Notes

Introduction

1.Throughout this book, I use “black and brown communities” to describe those parts of the United States in which the residents are primarily people of color of African, Latin American, Caribbean, Native American, and South Asian descent.

2.“ ‘Segregation Forever’: A Fiery Pledge Forgiven, but Not Forgotten,” NPR, January 10, 2013.

3.Smithsonian Institution, “Spotlight: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.si.edu/spotlight/mlk?page=4&iframe=true.

4.Eugene Scott, “Six Times President Trump Said He Is the Least Racist Person,” Washington Post, January 17, 2018.

5.I am using “white” as shorthand to describe people who are typically of European descent, aren’t of Latin American descent, and identify as, and are perceived as, “white” within US culture.

1. The Racism Profiteers

1.“Chicago Board Votes to Close 50 Schools,” CNN, May 22, 2013.

2.The interview I conducted with Anna Jones has been supplemented by information she provided in the article “Anna Jones: Hunger Striker,” Chicago Reader, December 9, 2015.

3.Inequality.org, “Facts: Wealth Equality in the United States,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://inequality.org/facts/wealth-inequality/.

4.Center for Media and Democracy, “What Is ALEC?,” ALEC Exposed, accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/What_is_ALEC%3F.

5.Center for Media and Democracy, “What Is ALEC?”

6.Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Corporations,” SourceWatch, accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/ALEC_Corporations.

7.Center for Media and Democracy, “Corporations That Have Cut Ties with ALEC,” SourceWatch, accessed March 5, 2018, https://sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Corporations_that_Have_Cut_Ties_to_ALEC.

8.eHistory.org, “The Invasion of America,” YouTube video, June 2, 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJxrTzfG2bo/.

9.Laura Meckler, “Report Finds $23 Billion Racial Funding Gap for Schools,” Washington Post, February 26, 2019.

10.Actual disparities can be much greater than this. US Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, “2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection.”

11.David Cooper, “Workers of Color Are Far More Likely to Be Paid Poverty-Level Wages Than White Workers,” Economic Policy Institute, Working Economics Blog, June 21, 2018, https://www.epi.org/blog/workers-of-color-are-far-more-likely-to-be-paid-poverty-level-wages-than-white-workers/.

12.Don Gonyea, “Majority of White Americans Say They Believe Whites Experience Discrimination,” NPR, October 24, 2017.

13.American Values Institute, Transforming Perception: Black Men and Boys; Perception Institute, https://perception.org/; Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity, http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/.

14.David Armiak and Alex Kotch, “ALEC Leading Right-Wing Campaign to Reopen the Economy Despite COVID-19,” Center for Media and Democracy, April 30, 2020, https://www.exposedbycmd.org/2020/04/30/alec-leading-right-wing-campaign-to-reopen-the-economy-despite-covid-19/.

15.Morgan Jerkins, “Too Many Kids: School Districts Are Packing More and More Kids into Classrooms—and That’s Pushing Teachers Out,” Atlantic, July 1, 2015; Tim Walker, “The Testing Obsession and the Disappearing Curriculum,” NEA Today, September 2, 2014.

16.Michael Mitchell, Michael Leachman, and Kathleen Masterson, A Lost Decade in Higher Education Funding, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, August 23, 2017.

17.Dave Gilson, “Overworked America: 12 Charts That Will Make Your Blood Boil,” Mother Jones, July/August 2011; G. E. Miller, “The U.S. Is the Most Overworked Developed Nation in the World,” 20 Something Finance, January 2, 2018.

18.Morgan Haefner, “Medical Bills Account for 1 in 3 GoFundMe Campaigns,” Becker’s Hospital Review, July 3, 2018.

19.Adam Gopnik, “The Caging of America,” New Yorker, January 30, 2012; Communities United et al., The $3.4 Trillion Mistake: The Cost of Mass Incarceration and Criminalization, and How Justice Reinvestment Can Build a Better Future for All, 2016; Electronic Frontier Foundation, “NSA Spying,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.eff.org/nsa-spying.

20.National Priorities Project, “Federal Budget Tipsheet: Pentagon Spending,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.nationalpriorities.org/guides/tipsheet-pentagon-spending/.

21.Danny Hakim and Michael Wines, “ ‘They Don’t Really Want Us to Vote’: How Republicans Made It Harder,” New York Times, November 3, 2018; Elizabeth Tandy Shermer, “The Right to Work Really Means the Right to Work for Less,” Washington Post, April 24, 2018; Michelle Chen, “America’s Right to Protest Is under Attack,” Nation, June 6, 2017; see also In the Public Interest, https://www.inthepublicinterest.org/.

22.“ ‘The Future of the Negro’: Clip from ‘I Am Not Your Negro,’ ” PBS, https://www.pbs.org/video/i-am-not-your-negro-future-negro-clip-uppanz/.

23.Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (New York: Harper & Row, 1980).

24.Relatively recent examples include directing the ire of white people against black “welfare queens” squandering taxpayer dollars, “illegal immigrants” stealing “our” jobs, “thugs” and “gangbangers” tearing up inner cities, “America-hating Muslims,” and “super-predator” kids terrorizing our schools. These are all direct descendants of much older tactics, such as pushing the narrative around the need to protect white women from “black brutes.”

25.“James Baldwin: How Much Time Do You Want for Your ‘Progress?’ ” uploaded by UnaffiliatedCritic, YouTube video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCUlE5ldPvM.

26.The potential examples are endless, but the “triangulation” strategies of centrist politicians in the mold of Bill Clinton, Joe Biden, and Rahm Emanuel are a good place to start.

27.For example, almost fifty-two million white people performed volunteer work in 2015; the median amount of time spent volunteering was fifty-two hours. In other words, white people literally spent billions of hours volunteering in their communities or surrounding communities. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Economic News Release, “Volunteering in the U.S., 2015,” February 25, 2016.

28.There are nearly 200 million white Americans, meaning that the mobilization of half a million white racial justice advocates would require getting only about one out of every four hundred white people.

2. The Squandered Brilliance of Our Disposable Youth

1.As the great community organizer Ricardo Martinez has said many times.

2.The names of all children and youth in this book have been changed to protect their identities.

3.Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (New York: Picador, 2007), 5.

4.Alliance to Reclaim Our Schools, Confronting the Education Debt: We Owe Billions to Black, Brown and Low-Income Students and Their Schools, September 2018.

5.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts: Racism, School Closures, and Public School Sabotage, May 2014; Communities United for Quality Education, Fact Sheet on Chicago Public Schools’ Proposed Charter School Expansion, January 15, 2014; Susan Saulny, “Board’s Decision to Close 28 Kansas City Schools Follows Years of Inaction,” New York Times, March 11, 2010; Dominic Adams, “Half of Closed Flint Schools Over Last 10 Years in Predominantly Black Neighborhoods in Northwest Quadrant,” MLive, May 12, 2013; Theresa Harrington and Aly Tadayon, “Oakland School Board’s Vote to Close Schools Draws Ire from Parents, Teachers,” Mercury News, September 12, 2019.

6.Kevin Hesla, Jamison White, and Adam Gerstenfeld, A Growing Movement: America’s Largest Public Charter School Communities, 13th annual ed., National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, March 2019; National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, A Growing Movement: America’s Largest Charter School Communities, 5th annual ed., November 2010, 1.

7.Arianna Prothero, “Alabama Governor Signs Measure to Allow Charter Schools,” Education Week, March 19, 2015.

8.National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, National Association of Charter School Authorizers, and 50Can, A Call to Action to Improve the Quality of Full-Time Virtual Charter Public Schools, June 2016.

9.Diane Ravitch, “North Carolina Relaxes Oversight for Charters, Launches ASD to Turn More Public Schools Over to Charters,” Diane Ravitch’s Blog, July 3, 2016, https://dianeravitch.net/2016/07/03/north-carolina-relaxes-oversight-for-charters-launches-asd-to-turn-more-public-schools-over-to-charters/; Vivian Lee and Jesse McKinley, “Legislature Reaches Deal to Extend Mayoral Control of New York’s Schools for a Year,” New York Times, June 17, 2016; Jonathan Pelto, “Cha-Ching! Wealthy Charter School Backers Give Big to Malloy—Malloy Gives Big to Charter Schools,” Wait What? (blog), February 7, 2016, http://jonathanpelto.com/2016/02/07/cha-ching-wealthy-charter-school-backers-give-big-to-malloy-malloy-gives-big-to-charter-schools/; Valerie Strauss, “What Gov. Scott Walker Is About to Do to Wisconsin’s Public Schools,” Washington Post, July 8, 2015; Darcie Cimarusti, “Christie Breaks the Law (Again) to Overfund State’s Charter Schools,” NJ Spotlight, June 25, 2015; Mike Klonsky, “Rauner’s Dream: A State with No Unions and More Charters,” Mike Klonsky’s Blog, February 5, 2015, https://michaelklonsky.blogspot.com/2015/02/rauners-dream-state-with-no-unions-and.html; Erin Richards, “Walker Budget Proposal Would Virtually Upend Education Status Quo,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, February 3, 2015.

10.Center for Popular Democracy, State Takeovers of Low-Performing Schools: A Record of Academic Failure, Financial Mismanagement & Student Harm, February 2016.

11.Center for Popular Democracy, State Takeovers of Low-Performing Schools; Alliance to Reclaim Our Schools, Out of Control: The Systematic Disenfranchisement of African American and Latino Communities through School Takeovers, August 2015; Alliance to Reclaim Our Schools, The Facts about State Takeovers of Public Schools, 2015.

12.Education Commission of the States, 50-State Comparison: Vouchers, March 6, 2017; see also Alliance to Reclaim Our Schools, “Resources,” accessed March 5, 2018, http://www.reclaimourschools.org/resources.

13.Network for Public Education and Schott Foundation for Public Education, Grading the States: A Report Card on Our Nation’s Commitment to Public Schools, June 2018.

14.Tim Walker, “Beware of School Voucher Doublespeak,” NEA Today, May 26, 2017; Evie Blad, “Trump Pushes Tax Break to Promote School Choice in State of the Union Address,” Education Week, February 4, 2015.

15.Andrew Marra, “Schools Chief Wants Freedom from State Rules to Rival Charters,” Palm Beach Post, July 30, 2015.

16.Howard Blume, “Backers Want Half of LAUSD Students in Charter Schools in Eight Years, Report Says,” Los Angeles Times, September 21, 2015.

17.Gary Miron, William J. Mathis, and Kevin G. Welner, review of Separating Fact & Fiction: What You Need to Know about Charter Schools, National Education Policy Center, February 2015; Diane Ravitch, Reign of Error: The Hoax of the Privatization Movement and the Danger to America’s Public Schools (New York: Knopf, 2013), 156, 206.

18.Arianna Prothero and Alex Harwin, “In Many Charter High Schools, Graduation Odds Are Slim,” Education Week, February 26, 2019.

19.Unless otherwise noted, the following information on the effects of charter school and voucher expansion comes from the following sources: Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts; Envisioning the Future of Newark Public Schools: Excellent Neighborhood Public Schools for All, May 17, 2014; Great Public Schools–Pittsburgh, Creating a District of Last Resort: The Community Perspective on Pittsburgh Public Schools’ Proposed “Corporate-Style” Reforms, October 2013; Philadelphia Coalition Advocating for Public Schools, The Philadelphia Community Education Plan: Excellent Schools for All Children, 2012; Network for Public Education, Charters and Consequences: An Investigative Series, November 2017; Network for Public Education, NPE Toolkit: School Privatization Explained; Ravitch, Reign of Error; Diane Ravitch, The Death and Life of the Great American School System: How Testing and Choice Are Undermining Education (New York: Basic Books, 2011); Molly F. Gordon et al., School Closings in Chicago: Staff and Student Experiences and Academic Outcomes, University of Chicago Consortium on School Research, May 2018; Brett Robertson, “NPR Series Exposes the Numerous Problems with Trump and DeVos’ Push for Private School Vouchers,” Media Matters for America, May 25, 2017; Alliance to Reclaim Our Schools, “Vouchers: What the Research Says,” April 7, 2017; Alliance to Reclaim Our Schools, “Myths and Facts about Vouchers,” April 7, 2017; Network for Public Education, NPE Toolkit; and interviews with members of the Journey for Justice Alliance.

20.Network for Public Education, NPE Toolkit; David Lapp, Joshua Linn, Erik Dolson, and Della Moran, The Fiscal Impact of Charter School Expansion: Calculations in Six Pennsylvania School Districts, Research for Action, September 2017; Bruce D. Baker, Exploring the Consequences of Charter School Expansion in U.S. Cities, Economic Policy Institute, November 30, 2016; In the Public Interest, Breaking Point: The Cost of Charter Schools for Public School Districts, May 2018.

21.Kevin G. Welner, “The Dirty Dozen: How Charter Schools Influence Student Enrollment,” Teachers College Record, April 2013, http://www.tcrecord.org.

22.Great Public Schools–Pittsburgh, Creating a District of Last Resort: The Community Perspective on Pittsburgh Public Schools’ Proposed “Corporate-Style” Reforms, October 2013, 5; Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 17.

23.For example, when Chicago closed fifty schools in 2013, over fifteen thousand students were displaced, and 40 percent of them weren’t attending their designated welcoming schools the following year and were unaccounted for. Linda Lutton, “Only 60 Percent of Students from Chicago’s Closed Schools Turn Up at ‘Welcoming Schools,’ ” WBEZ, October 14, 2013.

