Notes

Introduction

1. “What We Want Now! What We Believe,” Black Panther, July 3, 1967.

2. Richard A. Couto, Ain’t Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me Round: The Pursuit of Racial Justice in the Rural South (Philadelphia, 1992), 102–5.

3. For more on the other groups that took up the Panther name (particularly in San Francisco and New York), see Muhammad Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind: Black Radical Organizations, 1960–1975 (Chicago, 2007), 167–74.

4. Joshua Bloom and Waldo E. Martin, Jr., Black against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party (Berkeley, CA, 2013), 2. For purposes of clarity, I will use “Black Panther Party” and “BPP” for the entirety of this book.

5. Huey P. Newton, “To the Courageous Revolutionaries of the National Liberation Front and Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam We Send Greetings,” Black Panther, January 9, 1971.

6. On the BPP’s influence on other groups outside the United States see Nico Slate, ed., Black Power beyond Borders: The Global Dimensions of the Black Power Movement (New York, 2012).

7. United Press International, “Black Panther Party Greatest Threat to U.S. Security,” Deseret News, July 16, 1969. For more on the somewhat curious circumstances surrounding Hoover’s remarks, see Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 444n45.

8. United States Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports of Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans, book 3 (Washington, DC, 1976), 188. On the CIA, MH/CHAOS, and the BPP, see Frank J. Rafalko, MH/CHAOS: The CIA’s Campaign against the Radical New Left and the Black Panthers (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2011).

9. House of Representatives, Committee on Internal Security, Gun-Barrel Politics: The Black Panther Party, 1966–1971 (Washington, DC, 1971), 135.

10. “Memorandum of Conversation, Beijing, October 24, 1971, 9:23–11:20 p.m.,” in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, volume E-13, Documents on China, 1969–1972, http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e13/72503.htm. On State Department pressure on Algeria, see “Memorandum of Conversation,” July 31, 1972, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 Volume E-5, Part 2, Documents on North Africa, 1969–1972, Document 33, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve05p2/ch2.

11. The literature on the party is too vast to cite here in its entirety. Though not without its flaws, the best single-volume history of the party is Bloom and Martin’s Black against Empire. For a somewhat dated but still useful historiography, see David J. Garrow, “Picking Up the Books: The New Historiography of the Black Panther Party,” Reviews in American History 35 (2007): 650–70.

12. Fred Hampton, “You Can Murder a Liberator, but You Can’t Murder Liberation,” in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Black Panthers Speak (New York, 1970), 139.

13. On Black internationalism, see Nikhil Pal Singh, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA, 2005); Cheryl Higashida, Black Internationalist Feminism: Women Writers on the Left, 1945–1995 (Urbana, IL, 2011); Roderick D. Bush, The End of World White Supremacy: Black Internationalism and the Problem of the Color Line (Philadelphia, 2009); Dayo F. Gore, Radicalism at the Crossroads: African American Women Activists in the Cold War (New York, 2011); Cynthia B. Young, Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of U.S. Third World Left (Durham, NC, 2006); Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge, MA, 2012); Robeson Taj Frazier, The East Is Black: Cold War China in the Black Radical Imagination (Durham, NC, 2015); Sohail Daulatzai, Black Star, Crescent Moon: The Muslim International and Black Freedom beyond America (Minneapolis, 2012). Key works examining the intersection of race and U.S. foreign relations include Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism (Ithaca, 1997); Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944–1963 (Albany, NY, 1986); Gerald Horne, Communist Front? The Civil Rights Congress, 1945–1956 (Madison, NJ, 1986); Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996); Carol Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1945 (Cambridge, UK, 2003); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA, 2001); James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002); Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ, 2002); Brenda Gayle Plummer, In Search of Power: African Americans in the Era of Decolonization, 1956–1974 (New York, 2013).

14. Singh, Black Is a Country, 53.

15. Huey P. Newton, “Functional Definition of Politics,” Black Panther, May 15, 1967.

16. Ahmad Muhammad [Maxwell Stanford], “Message to African Heads of State from RAM—Revolution Action Movement—Black Liberation Front of the U.S.A.,” n.d. [ca. spring 1965], in The Black Power Movement, Part 3: Papers of the Revolutionary Action Movement, LexisNexis database.

17. The concept of a U.S. Third World Left is deftly explored in Cynthia B. Young, Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of U.S. Third World Left (Durham, NC, 2006).

18. Eldridge Cleaver, “Pronunciamento,” Black Panther, December 21, 1968.

19. Lee Lockwood, Conversations with Eldridge Cleaver: Algiers (New York, 1970), 54.

20. The best account of the delegation’s journey is Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, Radicals on the Road: Internationalism, Orientalism, and Feminism During the Vietnam Era (Ithaca, NY, 2013), 107–92.

21. For a more recent analysis that shares a number of similarities with Newton’s inter­communalism, see Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2000).

22. Untitled manuscript, Algiers [n.d., ca. 1972], Eldridge Cleaver Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter Cleaver Papers), carton 2, folder 36.

23. Renato Rosaldo, “Imperialist Nostalgia,” Representations 26 (Spring 1989): 107–22.

24. Eldridge Cleaver, “Solidarity of the Peoples until Victory or Death!,” Black Panther, October 25, 1969; Cleaver, “Pronunciamento.”

25. Mumia Abu-Jamal, We Want Freedom: A Life in the Black Panther Party (Cambridge, MA, 2004), 243.

26. Charlotte O’Neal, interview by Sean L. Malloy, September 23, 2014.

27. Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (New York, 1992), 357.

28. Kathleen Neal Cleaver, “Women, Power, and Revolution,” in Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party, ed. Kathleen Cleaver and George Katsiaficas (New York, 2001), 126.

29. See, for example, Higashida, Black Internationalist Feminism.

30. Donald Cox, “The Man Question,” Voice of the Lumpen 2, no. 3 (April 1972), 7; Denise Oliver, “To Our Brothers in Jail from the Sisters,” Voice of the Lumpen 2, no. 3 (April 1972), 8–9.

31. “Separate Minority Views,” Gun-Barrel Politics, 142; Tom Wolfe, “Radical Chic: That Party at Lenny’s,” New York, June 8, 1970, 26–56.

32. Randall L. Kennedy, “Protesting Too Much: The Trouble with Black Power Revisionism,” Boston Review, March 23, 2015, http://bostonreview.net/books-ideas/randall-kennedy-protest
ing-too-much-black-power-revisionism.

33. Nico Slate, introduction to Black Power beyond Borders, 5; Young, Soul Power, 252.

34. Office of Policy Planning and Research, United States Department of Labor, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, D.C., 1965), 5. For a nuanced discussion of the Moynihan report and its legacy, see Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Black Family in the Age of Mass Incarceration,” Atlantic, October 2015, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/
2015/10/the-black-family-in-the-age-of-mass-incarceration/403246.

35. David Hilliard, “Pig—An International Language,” Black Panther, December 27, 1969.

36. Abu-Jamal, We Want Freedom, 233.

37. Nuh Washington, All Power to the People (Montreal, 2002), 41.

Chapter 1. “Every Brother on a Rooftop Can Quote Fanon”

1. Robert F. Williams, “Speech Delivered at the International Conference for Solidarity with the Peoples of Vietnam against U.S. Imperialist Aggression for the Defense of Peace,” Crusader 6, no. 3 (March 1965), 2.

2. Ibid.

3. For an overview of the long history of black internationalism, see Singh, Black Is a Country; Roderick D. Bush, The End of World White Supremacy: Black Internationalism and the Problem of the Color Line (Philadelphia, PA, 2009).

4. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (New York, 1961), 23.

5. James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002), 12–23; Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism (Ithaca, NY, 1997), 9–10; Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 24–25.

6. Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World (New York, 2007), 6–7.

7. English-language histories of the conference include Christopher J. Lee, ed., Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Movement and Its Political Afterlives (Athens, OH, 2010); Jamie Mackie, Bandung 1955: Non-Alignment and Afro-Asian Solidarity (Singapore, 2005); See Seng Tan and Amitav Acharya, eds., Bandung Revisited: The Legacy of the 1955 Asian-African Conference for International Order (Singapore, 2008); Derek McDougall and Antonia Finnane, eds., Bandung 1955: Little Histories (Victoria, Australia, 2010). Also see “The Fate of Nationalisms in the Age of Bandung,” Antoinette Burton, Augusto Espiritu, and Fanon Che Wilkins, eds., Radical History Review 95 (Spring 2006): 145–210.

8. “Speech by President Sukarno of Indonesia at the Opening of the Conference,” in Asia-Africa Speaks from Bandung (Jakarta: National Committee for the Commemoration of the Thirtieth Anniversary of the Asian-African Conference, 1985), 8.

9. Cary Fraser, “An American Dilemma: Race and Realpolitik in the American Response to the Bandung Conference, 1955,” in Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights, and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1988, ed. Brenda Gayle Plummer (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003), 131.

10. “Declaration of the Promotion of World Peace and Co-Operation,” in Asia-African Speaks from Bandung, 148.

