682_bs_um.pdf.

10. Kellie Woodhouse, “What’s It Like to Be Black at the University of Michigan? Just Check #BBUM on Twitter,” Michigan Live, November 19, 2013, http://www.mlive.com/news/ann-arbor/index.ssf/2013/11/whats_it_like_to_be_brown_at_t.html.

11. Woodhouse, “What’s It Like?”

12. Ben Freed, “Being Black at University of Michigan Organizers Threaten ‘Physical Action’ If Demands Aren’t Met,” Michigan Live, January 20, 2014, http://www.mlive.com/news/ann-arbor/index.ssf/2014/01/being_Black_at_university_of_m.html.

13. Coleman Addresses Diversity and Campus Climate in Feb. 20 Remarks, University Record, February 20, 2014, https://record.umich.edu/articles/coleman-addresses-diversity-and-campus-climate-feb-20-remarks.

14. Steve Friess, “Diversity at U-M: What’s Next,” Michigan Alumnus 121, no. 1 (Fall 2014): 39; Kellie Woodhouse, “University of Michigan Renews Decades-Long Struggle to Increase Black Enrollment,” Michigan Live, February 2, 2014, http://www.mlive.com/news/ann-arbor/index.ssf/2014/02/university_of_michigan_renews.html.

15. Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, 572 U.S. (2014); Kellie Woodhouse, “University of Michigan President Mary Sue Coleman to Retire in 2014,” Ann Arbor News, April 18, 2003, http://www.annarbor.com/news/university-of-michigan-president-mary-sue-coleman-to-retire-in-july-2014/.

16. Jeremy Allen, “Read U-M President Mark Schlissel’s Full Inauguration Speech,” Michigan Live, September 5, 2014, http://www.mlive.com/news/ann-arbor/index.ssf/2014/09/read_u-m_president_mark_schlis.html.

17. Provost’s Committee on Diversity, Equity and Inclusion, “Report: Achieving Equity & Inclusion at Michigan,” May 2014, University of Michigan, Office of the Provost, http://www.provost.umich.edu/reports/div-equity-inclusion.html#rec.

18. Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, 133 U.S. 2411 (2013); Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, 579 U.S. (2016).

19. Brief of the University of Michigan as Amicus Curiae in Support of Respondents (2016) (No. 14-981).

20. Brief of the University of Michigan.

21. Emma Kinery, “One Year In, Schlissel Says Diversity Plan Moving Ahead,” Michigan Daily, September 29, 2015, https://www.michigandaily.com/section/news/campus-context-series-diversity.

22. David Jesse, “Tuition at U-M to Be Free for Some,” Detroit Free Press, June 16, 2017, 1A, 9A.

23. David Jesse, “University of Michigan to Invest $85M in Efforts to Boost Diversity, Inclusiveness,” Detroit Free Press, October 7, 2016, 4A, 7A; David Jesse, “U-M College Prep Program to Offer Full Scholarships,” Lansing State Journal, October 24, 2015, 2A; “Wolverine Pathways,” University of Michigan, https://wolverinepathways.umich.edu/.

24. Blake Alsup, “UM Efforts to Aid Lower-Income Students Begin to Bear Fruit,” Detroit News, June 28, 2018, https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/michigan/2018/06/29/um-efforts-aid-lower-income-students-begin-bear-fruit/721229002/.

25. “Ethnicity,” University of Michigan Office of the Registrar, November 10, 2018, https://ro.umich.edu/reports/ethnicity; Shaun R. Harper and Isaiah Simmons, Black Students at Public Colleges and Universities: A 50-State Report Card (Los Angeles: USC Race and Equity Center, 2018).

26. Harper and Simmons, Black Students at Public Colleges and Universities.

27. Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, Office of the Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education, Advancing Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education: Key Data Highlights Focusing on Race and Ethnicity and Promising Practices (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 2016), https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/advancing-diversity-inclusion.pdf.