24.Network for Public Education, Charters and Consequences; Network for Public Education, #AnotherDayAnotherCharterSchoolScandal; Jeff Bryant, “The Truth about Charter Schools: Padded Cells, Corruption, Lousy Instruction, and Worse Results,” Salon, January 10, 2014.

25.Network for Public Education, “California Charters Gone Wild: Part 2—Storefront Schools,” October 17, 2016.

26.Jess Clark, “Department of Education Awards $13 Million to Train New Orleans Teachers,” New Orleans Public Radio, November 13, 2017; Eric Westervelt, “Where Have All the Teachers Gone?,” NPR, March 3, 2015.

27.Daniel J. Losen et al., Charter Schools, Civil Rights and School Discipline: A Comprehensive Review, Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the Civil Rights Project, March 2016; NAACP Task Force on Quality Education, Quality Education for All … One School at a Time, July 2017; Frank Adamson, Channa Cook-Harvey, and Linda Darling Hammond, Whose Choice? Student Experiences and Outcomes in the New Orleans School Marketplace, SCOPE, September 2015; Joe Davidson, “Feds Cite D.C. Charters for High Suspension Rates, Particularly for Black Students,” Washington Post, February 14, 2017.

28.“Bruce Baker: The Relationship between States’ Charter Schools and Fiscal Effort,” Diane Ravitch’s Blog, May 23, 2017, https://dianeravitch.net/2017/05/23/bruce-baker-the-relationship-between-states-charter-schools-and-fiscal-effort/; Michael Leachman, Kathleen Masterson, and Eric Figueroa, A Punishing Decade for School Funding, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, November 29, 2017; National Education Association, Wraparound Services, accessed July 31, 2020, http://www.gpsnetwork.org/assets/docs/Wraparound-Services-05142013.pdf.

29.Center for Popular Democracy, Charter School Vulnerabilities to Waste, Fraud, and Abuse, May 2017; Valerie Strauss, “What Taxpayers Should Know about the Cost of School Choice,” Washington Post, January 26, 2017; Jonathan Pelto, “Loosely Regulated, Charter Schools Pose Fiscal Risk,” The Hill, November 1, 2016; Network for Public Education, Charters and Consequences; Network for Public Education, Still Asleep at the Wheel: How the Federal Charter Schools Program Results in a Pileup of Fraud and Waste, December 6, 2019.

30.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 21.

31.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 4.

32.National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, “About Charter Schools,” accessed July 29, 2020, https://www.publiccharters.org/about-charter-schools (indicating that there are 3.3 million students in charter schools); Patrick J. Wolf et al., Charter School Funding: Inequity in the City, School Choice Demonstration Project (Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Department of Education Reform, 2017), 11 (calculating weighted average per-pupil expenditure at charter schools across fourteen cities to be $14,200); Drew Catt, “The States Ranked by Spending on School Choice Programs, 2020 Edition,” EdChoice, January 28, 2020, https://www.edchoice.org/engage/the-states-ranked-by-spending-on-school-choice-programs-2020-edition/ (calculating total spending on voucher and voucher-like programs to be $2.7 billion).

33.Eve L. Ewing, “Phantoms Playing Double-Dutch: Why the Fight for Dyett Is Bigger Than One Chicago School Closing,” Seven Scribes, August 26, 2015; Nadia Prupis, “ ‘Reclaim Our Schools’: Cities Rally Nationwide to Save Public Education,” Common Dreams, February 17, 2016; Naomi Nix, “Newark Student Protestors to End Four-Day Sit-In against Superintendent,” NJ.Com, February 20, 2015; News Advisory, “CTU to Lead Picket before Chicago Board of Education Meeting Calling for Halt to Charter School Expansion,” May 26, 2015.

34.John Mooney, “Newark Civil-Rights Probe Mirrors Investigations in Other U.S. Cities,” NJ Spotlight, July 24, 2014.

35.Diane Ravitch, Slaying Goliath: The Passionate Resistance to Privatization and the Fight to Save America’s Public Schools (New York: Knopf, 2020).

36.Ravitch, Slaying Goliath; United Teachers Los Angeles, “Our Contract Agreement: What We Won & How It Builds Our Future.”

37.All of the Forbes rankings and net worth figures come from one of the following two sources: Luisa Kroll and Kerry A. Dolan, “The Forbes 400: The Definitive Ranking of the Wealthiest Americans,” Forbes, https://www.forbes.com/forbes-400/#15dbd2177e2f; Kerry A. Dolan, “Billion-Dollar Clans: America’s Richest Families 2016,” Forbes, June 29, 2016, https://www.forbes.com/sites/kerryadolan/2016/06/29/billion-dollar-clans-americas-25-richest-families-2016/#72e3881e32f5.

38.Meaning they (a) donated to charter schools or prominent school privatization organizations; (b) have made their money primarily from a company that is, or was until recently, a member of ALEC (per “ALEC Exposed,” a project of the Center for Media and Democracy), which has been instrumental in advancing the school privatization agenda at the state level; or (c) were part of the Koch network of donors that have also adopted school privatization as a major priority (per Gavin Aronsen, “The Koch Brothers’ Million-Dollar Donor Club,” Mother Jones, September 6, 2011). Luisa Kroll, “Forbes 400 2017: Meet the Richest People in America,” Forbes, https://www.forbes.com/forbes-400/#4d4192887e2f.

39.Walton Family Foundation, “K–12 Education,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.waltonfamilyfoundation.org/our-impact/k12-education.

40.Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, “Who We Are: Annual Reports,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.gatesfoundation.org/Who-We-Are/Resources-and-Media/Annual-Reports.

41.Aronsen, “Koch Brothers’ Million-Dollar Donor Club.”

42.All the figures provided in tables 2 through 5 and 7 through 10 are based on the 990 tax filings available from Guidestar since 1998 for the following foundations: Broad Foundation, Michael & Susan Dell Foundation, Laura and John Arnold Foundation, Robertson Foundation, Tiger Foundation (also operated by Julian Robertson), Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, and Doris & Donald Fisher Fund / Doris & Donald Fisher Foundation. For the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Walton Family Foundation, donation amounts were compiled from their organizational websites. For the Silicon Valley Community Foundation, the available tax filings don’t allow for each person’s individual investments to be disaggregated, so the foundation’s donations are presented in total. For the Fisher family, the available tax filings were supplemented with information on Don Fisher’s donations to KIPP and Teach for America in “Philanthropy Roundtable Hall of Fame: Don Fisher,” accessed March 25, 2020, https://www.philanthropyroundtable.org/almanac/people/hall-of-fame/detail/don-fisher. “Koch Network” includes the following organizations: Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation, David H. Koch Foundation, Claude R. Lambe Charitable Foundation, Freedom Partners, Donors Trust, Donors Capital Fund, and TC4 Trust. PRWatch Editors, “Meet the Network Hiding the Koch Money: ‘Donors Trust’ and ‘Donors Capital Fund,’ ” Center for Media and Democracy’s PRWatch, October 29, 2012; Mike Allen and Jim Vandehei, “The Koch Brothers’ Secret Bank,” Politico, September 11, 2013; SourceWatch Editors, “Koch Family Foundations,” Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/Koch_Family_Foundations#Contributions_of_the_Claude_R._Lambe_Foundation. Because these organizations are not required to precisely disclose the source of their funding, it is impossible to know precisely what the role of Charles and David Koch has been in each of them. However, all these organizations have clear, deep ties to the Kochs, including sizable amounts of Koch money passing through them. Donation amounts were compiled from both 990 tax filings available from Guidestar and from the Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch.

43.Donations from NewSchools Venture Fund and Charter School Growth Fund were compiled from 990 tax filings available from Guidestar. The US Department of Education grants were compiled from information on the department’s website. “Charter School Program Grants for Replication and Expansion of High-Quality Charter Schools,” accessed March 26, 2020, https://oese.ed.gov/offices/office-of-discretionary-grants-support-services/charter-school-programs/charter-schools-program-grants-for-replications-and-expansion-of-high-quality-charter-schools/awards/; “Charter Schools Program Non-State Educational Agencies Dissemination Grants,” accessed March 26, 2020, https://www2.ed.gov/programs/charternonsea-dissemination/awards.html; “Charter Schools Program Non-State Educational Agencies Planning, Program Design, and Initial Implementation Grant,” accessed March 26, 2020, https://www2.ed.gov/programs/charternonsea/awards.html.

44.Kayla Lattimore, “DeVos Says More Money Won’t Help Schools; Research Says Otherwise,” NPR, June 9, 2017.

45.Walton Family Foundation, “Investing in Cities,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.waltonfamilyfoundation.org/our-impact/k12-education/investing-in-cities.

46.“About Education Matters Funding,” Los Angeles Times, accessed March 5, 2018, http://www.latimes.com/local/education/la-me-edu-about-education-matters-funding-20151120-story.html.

47.Valerie Strauss, “Mark Zuckerberg Is Giving $120 Million to Bay Area Schools (after His Last Education Reform Effort Didn’t Go So Well),” Washington Post, May 30, 2014.

48.Network for Public Education, Hijacked by Billionaires: How the Super-Rich Buy Elections to Undermine Public Schools; “The $1M School Board Race,” Economist, November 9, 2017; Valerie Strauss, “Dark Money Just Keeps on Coming in School Board Races,” Washington Post, October 29, 2017; “The 96 Billionaires Who Decided to Buy Local School Board Elections,” Diane Ravitch’s Blog, June 13, 2017, https://dianeravitch.net/2017/06/13/the-96-billionaires-who-decided-to-buy-local-school-board-elections/.

49.Howard Blume and Ben Poston, “How L.A.’s School Board Election Became the Most Expensive in U.S. History,” Los Angeles Times, May 21, 2017; Peter Dreier, “Big Money Wins Big in L.A. School Board Race,” L.A. Progressive, May 17, 2017.

50.Joanne Barkan, “Charitable Plutocracy: Bill Gates, Washington State, and the Nuisance of Democracy,” Nonprofit Quarterly, April 11, 2016.

51.Matt Rosoff, “Steve Ballmer Spends $425,000 Fighting Bill Gates over Income Tax in Washington,” Business Insider, November 1, 2010.

52.Russell Berman, “ ‘You Better Learn Our Lesson,’ ” Atlantic, October 11, 2017; Mitch Smith and Julie Bosman, “Kansas Supreme Court Says State Education Spending Is Too Low,” New York Times, March 2, 2017.

53.Danica Coto, “Puerto Rico’s Gov Seeks Charter Schools, Raises for Teachers,” Washington Post, February 5, 2018; Merrit Kennedy and Lauren Migaki, “School Closures Loom in Puerto Rico as Enrollment Shrinks after Maria,” NPR, January 4, 2018.

54.Sarah Lahm, “Billionaires Are the Biggest Threat to Public Schools,” Common Dreams, May 15, 2020, https://www.commondreams.org/views/2020/05/15/billionaires-are-biggest-threat-public-schools; Katie Ferrari, “Disaster Capitalism is Coming for Public Education,” Jacobin, May 14, 2020.

55.Envisioning the Future of Newark Public Schools; Great Public Schools–Pittsburgh, Creating a District of Last Resort; Philadelphia Coalition Advocating for Public Schools, The Philadelphia Community Education Plan.

56.Matt Levin, “Bill Gates, Angelina Jolie Top List of Most Admired People in the World,” Houston Chronicle, May 12, 2016.

57.Jane Mayer, Dark Money: The Hidden History of the Billionaires behind the Rise of the Radical Right (New York: Anchor Books, 2016), 33–41.

58.Marc Sternberg, “Our $1 Billion Plan to Create Opportunities for U.S. Students,” Walton Family Foundation, January 7, 2016, https://blog.waltonfamilyfoundation.org/2016/january/our-$1-billion-plan-to-create-opportunities-for-us-students.

59.James Hohmann, “The Daily 202: Koch Network Laying Groundwork to Fundamentally Transform America’s Education System,” Washington Post, January 30, 2018; Andrew Ujifusa, “Koch Network Announces New Education Lobbying Group, Walton Funding Pact,” Education Week, June 29, 2019.

60.Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Exposed,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/ALEC_Exposed. In the past few years, Microsoft, Facebook, and Dell all claim to have ended their ALEC membership. Center for Media and Democracy, “Corporations That Have Cut Ties with ALEC,” SourceWatch, accessed March 5, 2018, https://sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Corporations_that_Have_Cut_Ties_to_ALEC.

61.Brendan Fischer and Zachary Peters, “Cashing in on Kids: 172 ALEC Education Bills Push Privatization in 2015,” Truthout, March 9, 2016.

62.National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, “Charter School FAQ,” accessed March 5, 2018, http://www.publiccharters.org/about-charter-schools/charter-school-faq.

63.Center for Education Reform, “Just the FAQs—Charter Schools,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.edreform.com/2012/03/just-the-faqs-charter-schools/.

64.Foundation for Excellence in Education, “Charter Schools,” accessed March 5, 2018, http://www.excelined.org/opportunity/charter-schools/.

65.Colorado Department of Education, “Charter School Waivers 2017–18,” https://www.cde.state.co.us/cdechart/report-waiversbycharterschool-0.

66.Democrats for Education Reform, “Statement of Principles,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://dfer.org/about-us/statement-of-principles/ (referencing public schools’ “top-down monopolies”).