11. Jeffrey James Byrne, Mecca of Revolution: Algeria, Decolonization and the Third World Order (New York, 2016), 64.

12. John Grassi, ed., Venceremos!: The Speeches and Writings of Che Guevara (New York, 1968), 423. On the logic of Cuban support for external revolutions as part of its national security policy, Carlos Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa (Los Angeles, 1988), 180; Jorge I. Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba’s Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 116; Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War (Cambridge, UK, 2007), 175–79; Piero Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976, 21. On Guevara’s theory of guerrilla warfare, see Che Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare (New York, 1969).

13. Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution, 130; Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions, 7, 32–36. On Algerian support for other insurgencies, see Matthew Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence (New York, 2002), 280; Chamberlin, The Global Offensive: The United States, The Palestine Liberation Organization, and the Making of the Post-Cold War Order (New York, 2012), 52–53; Westad, The Global Cold War, 106.

14. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 3, 15; Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions, 377; John A. Gronbeck-Tedesco, “The Left in Transition: The Cuban Revolution in US Third World Politics,” 
Journal of Latin American Studies 40 (2008): 659, 665, 668; Young, Soul Power, 2006), 23; Henley Adams, “Race and the Cuban Revolution: The Impact of Cuba’s Intervention in Angola,” in Race, Ethnicity, and the Cold War, ed. Philip E. Muehlenbeck (Nashville, TN, 2012), 205–8.

15. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 62, 120; Gronbeck-Tedesco, “The Left in Transition,” 662. For a broader discussion of the relationship between the Cuban revolution and African Americans, see Ruth Reitan, The Rise and Decline of an Alliance: Cuba and African American Leaders in the 1960s (East Lansing, MI, 1999); Young, Soul Power, 18–53; Brenda Gayle Plummer, “Castro in Harlem: A Cold War Watershed,” in Window on Freedom, 133–56.

16. Frantz Fanon, Wretched of the Earth (New York, 2004), 5.

17. James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002), 125, 142–49.

18. Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 81–82; Aristide Zolberg and Vera Zolberg, “The Americanization of Frantz Fanon,” Public Interest 9 (Fall 1967): 50; Eldridge Cleaver, “Psychology: The Black Bible,” in Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches (New York, 1969), 18.

19. Guevara, Guerrilla Warfare, 122.

20. Westad, The Global Cold War, 158–62; Max Elbaum, Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao and Che (New York, 2002), 45–53; Chen Jian, “China and the Bandung Conference: Changing Perceptions and Representations,” in Bandung Revisited: The Legacy of the 1955 Asian-African Conference for International Order, ed. See Seng Tan and Amitav Acharya (Singapore, 2008), 140–41.

21. Laura Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles (Berkeley, CA, 2006), 95, 135; Robin D. G. Kelley and Betsy Esch, “Black Like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution,” Souls 1, no. 4 (Fall 1999): 9, 39.

22. Mao Zedong, “Statement Supporting the Afro-Americans in Their Just Struggle against 
Racial Discrimination by U.S. Imperialism,” in Afro-Asia: Revolutionary Political and Cultural Connections between African Americans and Asian Americans, ed. Fred Ho and Bill V. Mullen (Durham, NC, 2008), 93.

23. Melani McAlister, “One Black Allah: The Middle East in the Cultural Politics of African American Liberation,” American Quarterly 51 no. 3 (September 1999), 633.

24. Westad, The Global Cold War, 101, 107–8; Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World (New York, 2007), 136–40; Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line, 128–32.

25. “Riot in Gallery Halts U.N. Debate,” New York Times, February 16, 1961; Cheryl Higashida, Black Internationalist Feminism: Women Writers on the Left, 1945–1995 (Urbana, IL, 2011), 54; Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York, 2006), 39–42; Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), 302–4; Singh, Black Is a Country, 186–87.

26. Plummer, Rising Wind, 303; “Riot in Gallery Halts U.N. Debate,” New York Times, February 16, 1961.

27. “U.N. Takes Steps to Prevent Riots,” New York Times, February 17, 1961; Higashida, Black Internationalist Feminism, 54.

28. Peniel E. Joseph, “Dashikis and Democracy: Black Studies, Student Activism, and the Black Power Movement,” Journal of African American History 88, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 186; Young, Soul Power, 50.

29. Young, Soul Power, 50.

30. Lien-Hang Nguyen, “Revolutionary Circuits: Towards Internationalizing America in the World,” Diplomatic History 39, no. 3 (2015): 420.

31. I. F. Stone, introduction to Guerrilla Warfare, by Che Guevara, xii. Also see George Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston, 1987), 34.

32. As early as July 1964, a month before the Gulf of Tonkin incident and ensuing U.S. escalation, RAM congratulated the NLF “for their inspiring victories against U.S. imperialism in South Vietnam” and linked the two struggles to a “world revolution of oppressed peoples rising up against their former slavemasters.” “Greetings to Our Militant Vietnamese Brothers, July 4, 1964,” Black America, Fall 1964, 21.

33. David Kimche, The Afro-Asian Movement: Ideology and Foreign Policy in the Third World ( Jerusalem, 1973), 211.

34. Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, The Tricontinental Conference of African, Asia, and Latin American Peoples (Washington, DC, 1966), 79.

35. Ibid., 99, 131; “Declaration on the Rights of Afro Americans in the U.S.A., First Conference of Solidarity of the African, Asian and Latin American Peoples held in Havana, Cuba, Jan. 3 to 12, 1966,” Soulbook 2, no. 2 (Summer 1966): 20.

36. George Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements (New York, 1965), 52, 66, 69.

37. Ibid., 35.

38. Ibid., 73, 76–77.

39. Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, 75; Plummer, In Search of Power, 6; Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ, 200), 22; Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York, 2011), 374.

40. Dayo Gore, “From Communist Politics to Black Power: The Visionary Politics and Transnational Solidarities of Victoria ‘Vicki’ Ama Garvin,” in Want to Start a Revolution? Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle, ed. Dayo Gore, Jeanne Theoharis, and Kozomi Woodard (New York, 2009), 84. Also see Kevin Gaines, African Americans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill, NC, 2008).

41. James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (Seattle, WA, 1997), 407–11; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA, 1981), 134–35.

42. Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999), 223–31. For firsthand accounts of the Williams-led tour in July 1961, see Robert F. William, Negroes with Guns (New York, 1962), 69–72; LeRoi Jones, “Cuba Libre,” Home: Social Essays (New York, 1966), 11–62; Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: A Historical Analysis of the Failure of Black Leadership (New York, 1967), 356–58.

43. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 287–90.

44. Plummer, Rising Wind, 320; Mary Dudziak, “Birmingham, Addis Ababa, and the Image of America: International Influence on U.S. Civil Rights Politics in the Kennedy Administration,” in Plummer, Window on Freedom, 190–91.

45. Gronbeck-Tedesco, “The Left in Transition,” 672.

46. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 292–94; Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution, 77; Westad, The Global Cold War, 214; Reitan, The Rise and Decline of an Alliance, 5, 40–41, 80–81, 123.

47. “Speech by U.S. Negro Leader Robert Williams,” Peking Review, no. 33 (August 12, 1966): 26.

48. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 300.

49. Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, 170.

50. Ibid., 38.

51. On the OAAU’s aims at the time of its founding, see Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary (New York, 1970), 57–96.

52. “The Robert F. Williams Case,” Crisis, June/July 1959, 328; Williams, Negroes with Guns, 76.

53. Huey P. Newton and J. Herman Blake, Revolutionary Suicide (New York, 2009), 117; Julian Mayfield, “Challenge to Negro Leadership: The Case of Robert F. Williams,” Commentary, April 1961, 299–301.

54. Robert F. Williams, “USA: The Potential of a Minority Revolution,” Crusader 5, no. 4 (May/June 1964), 6; Williams, “Speech Delivered at the International Conference for Solidarity with the People of Vietnam,” 2.

55. Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 354.

56. Baraka quoted in Gronbeck-Tedesco, “The Left in Transition,” 651.

57. McAlister, “One Black Allah,” 650.

58. Jones, Home, 151; LeRoi Jones, “Black Art,” in Black Fire: An Anthology of Afro-American Writing, ed. LeRoi Jones and Larry Neal (New York, 1968), 302.

59. Ibid., 85.

60. Ibid., 244, 248.

61. Ibid., 199, 153.

62. Ibid., 250.

63. Jones, Home, 201, 246.

64. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, 173.

65. Harold Cruse, Rebellion or Revolution (New York, 1968), 76.

66. Ibid.

67. Ibid., 95.

68. Martin R. Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Baltimore, MD, 1993), 12.

69. Earl Ofari Hutchinson, Blacks and Reds: Race and Class in Conflict, 1919–1990 (Lansing, MI, 1995), 249. “Black Belt” thesis: “The 1929 Comintern Resolution on the Negro Question in the United States,” From Marx to Mao, http://www.marx2mao.com/Other/CR75.html#s1, first published in Daily Worker, February 12, 1929.

70. Cruse, Rebellion or Revolution, 75.

71. Ibid., 13.

72. Ibid., 113; Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 354.

73. Cruse, Rebellion or Revolution, 20; Young, Soul Power, 38.

74. Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,” 14; Amiri Baraka, The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka (New York, 1984), 197.

75. Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,”15; Muhammad Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind: Black Radical Organizations, 1960–1975 (Chicago, IL, 2007), 111–14.

76. “The 12 Point Program of RAM (Revolutionary Action Movement) 1964,” in The Black Power Movement: Part 3: Papers of the Revolutionary Action Movement, LexisNexis (hereafter RAM papers), Muhammad Ahmad (Max Stanford)—Writings, 1964. On the influence on Cruse and his essay on the development of RAM, see “Autobiography—Maxwell Stanford,” RAM papers, Muhammad Ahmad Bio Materials (1).

77. “A New Philosophy for a New Age,” Black America, Summer/Fall 1965, 10; Rolland Snellings, “Re-Africanization: Prelude to Freedom,” Black America, November/December 1963, 17).

78. Charles Simmons, “To All the Freedom Loving People of the World,” Soulbook 1, no. 2 (Spring 1965), 118.

79. “The World Black Revolution,” [December 1966], RAM papers, Revolutionary Action Movement—External Documents (1).

80. Max Stanford, “Towards Revolutionary Action Movement Manifesto,” Correspondence, March 1964, 3.

81. Donald Freeman, “The Politics of Black Liberation,” Black America, November/December 
1963, 18.

82. El Mahdi, “Dialectical Destiny of Afro-America,” Black America, Summer/Fall 1965, 16.

83. Max Stanford, “We Can Win!,” [circa June/July 1964], RAM Papers, Muhammad Ahmad (Max Stanford)—Writings, 1964.

84. “A New Philosophy for a New Age,” 20. Emphasis in original.

85. Ibid.; “The Relationship of Revolutionary Afro-American Movement to the Bandung Revolution,” Black America, Summer/Fall 1965, 11.

86. Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,” 20.

87. “We Can Win!,” Revolutionary Nationalist, [circa 1965], 15, RAM papers, “Revolutionary Action Movement—External Documents (1). On the logic of interwar Anglo-American bombing strategy, see Sean L. Malloy, “Liberal Democracy and the Lure of Bombing in the Interwar United States,” in Making the American Century: Essays on the Political Culture of the Twentieth Century America, ed. Bruce J. Schulman (New York, 2014), 109–23.

88. Ibid., 15.

89. Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 397.

90. Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind, 113, 160.

91. Kenn M. Freeman, “The Colonized of North America: A Review-Essay of Fanon’s Studies in a Dying Colonialism,” Soulbook 1, no. 4 (Winter 1965/66): 307–8.

92. Freeman, “The Politics of Black Liberation,” 18.

93. Maxwell Stanford, “Revolutionary Action Movement: A Case Study of an Urban Revolutionary Movement in Western Capitalist Society,” master’s thesis, Atlanta University, 1982, 82.

94. Robin D. G. Kelley, “Stormy Weather: Reconstructing Black (Inter) Nationalism in the Cold War Era,” in Is It Nation Time? Contemporary Essays on Black Power and Black Nationalism, ed. Eddie S. Glaude (Chicago, IL, 2002), 87; Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,” 14–15.

Chapter 2. “Army 45 Will Stop All Jive”

1. Kenny Freeman quoted in Bobby Seale, A Lonely Rage: The Autobiography of Bobby Seale (New York, 1978), 126. Based on FBI surveillance reports, it seems likely that this rally was held on October 24, 1962, and also involved the Oakland chapter of the Young Socialist Alliance (YSA). San Francisco Field Office, 100-43450, “Young Socialist Alliance,” December 13, 1961, Richard Aoki FBI files. On the evolution of PL (which eventually because the Progressive Labor Party), see Max Elbaum, Revolution in the Air (New York, 2002), 63–65; “The History of the Progressive Labor Party: Part One,” Progressive Labor 10, no. 1 (August/September 1975): 55–70.

2. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 109–10; Bobby Seale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York, 1970), 13–14; Gene Marine, The Black Panthers (New York, 1969), 16–17.

3. Paul Alkebulan, Survival pending Revolution: The History of the Black Panther Party (Tuscaloosa, AL, 2007), 49.

4. Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ, 2003), 6, 46, 50, 52.

5. David Hilliard and Lewis Cole, This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Boston, 1993), 68.

6. James Edward Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill, NC, 2005), 251–52; Self, American Babylon, 78.

7. On the Bay Area’s connections to the Cold War, see Rebecca S. Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley, CA, 1997); Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, 1994); Gary Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley, CA, 2006), 280–330; Self, American Babylon; Donna Jean Murch, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill, NC, 2010), 41–70.

8. For a good account of the HUAC demonstration in San Francisco, see Seth Rosenfeld, Subversives: The FBI’s War on Student Radicals and Reagan’s Rise to Power (New York, 2012), 77–87.

9. Ibid., 306.

10. Murch, Living for the City, 71, 81; Chris Rhomberg, No There: Race, Class, and Political Community in Oakland (Berkeley, CA, 2004), 82.

11. Self, American Babylon, 222; Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement, 260–62; Murch, Living for the City, 72–95.

12. Jason M. Ferreira, “ ‘With the Soul of a Human Rainbow’: Los Siete, Black Panthers, and Third Worldism in San Francisco,” in Ten Years that Shook the City: San Francisco, 1968–1978, ed. Chris Carlsson (San Francisco, CA, 2011), 40, 43–44.

13. Murch, Living for the City, 80.

14. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 39–43; Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement, 257–58; Murch, Living for the City, 76–77, 80, 82.

15. Baraka, The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka, 248–56; Komozi Woodard, A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) & Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill, NC, 1999), 70; Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement, 170.

16. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 68, 70.

17. Martha Biondi, The Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley, CA, 2012), 41.

18. Murch, Living for the City, 97–103, 111.

19. Ibid., 106–7, 111.

20. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 77.

21. Murch, Living for the City, 8.

22. Seale, Seize the Time, 11–12; Seale, A Lonely Rage, 129–30.

23. Seale, A Lonely Rage, 130; Peniel E. Joseph, “Dashikis and Democracy: Black Studies, Student Activism, and the Black Power Movement,” Journal of African American History 88, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 189; Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,” 16; Living for the City, 109; Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement, 262.

24. Newton and Black, Revolutionary Suicide, 110.

25. Editorial, Soulbook 1, no. 1 (Winter 1964): 3.

26. Bobb Hamilton, “That’s Watts Happenin’!” Soulbook 1, no. 3 (Fall 1965): 151. On the development of Soulbook as well as a competing local journal, Black Dialogue, see Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement, 263.

27. Kenn M. Freeman, “The Real Reasons Tanganyika and Zanzibar United and Became Tanzania,” Soulbook 1, no. 1 (Winter 1964): 37–45; Freeman, “Did the United Nations Benefit Congo?,” Soulbook 1, no. 2 (Spring 1965): 87–104.

28. Cheikh-Anta Diop, “Africa, China and the U.S.,” Soulbook 1, no. 3 (Fall 1965): 154–63; Alfredo Peña, “The Puerto Rican Revolution/La Revolución Puertorricqueña,” Soulbook 1, no. 3 (Fall 1965): 208–19; Frantz Fanon, “Psychology and Négritude,” Soulbook 1, no. 4 (Winter 1965–66), 246–53.

29. Kenn M. Freeman, “The Man from F.L.N.: Brother Frantz Fanon,” Soulbook 1, no. 3 (Fall 1965): 171, 175.

30. Self, American Babylon, 170; Murch, Living for the City, 122.

31. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 75.

32. Seale, Seize the Time, xii.

33. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 19–20, 46–47, 76, 80–81, 95–96.

34. Ibid., 61, 71, 78–79, 103–4.

35. Ibid., 63, 70, 72.

36. Seale, A Lonely Rage, 145. On the origins and development of the SSAC, see Murch, Living for the City, 112; Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 31; Self, American Babylon, 224; Seale, Seize the Time, 26–27; Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 72, 112.

37. Seale, A Lonely Rage, 146–51; Seale, Seize the Time, 27–29; Ronald Stone, “Uncle Sammy Call Me Full of Lucifer,” Soulbook 1, no. 2 (Spring 1965): 129–30.

38. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 112–13; Seale, Seize the Time, 30–31, 34; Seale, A Lonely Rage, 15; Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind, 174.

39. Seale, Seize the Time, 24.

40. In addition to Newton and Seale’s organization in Oakland, figures affiliated with RAM helped to found Black Panther organizations in New York and San Francisco while another independent Panther group sprang up in Los Angeles. Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind, 167–70; Donna Murch, “When the Panther Travels: Race and the Southern Diaspora in the History of the BPP, 1964–1972,” in Slate, Black Power beyond Borders, 61–65.

41. Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore, MD, 2004), 85; Judson L. Jeffries, Huey P. Newton: The Radical Theorist (Jackson, MS, 2002), 11. The BPP program also bore some similarities to the earlier ten-point program enunciated by Robert F. Williams in North Carolina and the twelve-point program of the Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM). Williams, Negroes with Guns, 75–76; Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,” 18.

42. Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, 38.