28. Emily Jane Fox, “Stanford Offers Free Tuition for Families Making Less Than $125,000,” CNN, April 3, 2015, https://money.cnn.com/2015/04/01/pf/college/stanford-financial-aid/; “Financial Aid Initiatives Unique to Brown University,” https://www.brown.edu/about/administration/financial-aid/financial-aid-initiatives-unique-brown-university; Chris Morris, “Rice University Announces Free Tution for Low and Middle-Income Students,” Fortune, September 18, 2018; “Financial Aid Initiatives,” Cornell University, Financial Aid, November 10, 2018, https://finaid.cornell.edu/cost-attend/financial-aid-initiatives; “How Aid Works,” Columbia University Financial Aid & Educational Financing, November 10, 2018, https://cc-seas.financialaid.columbia.edu/how/aid/works; “How Does It Work,” Duke University Office of Undergraduate Financial Support, November 10, 2018, https://financialaid.duke.edu/undergraduate-applicants/how-does-it-work; “How Aid Works,” Dartmouth Financial Aid Office, November 10, 2018, https://financialaid.dartmouth.edu/how-aid-works/how-much-help-will-i-get; “Making MIT Affordable,” MIT Student Financial Services, November 10, 2018, https://sfs.mit.edu/undergraduate-students/the-cost-of-attendance/making-mit-affordable/.

29. Natasha Bach, “Why the University of Chicago Is Dropping Its SAT/ACT Test Requirement,” Fortune, June 15, 2018, http://fortune.com/2018/06/15/university-of-chicago-drops-act-sat-test-requirement-for-admissions/; “320+ ‘Top Tier’ Schools That Deemphasize the ACT/SAT in Admissions Decisions per U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges Guide (2019 Edition),” FairTest: The National Center for Fair and Open Testing, November 10, 2018, http://www.fairtest.org/sites/default/files/Optional-Schools-in-U.S.News-Top-Tiers.pdf; “Standardized Testing Requirements,” Hamilton College, November 10, 2018, https://www.hamilton.edu/admission/apply/requirements.

30. Steven T. Syverson, Valerie W. Franks, and William C. Hiss, “Defining Access: How Test-Optional Works,” National Association for College Admission Counseling, Spring 2018, https://www.nacacnet.org/globalassets/documents/publications/research/defining-access-report-2018.pdf.

31. The National Center for Fair and Open Testing keeps the most up-to-date records on institutions that have eliminated or currently offer test-optional policies: https://www.fairtest.org/university.

32. Scott Jaschik, “Chicago Drops SAT/ACT Requirement. Will Others Follow?” Inside Higher Education, June 19, 2018, https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2018/06/19/university-chicago-drops-satact-requirement.

33. Anya Kamenetz, DIY U: Edupunks, Edupreneurs, and the Coming Transformation of Higher Education (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2010); Kevin Carey, The End of College: Creating the Future of Learning and the University of Everywhere (New York: Riverhead Books, 2015); Jeffrey J. Selingo, College (Un)Bound: The Future of Higher Education and What It Means for Students (Las Vegas: Amazon, 2013).

34. Carey, End of College, 255.

35. Kamenetz is unique in that she offers a short chapter on race in DIY U, but she fails to anticipate the problems that students of color will face in the system she proposes. For a good history of for-profit colleges, see A. J. Angulo, Diploma Mills: How for-Profit Colleges Stiffed Students, Taxpayers, and the American Dream (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 2016).

36. Lani Guinier, The Tyranny of the Meritocracy: Democratizing Higher Education in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 2015), xii–xiii, 4, 23, 25, 29.

37. I’m not the first to use the hospital metaphor. See Guinier, Tyranny of Meritocracy, 7–8.

38. Scott Jaschik, “The ‘U.S. News’ Rankings’ (Faux?) Embrace of Social Mobility,” Inside Higher Ed, September 10, 2018, https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2018/09/10/us-news-says-it-has-shifted-rankings-focus-social-mobility-has-it; “2018 College Guide and Rankings,” Washington Monthly, https://washingtonmonthly.com/2018college-guide?ranking=2018-rankings-national-universities.

39. Suzanne Mettler, Degrees of Inequality: How the Politics of Higher Education Sabotaged the American Dream (New York: Basic Books, 2014), 12, 189–200; Geraldine Fabrikant, “Yale’s Endowment Grew 12%, While Harvard’s Grew 10%,” New York Times, October 2, 2018, B3; Martin Slagter, “University of Michigan Endowment Grew $1 Billion in 2018,” Ann Arbor News, October 19, 2018, https://www.mlive.com/news/ann-arbor/index.ssf/2018/10/university_of_michigan_endowme_4.html.