67.National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, “Data Dashboard,” accessed March 15, 2019, http://data.publiccharters.org (listing six charter management organizations with more than fifty thousand students); Monica Disare, “Eva Moskowitz Looks Back at Her Turn Away from District Schools, as She Plans for 100 Schools of Her Own,” Chalkbeat, October 16, 2017.

68.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 7.

69.Democrats for Education Reform, “Statement of Principles” (referencing how school systems have “become captive to powerful, entrenched interests that too often put the demands of adults before the educational needs of children”).

70.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 7.

71.Tal Axelrod, “DeVos: Teachers Union Has a ‘Stranglehold’ on Many Federal, State Politicians,” The Hill, November 27, 2018.

72.Center for Popular Democracy, Charter School Vulnerabilities; Strauss, “What Taxpayers Should Know about the Cost of School Choice”; Pelto, “Loosely Regulated, Charter Schools Pose Fiscal Risk”; Network for Public Education, Charters and Consequences; Network for Public Education, Still Asleep at the Wheel.

73.Monte Whaley, “ ‘Historic’ Colorado Charter School Funding Measure Headed for Governor’s Signature,” Denver Post, May 10, 2017.

74.Miron, Mathis, and Welner, review of Separating Fact & Fiction; Welner, “Dirty Dozen.”

75.Noble’s 990 forms were accessed via Guidestar.

76.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 16.

77.Lynne Marek, “How the Noble Charter Network Connected with Chicago’s Business Elite,” Crain’s, February 22, 2014.

78.Marek, “How the Noble Charter Network Connected.”

79.Melissa Sanchez and Kalyn Belsha, “Inside Noble,” Chicago Reporter, February 8, 2016.

80.US Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, “2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection,” https://ocrdata.ed.gov. It should be noted that Noble doesn’t operate elementary schools, while the national averages do include those schools.

81.Chicago Public Schools, “School Data,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://cps.edu/SchoolData/Pages/SchoolData.aspx.

82.Dusty Rhodes, “Culture Shock: Teachers Call Noble Charters ‘Dehumanizing,’ ” NPR Illinois, April 3, 2018.

83.James Warren, “Some Students Really Pay for Breaking the Rules,” New York Times, February 17, 2012.

84.Carol Caref et al., The Black and White of Education in Chicago’s Public Schools: Class, Charters & Chaos; A Hard Look at Privatization Schemes Masquerading as Education Policy, Chicago Teachers Union, November 30, 2012, 4, 35–37.

85.KIPP, accessed March 26, 2020, http://www.kipp.org.

86.KIPP-New Orleans, “Schools Overview,” accessed March 26, 2020, https://www.kippneworleans.org/apps/pages/schoolsoverview.

87.US Department of Education Office of Civil Rights, “2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection” (based on the KIPP schools that reported data).

88.Tim Tooten, “Number of Suspended, Expelled Students Raises Concern,” WBAL TV, November 15, 2016.

89.George Joseph, “Where Charter-School Suspensions Are Concentrated,” Atlantic, September 16, 2016.

90.Alejandra Matos, “New Scrutiny on Suspension Rates in Some D.C. Charter Schools,” Washington Post, February 17, 2017; 2015–16 DC Charter Schools with Suspension Rates of 10% or Higher, https://www.nonpartisaneducation.org/Review/Resources/DC_Charters_GAO_Susp_Rpt_17_0209.xls.

91.Losen et al., Charter Schools, Civil Rights and School Discipline, 10.

92.Sarah Carr, “How Strict Is Too Strict? The Backlash against No-Excuses Discipline in High School,” Atlantic, December 2014.

93.Welner, “Dirty Dozen” (describing methods used by charter schools to exclude students).

94.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 4.

95.Editorial Board, “The NAACP Opposes Charter Schools. Maybe It Should Do Its Homework,” Washington Post, October 11, 2016.

96.Shane Goldmacher, “Daniel Loeb, a Cuomo Donor, Makes Racial Remark about Black Leader,” New York Times, August 10, 2017.

97.Dave Powell, “No, Education Isn’t the Civil Rights Issue of Our Time,” Education Week, May 15, 2017; Susan Berry, “Jeb Bush Calls Education a ‘Civil Rights Issue,’ Quiet on Support of Common Core,” Breitbart, January 18, 2016.

98.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 19.

99.Dustin Beilke, “New Grants Announced: ED Continues to Pour Millions into Charter School Black Hole,” PR Watch, September 29, 2016.

100.Julian Vasquez Heilig, “Truth: Why Vouchers and School Choice Were Created,” Cloaking Inequity (blog), January 13, 2017, https://dianeravitch.net/2017/02/12/julian-vasquez-heilig-the-sordid-truth-about-vouchers/.

101.Sean Cavanagh, “George W. Bush Defends Legacy of No Child Left Behind at Education Business Conference,” Education Week, April 17, 2018.

102.Based on a December 14, 2017, Westlaw search for the following terms: “failing schools,” “failing school system,” “failing public schools,” “failing public school system,” “public schools are failing,” “crisis in education,” “crisis in public education,” and “education crisis.”

103.Sarah Darville, “Echoing Bush and Obama, Trump Calls Education ‘The Civil Rights Issue of Our Time’—and Asks for a School Choice Bill,” Chalkbeat, February 28, 2017.

104.Frank Luntz, Words That Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear (New York: Hyperion, 2007), 287.

105.Jonas Persson, “ALEC Admits School Vouchers Are for Kids in Suburbia,” Center for Media and Democracy, July 22, 2015.

106.Based on a search of these organizational websites on March 5, 2018.

107.Ballotpedia, “Massachusetts Authorization of Additional Charter Schools and Charter School Expansion, Question 2 (2016),” https://ballotpedia.org/Massachusetts_Authorization_of_Additional_Charter_Schools_and_Charter_School_Expansion,_Question_2_(2016).

108.Michael Levenson, “Pro–Charter School Group Pays State’s Largest Campaign Finance Penalty,” Boston Globe, September 11, 2017.

109.Levenson, “Pro–Charter School Group”; Ravitch, Slaying Goliath, 203.

110.Gates Foundation, “Awarded Grants,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.gatesfoundation.org/How-We-Work/Quick-Links/Grants-Database.

111.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 13.

112.“After Success Academy’s Annual Lottery, 14,000 Children Are Left on Waitlist,” press release, Success Academy, April 6, 2017.

113.“After Success Academy’s Annual Lottery”; Great Schools Massachusetts, “Governor Charlie Baker—YES on 2 HD,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://ballotpedia.org/Massachusetts_Authorization_of_Additional_Charter_Schools_and_Charter_School_Expansion,_Question_2_(2016).

114.Charter School Capital, Digital Marketing 101 for Charter Schools, March 17, 2015, https://www.slideshare.net/CharterSchoolCapital/digital-marketing-101-for-charter-schools; Colorado League of Charter Schools, Stand Out: A Guide to School Marketing, 3, accessed March 5, 2018, https://charterschoolcenter.ed.gov/sites/default/files/files/field_publication_attachment/StandOut-Marketing-Tookit-2015.pdf; Six Degrees Digital Media, “Marketing Your Charter School Online: What to Keep in Mind,” March 11, 2015, https://sixdegreesdigitalmedia.com/marketing-your-charter-school-online-what-to-keep-in-mind/; Dustin Dwyer, “Some Charter Schools Focus on Quality. Others Focus on Marketing. Guess Which Ones Are Winning,” State of Opportunity, April 24, 2013; Hayleigh Colombo, “Charter School Offered $100 Reward to Anyone Who Referred Students Who Enrolled,” Chalkbeat, January 29, 2015.

115.“Online Charter Schools Spent Millions of Taxpayer Dollars on Advertising to Recruit New Students,” Huffington Post, November 29, 2012.

116.Colorado League of Charter Schools, Stand Out, 3.

117.Great Schools Massachusetts, “Yes on 2—Absurd,” YouTube video, September 27, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=30&v=QqXUr3N7lcw.

118.Democrats for Education Reform, accessed March 5, 2018, https://dfer.org/.

119.Stand for Children, accessed March 5, 2018, http://stand.org.

120.Peter Marcus, “U.S. Education Secretary Betsy DeVos Calls School Choice Protestors ‘Defenders of the Status Quo,’ ” Colorado Politics, July 21, 2017.

121.Based on a search in Westlaw.

122.Based on a search in Westlaw.

123.Based on a search in Westlaw.

124.Based on Westlaw searches for media hits within major US newspapers that included both the person’s name and organization.

125.Persson, “ALEC Admits School Vouchers Are for Kids in Suburbia”; Diane Ravitch, “The Great Retreat Now Begins: Choice Is No Longer about ‘Saving Poor Children from Failing Schools,’ ” Diane Ravitch’s Blog, May 6, 2017, https://dianeravitch.net/2017/05/06/the-great-retreat-now-begins-choice-is-no-longer-about-saving-poor-children-from-failing-schools/; Arianna Prothero, “Extending Vouchers into Middle Class Is Florida’s Next Move,” Education Week, April 16, 2019.

126.Valerie Strauss, “The ‘Walmartization’ of Public Education,” Washington Post, March 17, 2016.

127.Stephanie Condon, “Jeb Bush Pitches ‘Total Voucherization’ at Education Summit,” CBS News, August 19, 2015; Laurie Roberts, “Koch-Funded Group Spends Six Figures to ‘Educate’ on Vouchers,” AZ Central, November 16, 2017; Kye Martin, “Chicago Teachers Union Opposes School Funding Plan’s ‘Extremist Voucher Tax Credit,’ ” NBC Chicago, August 28, 2017.

128.Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (New York: Picador, 2007); See also Jan Resseger, “ ‘One Newark’ Exemplifies the Shock Doctrine,” The Progressive, April 28, 2015.

129.The American Presidency Project, “Political Party Platforms,” “Parties Receiving Electoral Votes, 1840–2016,” accessed March 5, 2018, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/platforms.php.

130.For much more on this agenda see Mayer, Dark Money; Nancy MacLean, Democracy in Chains: The Deep History of the Radical Right’s Stealth Plan for America (New York: Viking, 2017); Gordon Lafer, The One Percent Solution: How Corporations Are Remaking America One State at a Time (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2017); Klein, Shock Doctrine.

131.Mayer, Dark Money; MacLean, Democracy in Chains; Lafer, One Percent Solution; see also Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Exposed,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/ALEC_Exposed.

132.Network for Public Education, Charters and Consequences, 1; see also Diane Ravitch, “Worldwide, Public Education Is Up for Sale,” U.S. News & World Report, August 9, 2016; Ravitch, Reign of Error, 180–97.

133.Reuters, “Privatizing Public Schools: Big Firms Eyeing Profits from U.S. K–12 Market,” Huffington Post, August 2, 2012.

134.Reuters, “Privatizing Public Schools.”

135.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 24.

136.Abby Jackson, “The Walmart Family Is Teaching Hedge Funds How to Profit from Publicly Funded Schools,” Business Insider, March 17, 2015.

137.Valerie Strauss, “The Big Business of Charter Schools,” Washington Post, August 17, 2012; Peter Grant, “Charter-School Movement Grows—for Real-Estate Investors,” Wall Street Journal, October 13, 2015.

138.Bruce D. Baker and Gary Miron, The Business of Charter Schooling: Understanding the Policies That Charter Operators Use for Financial Benefit, National Education Policy Center, December 10, 2015.

139.Ravitch, Reign of Error, 161.

140.Ravitch, 161.

141.Mercedes Schneider, “Tax Credit Scholarships: ‘Neovoucher’ Profiteering Disguised as Philanthropy,” Deutsch29 (blog), April 8, 2017, https://deutsch29.wordpress.com/2017/04/08/tax-credit-scholarships-neovoucher-profiteering-disguised-as-philanthropy/.

142.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 24.

143.Matt Barnum, “An Integration Dilemma: School Choice Is Pushing Wealthy Families to Gentrify Neighborhoods but Avoid Local Schools,” Chalkbeat, March 16, 2018; Arun Gupta, “How Education Reform Drives Gentrification,” Al Jazeera America, March 17, 2014; Pauline Lipman, The New Political Economy of Urban Education: Neoliberalism, Race, and the Right to the City (London: Routledge, 2011); Pauline Lipman and Nathan Haines, “From Education Accountability to Privatization and African American Exclusion—Chicago’s ‘Renaissance 2010,’ ” Educational Policy 21, no. 3 (2007); see also Data and Democracy Project, accessed March 5, 2018, http://ceje.uic.edu/publications/ (mapping school closings onto areas of gentrification).

144.Lafer, One Percent Solution, 129.

145.For one recent example in a very long line see Alyson Klein, “Betsy DeVos: There’s a ‘Disconnect’ between K–12 Schools and the Economy,” Education Week, January 25, 2018. The Trump administration’s plans to merge the Department of Education and the Department of Labor to better align education policies with employer needs is another. Danielle Douglas-Gabriel, “Merging the Labor and Education Departments Won’t Accomplish Much, Say Experts,” Washington Post, June 21, 2018.

146.Valerie Strauss, “How to Fix the Charter School Movement: Ravitch,” Washington Post, July 16, 2012.

147.See ALEC’s model bills at Center for Media and Democracy, “Bills Affecting Americans’ Rights to a Public Education,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/Bills_Affecting_Americans%27_Rights_to_a_Public_Education; see also Matthew Ladner, Report Card on American Education: State Education Rankings, ALEC, November 10, 2015.

148.Center for Media and Democracy, “K12, Inc.,”; K12, Inc., 2017 Annual Report.