43. “What We Want Now! What We Believe,” Black Panther, July 3, 1967. The ten-point program was altered between March and September 1968 to include Cleaver’s idea of a United Nations plebiscite for black America as part of point ten. The fact that the Black Panther subsequently (and incorrectly) published this modified version as the “October 1966 Black Panther Party Platform and Program” has been the cause of some confusion among historians.

44. “What We Want Now! What We Believe,” 3.

45. Erik H. Erikson and Huey P. Newton, In Search of Common Ground: Conversations with Erik H. Erikson and Huey P. Newton (New York, 1973), 28. For examples of scholars who have accepted this argument, see Jeffries, Huey P. Newton, 62; Besenia Rodriguez, “ ‘Long Live Third World Unity! Long Live International’: Huey P. Newton’s Revolutionary Intercommunalism,” in Transnational Blackness: Navigating the Global Color Line, ed. Manning Marable and Vanessa Agard-Jones (New York, 2008), 152; Anne-Marie Angelo, “The Black Panthers in London, 1967–1972,” Radical History Review, no. 103 (Winter 2009): 20.

46. Huey P. Newton, “Functional Definition of Politics,” Black Panther, May 15, 1967.

47. Huey P. Newton, “Statement by Minister of Defense to the Black World,” Black Panther, May 15, 1967.

48. Ahmad, We Will Return in the Whirlwind, 130–33.

49. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 116.

50. Seale, Seize the Time, 30.

51. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 63.

52. Huey P. Newton, “Guns Baby Guns,” Black Panther, July 3, 1967.

53. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 117–18. For a good discussion of the influences on the BPP’s decision to “pick up the gun,” see Brigitte Baldwin, “In the Shadow of the Gun: The Black Panther Party, the Ninth Amendment, and Discourses of Self-Defense,” in In Search of the Black Panther Party: New Perspectives on a Revolutionary Movement, ed. Jama Lazerow and Yohuru Williams (Durham, NC, 2006), 67–96.

54. Aristide Zolberg and Vera Zolberg, “The Americanization of Frantz Fanon,” Public Interest 9 (Fall 1967): 61.

55. Huey P. Newton, “The Correct Handling of a Revolution,” Black Panther, July 20, 1967; Newton, “In Defense of Self Defense, Black Panther, June 20, 1967; Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 116–17.

56. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 113.

57. Seale, Seize the Time, 72. On Aoki, see Diane C. Fujino, Samurai among Panthers: Richard Aoki on Race, Resistance, and a Paradoxical Life (Minneapolis, MN, 2012). On allegations that Aoki was operating as an FBI informant at the time he helped arm the Panthers, see Rosenfeld, Subversives, 419–24.

58. Seale, Seize the Time, 82–83.

59. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 129.

60. For the RAM critique and Newton’s response, see Newton, “The Correct Handling of a Revolution.”

61. Ibid.

62. Self, American Babylon, 77–78; Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 38–39. Murch, “When the Panther Travels,” 70. Similar efforts to patrol the police were also taking place in other cities with large African American populations at this time. See, for example, “Negroes Will Police in Detroit,” Chicago Tribune, October 29, 1966.

63. Marine, The Black Panthers, 45.

64. Huey P. Newton, Huey Talks to the Movement about the Black Panther Party, Cultural Nationalism, SNCC Liberals and White Revolutionaries (Boston, 1968), 12.

65. Eldridge Cleaver, “Police Slaughter Black People,” Black Panther, July 20, 1967.

66. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 146.

67. Eldridge Cleaver, “Independence for North Richmond Area,” Black Panther, June 20, 1967.

68. “Black Activists in America,” Black Panther, May 15, 1967. Also see Earl Anthony, “Core City Politics,” Black Panther, June 20, 1967.

69. Cleaver, “Independence for North Richmond Area.”

70. Newton, “Functional Definition of Politics.”

71. Newton, “In Defense of Self Defense.”

72. Seale, Seize the Time, 99–106.

73. Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 354.

74. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 57–59.

75. Newton, “Statement by Minister of Defense to the Black World.”

76. Jerry Rankin, “Heavily Armed Negro Group Walks into Assembly Chamber,” Los Angeles Times, May 3, 1967; Seale, Seize the Time, 155.

77. “Armed Negros Protest Gun Bill,” New York Times, May 3, 1967.

78. “Only in America,” Washington Post, May 6, 1967.

79. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 158.

80. Kathleen Cleaver, “A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words,” in Black Panther: The Revolutionary Art of Emory Douglas, ed. Sam Durant (New York, 2014), 52.

81. Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 3.

Chapter 3. “We’re Relating Right Now to the Third World”

1. Eldridge Cleaver, “Pronunciamento,” Black Panther, December 21, 1968.

2. “Interview with Masai,” Black Panther, May 31, 1969.

3. Robeson Taj Frazier, The East Is Black: Cold War China in the Black Radical Imagination (Durham, NC, 2015), 12.

4. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (New York, 1968), 4.

5. Ibid., 14.

6. Eldridge Cleaver, “Bunchy,” Eldridge Cleaver Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter Cleaver Papers), carton 2, folder 52.

7. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Fire (Waco, TX, 1978), 74; Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 57; Cleaver to Rolling Stone, May 27, 1976, Dr. Huey P. Newton Foundation Papers, Stanford University Special Collection, Stanford, California (hereafter Newton Papers), series 2, box 41, folder 10.

8. Cleaver referenced his communications with Donald Warden in Cleaver to Minister Bernard X, Muhammad’s Mosque No. 26, San Francisco, August 18, 1964, Cleaver papers, box 3, carton 18. Also see his notes on a “Demonstration by members of A. A. A. at Oakland’s McClymonds High School, Tuesday September 10, 1963,” Cleaver papers, carton 1, folder 5.

9. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 75.

10. Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 55–57; Cleaver, “Bunchy.”

11. For Cleaver’s prison reading lists, see Cleaver Papers, carton 1, folders 2, 5.

12. Cleaver, undated, handwritten notes [circa 1965], Cleaver Papers, carton 1, folder 1. Also see Cleaver to Beverly Axelrod, September 10, 1965 (box 2, folder 2); Cleaver to Axelrod, January 4, 1966 (box 2, folder 4); Cleaver to David Welsh, August 7, 1966 (box 3, folder 20).

13. Cleaver to Welsh, August 7, 1966.

14. Cleaver, for example, described homosexuality as “a sickness, just as are baby-rape or wanting to become head of General Motors.” Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 110. His attitude toward women is summarized in a poem from his papers: “When a bitch learns / To stick her clitoris / Inside the head of my penis / Inside her vagina / She can fuck me all she wants / Till then, I’m fucking her.” Cleaver Papers, “Undated Fragments,” carton 2, folder 45.

15. Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 49. On Williams, see Tyson, Radio Free Dixie.

16. Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 130.

17. Ibid., 68.

18. Ibid., 123.

19. Ibid., 69, 81.

20. Ibid., 202, 204.

21. Ibid., 197.

22. On the history of Ramparts, see Peter Richardson, A Bomb in Every Issue: How the Short, Unruly Life of ‘Ramparts’ Magazine Changed America (New York, 2009).

23. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 25; Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 19.

24. Elton C. Fax, Black Artists of the New Generation (New York, 1977), 256–70.

25. St. Claire Bourne, “An Artist for the People: An Interview with Emory Douglas,” in Durant, ed., Black Panther, 202.

26. Amiri Baraka, “Emory Douglas: A ‘Good Brother,’ A ‘Bad’ Artist,” in Durant, ed., Black Panther, 171, 177.

27. Marvin X, Somethin’ Proper: The Life and Times of a North American African Poet (Castro Valley, CA, 1998), 121–25.

28. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 36; Fax, Black Artists of the New Generation, 273–74.

29. Many of the BPP’s varied ways of communicating its anticolonial vernacular, including the song quoted above, are on display in the short Newsreel Collective film Off the Pig (Black Panther), DVD (1968, Oakland, CA:, 2006).

30. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 129–30.

31. Alkebulan, Survival pending Revolution, 49; David Hilliard, preface in The Black Panther Intercommunal News Service, 1967–1980 (New York, 2007), viii.

32. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 20; “Speeding up Time,” Black Panther, March 16, 1968.

33. Elaine Brown, “The Significance of the Black Panther Party,” in Hilliard, ed., The Black Panther Intercommunal News Service, ix.

34. David Hilliard, “Pig—An International Language,” Black Panther, December 27, 1969.

35. Seale, Seize the Time, 408.

36. Ibid., 409.

37. Masai Hewitt, “Seize the Time—Submit or Fight,” Black Panther, December 13, 1969.

38. Aaron Dixon, My People Are Rising: Memoirs of a Black Panther Party Captain (Chicago, 2012), 94.

39. Amiri Baraka, “Black People!,” in The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader (New York, 1991), 224.

40. Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Laws of the Committee of the Judiciary, United States Senate, Testimony of Karl Dietrich Wolff (Washington DC, 1969), 8. Also see Elijah Wald, The Dozens: A History of Rap’s Mama (New York, 2012); Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (New York, 1987), 167.

41. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London, 1991), 133.

42. Hewitt, “Seize the Time—Submit or Fight.”

43. Steven Salaita, Uncivil Rights: Palestine and the Limits of Academic Freedom (Chicago, 2015), 42.

44. Cleaver, “Pronunciamento,” 12–13.

45. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, 6. On the notion of black people in the United States as anticitizens, see David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York, 1991), 57.

46. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 38, 133.

47. Seale, Seize the Time, 404.

48. Emory Douglas, “Support Your Local Police,” Black Panther, May 15, 1967; Fax, Black Artists of the New Generation, 276.

49. Baraka, “Emory Douglas,” 181.

50. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 129–30.

51. Homi K. Bhabha, “Unsatisfied: Notes on Vernacular Cosmopolitanism,” in Postcolonial Discourses: An Anthology, ed. Gregory Castle (Oxford, UK, 2001), 43.

52. Assata Shakur, Assata: An Autobiography (Chicago, 1987), 203.

53. Emory Douglas, “It’s All the Same,” Black Panther, March 16, 1968.

54. Emory Douglas, “We Are Advocates of the Abolition of War,” Black Panther, September 28, 1968.

55. Colette Gaiter, “What Revolution Looks Like: The Work of Black Panther Artist Emory Douglas,” in Durant, ed., Black Panther, 98, 101.

56. Baraka, “Emory Douglas,” 180, 181.

57. Emory Douglas, “On Landscape Art,” Black Panther, March 16, 1968.

58. Cleaver, “Information,” Black Panther, October 26, 1968.

59. “The World of Black People,” Black Panther, July 3, 1967.

60. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, 4–5.

61. “Armed Black Brothers in Richmond Community,” Black Panther, April 25, 1967.

62. Huey P. Newton, “Functional Definition of Politics,” Black Panther, May 15, 1967.

63. Rory Hithe, “Arm Yourself or Harm Yourself,” Black Panther, August 30, 1969.

64. Young, Soul Power, 6.

65. See, for example, her illustrations in Black Panther, May 4, 1968 (p. 25), May 18, 1968 (p. 23), September 7, 1968 (p. 4), October 24, 1968 (p. 7), November 16, 1968 (p. 17, 18).

66. Examples of these types of illustrations can be found in Durant, ed., Black Panther, 80, 97, 102–3, 122, 144–59.

67. Mumia Abu-Jamal quoted in ibid., 4.

68. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 66, 156.

69. George Murray, “For a Revolutionary Culture,” Black Panther, September 7, 1968; Fred Hampton, “All Power to the People,” Black Panther, July 19, 1969.

70. John Huggins, “Open Letter to L.A. Pig Chief,” Black Panther, November 16, 1968; “Wanted Dead for Murder,” Black Panther, November 2, 1968; David Hilliard, “If You Want 
Peace You Gotta Fight for It,” Black Panther, November 22, 1969.

71. Matilaba (Joan Tarika Lewis), “Am I Doing It Right Mama?,” Black Panther, December 7, 1968, Emory Douglas, “A Black Revolutionary Christmas,” Black Panther, December 7, 1968.

72. Matilaba (Joan Tarika Lewis), “No More Riots,” Black Panther, May 4, 1968.

73. Emory Douglas, “Revolutionary Art/Black Liberation,” Black Panther, May 18, 1968.

74. Matilaba (Joan Tarika Lewis), “Before We Talk Reconstruction, Let’s Accomplish the Ruins,” Black Panther, December 21, 1968; Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 1.

75. Black Panther, June 20, 1967.

76. “Chairman Bobby Speaks at May Day Rally to Free Huey,” Black Panther, May 11, 1969.

77. George Murray, “Minister of Education,” Black Panther, May 18, 1968. See also, for example, Brother Dynamite, “Police Use Gestapo Tactics,” Black Panther, November 2, 1968; Fred Beaumont, “The Necessity of Unification,” Black Panther, November 2, 1968.

78. Emory Douglas, “Get Out of the Ghetto, Get Out of Africa, Get Out of Asia, Get Out of Latin America,” Black Panther, October 19, 1968.

79. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 58.

80. Ibid., 67.

81. Young, Soul Power, 3, 13.

82. Eldridge Cleaver, “Information,” Black Panther, September 28, 1968; Huey Newton, “Functional Definition of Politics,” Black Panther, May 15, 1967; “An Exclusive Interview with Minister of Defense Huey P. Newton,” Black Panther, March 16, 1968.

83. “What We Want Now! What We Believe,” Black Panther, July 3, 1967, 3. On left-wing criticism of the BPP, see “A Statement by the Black Liberation Commission of the PLP: The Black Panther Party,” Progressive Labor 6, no. 6 (February 1969): 32; Bob Avakian, Summing up the Black Panther Party (Cleveland, OH, 1979).

84. On tensions with white radicals, see Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 143–44; Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 147. By September 1968 the Black Panther was forced to print an injunction to its readers to “stop vamping on the hippies” (“Warning to So-Called Paper Panthers,” Black Panther, September 14, 1968). Also see Joel Wilson, “Invisible Cages: Racialized Politics and the Alliance between the Panthers and the Peace and Freedom Party,” in Lazerow and Williams, ed., In Search of the Black Panther Party, 191–222; David Barber, “Leading the Vanguard: White New Leftists School the Panthers on the Black Revolution,” in Lazerow and Williams, ed., In Search of the Black Panther Party, 223–51.

85. On polyculturalism, see Vijay Prashad, Everybody Was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asians and the Myth of Cultural Purity (Boston, 2001).

86. See Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, “Brown Power to Brown People: Radical Ethnic Nationalism, the Black Panthers, and Latino Radicalism,” 1967–1973,” in Lazerow and Williams, ed., In Search of the Black Panther Party, 252–88; Daryl J. Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen: Constructing Asian American Identity through Performing Blackness, 1969–1972,” American Quarterly 57, no. 4 (December 2005), 1079–1103; Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left.

87. Ferreira, “With the Soul of a Human Rainbow,” in Carlsson, Ten Years that Shook the City, 36–37.

88. Seale, Seize the Time, 404, 411; “An Exclusive Interview with Minister of Defense Huey P. Newton.”

89. Huey P. Newton, “In Defense of Self Defense,” Black Panther, June 20, 1967. For similar sentiments, see Earl Anthony, “The Significance of the Black Liberation Struggle in Newark,” Black Panther, July 20, 1967.

90. On tensions between the BPP and US, see Scott Brown, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York, 2003), 107–30.

91. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York, 1995), 366–67.

92. Frazier, The East Is Black, 12.

93. Eldridge Cleaver, “Beauty Contests and the Third World,” Black Panther, November 
23, 1967.

94. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 143. Also see Cleaver’s attack on James Baldwin in Soul on Ice, 97–111.

95. Erika Doss, “ ‘Revolutionary Art Is a Tool for Liberation’: Emory Douglas and Protest Aesthetics at the Black Panther,” in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, eds., Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party, 178.

Chapter 4. “I Prefer Panthers to Pigs”

1. Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 3; Kathleen Cleaver, “A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words,” in Durant, ed., Black Panther, 52

2. Wilbert J. Weiskirch, “Black Panther Party for Self Defense,” November 16, 1967, SF 100-58841, Richard Aoki FBI files.

3. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 181–82.

4. David Hilliard with Keith and Kent Zimmerman, Huey: Spirit of the Panther (New York, 2008), 2–4; Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 130.

5. For accounts of the incident, see Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 184–87; Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 130–31; Hilliard, Huey, 2–5. For substantial coverage of the ensuing court case, see Lise Pearlman, The Sky’s the Limit: People v. Newton, the Real Trial of the 20th Century? (Berkeley, CA, 2012).

6. The exact number of BPP local chapters is hard to pin down exactly. I have used the number provided by Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 2.

7. On the diverse local histories of Panther chapters outside Oakland, see James T. Campbell, “The Panthers and Local History,” in Lazerow and Williams, ed., In Search of the Black Panther Party, 97–103; Judson L. Jeffries, ed., On the Ground: The Black Panther Party in Communities across America (Jackson, MS, 2010). The party’s sometimes contentious relations with white radicals are covered in Joel Wilson, “Invisible Cages: Racialized Politics and the Alliance between the Panthers and the Peace and Freedom Party,” in Lazerow and Williams, ed., In Search of the Black Panther Party, 191–222; David Barber, “Leading the Vanguard: White New Leftists School the Panthers on the Black Revolution,” in Lazerow and Williams, ed., In Search of the Black Panther Party, 223–51.

8. On the BPP and its relations with the U.S. Third World Left, see Daryl J. Maeda, “Black Panthers, Red Guards, and Chinamen: Constructing Asian American Identity through Performing Blackness, 1969–1972,” American Quarterly 57, no. 4 (December 2005): 1079–1103; Ferreira, “With the Soul of a Human Rainbow,” 30–47; Ogbar, “Brown Power to Brown People,” 252–88; Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left; Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 269–87.

9. “Panthers on the Move Internationally: Free Huey at the UN,” Black Panther, September 14, 1968. The BPP’s UN demonstration was covered by photographer Howard L. Bingham. See Howard L. Bingham, Howard L. Bingham’s Black Panthers 1968 (Los Angeles, CA, 2009), 185–89.