149.Andrew Ujifusa, “Trump Seeks to Cut Education Budget by 5 Percent, Expand School Choice Push,” Education Week, February 12, 2018; Curtis L. Decker, “DeVos to Remove Key Discipline Protection for Children,” Huffington Post, January 4, 2018; Scott Sargrad, “Rolling Back Rights for Students,” U.S. News & World Report, March 7, 2018; see also Andrew Ujifusa, “Trump Seeks to Slash Education Budget, Combine 29 Programs into Block Grant,” Education Week, February 10, 2020; Valerie Strauss, “In State of the Union, Trump Makes Clear His Aversion to Public Schools,” Washington Post, February 4, 2020.

150.Diane Ravitch, “The Demolition of American Education,” New York Review of Books, June 5, 2017.

151.Miron, Mathis, and Welner, review of Separating Fact & Fiction, 5.

152.Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 22.

153.Mayer, Dark Money; MacLean, Democracy in Chains; Lafer, One Percent Solution; Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Exposed.”

154.MacLean, Democracy in Chains, 154–68.

155.Condon, “Jeb Bush Pitches ‘Total Voucherization’ ”; Roberts, “Koch-Funded Group Spends Six Figures to ‘Educate’ on Vouchers.”

156.Bernie Sanders, “What Do the Koch Brothers Want?,” accessed March 5, 2018, https://www.sanders.senate.gov/koch-brothers.

157.Mayer, Dark Money; MacLean, Democracy in Chains.

158.Adamson, Cook-Harvey, and Hammond, Whose Choice?; “Faking the Grade,” editorial, New Orleans Tribune, https://theneworleanstribune.com/faking-the-grade/; Equity in All Places, Considering the Impact of Education Reform on High-Risk Neighborhoods, 2016; “Bill Quigley: Outraged Parents and Students in New Orleans Blast Charter School System,” Diane Ravitch’s Blog, April 28, 2017, https://dianeravitch.net/2017/04/28/bill-quigley-outraged-students-and-parents-in-new-orleans-blast-charter-school-system/; Ravitch, Slaying Goliath, 219.

159.Frank Adamson, Privatization or Public Investment in Education?, SCOPE, November 2016, 3–4.

160.Adamson, Privatization or Public Investment in Education?; Jennifer Pribble and Jennifer L. Erkulwater, “Betsy DeVos Wants ‘School Choice.’ Chile Tried That Already,” Washington Post, January 17, 2017; Amaya Garcia, “Chile’s School Voucher System: Enabling Choice or Perpetuating Social Inequality?,” New America, February 9, 2017; Martin Camoy, “Lessons of Chile’s Voucher Reform Movement,” Rethinking Schools, http://rethinkingschools.aidcvt.com/special_reports/voucher_report/v_sosintl.shtml.

161.Adamson, Privatization or Public Investment in Education?; MacLean, Democracy in Chains, 167.

162.Adamson, Privatization or Public Investment in Education?

163.Adamson, Privatization or Public Investment in Education?; MacLean, Democracy in Chains, 167.

164.Mary Ann Ahern, “Emanuel Disavows 25% of School Kids, Says CTU,” NBC Chicago, February 27, 2012.

165.For an example of what this looks like in practice see the Boston Consulting Group plan for Philadelphia Public Schools. Philadelphia Coalition Advocating for Public Schools, The Philadelphia Community Education Plan.

166.Sanders, “What Do the Koch Brothers Want?”; Hohmann, “Koch Network Laying Groundwork to Fundamentally Transform America’s Education System.”

167.Deborah Meier and Emily Gasoi, These Schools Belong to You and Me: Why We Can’t Afford to Abandon Our Public Schools (Boston: Beacon, 2017).

168.Of the 202 constitutions made available by Constitute (https://www.constituteproject.org, accessed April 7, 2018), 149 include an explicit right to an education.

169.For examples of what this looks like in practice, the work of Dr. James Comer from Yale University over the past fifty-plus years is the best place to start. See also Linda Darling-Hammond and Channa M. Cook-Harvey, Educating the Whole Child: Improving School Climate to Support Student Success, Learning Policy Institute, September 2018.

170.Jeannie Oakes, Anna Maier, and Julia Daniel, Community Schools: An Evidence-Based Strategy for Equitable School Improvement, National Education Policy Center and Learning Policy Institute, June 5, 2017; Journey for Justice Alliance, Death by a Thousand Cuts, 25–32; Journey for Justice Alliance, The Journey for Justice Alliance Education Platform, accessed March 5, 2018, http://beta.j4jalliance.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/02/J4J_Final_Education_Platform.pdf; Center for Popular Democracy, Community Schools: Transforming Struggling Schools into Thriving Schools, February 10, 2016.

171.See Broader, Bolder Approach to Education, https://www.boldapproach.org, for more information.

3. Tough-on-Crime for You, Serve-and-Protect for Me

1.Sentencing Project, “Criminal Justice Facts,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.sentencingproject.org/criminal-justice-facts/; Margaret Werner Cahalan, Historical Corrections Statistics in the United States, 1850–1984, Bureau of Justice Statistics, December 1986, 76; US Census Bureau, A Look at the 1940 Census, accessed June 26, 2020, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/cspan/1940census/CSPAN_1940slides.pdf.

2.Bureau of Justice Statistics, Justice Expenditure and Employment in the U.S., 1971–79, August 1984, 37.

3.Bureau of Justice Statistics, Justice Expenditure and Employment in the U.S., 1971–79, 36; Robert Sahr, “Individual Year Conversion Factor Tables,” Oregon State University, accessed March 27, 2020, http://liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/spp/polisci/faculty-staff/robert-sahr/inflation-conversion-factors-years-1774-estimated-2024-dollars-recent-years/individual-year-conversion-factor-table-0.

4.Danielle Kaeble and Lauren Glaze, Correctional Populations in the United States, 2015, Bureau of Justice Statistics, December 2016; Bureau of Justice Statistics, Justice Expenditure and Employment in the U.S., 2015—Preliminary; Bureau of Justice Statistics, Justice Expenditure and Employment in the U.S., 2015—Final; Sahr, “Individual Year Conversion Factor Tables”; Robert Schlesinger, “The 2015 U.S. and World Populations,” U.S. News and World Report, December 31, 2014.

5.World Prison Brief, accessed June 27, 2020, http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison_population_rate?field_region_taxonomy_tid=All; NAACP, Criminal Justice Fact Sheet, accessed March 20, 2018, http://www.naacp.org/criminal-justice-fact-sheet/.

6.Gaynor Hall and Pam Grimes, “Are Surveillance Cameras Making Chicago Safer?,” WGN, February 22, 2016; Edward Ericson Jr., “Watching the CitiWatcher: The Night Shift Monitoring Baltimore’s Security Cameras,” City Paper, January 27, 2016.

7.Radley Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces (New York: Public Affairs, 2014); American Civil Liberties Union, War Comes Home: The Excessive Militarization of American Policing, January 2014.

8.World Prison Brief, accessed March 20, 2018, http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison_population_rate?field_region_taxonomy_tid=All.

9.Seth Stoughton, “Law Enforcement’s ‘Warrior’ Problem,” Harvard Law Review 128, April 10, 2015.

10.Rachel E. Morgan, Race and Hispanic Origin of Victims and Offenders, 2012–15, US Department of Justice, October 2017.

11.“Broken windows policing” refers to the theory that police should be aggressively enforcing even the lowest-level criminal offenses to prevent community deterioration and more serious crime.

12.Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, table 1.1B (finding that almost half of all Americans over the age of twelve admit to using an illicit drug sometime in their life); Tanya Basu, “1 in 6 Young Americans Have Stolen Something in the Last Year, Study Finds,” Time, October 12, 2015; Child Trends, Physical Fighting by Youth, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.childtrends.org/indicators/physical-fighting-by-youth/.

13.Only half of all crimes are even brought to the attention of police. National Research Council of the National Academies, The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2014), 133.

14.Angela Y. Davis, Are Prisons Obsolete? (New York: Seven Stories, 2003), 91; Loïc Wacquant, Prisons of Poverty (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press), 154.

15.Jennifer L. Truman and Lynn Langton, Criminal Victimization, 2014, Bureau of Justice Statistics, September 29, 2015, table 1.

16.Alyssa Rosenberg, “The Drug War’s Most Enthusiastic Recruit: Hollywood,” Washington Post, October 27, 2016; Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2012), 52, 105.

17.ColorOfChange.Org, Not to Be Trusted: Dangerous Levels of Inaccuracy in TV Crime Reporting in NYC, March 2015; Sentencing Project, Race and Punishment: Racial Perceptions of Crime and Support for Punitive Policies, 2014.

18.Federal Bureau of Investigation, “2016 Crime in the United States,” table 25, accessed March 20, 2018, https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2016/crime-in-the-u.s.-2016/topic-pages/tables/table-25/; US Census Bureau, “State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates,” accessed March 30, 2020, https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html (land area only).

19.Federal Bureau of Investigation, “2016 Crime in the United States,” table 26, accessed March 20, 2018, https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2016/crime-in-the-u.s.-2016/tables/table-26/table-26-state-cuts/table-26-new-york.xls; US Census Bureau, “QuickFacts: New York City, New York,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/newyorkcitynewyork/PST045216.

20.Federal Bureau of Investigation, “2016 Crime in the United States,” table 26, accessed March 20, 2018, https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2016/crime-in-the-u.s.-2016/tables/table-26/table-26.xls/view; US Census Bureau, “QuickFacts.” The police data was unavailable in the FBI files for Winnetka and Highland Park; the number of police officers was gathered from the following: City of Highland Park, Police Department Annual Report 2016, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.cityhpil.com/government/city_departments/police/docs/2016%20Annual%20Report%20PD.pdf; Village of Winnetka, “Police: Divisions,” accessed March 20, 2018, http://www.villageofwinnetka.org/departments/police/divisions/.

21.Heather Cherone, “Here’s How Many Officers Are Patrolling Your Neighborhood,” DNA Info, April 17, 2017.

22.US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection; Kristen Harper and Deborah Temkin, “Compared to Majority White Schools, Majority Black Schools Are More Likely to Have Security Staff,” Child Trends, April 26, 2018.

23.Advancement Project and Alliance for Educational Justice, We Came to Learn: A Call to Action for Police-Free Schools.

24.German Lopez, “How Systemic Racism Entangles All Police Officers—Even Black Cops,” Vox, August 15, 2016.

25.For this line of reasoning I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to my former criminal law professor, Bill Stuntz.

26.Prison Policy Initiative, “The Hidden Cost of Stop and Frisk,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/graphs/stop_and_frisk.html.

27.Louis Nelson, “Trump Calls for Nationwide ‘Stop-and-Frisk’ Policy,” Politico, September 21, 2016.

28.Delores Jones-Brown, Jaspreet Gill, and Jennifer Trone, Stop, Question, and Frisk Policing Practices in New York City: A Primer, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Center on Race, Crime and Justice, July 2013; New York Civil Liberties Union, “Stop-and-Frisk Data,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.nyclu.org/en/stop-and-Frisk-data; Prison Policy Initiative, “NYC Police Use of Force without Arrest 2010,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/graphs/nyc_police_use_of_force_without_arrest_2010_rates.html.

29.ACLU of Illinois, March 2017 Stop & Frisk Report; US Department of Justice Civil Rights Division and US Attorney’s Office Northern District of Illinois, Investigation of Chicago Police Department, January 13, 2017.

30.Alice Brennan and Dan Lieberman, “Florida City’s ‘Stop and Frisk’ Nabs Thousands of Kids, Finds 5-Year-Olds ‘Suspicious,’ ” Fusion; Adam Weinstein, “Meet Miami Gardens: The Stop-and-Frisk Capital of America,” Gawker, May 29, 2014; Conor Friedersdorf, “The City Where Blacks Suffer under ‘Stop and Frisk on Steroids,’ ” Atlantic, May 30, 2014.

31.Udi Ofer and Ari Rosmarin, Stop-and-Frisk: A First Look, ACLU of New Jersey, February 2014; US Department of Justice Civil Rights Division and US Attorney’s Office District of New Jersey, Investigation of Newark Police Department, July 22, 2014.

32.US Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, Investigation of the Baltimore City Police Department, August 10, 2016; NAACP, Born Suspect: Stop-and-Frisk Abuses & the Continued Fight to End Racial Justice in America, September 2014, 24.

33.ACLU of Massachusetts, “Ending Racist Stop and Frisk,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://aclum.org/our-work/aclum-issues/racial-justice/ending-racist-stop-and-frisk/; American Civil Liberties Union, “ACLU Challenges Milwaukee Police Department’s Unconstitutional Stop-and-Frisk Program Conducted without Reasonable Suspicion and Based on Racial Profiling,” February 22, 2017; US Department of Justice, “Special Litigation Section Cases and Matters: Law Enforcement Agencies,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.justice.gov/crt/special-litigation-section-cases-and-matters0#police.

34.Federal Bureau of Investigation, “2016 Crime in the United States,” table 18.

35.Federal Bureau of Investigation, “2016 Crime in the United States,” table 21A; US Census Bureau, “ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates,” 2012–16 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, DP05, accessed March 20, 2018, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=1600000US4033300&tid=ACSDP5Y2016.DP05&q=DP05.

36.Alex Horton, “Body-Cam Video Shows 6-Year-Old Crying for Help as Officers Zip-Tie Her,” Washington Post, February 25, 2020; Advancement Project and Alliance for Educational Justice, We Came to Learn.