10. On the rocky early history of black activism at the UN, Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge, UK, 2003).

11. “Member States of the United Nations,” UN News Center, http://www.un.org/en/members.

12. Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, 35.

13. “Remember the Worlds of Brother Malcolm,” Black Panther, May 18, 1968.

14. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver, 67.

15. Eldridge Cleaver, “Political Struggle in America, 1968,” Black Panther, March 16, 1968.

16. Huey P. Newton, “Communique No. 1,” Black Panther, September 28, 1968. By September 1968 the UN plebiscite had been incorporated into point ten of the BPP program. See the somewhat misleadingly titled “October 1966 Black Panther Party Platform and Program,” Black Panther, September 14, 1968; Seale, Seize the Time, 63.

17. The BPP first “drafted” Carmichael in June 1967, but he and Foreman received more prominent roles in the party in early 1968 as part of the “Free Huey” campaign. “Carmichael Drafted by Executive Mandate No. 2,” Black Panther, July 3, 1967; Eldridge Cleaver, “Black Paper,” Black Panther, May 4, 1968; Peniel E. Joseph, Stokely: A Life (New York, 2014), 231; Yohuru R. Williams, “American Exported Black Nationalism: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Black Panther Party, and the Worldwide Freedom Struggle, 1967–1972,” Negro History Bulletin 60, no. 3 (July–September 1997): 13.

18. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA, 1981), 283–85; Joseph, Stokely, 237; James Foreman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (Seattle, WA, 1985), 525–26; Seale, Seize the Time, 217–16.

19. Stokely Carmichael, with Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggle of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) (New York, 2003), 663; Joseph, Stokely, 240–41.

20. There are conflicting accounts of the Panther-Foreman meeting, and Foreman himself later denied that he had been threatened with a gun. There is no doubt, however, that the meeting ended badly and proved the final straw in the increasingly tenuous BPP-SNCC alliance. Foreman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, 522–23, 535–38; Earl Anthony, Spitting in the Wind: The True Story behind the Violent Legacy of the Black Panther Party (Malibu, CA, 1990), 49; Dixon, My People Are Rising, 119–20; William Lee Brent, Long Time Gone: A Black Panther’s True-Life Story of His Hijacking and Twenty-Five Years in Cuba (San Jose, CA, 2000), 108–12.

21. Dixon, My People Are Rising, 116–20.

22. Though it apparently never amounted to much in the way of formal collaboration, the BPP did attempt to coordinate with Mexican students in 1968–69. For examples, see “International Communique No. 1, October 3, 1968: To the Revolutionary Students and Freedom Fighters of Mexico,” Black Panther, October 12, 1968; Bobby Seale, “Solidarity with Mexican Students,” Black Panther, July 26, 1969; Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 102; Central Intelligence Agency, “Situation Information Report,” November 15, 1968, document provided under the Freedom of Information Act and in possession of author.

23. On the global development of New Left in this period, see George Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston, 1987); Jeremi Suri, Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Détente (Cambridge, MA, 2003).

24. Thomas R. H. Haven, Fire across the Sea: The Vietnam War and Japan, 1965–1975 (Princeton, NJ, 1987), 54–67; Simon Andrew Avenell, Making Japanese Citizens: Civil Society and the Mythology of the Shimen in Postwar Japan (Berkeley, CA, 2010), 106–47; Claudia Derichs, “Japan: ‘1968’—History of a Decade,” Bulletin of the German Historical Society, supplement 6 (2009), 90–91.

25. Yuichiro Onoshi, “The Presence of (Black) Liberation in Okinawan Freedom: Transnational Moments, 1968–1972,” in Extending the Diaspora: New Histories of Black People, ed. Dawne Y. Curry et al. (Urbana, IL, 2009), 195.

26. Haven, Fire across the Sea, 119–20.

27. Avenell, Making Japanese Citizens, 110, 128–32.

28. “Kathleen to Japan,” Black Panther, September 7, 1968; Earl Anthony, Picking up the Gun: A Report on the Black Panthers (New York, 1970), 140–41; Anthony, Spitting in the Wind, 51–55. “Statement—The Sanya Liberation Committee,” Black Panther, November 15, 1969.

29. Anthony, Picking up the Gun, 151.

30. Haven, Fire across the Sea, 225; Avenell, Making Japanese Citizens, 129.

31. Anthony, Picking up the Gun, 149.

32. Big Man [Elbert Howard], “Press Release: Tokyo Japan,” Black Panther, October 4, 1969.

33. Anthony, Spitting in the Wind, 60–61.

34. Ibid., 56.

35. “War Foes Close 3-Day Conference in Montreal,” Los Angeles Times, December 2, 1968; “North Vietnamese Assail U.S. at Rally in Montreal,” New York Times, November 30, 1968; Bryan Palmer, Canada’s 1960s: The Ironies of Identity in a Rebellious Era (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008), 351; Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 309.

36. Bobby Seale, “Complete Text of Bobby Seale’s Address,” Black Panther, December 21, 1968.

37. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 310.

38. Raymond Lewis, “Montreal: Bobby Seale—Panthers Take Control,” Black Panther, December 21, 1968.

39. “Antiwar Parley Repairs a Split,” New York Times, December 1, 1968; Paul Lyons, The People of This Generation: The Rise and Fall of the New Left in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 2003), 152.

40. Thomas Elman Jørgensen, Transformation and Crises: The Left and the Nation in Denmark and Sweden, 1956–1980 (New York, 2008), 45, 55–56, 87.

41. Joseph, Stokely, 225; Jørgensen, Transformation and Crises, 98–99.

42. Robyn Spencer, “Merely One Link in the Worldwide Revolution: Internationalism, State Repression, and the Black Panther Party,” in From Toussaint to Tupac: The Black International since the Age of Revolution, ed. Michael O. West, William G. Martin, Fanon Che Wilkins (Chapel Hill, NC, 2009), 220; Kathleen Cleaver, “Back to Africa: The Evolution of the International Section of the Black Panther Party (1969–1972),” in The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, ed. Charles E. Jones (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998), 228.

43. “Interview with Masai,” Black Panther, May 31, 1969; Bobby Seale, “Chairman Bobby Seale and ‘Masai’ Hewitt Tour Scandinavian Countries,” Black Panther, March 31, 1969; “Interview with Scandinavian Rep. of Black Panther Party: Connie Matthews,” Black Panther, October 18, 1969.

44. Seale, “Chairman Bobby Seale and ‘Masai’ Hewitt Tour Scandinavian Countries.”

45. Ibid. See also Bobby Seale, “Bobby Speaks to Scandinavia,” Black Panther, October 25, 1969.

46. On Matthews’s continuing work with the BPP in Scandinavia, see Connie Matthews, “Open Letter to the Danish Foreign Ministry,” Black Panther, May 11, 1969; Connie Matthews, “Scandinavian Solidarity with the BPP,” Black Panther, September 13, 1969.

47. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 313.

48. Maria Höhn and Martin Klimke, A Breath of Freedom: The Civil Rights Struggle, African American GIs, and Germany (New York, 2010), 111.

49. Ibid., 113.

50. Ibid., 107–9; 112–13.

51. Christian Semler, “Statement: German SDS,” Black Panther, November 15, 1969.

52. Höhn and Klimke, A Breath of Freedom, 116–17.

53. Ibid., 63–88, 143–70; Plummer, “Brown Babies: Race, Gender, and Policy after World War II,” in Plummer, ed., Window on Freedom, 67–92.

54. Höhn and Klimke, A Breath of Freedom, 111–12.

55. Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Laws of the Committee of the Judiciary, Testimony of Karl Dietrich Wolff, 16.

56. “West German S.D.S. Supports Black Panthers and Black Liberation Movement,” Black Panther, March 9, 1969.

57. Karl Dietrich Wolff, “Black Panther Party Solidarity Committee,” Black Panther, December 13, 1969; Höhn and Klimke, A Breath of Freedom, 114–15, 119; Martin Klimke, The Other Alliance: Student Protest in West Germany and the United States in the Global Sixties (Princeton, NJ, 2010), 118–21.

58. On the British BPP, see Anne-Marie Angelo, “The Black Panthers in London, 1967–1972,” Radical History Review, no. 103 (Winter 2009): 17–35.

59. Jean Genet, “The Black Panthers Are Preparing the Revolution with Precipitous Care: The Revolution Will Come; Time Is at Their Service,” Black Panther, June 27, 1970. For more on Genet and the BPP, see Robert Sandarg, “Jean Genet and the Black Panther Party,” Journal of Black Studies 16, no. 2 (March 1986): 269–82.

60. Höhn and Klimke, A Breath of Freedom, 148. Also see Klimke, The Other Alliance, 139–41.

61. Höhn and Klimke, A Breath of Freedom, 115. On the broad appeal of the BPP’s particular invocation of American popular culture, see Jane Rhodes, Framing the Black Panthers: The Spectacular Rise of a Black Power Icon (New York, 2007).

62. On the persistence of nationalism within the context of revolution in the twentieth century, see Anderson, Imagined Communities, 2.