37.US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection—Flat File.

38.US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2015–16 Civil Rights Data Collection—Flat File (analyzing schools that reported having either seventh grade students or tenth grade students).

39.“Wall Street Millenials Living Fast and Hard,” Barron’s, March 9, 2017; Emily Chang, “ ‘Oh My God, This is so F—ed Up’: Inside Silicon Valley’s Secretive, Orgiastic Dark Side,” Vanity Fair, February 2018.

40.Safety beyond Policing, accessed March 20, 2018, http://www.safetybeyondpolicing.com (stating that one hundred thousand New Yorkers are arrested annually for not paying transit fares); Labor/Community Strategy Center, “The Strategy Center Submits DOJ & DOT Civil Rights Complaint against the LACMTA,” November 14, 2016.

41.Federal Bureau of Investigation, “2016 Crime in the United States,” table 21A.

42.California Endowment, Community Safety: A Building Block for Healthy Communities, January 2015; Jamecca Marshall, Comprehensive Violence Reduction Strategy (CVRS), A Framework for Implementing the CVRS in Your Neighborhood, Advancement Project, April 2011; Danielle Sered, Accounting for Violence: How to Increase Safety and Break Our Failed Reliance on Mass Incarceration, Common Justice, 2017.

43.Center for Popular Democracy et al., Freedom to Thrive: Reimagining Safety & Security in Our Communities; see also Schott Foundation for Public Education, Loving Cities Index: Creating Loving Systems across Communities to Provide All Students an Opportunity to Learn, February 2018; Advancement Project California, “Healthy City,” http://www.healthycity.org; Haas Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Society, https://haasinstitute.berkeley.edu.

44.Color of Change and USC Annenberg Norman Lear Center, Normalizing Injustice: The Dangerous Misrepresentations That Define Television’s Scripted Crime Genre, January 2020.

45.Alyssa Rosenberg, “In Pop Culture, There Are No Bad Police Shootings,” Washington Post, October 26, 2016; Adam Johnson, “6 Elements of Police Spin: An Object Lesson in Copspeak,” FAIR, January 30, 2018.

46.Karen Dolan and Jodi L. Carr, The Poor Get Prison: The Alarming Spread of the Criminalization of Poverty, Institute for Policy Studies, 2017; United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, “Statement on Visit to the USA, by Professor Phillip Alston, Special Rapporteur on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights,” December 15, 2017; Peter Edelman, “More Than a Nuisance: How Housing Ordinances Are Making Poverty a Crime,” New Republic, April 10, 2018; “Governor Scott Announces Major Action Plan to Keep Florida Students Safe following Tragic Parkland Shooting,” press release, Office of the Governor of Florida, February 23, 2018 (calling for “a mandatory law enforcement officer in every public school”); Dana Goldstein, “Inexcusable Absences,” New Republic, March 6, 2015.

47.Bureau of Justice Statistics, Justice Expenditures and Employment Extracts Series; Sahr, “Individual Year Conversion Factor Tables.”

48.For example, nearly 60 percent of middle-aged African American men without a high school degree have served time in prison. Sentencing Project, Race and Punishment, 5.

49.Sered, Accounting for Violence, 23.

50.Justice Policy Institute, Finding Direction: Expanding Criminal Justice Options by Considering Policies of Other Nations, April 2011; Connie de la Vega, Amanda Solter, Soo-Ryun Kwon, and Dana Marie Isaac, Cruel and Unusual: U.S. Sentencing Practices in a Global Context, University of San Francisco School of Law, Center for Law and Global Justice, May 2012. “Mandatory minimum sentencing” refers to policies that require a predetermined term of incarceration for a particular crime, regardless of any surrounding circumstances. “Truth in sentencing laws” refers to those that attempt to eliminate, or at least limit, the possibility of parole, thus lengthening criminal sentences and reducing the ability to tailor sanctions to fit particular circumstances. “Three strikes laws” refers to the imposition of very severe criminal penalties on crimes committed when the offender had at least two prior convictions. Under many of these laws, a “third strike” involving a broad array of crimes would automatically result in a life sentence without the possibility of parole.

51.Sentencing Project, Race and Punishment, 7; Marc Mauer, Incarceration Rates in an International Perspective, Sentencing Project, June 28, 2017.

52.Sentencing Project, Race and Punishment, 8–9; “Black Boys Viewed as Older, Less Innocent Than Whites, Research Finds,” press release, American Psychological Association, March 6, 2014; “People See Black Men as Larger, More Threatening Than Same-Sized White Men,” press release, American Psychological Association, March 13, 2017.

53.Chris Hayes, A Colony in a Nation (New York: W. W. Norton, 2018), 209; Josh Katz, “How a Police Chief, a Governor and a Sociologist Would Spend $100 Billion to Solve the Opioid Crisis,” New York Times, February 14, 2018; “Race and the Gentler War on Drugs,” Color of Pain, http://www.colorofpain.org.

54.C. Eugene Emery Jr., “Hillary Clinton Says Blacks More Likely to Be Arrested, Get Longer Sentences,” PolitiFact, February 26, 2016.

55.Jamal Hagler, “8 Facts You Should Know about the Criminal Justice System and People of Color,” Center for American Progress, May 28, 2015.

56.Adam Looney and Nicholas Turner, “Work and Opportunity before and after Incarceration,” Economic Studies at Brookings, March 14, 2018.

57.William J. Stuntz, The Collapse of American Criminal Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 44.

58.National Research Council of the National Academies, The Growth of Incarceration in the United States, 157–319; Movement for Black Lives, “End the War on Black People,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://policy.m4bl.org/end-war-on-black-people/; John F. Pfaff, Locked In: The True Causes of Mass Incarceration and How to Achieve Real Reform (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 119–23; Human Rights Watch and American Civil Liberties Union, Every 25 Seconds: The Human Toll of Criminalizing Drug Use in the United States, 132–79; Kim Gilhuly et al., “Rehabilitating Corrections in California: The Health Impacts of Proposition 47, Research Summary,” Human Impact Partners, September 2014, 8–9; Ella Baker Center for Human Rights, Forward Together, and Research Action Design, Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families, September 2015; Alec Karakatsanis, “Policing, Mass Imprisonment, and the Failure of American Lawyers,” Harvard Law Review Forum, April 10, 2015; Ernest Drucker, A Plague of Prisons: The Epidemiology of Mass Incarceration in America (New York: New Press, 2013).

59.Justice Mapping Center, https://www.justicemapping.org; Million Dollar Hoods, https://milliondollarhoods.pre.ss.ucla.edu/.

60.National Research Council of the National Academies, The Growth of Incarceration in the United States, 130–56. Quote on 156.

61.Alexander, New Jim Crow, 8.

62.Wacquant, Prisons of Poverty, 133.

63.US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Prisoners: 1925–81, December 1982.

64.Stuntz, Collapse of American Criminal Justice, 51.

65.Sered, Accounting for Violence, 17–19.

66.Pew Charitable Trusts, Justice Reinvestment Initiative Brings Sentencing Reforms in 23 States, January 22, 2016.

67.Pew Charitable Trusts, Justice Reinvestment Initiative.

68.Nazgol Ghandnoosh, “Can We Wait 75 Years to Cut the Prison Population in Half?,” Sentencing Project, March 8, 2018.

69.Bureau of Justice Statistics, Justice Expenditures and Employment Extracts Series; Sahr, “Individual Year Conversion Factor Tables.” Note that judicial/legal expenditures weren’t available for 1980 and 1981 so they were estimated by assuming that they increased by the same amounts as police and corrections spending in those years.

70.Bureau of Justice Statistics, Justice Expenditures and Employment Extracts Series; City of Chicago, 2017 Budget Overview, 113, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.cityofchicago.org/content/dam/city/depts/obm/supp_info/2017%20Budget/2017.Budget.Overview.pdf; City of Chicago, 1982 Annual Appropriations, 108, accessed March 20, 2018, http://docs.chicityclerk.com/budget/Annual%20Appropriation%201982optimize.pdf; City and County of Denver, 2017 Mayor’s Budget, 53, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.denvergov.org/content/dam/denvergov/Portals/344/documents/Budget/Mayors_2017_Budget.pdf.

71.Communities United et al., The $3.4 Trillion Mistake: The Cost of Mass Incarceration and Criminalization, and How Justice Reinvestment Can Build a Better Future for All, 2016.

72.Center for Popular Democracy et al., Freedom to Thrive; Justice L.A., Center for Popular Democracy, and Law 4 Black Lives, Reclaim, Reimagine and Reinvest: An Analysis of Los Angeles County’s Criminalization Budget, 1; ACLU, Cops and No Counselors: How the Lack of School Mental Health Staff Is Harming Students.

73.Mike Elk and Bob Sloan, “The Hidden History of ALEC and Prison Labor,” Nation, August 1, 2011; Center for Media and Democracy, “Minimum-Mandatory Sentencing Act Exposed,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/w/images/e/eb/7D6-Minimum-Mandatory_Sentencing_Act_Exposed.pdf; Brigette Sarabi, “ALEC in the House: Corporate Bias in Criminal Justice Legislation,” Prison Legal News, January 15, 2002.

74.Elk and Sloan, “Hidden History of ALEC and Prison Labor.”

75.Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Exposed: Guns, Prisons, Crime, and Immigration,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/Guns,_Prisons,_Crime,_and_Immigration.

76.Manhattan Institute, “Urban Policy: Crime,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.manhattan-institute.org/urban-policy/crime; Joseph L. Giacalone and Alex S. Vitale, “When Policing Stats Do More Harm Than Good,” USA Today, February 9, 2017.

77.Heather Mac Donald, “Mandatory Minimums Don’t Deserve Your Ire,” Wall Street Journal, May 25, 2017.

78.Wacquant, Prisons of Poverty, 10.

79.Dana Joel, A Guide to Prison Privatization, Heritage Foundation, May 24, 1988; David Dayen, “The True Cost: Why the Private Prison Industry Is About So Much More Than Prisons,” TPM, http://talkingpointsmemo.com/features/privatization/two/.

80.Reason Foundation, “Criminal Justice Reform,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://reason.org/topics/criminal-justice-reform/; SourceWatch Editors, “Reason Foundation,” Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, accessed March 31, 2020, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/Reason_Foundation.

81.Paul Larkin, “Reviewing the Rationale for Stop-and-Frisk,” Heritage Foundation, March 24, 2014.

82.Edwin Meese III and John Malcolm, Policing in America: Lessons from the Past, Opportunities for the Future, Heritage Foundation, September 18, 2017.

83.Center for Responsive Politics, accessed June 27, 2020, https://www.opensecrets.org.

84.SourceWatch Editors, “GEO Group,” Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/GEO_Group; SourceWatch Editors, “Corrections Corporation of America,” Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/Corrections_Corporation_of_America.

85.Center for Responsive Politics, accessed June 27, 2020, https://www.opensecrets.org; SourceWatch Editors, “GEO Group”; SourceWatch Editors, “Corrections Corporation of America.”

86.SourceWatch Editors, “GEO Group”; Sourcewatch Editors, “Corrections Corporation of America.”

87.Peter Stone, “Inside the NRA’s Koch-Funded Dark-Money Campaign,” Mother Jones, April 2, 2013.

88.Tim Murphy, “The Big House That Wayne LaPierre Built,” Mother Jones, February 8, 2013; Alex Yablon, “The NRA Is Talking Tough on Crime Again, Bipartisan Prison Sentencing Reform Be Damned,” Trace, June 6, 2016; Jewelle Taylor Gibbs and Teiahsha Bankhead, Preserving Privilege: California Politics, Propositions, and People of Color (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001), 53–58.

89.SourceWatch Editors, “National Rifle Association,” Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/National_Rifle_Association.

90.SourceWatch Editors, “American Legislative Exchange Council,” Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/American_Legislative_Exchange_Council.

91.SourceWatch Editors, “ALEC Corporations,” Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=ALEC_Corporations.

92.SourceWatch Editors, “American Legislative Exchange Council.”

93.SourceWatch Editors, “ALEC Trade Groups,” Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/ALEC_Trade_Groups.

94.Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/SourceWatch.

95.Nasdaq, “GEO Group Inc (The) REIT,” accessed December 29, 2017, https://www.nasdaq.com/symbol/geo/institutional-holdings; Nasdaq, Core Civic, Inc. Institutional Ownership, accessed December 29, 2017, https://www.nasdaq.com/symbol/cxw/institutional-holdings.

96.Walter Hickey, “How the Gun Industry Funnels Tens of Millions of Dollars to the NRA,” Business Insider, January 16, 2013; Peter Stone, “ ‘Your Fight Has Become Our Fight,’ ” Mother Jones, April 2, 2013; Stone, “Inside the NRA’s Koch-Funded Dark-Money Campaign.”

97.All the donations listed are based off the 990 tax filings available from Guidestar and information compiled by the Center for Media and Democracy’s SourceWatch for the following organizations: Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation, David H. Koch Foundation, Claude R. Lambe Charitable Foundation, Freedom Partners, Donors Trust, Donors Capital Fund, and TC4 Trust.

98.Lisa Graves, “A CMD Special Report on ALEC’s Funding and Spending,” Center for Media and Democracy’s PRWatch, July 13, 2011; SourceWatch Editors, “ALEC Corporations”; SourceWatch Editors, “American Legislative Exchange Council.”

99.State Policy Network, “Directory,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://spn.org/directory/.

100.Manhattan Institute, “About: Board of Trustees,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.manhattan-institute.org/board-of-trustees.

101.State Policy Network, “Directory.”

102.State Policy Network, “Directory.”

103.Reason Foundation, “Reason Trustees and Officers,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://reason.org/trustees-and-officers/.

104.Center for Responsive Politics, accessed June 27, 2020, https://www.opensecrets.org.

105.Joe Catron, “Gentrifiers and Prison Profiteers Are ‘Re-Engineering’ the NYPD,” MintPress News, May 19, 2015; Jacob Sloan, “JP Morgan Chase Donates $4.6 Million to NYPD on Eve of Protests,” Disinfo, October 3, 2011; James C. McKinley Jr., “A Growing Call to Limit Lawyers’ Donations to Prosecutors,” New York Times, November 15, 2017.

106.Justice Police Institute, Rethinking the Blues: How We Police in the U.S. and at What Cost, May 2012, 10; Naomi Wolf, “NYPD for Hire: How Uniformed New York Cops Moonlight for Banks,” Guardian, December 17, 2012.

107.Peter Wagner and Bernadette Rabuy, “Following the Money of Mass Incarceration,” Prison Policy Initiative, January 25, 2017; Lauren-Brooke Eisen, Inside Private Prisons: An American Dilemma in the Age of Mass Incarceration (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018), 71; Wacquant, Prisons of Poverty, 143.

108.Wagner and Rabuy, “Following the Money of Mass Incarceration.”

109.Sentencing Project, “Private Prisons in the United States,” August 28, 2017, https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/private-prisons-united-states/.

110.Wagner and Rabuy, “Following the Money of Mass Incarceration”; In the Public Interest, “How Private Prisons Take Tax Dollars Away from Fixing Our Criminal Justice System,” February 2016.

111.Eisen, Inside Private Prisons, 123.

112.Eisen, Inside Private Prisons, 73–75; Center for Media Justice, “#PhoneJustice in Prison, Jail & Detention: Fact Sheet,” October 2015.

113.Wagner and Rabuy, “Following the Money of Mass Incarceration”; Eisen, Inside Private Prisons, 76.

114.Wagner and Rabuy, “Following the Money of Mass Incarceration.”

115.Eisen, Inside Private Prisons, 75; Wagner and Rabuy, “Following the Money of Mass Incarceration.”

116.Wagner and Rabuy, “Following the Money of Mass Incarceration.”

117.American Friends Service Committee, “Supervision and Surveillance Equipment,” accessed March 20, 2018, http://investigate.afsc.org/screens/supervisionandsurveillance.

118.Eisen, Inside Private Prisons, 72.

119.Eisen, Inside Private Prisons, 73–75, 71.

120.Eisen, Inside Private Prisons, 215–17; American Friends Service Committee, “Community Corrections,” accessed March 20, 2018, http://investigate.afsc.org/screens/communityservices.

121.David Robinson and Logan Koepke, Stuck in a Pattern: Early Evidence on “Predictive Policing” and Civil Rights, Upturn, August 2016, 2.

122.American Friends Service Committee, “Supervision and Surveillance Equipment”; Davis, Are Prisons Obsolete?, 86–87.

123.Similar dynamics can be seen around the impact of “low-skill” immigrant labor. Economist Editors, “Wage War: Who Are the Main Economic Losers from Low-Skilled Immigration?,” Economist, August 25, 2016.

124.Wacquant, Prisons of Poverty, 81; Autumn Spanne, “Can Hiring Ex-offenders Make Business More Profitable?,” Guardian, February 4, 2016.

125.Heather Long, “His Best Employee Is an Inmate from a Prison He Didn’t Want Built,” Washington Post, January 26, 2018; Monique Judge, “ACLU Makes the Case for Giving Formerly Incarcerated a Fair Chance at Employment,” Root, June 9, 2017; Spanne, “Can Hiring Ex-offenders Make Business More Profitable?”

126.70 Million Jobs, “For Employers, It’s Not Just Morality and Second Chances. It’s a Very Smart HR Decision,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.70millionjobs.com/page/Its-Good-Business.

127.Prison Policy Initiative, “Section III: The Prison Economy,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.prisonpolicy.org/prisonindex/prisonlabor.html; Whitney Benns, “American Slavery, Reinvented,” Atlantic, September 21, 2015; Elk and Sloan, “Hidden History of ALEC and Prison Labor”; see also Pride Enterprises, accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.pride-enterprises.org. Laurel Wamsley, “Bloomberg Campaign Vendor Used Prison Labor to Make Presidential Campaign Calls,” NPR, December 24, 2019; American Friends Service Committee, “Prison Labor,” accessed March 20, 2018, http://investigate.afsc.org/screens/prisonlabor.

128.Jamilah King, “There’s a Pretty Good Chance Your American Flag Was Made by a Prisoner,” Mother Jones, October 4, 2017.

129.American Friends Service Committee, “Prison Labor”; Prison Policy Initiative, “Section III: The Prison Economy.”

130.Elk and Sloan, “Hidden History of ALEC and Prison Labor”; Ethan Huff, “Left-Leaning Microsoft and Nike Both Rely on Prison Labor Camps to Produce High-Profit Products,” Glitch.News, March 1, 2017; Christoph Sherrer and Anil Shah, “The Return of Commercial Prison Labor,” MR Online, April 18, 2017.

131.Alex S. Vitale, The End of Policing (New York: Verso, 2017), 201–15.

132.Angela Allan, “40 Years Ago, Norma Rae Understood How Corporations Weaponize Race,” Atlantic, March 2, 2019.

133.Sentencing Project, Trends in U.S. Corrections, 7 (noting that “6.1 million Americans are unable to vote due to state felony disenfranchisement policies”).

134.Vitale, End of Policing, 48–50, 201–3; Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017), 42–43.

135.Vitale, End of Policing, 49; Gene Demby, “Why Have So Many People Never Heard of the MOVE Bombing?,” NPR, May 18, 2015.

136.American Presidency Project, “Political Party Platforms,” “Parties Receiving Electoral Votes, 1840–2016,” accessed March 20, 2018, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/platforms.php.

137.Bruce Shapiro, “Nothing about the 1994 Crime Bill Was Unintentional,” Nation, April 11, 2016.

138.Jake Miller, “An Unlikely Alliance Forms between Koch Brothers and Liberal Groups,” CBS News, February 19, 2015; Ed Pilkington, “Koch Brothers Join Up with Liberals to Tackle Rising Prison Numbers,” Guardian, February 19, 2015; Kerry A. Dolan, “Billionaire Charles Koch on Partnering with the Left in Congress and on Poverty Alleviation,” Forbes, April 4, 2019.

139.Michelle Chen, “Beware of Big Philanthropy’s New Enthusiasm for Criminal Justice Reform,” Nation, March 16, 2018; see also PR Watch Editors, “Koch Criminal Justice Reform Trojan Horse: Special Report on Reentry and Following the Money,” Center for Media and Democracy’s PR Watch, June 16, 2016.

140.For examples see the attempts by Newt Gingrich and a representative from ALEC to deflect responsibility in Ava Duvernay’s movie 13th.

141.Katie Reilly, “Sesame Street Reaches Out to 2.7 Million American Children with an Incarcerated Parent,” Pew Research Center, June 21, 2013.

142.Justin Jouvenal, “Raising Babies behind Bars,” Washington Post, May 11, 2018.

143.Examples include: Communities United et al., $3.4 Trillion Mistake; Center for Popular Democracy et al., Freedom to Thrive; Freedom Cities, http://freedomcities.org; Movement for Black Lives, “Platform,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://policy.m4bl.org/platform/; Ella Baker Center for Human Rights, “Our Work,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://ellabakercenter.org/our-work; Justice L.A., http://justicelanow.org; Natelegé Whaley, “The Justice Teams Network Is Mobilizing to End Police Violence in California,” Mic, May 4, 2018; Black Organizing Project, The People’s Plan for Police-Free Schools, 2019.

144.Safiya Charles, “ ‘Please Give Us Justice’: New California Law Aims to Hold Police Accountable,” Nation, May 2, 2018.

145.Advancement Project and Alliance for Educational Justice, We Came to Learn.

146.Youth First Initiative, http://www.youthfirstinitiative.org/.

147.PolicyLink and Center for Popular Democracy, Justice in Policing Toolkit, Policy 5: Racial Impact Tool for All Criminal Justice Legislation.

148.Movement for Black Lives, “Platform.”

149.Justice L.A., Center for Popular Democracy, and Law 4 Black Lives, Reclaim, Reimagine and Reinvest; Communities United et al., $3.4 Trillion Mistake, 17.

150.Urban Institute Justice Policy Center, “What the Public Says,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.urban.org/policy-centers/justice-policy-center/projects/community-public-safety-investment/what-public-says; American Civil Liberties Union, Smart Justice Campaign Polling on Americans’ Attitudes on Criminal Justice: Topline Memo, November 13, 2017; Alliance for Safety and Justice, Crime Survivors Speak: The First-Ever National Survey of Victims’ Views on Safety and Justice; Sered, Accounting for Violence, 12–16.

151.Phillip Atiba Goff, “A Better Solution for Starbucks,” New York Times, May 30, 2018.

152.Sered, Accounting for Violence, 23–24; Common Justice, “Common Justice Model,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.commonjustice.org/common_justice_model; PolicyLink and Center for Popular Democracy, Alternatives to Policing; Fair and Just Prosecution, Building Community Trust: Restorative Justice Strategies, Principles and Promising Practices, December 2017; Prison Culture, “Transformative Justice,” accessed March 20, 2018, http://www.usprisonculture.com/blog/transformative-justice/.

153.Fair and Just Prosecution, Promising Practices in Prosecutor-Led Diversion, September 26, 2017; see also Intercept Editors, “Philadelphia DA Larry Krasner’s Revolutionary Memo,” March 20, 2018.

154.Colorado Department of Human Services, “Co-responder Programs,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/cdhs/co-responder-programs; Chris McKee, “Mayor Keller Announces New Albuquerque Community Safety Department,” KRQE, June 15, 2020; Olga R. Rodriguez, “San Francisco Police Won’t Respond to Non-Criminal Calls,” Associated Press, June 11, 2020.

155.PolicyLink and Center for Popular Democracy, Alternatives to Policing; Center for NU Leadership on Urban Solutions, The Promise of Cure Violence, May 2016; Barry Carter, “Newark Street Team Builds Trust with Youth to Prevent Violence,” NJ.com, March 28, 2017.

156.PolicyLink, “Promise Neighborhoods Institute,” accessed March 20, 2018, http://www.policylink.org/our-work/community/promise-neighborhoods-institute; Alliance for Safety and Justice, “Trauma Recovery Centers,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.traumarecoverycentermodel.org.

157.US Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Assistance, “Justice Reinvestment Initiative,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://www.bja.gov/Programs/jri_background.html.

158.UCLA School of Law Criminal Justice Program, What Happens After We Defund Police? A Brief Exploration of Alternatives to Law Enforcement, June 2020; Nicole Chavez, “A Movement to Push Police Out of Schools is Growing Nationwide. Here Is Why,” CNN, June 28, 2020.

159.Communities United et al., $3.4 Trillion Mistake, 19.

160.Communities United et al., $3.4 Trillion Mistake, 15; National Center for Education Statistics, “Table Generator,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/elsi/tableGenerator.aspx; National Center for Education Statistics, “Fast Facts,” accessed March 20, 2018, https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=372.

161.Josie Duffy Rice, “Prosecutors Aren’t Just Enforcing the Law—They’re Making It,” In Justice Today, April 20, 2018; Ana Zamora, Jessica Brand, and Rob Smith, Meet California’s District Attorneys: When It Comes to Justice Reform, They Say No Even When Voters Say Yes, ACLU of California and Fair Punishment Project, August 2017.

162.Movement for Black Lives, “Platform.”

4. From Jim Crow to Juan Crow

1.Box Office Mojo, accessed July 27, 2020, https://www.boxofficemojo.com/franchises/chart/?id=hungergames.htm.

2.US Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Refugees,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/refugees-asylum/refugees.

3.Jens Manuel Krogstad, Jeffrey S. Passel, and D’vera Cohn, “5 Facts about Illegal Immigration in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, April 27, 2017.

4.Samantha Raphelson, “Border Patrol Crackdown Shines Light on Rising Number of Migrant Deaths,” NPR, January 26, 2018.

5.Aviva Chomsky, Undocumented: How Immigration Became Illegal (Boston: Beacon, 2014), x.

6.Catherine Reagor, “Arizona Draws More Baby Boomers Than Every State but Florida,” AZ Central, August 13, 2017.

7.Ananda Rose, “Death in the Desert,” New York Times, June 21, 2012.

8.Erin Siegal McIntyre, “Death in the Desert: The Dangerous Trek between Mexico and Arizona,” Al Jazeera America, March 11, 2014.

9.Griselda Nevarez, “Arizona’s Undocumented Immigrant Population Inches Up While Nation’s Holds Steady,” Phoenix New Times, September 22, 2016.

10.Population Reference Bureau, “Latinos, Whites, and the Shifting Demography of America,” August 11, 2010.

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12.Adam Hunter and Angelo Mathay, “Driver’s Licenses for Unauthorized Immigrants: 2016 Highlights,” Pew Charitable Trusts, November 22, 2016.