63. According to Eldridge Cleaver, “Stokely had told me flatly that the white Cubans were racists and that if I was thinking about going to Cuba I had better think again.” Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba” (unpublished manuscript), 15, Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 31. For Williams’s critique of the Castro regime’s attitude toward race, see “Speech by U.S. Negro Leader Robert Williams,” Peking Review, no. 33 (August 12, 1966), 26.

64. Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba,” 17–18.

65. John A. Gronbeck-Tedesco, “The Left in Transition: The Cuban Revolution in US Third World Politics,” Journal of Latin American Studies 40 (2008): 659–60.

66. Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba,” 29–30.

67. Landon Williams, “Panthers in Mexico, Black Panther, October 5, 1968.

68. “George Murray Press Conference” (reprinted from Granma News), Black Panther, October 12, 1968.

69. Juana Carrasco, “Huey P. Newton: Black Revolutionary Politics,” (reprinted from Gramma News), Black Panther, October 12, 1968.

70. “Cubans Support Movement,” Black Panther, October 19, 1968; “African, Asian and Latin-American Solidarity Group Appeals to OSPAAAL on Black American Revolution,” Black Panther, September 7, 1968.

71. Colette Gaiter, “What Revolution Looks Like,” 98, 101.

Chapter 5. “Juche, Baby, All the Way”

1. “Political Education, 21 March 1971, Eldridge Cleaver Discusses History of Black Panther Party,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 12; “Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 28 March [1971],” Cleaver papers, carton 5, folder 12; Cleaver, “Uptight in Babylon,” Cleaver Papers, carton 1, folder 56.

2. Eldridge Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba,” n.d. [circa 1969–1970], Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 31.

3. Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 177.

4. Photo caption, Black Panther, June 20, 1967, p. 4.

5. David Hilliard, “If You Want Peace You Gotta Fight for It,” Black Panther, November 22, 1969.

6. Cleaver, Soul on Ice, 130.

7. Dixon, My People Are Rising, 126; Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 178.

8. Eldridge Cleaver, “Dig on This,” Black Panther, November 23, 1967; “Beautiful News from Hunters Point,” Black Panther, November 23, 1967; Emory Douglas, “Revolutionary Art/Black Liberation,” Black Panther, May 18, 1968.

9. Cleaver, “Uptight in Babylon.”

10. “Political Education, 21 March 1971”; Cleaver, “Uptight in Babylon”; Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 176, 183–84. Also see Eldridge Cleaver, “Letter to the Lumpen,” Voice of the Lumpen 1, no. 9 (December 1971), 4.

11. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver, 9; Seale, Seize the Time, 223–25.

12. Huey P. Newton, “Police Run Amuck: Executive Mandate No. 3,” Black Panther, March 16, 1968.

13. Hilliard, Huey, 128; Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver, 9–11, 84.

14. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver, 74–75.

15. Ibid., 78.

16. Ibid., 71.

17. Hilliard, Huey, 129.

18. “Political Education, 21 March 1971”; Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 183; Hilliard, Huey, 131–32.

19. “Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 28 March.”

20. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver, 86; Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 187; Hilliard, Huey, 134.

21. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver, 89–93.

22. Robert Scheer, introduction to Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver, xxi.

23. Eldridge Cleaver, “Pronunciamento,” Black Panther, December 21, 1968; Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver, 117, 165.

24. Eldridge Cleaver to Bobby Seale, July 14, 1982 [unsent], Cleaver Papers, carton 3, folder 11; Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba”; Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 137.

25. Kathleen Cleaver, ed., Target Zero: Eldridge Cleaver, a Life in Writing (New York, 2006), 195.

26. Information on the Scheer-Cuba connection comes from Kathleen Cleaver, interview by Sean L. Malloy, March 13, 2014.

27. “Eldridge Cleaver Interview,” November 9, 1977, Fresno to Waco Texas [telephone], Cleaver Papers, carton 9, folder 37; Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 107.

28. Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 242, 245.

29. Chen Jian, Mao’s China & the Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC, 2001), 78–84; Westad, The Global Cold War, 158–62; Max Elbaum, Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao and Che (New York, 2002), 45–53; Reitan, The Rise and Decline of an Alliance, 124.

30. Reitan, The Rise and Decline of an Alliance; Reitan, “Cuba, the Black Panther Party, and the U.S. Black Movement in the 1960s,” in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, eds., Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party, 164–74.

31. Williams quoted in Frazier, The East Is Black, 141.

32. Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution, 69.

33. Cleaver to Axelrod, January 4, 1966, Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 4.

34. Reitan, “Cuba, the Black Panther Party, and the U.S. Black Movement in the 1960s,” 164–74; Reitan, Rise and Decline of an Alliance, 25–28. Carlos Moore offers a somewhat different take on internal Cuban politics in this period, but he agrees with Reitan that by 1968 Cuba had become highly dependent on the Soviet Union and increasingly conservative in its approach to supporting foreign revolutionary movements. Carlos Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa (Los Angeles, 1988), 271.

35. Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba;” Reitan, Rise and Decline of an Alliance, 65.

36. Kathleen Cleaver interview.

37. Mark Q. Sawyer, Racial Politics in Post-Revolutionary Cuba (New York, 2006), xvi–xviii; Alejandro de la Fuente, A Nation for All: Race, Inequality, and Politics in Twentieth-Century Cuba (Chapel Hill, NC, 2001), 99–171.

38. Esteban Morales Domínguez, Race in Cuba: Essays on the Revolution and Racial Inequality (New York, 2013), 61; Sawyer, Racial Politics in Post-Revolutionary Cuba, 53–57; Fuente, A Nation for All, 260–79.

39. Frazier, The East Is Black, 141–42.

40. Sawyer, Racial Politics in Post-Revolutionary Cuba, 30, 55

41. Ibid., 7; Fuente, A Nation for All, 279–84.

42. Frazier, The East Is Black, 143.

43. Fuente, A Nation for All, 279; Morales Domínguez, Race in Cuba, 21–22, 138–39; Sawyer, Racial Politics in Post-Revolutionary Cuba, 59–60.

44. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 259; Sawyer, 66–67.

45. “Cubans Support Movement,” Black Panther, October 19, 1968.

46. Sawyer, Racial Politics in Post-Revolutionary Cuba, 50; Fuente, A Nation for All, 296–302.

47. Cleaver, “Slow Boat to Cuba”; Cleaver, Target Zero, 242–43.

48. Jennifer Van Vleck, Empire of the Air: Aviation and American Ascendency (Cambridge, MA, 2013), 275. The “skyjacking epidemic” of the late 1960s and early 1970s remains an understudied topic within the academic literature (outside of some dubious psychological and sociological studies of the hijackers published in the 1970s). One recent exception is Teishan A. Latner, “Take Me to Havana! Airline Hijacking, U.S.-Cuba Relations, and Political Protect in Late Sixties’ America,” Diplomatic History 39, no. 1 (January 2015), 16–44. Also see Chamberlin, The Global Offensive, for the non-Cuban context of this phenomenon.

49. Latner, “Take Me to Havana!,” 17, 27, 30.

50. Fenton Wheeler, “Black Panthers Called Disenchanted with Cuba,” Washington Post, June 26, 1969; “ ‘Black Panther’ in Cuba Is Called an FBI Agent by Party Chief,” Washington Post, June 28, 1969.

51. Lockwood, Conversations with Eldridge Cleaver: Algiers, 21; Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 244–47; Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 221–22; Ahmad Maceo Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Islam (Astoria, NY, 2006), 12.

52. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 143; Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 248; Sawyer, Racial Politics in Post-
Revolutionary Cuba 94; Latner, “Take Me to Havana!,” 32.

53. Kathleen Rout, Eldridge Cleaver (Boston, 1991), 107, 108–11. Kathleen Cleaver offered an alternative explanation for how the AP reporter found Cleaver, theorizing that the meeting was covertly set up by the Cuban government so that they claim that the exiled Panther had violated the agreement not to publicize his presence, thus giving the Cubans an excuse to eject him from the country. Kathleen Cleaver interview.

54. Eldridge Cleaver, “A Note to My Friends,” Ramparts, September 1969, 29.

55. Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 251; Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 226.

56. John P. Entelis, Algeria: The Revolution Institutionalized (Boulder, CO, 1986), 189; Matthew Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post–Cold War Era (New York, 2002), 280; Jeffrey James Byrne, Mecca of Revolution: Algeria, Decolonization and the Third World Order (New York, 2016).

57. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 218; Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution, 181; Piero Gleijeses, Conflict Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002), 134.

58. Samir Meghelli, “From Harlem to Algiers: Transnational Solidarities between the African American Freedom Movement and Algeria, 1962–1978,” in Black Routes to Islam (New York, 2009), ed. Manning Marable and Hishaam D. Aidi, 113–14; Gleijeses, Conflict Missions, 134; Entelis, Algeria, 115–17.

59. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 227.

60. Ibid., 119, 211–12; Rout, Eldridge Cleaver, 112–13.

61. Eric Pace, “Cleaver Assails Apollo Program,” New York Times, July 21, 1969. For further BPP critique of the moon mission, see W. H. Sherman, “Astro Pigs on the Moon,” Black Panther, July 26, 1969; Deputy Minister of Information, Des Moines Black Panther Party, “The Moon Belongs to the People,” Black Panther, August 9, 1969.