13.Ballotpedia, “Arizona English Language Education for Children in Public Schools, Proposition 203 (2000),” accessed April 10, 2018, https://ballotpedia.org/Arizona_English_Language_Education_for_Children_in_Public_Schools,_Proposition_203_(2000).

14.Ballotpedia, “Arizona Taxpayer and Citizen Protection, Proposition 200 (2004),” accessed April 10, 2018, https://ballotpedia.org/Arizona_Taxpayer_and_Citizen_Protection,_Proposition_200_(2004).

15.Ballotpedia, “Arizona English as the Official Language, Proposition 103 (2006),” accessed April 10, 2018, https://ballotpedia.org/Arizona_English_as_the_Official_Language,_Proposition_103_(2006); Ballotpedia, “Arizona Public Program Eligibility, Proposition 300 (2006),” accessed April 10, 2018, https://ballotpedia.org/Arizona_Public_Program_Eligibility,_Proposition_300_(2006); Ballotpedia, “Arizona Bailable Offenses, Proposition 100 (2006),” accessed April 10, 2018, https://ballotpedia.org/Arizona_Bailable_Offenses,_Proposition_100_(2006); Ballotpedia, “Arizona Standing in Civil Actions, Proposition 102 (2006),” accessed April 10, 2018, https://ballotpedia.org/Arizona_Standing_in_Civil_Actions,_Proposition_102_(2006).

16.State of Arizona Senate, 49th Legislature, 2nd Regular Session, 2010, Senate Bill 1070, accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.azleg.gov/legtext/49leg/2r/bills/sb1070s.pdf.

17.National Council of State Legislatures, Arizona’s Immigration Enforcement Laws, accessed April 10, 2018, http://www.ncsl.org/research/immigration/analysis-of-arizonas-immigration-law.aspx; Ballotpedia, “Arizona SB 1070,” https://ballotpedia.org/Arizona_SB_1070.

18.Andy Barr, “Arizona Bans ‘Ethnic Studies,’ ” Politico, May 12, 2010.

19.US Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, “United States’ Investigation of the Maricopa County Sheriff’s Office,” December 15, 2011.

20.KTAR.com, “Last Inmates Leave Phoenix’s Tent City, Jail Formally Closes,” KTAR News, October 10, 2017; Valeria Fernández, “Arizona’s ‘Concentration Camp’: Why Was Tent City Kept Open for 24 Years?,” Guardian, August 21, 2017; Paul Mason, “Joe Arpaio’s Prison Was a Circus of Cruelty—Now His Values Are Spreading,” Guardian, August 28, 2017; Catherine Lizette Gonzalez, “A History of Violence: Joe Arpaio’s Racist Crusade against Latinxs,” Colorlines, August 28, 2017; Janine Jackson, “Before Trump Pardoned Him, Arpaio Was Promoted by Media,” Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, September 1, 2017; Gonzalez, “History of Violence.”

21.Joseph Flaherty, “Seven Jaw-Dropping Moments Provided by Joe Arpaio’s Posses,” Arizona New Times, September 11, 2017.

22.To protect these individuals’ identities, I am not including their last names and once again have changed the names of their children.

23.Corey Mitchell, “Latino Enrollment Shrank Where Police Worked with Federal Immigration Authorities,” Education Week, October 30, 2018.

24.David Becerra et al., “Immigration Policies and Mental Health: Examining the Relationship between Immigration Enforcement and Depression, Anxiety, and Stress among Latino Immigrants,” Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work 29, no. 1–3 (2020): 43–59; Patricia Gándara and Jongyeon Ee, U.S. Immigration Enforcement Policy and Its Impact on Teaching and Learning in the Nation’s Schools, Civil Rights Project, February 28, 2018; Omar Martinez et al., “Evaluating the Impact of Immigration Policies on Health Status among Undocumented Immigrants: A Systematic Review,” Journal of Immigrant Minor Health 17, no. 3 (June 2015): 947–70; Wendy Cervantes, Rebecca Ullrich, and Hannah Matthews, Our Children’s Fear: Immigration Policy’s Effects on Young Children, CLASP, March 2018; Maggie Fox, “Trump Immigration Policies Stress Out Parents and Kids Alike,” NBC News, March 1, 2018; Elisabeth Poorman, “Houston Lesson: Anti-Immigrant Moves Put Public Health at Greater Risk,” WBUR, September 7, 2017; Joel Rose, “Doctors Concerned about ‘Irreparable Harm’ to Separated Migrant Children,” NPR, June 18, 2018.

25.Southern Poverty Law Center, Under Siege: Life for Low-Income Latinos in the South, March 31, 2009; Georgia Latino Alliance for Human Rights and National Immigration Project of the National Lawyers Guild, The Luchadoras of Georgia: Stories of Immigrant Women and Families Fighting Trump’s Deportation Force, 2017; Human Rights Watch, No Way to Live: Alabama’s Immigrant Law, December 14, 2011; Southern Poverty Law Center, Families in Fear: The Atlanta Immigration Raids, January 28, 2016; Human Rights Watch, “I Still Need You”: The Detention and Deportation of Californian Parents, May 15, 2017; Human Rights Watch, The Deported: Immigrants Uprooted From the Country They Call Home, December 5, 2017; Southern Poverty Law Center, Injustice on Our Plates, November 7, 2010.

26.American Civil Liberties Union, “SB 1070 at the Supreme Court: What’s at Stake?”

27.Ian Gordon and Tasneem Raja, “164 Anti-Immigration Laws Passed since 2010? A MoJo Analysis,” Mother Jones, March/April 2012; Reid Wilson, “Trump Spurs Wave of State Immigration Laws,” The Hill, August 8, 2017.

28.American Civil Liberties Union, “Lozano v. City of Hazelton,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.aclupa.org/our-work/legal/legaldocket/lozano-v-city-hazelton.

29.Migra Watch, “MigraMap,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://migrawatch.wordpress.com/migra-map-uwd/; Samantha Schmidt, “ ‘Utter Chaos’: ICE Arrests 114 Workers in Immigration Raid at Ohio Gardening Company,” Washington Post, June 6, 2018; Kristine Phillips, “ICE Arrests Nearly 150 Meat Plant Workers in Latest Immigration Raid in Ohio,” Washington Post, June 20, 2018.

30.Editorial Board, “Arresting Immigrants at Schools, Hospitals and Courthouses Isn’t Just Cold-Hearted, It’s Counterproductive,” Los Angeles Times, March 16, 2017.

31.Jynnah Radford, “Key Findings about U.S. Immigrants,” Pew Research Center, June 17, 2019.

32.US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, “Delegation of Immigration Authority 287(g) Immigration and Nationality Act,” accessed April 2, 2020, https://www.ice.gov/287g.

33.US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, “Secure Communities,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.ice.gov/secure-communities.

34.Black Alliance for Just Immigration, https://baji.org/; see also Department of Homeland Security, Immigration Enforcement Actions: 2016, accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Enforcement_Actions_2016.pdf.

35.Detention Watch Network, “Immigration Detention 101”; US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Fiscal Year 2019 Enforcement and Removal Operations Report, 4–5.

36.Department of Homeland Security, FY 2021 Budget in Brief, 25, 31, accessed April 2, 2020, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/fy_2021_dhs_bib_0.pdf (combining the funds allocated to Immigration & Customs Enforcement [ICE] and Customs & Border Protection [CBP]).

37.Department of Justice, Immigration & Naturalization Service Budget: 1975–2003, http://www.justice.gov/archive/jmd/1975_2002/2002/html/page104-108.htm (for 1982–2002 immigration enforcement spending); Department of Homeland Security, Annual Budgets, at http://www.dhs.gov/dhs-budget (using actual expenditures on Immigration & Customs Enforcement, Customs & Border Protection, and US-VISIT programs). The figures were adjusted to 2017 dollars using the CPI conversion tables produced by Professor Robert Sahr, Oregon State University, College of Liberal Arts–School of Public Policy, “Individual Year Conversion Factor Tables,” accessed April 2, 2020, http://liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/spp/polisci/faculty-staff/robert-sahr/inflation-conversion-factors-years-1774-estimated-2024-dollars-recent-years/individual-year-conversion-factor-table-0.

38.Human Rights Watch, Turning Migrants into Criminals; President Donald Trump, Executive Order 13768, “Enhancing Public Safety in the Interior of the United States,” January 25, 2017 (describing how one need not have been convicted or even charged with a criminal offense to be subjected to immigration consequences; merely committing an act that constitutes a “chargeable criminal offense” will suffice).

39.See also US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, “Criminal Alien Program,” accessed April 2, 2020, https://www.ice.gov/criminal-alien-program.

40.Gustavo López and Kristen Bialik, “Key Findings about U.S. Immigrants,” Pew Research Center, May 3, 2017.

41.Drug Policy Alliance, “Race and the Drug War,” accessed April 10, 2018, http://www.drugpolicy.org/issues/race-and-drug-war.

42.Chomsky, Undocumented, 186.

43.Bernie Sanders, Our Revolution (New York: Thomas Dunne Books / St. Martin’s, 2017), 396; Monica Campbell and Tyche Hendricks, “Mexico’s Corn Farmers See Their Livelihoods Wither Away / Cheap U.S. Produce Pushes Down Prices under Free-Trade Pact,” SF Gate.

44.Chomsky, Undocumented, 186–87; see also Telesur Editors, “John Bolton Admits U.S.-Backed Coup in Venezuela Is about Oil, Not Democracy,” Telesur, January 30, 2019.

45.Greg Grandin, “Guatemalan Slaughter Was Part of Reagan’s Hard Line,” New York Times, May 21, 2013; Douglas Farah, “Papers Show U.S. Role in Guatemalan Abuses,” Washington Post, March 11, 1999; Paul Wright, “An Interview with Noam Chomsky on Criminal Justice and Human Rights,” Prison Legal News, April 15, 2014; Stephen Zunes, “The U.S. Role in the Honduras Coup and Subsequent Violence,” Huffington Post, June 19, 2016.

46.Cole Kazdin, “The Violence Central American Migrants Are Fleeing Was Stoked by the US,” Vice, June 27, 2018.

47.Lise Nelson, “Donald Trump’s Wall Ignores the Economic Logic of Undocumented Immigrant Labor,” UPI, October 26, 2016; Associated Press, “Many Illegal Immigrants Have Jobs in U.S. before Crossing Border,” Fox News, April 16, 2016.

48.David Wickert, “How the Olympics Helped Lure Latinos to Atlanta,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, July 15, 2016; Alexia Fernández Campbell and Mauro Whiteman, “Is New Orleans Trying to Deport Undocumented Workers Now That the Rebuilding Is Over?,” Atlantic, October 27, 2014; Vivian Yee, “ ‘Please, God, Don’t Let Me Get Stopped’: Around Atlanta, No Sanctuary for Immigrants,” New York Times, November 25, 2017; Southern Poverty Law Center, Families in Fear.

49.Paul Krugman, “Return of the Blood Libel,” New York Times, June 21, 2018.

50.Ian Haney López, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvested Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class (New York: Oxford, 2014), 121.

51.Dartunorro Clark, “Trump Holds White House Event Focused on ‘American Victims of Illegal Immigration,’ ” NBC News, June 22, 2018.

52.Jackson, “Before Trump Pardoned Him”; Eunji Kim, “Immigrants Missing from Immigration Debate,” Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, May 2013.

53.Adam Johnson, “Media Are Literally Copy-and-Pasting ICE Press Releases,” Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, May 12, 2017.

54.Consider, for example, some of the arguments that were commonly, and effectively, used in support of Jim Crow segregation and are still used regularly today to thwart racial justice efforts, such as the importance of “states’ rights” in opposition to “federal tyranny,” the need for “local control” over policy decisions, and the absolute respect that must be shown for the “rule of law” no matter how unjust a law may be.

55.The US Code of Federal Regulations defines terrorism as “the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives”: 28 C.F.R. Section 0.85.

56.Isabel Macdonald, “Marketing the Media’s ‘Toughest Sheriff,’ ” Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, June 2009; Jackson, “Before Trump Pardoned Him.”

57.Aura Bogado, “Arpaio v. Immigrants,” Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, June 2009.

58.Zachary Pleat, “How Fox Promoted Convicted Criminal Joe Arpaio, Who May Be Pardoned by Trump,” MediaMatters for America, August 22, 2017.

59.Brendan Fischer, “Profit Motive Underlies Outbreak of Immigration Bills,” Center for Media and Democracy’s PRWatch, August 24, 2011; Beau Hodai, “Brownskins and Greenbacks: ALEC, the For-Profit Prison Industry and Arizona’s SB 1070,” Center for Media and Democracy’s PRWatch, August 22, 2011; Laura Sullivan, “Prison Economics Help Drive Ariz. Immigration Law,” NPR, October 28, 2010; Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Exposed: Guns, Prisons, Crime, and Immigration,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/Guns,_Prisons,_Crime,_and_Immigration.

60.Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Exposed: Bills Related to Guns, Prisons, Crime, and Immigration,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/Bills_related_to_Guns,_Prisons,_Crime,_and_Immigration.

61.Katie Lorenze, “Scaife-Funded Network Works Hard to Kill Immigration Reform,” PRWatch, May 31, 2013.

62.Heritage Action for America, “Issue Toolkit: Immigration,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://heritageaction.com/toolkit/immigration-toolkit.

63.Lorenze, “Scaife-Funded Network Works Hard to Kill Immigration Reform.”

64.Reclaim Democracy!, “The Powell Memo (Also Known as the Powell Manifesto),” accessed April 10, 2018, http://reclaimdemocracy.org/powell_memo_lewis/.

65.American Presidency Project, “National Political Party Platforms,” “Parties Receiving Electoral Votes, 1840–2016,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/platforms.php.

66.American Presidency Project, “National Political Party Platforms.”

67.Will Weissert, “Ted Cruz on Immigration: How His Views Have Shifted,” Christian Science Monitor, February 13, 2016; Rich Lowry, “Cruz Goes Full Jeff Sessions—and It’s Great,” National Review, January 5, 2016; Brian Snyder, “Billionaire Donors Aided Ted Cruz’s Rise in 2016 Race,” CBS News, January 25, 2016; Center for Responsive Politics, “OpenSecrets.org: Sen. Ted Cruz—Texas,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.opensecrets.org/members-of-congress/summary?cid=N00033085&cycle=2018.

68.Martin Gilens and Benjamin I. Page, “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens,” Perspectives on Politics 12, no. 3 (September 2014): 564–81.

69.Sharita Gruberg, How For-Profit Companies Are Driving Immigration Detention Policies, Center for American Progress, December 18, 2015.

70.Samantha Michaels and Madison Pauly, “Private Prison Companies Are About to Cash In on Trump’s Deportation Regime,” Mother Jones, December 29, 2017.

71.Detention Watch Network, “Alternatives to Detention,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://www.detentionwatchnetwork.org/issues/alternatives; American Friends Service Committee, “Investigate: Supervision and Surveillance Equipment,” accessed April 10, 2018, http://investigate.afsc.org/screens/supervisionandsurveillance; Jason Fernandes, “Alternatives to Detention and the For-Profit Immigration System,” Center for American Progress, June 9, 2017.

72.Michelle Chen, “Wall Street’s Ties to the Private Immigrant-Detention Network,” Nation, July 24, 2018.

73.Partnership for Working Families et al., Wall Street’s Border Wall: How 5 Firms Stand to Benefit Financially from Anti-immigrant Policy, November 2017.

74.Ben Collins and Meghan Sullivan, “Tech Companies Quietly Work with ICE as Border Crisis Persists,” NBC News, June 20, 2018; Michelle Chen, “How Tech Workers Are Fighting Back against Collusion with ICE and the Department of Defense,” Nation, June 27, 2018.

75.Chomsky, Undocumented, 49.

76.Chomsky, Undocumented, 55.

77.Jacqueline Stevens, “When Migrants Are Treated Like Slaves,” New York Times, April 4, 2018; Michelle Chen, “ICE’s Captive Immigrant Labor Force,” Nation, October 11, 2017.

78.Catherine E. Shoichet, “Lawsuit Alleges ‘Forced Labor’ in Immigrant Detention,” CNN, April 17, 2018.

79.Southern Poverty Law Center, National Immigration Project of the National Lawyers Guild, and Adelante Alabama Workers Center, Shadow Prisons: Immigrant Detention in the South, November 2016.

80.Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (New York: Harper & Row, 1980).

81.Josh Bivens and Heidi Shierholz, “Year One of the Trump Administration: Normalizing Itself by Working for the Top 1 Percent,” Economic Policy Institute, January 29, 2018, https://www.epi.org/blog/year-one-of-the-trump-administration/.

82.Andrea Diaz, “He’s Campaigning for Governor of Georgia on a ‘Deportation Bus,’ ” CNN, May 17, 2018.

83.López, Dog Whistle Politics, 123; Erin Carlson, “White House Memos Reveal Emanuel’s Agenda on Immigration, Crime,” NBC5 Chicago, June 20, 2014.

84.Christianna Silva, “Trump Revives His False Campaign Claim about Mexicans Being Rapists,” Vice, April 5, 2018.

85.Some of the organizations that have been most helpful have been Puente Human Rights Movement, Padres & Jóvenes Unidos (CO), Make the Road–New York, Mijente, Detention Watch Network, Communities United (IL), Desis Rising Up and Moving (DRUM), and the Black Alliance for Just Immigration.

86.Black Alliance for Just Immigration, “Top 5 Priorities for a Black Migrant Justice Agenda,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://baji.org/top-5-priorities-for-a-black-migrant-justice-agenda/.

87.For examples of more detailed policy proposals that overlap in significant part with what is proposed here see Mijente, Free Our Future: An Immigration Policy Platform for Beyond the Trump Era, June 2018; Black Alliance for Just Immigration, “Top 5 Priorities for a Black Migrant Justice Agenda”; Sanders, Our Revolution, 400–403; American Friends Service Committee, A New Path: Toward a Humane Immigration Policy, 2013; American Civil Liberties Union, ACLU Framework for Immigration Reform, May 2013; American Civil Liberties Union, Shutting Down the Profiteers: How and Why the Department of Homeland Security Should Stop Using Private Prisons, September 2016.

88.For example, the European Union has largely open borders, as does South America and many other regions of the world.

89.Danny Glover and Rep. Ro Khanna, “Real Border Security Comes from a Moral Foreign Policy,” Nation, July 6, 2018; Fair Immigration Reform Movement, “About Us,” accessed April 10, 2018, https://fairimmigration.org/about; American Friends Service Committee, New Path, 7–8; Brendan Fischer, “America’s Inefficient and Ineffective Approach to Border Security,” Center for Media and Democracy’s PRWatch, December 23, 2010.

5. Defeating Goliath

1.Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Exposed: ALEC Bills,” accessed April 30, 2018, https://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/ALEC_Bills.

2.Philip Bump, “Here’s How Much of Your Life the United States Has Been at War,” Washington Post, August 22, 2017.

3.Alice Slater, “The U.S. Has Military Bases in 80 Countries. All of Them Must Close,” Nation, January 24, 2018; National Priorities Project, “Federal Budget Tipsheet: Pentagon Spending,” accessed April 30, 2018, https://www.nationalpriorities.org/guides/tipsheet-pentagon-spending/.

4.Meredith Bennett-Smith, “Womp! This Country Was Named the Greatest Threat to World Peace,” Huffington Post, January 23, 2014; Eric Zuesse, “Polls: US Is ‘the Greatest Threat to Peace in the World Today,’ ” Strategic Culture Foundation, July 8, 2017.

5.Martin Luther King Jr., “Beyond Vietnam,” April 4, 1967, Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University, transcript and audio, https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/beyond-vietnam.

6.White House Office of Management and Budget, “Historical Tables: Table 3.2—Outlays by Function and Sub-function, 1962–2025,” accessed April 8, 2020, https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/historical-tables/; Robert Sahr, “Individual Year Conversion Factor Tables,” Oregon State University, accessed April 30, 2018, http://liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/spp/polisci/faculty-staff/robert-sahr/inflation-conversion-factors-years-1774-estimated-2024-dollars-recent-years/individual-year-conversion-factor-table-0.

7.Institute for Policy Studies, The Souls of Poor Folk: A Preliminary Report, December 2017, 14–15.

8.Noam Chomsky, Hegemony or Survival: America’s Quest for Global Dominance (New York: Holt, 2003); Noam Chomsky, How the World Works (New York: Soft Skull, 2011).

9.Rachel Maddow, Drift: The Unmooring of American Military Power (New York: Broadway, 2012).

10.Maddow, Drift; Movement for Black Lives, “Invest-Divest,” accessed April 30, 2018, https://policy.m4bl.org/invest-divest/; Chomsky, Hegemony or Survival; Jane Mayer, Dark Money: The Hidden History of the Billionaires behind the Rise of the Radical Right (New York: Anchor Books, 2016), 6; Lauren-Brooke Eisen, Inside Private Prisons: An American Dilemma in the Age of Mass Incarceration (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018), 43; Samuel Weigley, “10 Companies Profiting the Most from War,” USA Today, March 10, 2013; Pam Vogel, “Here Are the Corporations and Right-Wing Funders Backing the Education Reform Movement,” Media Matters for America, April 27, 2016 (showing that the Bradley Foundation’s fortune was amassed through defense contracts).

11.Center for Media and Democracy, SourceWatch, “ALEC Corporations,” accessed April 30, 2018, https://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/ALEC_Corporations#R.

12.Common Cause, “More Than 200 Organizations Oppose Calls for New Constitutional Convention, Warn of Dangers,” April 14, 2017; Common Cause, A Dangerous Path: Big Money’s Plan to Shred the Constitution, May 2016.

13.Balanced Budget Amendment Task Force, “2019 Campaign Report,” accessed April 8, 2020, http://bba4usa.org/report/.

14.Common Cause, Dangerous Path; Alex Kotch, “Kochs Bankroll Move to Rewrite the Constitution,” Center for Media and Democracy’s PRWatch, March 23, 2017.

15.Convention of States Action, “Progress Map: States That Have Passed the Convention of States Article V Application,” accessed April 8, 2020, https://www.conventionofstates.com/nu.

16.Jay Riestenberg, “U.S. Constitution Threatened as Article V Convention Movement Nears Success,” Common Cause, March 21, 2018; Kotch, “Kochs Bankroll Move to Rewrite the Constitution.”

17.Center for Media and Democracy, “ALEC Exposed: ALEC Bills”; Mayer, Dark Money; Nancy MacLean, Democracy in Chains: The Deep History of the Radical Right’s Stealth Plan for America (New York: Viking, 2017).

18.Mayer, Dark Money, preface.

19.Noam Chomsky, Requiem for the American Dream: The 10 Principles of Concentration of Wealth & Power (New York: Seven Stories, 2017), 2.

20.Malcolm X, “If You Stick a Knife in My Back,” YouTube video, uploaded by finifinito, November 5, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XiSiHRNQlQo.

21.This was largely formulated through collaboration with my colleagues Purvi Shah, Jeena Shah, Amna Akbar, Marbre Stahly-Butts, and Krystina François during our joint facilitation of a Movement Lawyering Bootcamp in 2017.

22.Alexi Freeman and Jim Freeman, “It’s about Power, Not Policy: Movement Lawyering for Large-Scale Social Change,” Clinical Law Review 23, no. 1 (Fall 2016): 147–66.

23.Lani Guinier and Gerald Torres, Miner’s Canary: Enlisting Race, Resisting Power, Transforming Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002).

24.Padres & Jóvenes Unidos and Advancement Project, Lessons in Racial Justice and Movement Building: Dismantling the School-to-Prison Pipeline in Colorado and Nationally, 37.

25.Matea Gold, “An Amazing Map of the Koch Brothers Massive Political Network,” Washington Post, January 6, 2014.

26.Ashley Parker and Maggie Haberman, “With Koch Brothers Academy, Conservatives Settle in for Long War,” New York Times, September 6, 2016; Peter Overby, “Koch Political Network Expanding ‘Grass-Roots’ Organizing,” NPR, October 12, 2015; Peter Overby, “Koch Political Network Takes a Deep Dive into Community Organizing,” NPR, October 12, 2015.

27.“Astroturfing,” Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, August 12, 2018.

28.American Legislative Exchange Council, https://www.alec.org/; Americans for Prosperity, https://www.americansforprosperity.org/; State Policy Network, https://spn.org/.

29.Please don’t try to interpret this as any kind of pro-life/anti-abortion statement. That’s not at all what I’m getting at.

30.Center for Popular Democracy et al., Freedom to Thrive: Reimagining Safety & Security in Our Communities; see also Schott Foundation for Public Education, Loving Cities Index: Creating Loving Systems across Communities to Provide All Students an Opportunity to Learn, February 2018; Advancement Project California, “Healthy City,” http://www.healthycity.org; Haas Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Society, https://haasinstitute.berkeley.edu.

31.Atossa Araxia Abrahamian, “The Rock-Star Appeal of Modern Monetary Theory,” Nation, May 8, 2017; Stephanie Kelton, Andres Bernal, and Greg Carlock, “We Can Pay for a Green New Deal,” Huffington Post, November 30, 2018.

32.Bernie Sanders, “Options to Finance Medicare for All,” accessed April 9, 2020, https://www.sanders.senate.gov/download/options-to-finance-medicare-for-all?inline=file; Elizabeth Warren, “Ultra-Millionaire Tax,” accessed April 9, 2020, https://elizabethwarren.com/plans/ultra-millionaire-tax. These documents refer to revenue projections over ten years, so what is included in the table is the average annual amount. All other figures were referenced earlier in the book.

33.Communities United et al., The $3.4 Trillion Mistake: The Cost of Mass Incarceration and Criminalization, and How Justice Reinvestment Can Build a Better Future for All, 2016, 15; National Center for Education Statistics, “Fast Facts: Back to School Statistics,” accessed April 30, 2018, https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=372; Solutions Project, “100% Wind, Water, and Solar (WWS) All-Sector Energy Roadmaps for Countries and States, Cities, and Towns,” accessed April 30, 2018, http://stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/WWS-50-USState-plans.html.

34.For example, it’s estimated that the investments in clean and renewable energy sources alone would create more than five million “green jobs,” far more than would be needed to meet the needs of those who would be displaced as a result of the cutbacks in military, criminal justice, and immigration enforcement spending. Solutions Project, “100% Wind, Water, and Solar.”

35.Communities United et al., $3.4 Trillion Mistake, 17.

36.Common Cause, “More Than 200 Organizations Oppose Calls.”

37.Lawrence Hurley, “Supreme Court Restricts Police on Cellphone Location Data,” Reuters, June 22, 2018.

38.Constitute Project, accessed April 9, 2020, https://www.constituteproject.org/.

39.Constitute Project.