62. Meghelli, “From Harlem to Algiers,” 108; Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 213.

63. Eric Pace, “Cleaver Is Cheered in Algiers as He Denounces Israel as American Puppet,” New York Times, July 23, 1969.

64. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 213.

65. Del Hood, “Black Panther Candidate: Here’s How He Stands,” Daily Californian (El Cajon), July 30, 1968; Cleaver to Paul Jacobs, August 13, 1966, Cleaver Papers, box 3, folder 20.

66. Alex Lubin, Geographies of Liberation: The Making of an Afro-Arab Political Imaginary (Chapel Hill, NC, 2014), 26.

67. Ibid., 116–19; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA, 1981), 267–69.

68. “Eldridge Cleaver Interview,” November 9, 1977, Cleaver Papers, carton 9, folder 37; Paul Thomas Chamberlin, The Global Offensive: The United States, The Palestine Liberation Organization, and the Making of the Post-Cold War Order (New York, 2012), 52–53.

69. Chamberlin, The Global Offensive, 62, 111, 130.

70. Cleaver, “Statement in Support of Palestinians,” September 18, 1970, Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 9. See also “Al Fatah Speaks” and “Al Fatah Freedom Fighters,” Black Panther, August 9, 1969; “Fifth Anniversary of Fat’h,” Black Panther, February 7, 1970.

71. Donald Cox, “Statement of Black Panther Party to Palestinian Student Conference,” Kuwait, February 13–17, 1971, Donald L. Cox FBI file, 1334053-0 Section 3.

72. “Black Panther Discussion with African and Haitian Liberation Fighters,” Black Panther, August 23, 1969; Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther, directed by William Klein (1970; Arte Éditions, 2010).

73. Eldridge Cleaver, “Somewhere in the Third World,” Black Panther, July 12, 1969.

74. Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther.

75. “Black Panther Discussion with African and Haitian Liberation Fighters.”

76. Lockwood, Conversations with Eldridge Cleaver: Algeria, 95, 118.

77. Nathan Hare, “Algiers, 1969: A Report on the Pan-African Cultural Festival,” Black Scholar, November 1969, 2–10. For a defense of the cultural approach to revolution, see Sékou Touré, “A Dialectical Approach to Culture,” Black Scholar, November 1969, 11–26.

78. Eldridge Cleaver, “Open Letter to Stokely Carmichael,” Black Panther, August 16, 1969; Joseph, Stokely, 280–81; Eric Pace, “Carmichael Tells of Meeting Cleaver in Algiers,” New York Times, July 25, 1969.

79. “Black Panther Discussion with African and Haitian Liberation Fighters.” Also see Cleaver’s comments on “negritude and cultural nationalism [as] stumbling blocks to the people’s liberation struggles rather than assistances” in “Eldridge Cleaver Discusses Revolution: An Interview from Exile,” Black Panther, October 11, 1969.

80. “Black Panther Discussion with African and Haitian Liberation Fighters.”

81. On the shift toward “survival programs” and “survival pending revolution,” see Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 179–98.

82. Sanche de Gramont, “Our Other Man in Algeria,” New York Times Magazine, November 1, 
1970, 113.

83. Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther; Eldridge Cleaver, “On Meeting the Needs of the People,” Ramparts, September 1969, 34. On his private reservations about survival programs, see “Slow Boat to Cuba,” 24.

84. “Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 28 March.”

85. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 221–22; Byron Booth, “Beyond the Demarcation Line,” Black Panther, October 25, 1969, 16–17.

86. Cleaver, “A Note to My Friends,” 30.

87. Joseph, Stokely, 277.

88. Frazier, The East Is Black; Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,” 6–41; Wu, Radicals on the Road; Fred Ho and Bill V. Mullen, eds., Afro-Asia: Revolutionary and Cultural Connections between Asian Americans and African Americans (Durham, NC, 2008).

89. Wu, Radicals on the Road, 7.

90. Eldridge Cleaver, “Neither the People Inside Nor Outside the U.S.A. Will Tolerate Bobby Seale Being Condemned to Death,” Black Panther, December 14, 1970.

91. Kathleen Cleaver interview.

92. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 221.

93. Charles K. Armstrong, Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992 (Ithaca, NY, 2013), 116, 139.

94. Ibid., 106, 144–45; Benjamin R. Young, “Juche in the United States: The Black Panther Party’s Relations with North Korea, 1969–1971,” Asia Pacific Journal 13, no. 2 (March 30, 2015), http://apjjf.org/2015/13/12/Benjamin-Young/4303.html.

95. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 221.

96. Eldridge Cleaver, notebook (white cover), “International Conference of Journalists of the Whole World in the Fight against U.S. Imperialist Aggression,” September 1969, Cleaver Papers, carton 4, folder 6.

97. Eldridge Cleaver, notebook (blue cover), Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 8.

98. Booth, “Beyond the Demarcation Line,” 16.

99. Ibid.; Eldridge Cleaver, “We Have Found It Here in Korea,” Black Panther, November 1, 1969.

100. “Report of Eldridge Cleaver,” n.d., Eldridge Cleaver FBI File #100-HQ-447251, Section 17. This report, along with one by Byron Booth, was apparently seized from the Los Angeles office of the BPP during a police raid on December 8, 1969. While I have generally avoided citing FBI documents on the Panthers due to the well-known disinformation campaign waged by the bureau against the Panthers as part of COINTELPRO, the contents of these reports match closely both the private and public accounts of Cleaver and Booth, and I therefore take them to be genuine.

101. Cleaver, notebook (blue cover). For Cleaver’s detailed strategy for guerrilla warfare, see the section on “Armed Struggled in Babylon” in “Eldridge Cleaver’s Notes on Korea, 28 October, 1969,” Wilson Center Digital Archive, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/114563.

102. “Report of Eldridge Cleaver.”

103. “Kim Il Sung on the Question of Firmly Establishing ‘Juche’ and Thoroughly Implementing the Mass Line,” Black Panther, January 17, 1970.

104. “John McGrath Interviews Eldridge Cleaver,” Black Panther, April 11, 1970.

105. “Report of [Byron Booth],” Eldridge Cleaver FBI File #100-HQ-447251, Section 17.

106. Eldridge Cleaver, “Witch Hour in Babylon” (fragments), n.d., Cleaver Papers, carton 4, folder 11.

107. “Manifesto from the Land of Fire and Blood: Introduction by Minister of Information Black Panther Party Eldridge Cleaver,” Black Panther, March 15, 1970, special supplement; “Eldridge Cleaver, “Solidarity of the Peoples until Victory or Death!” Black Panther, October 25, 1969; “Peoples Republic of Korea,” Black Panther, October 4, 1969; “Kim Il Sung on the Question of Firmly Establishing ‘Juche’ and Thoroughly Implement[ing] the Mass Line,” Black Panther, January 17, 197; Judi Douglas, “Black People Must Incorporate the Idea of ‘Juche,’ ” Black Panther, January 24, 1970; “Juche,” Black Panther, January 31, 1970; “Birthday Greetings to Kim Il Sung,” Black Panther, April 18, 1970; Kim Il Sung, “On Further Consolidating and Developing the Socialist System in the People’s Republic of Korea,” Black Panther, December 6, 1970.

108. “Telegram from Comrade Kim Il Sung,” Black Panther, January 24, 1970; Young, “Juche in the United States.”

109. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 226.

110. Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther.

111. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 221, 222–23; Rout, Eldridge Cleaver, 112–13; Cleaver notebook (white cover).

112. Westad, The Global Cold War, 96–97, 190.

113. Lien-Hang T. Nguyen, Hanoi’s War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam (Chapel Hill, NC, 2012), 130, 148, 154, 158, 187–88.

114. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 144; Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 253.

115. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 232.

116. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 149–50; Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 230.

117. “Panther Political Prisoners for U.S. Prisoners of War,” Black Panther, November 22, 1969.

118. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 144; Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 253, 256; Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 223–24, 232; Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 247.

119. On tensions with US and its feud with the BPP, see Scot Brown, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York, 2003).

120. “Eldridge Cleaver’s Notes on Korea, 28 October, 1969.”

121. Eldridge Cleaver, On the Ideology of the Black Panther Party (San Francisco, CA, 1970), 1, 2.

122. David Hilliard, “What You Are Speaks So Loud I Hardly Hear Anything You Say,” Black Panther, November 8, 1969.

Chapter 6. “Gangster Cigarettes” and “Revolutionary ­Intercommunalism”

1. Dave Monsees and Pat O’Brien, “Huey P. Newton’s Release from Prison,” KPIX News, San Francisco, CA, August 5, 1970, San Francisco Bay Area Television Archive, https://diva.sfsu.edu/collections/sfbatv/bundles/208428.

2. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 235.

3. On the groups outside the United States inspired by the BPP, see Michael L. Clemons and Charles E. Jones, “Global Solidarity: The Black Panther Party in the International Arena,” in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, eds., Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party, 23–26; Slate, ed., Black Power beyond Borders.

4. Erik H. Erikson and Huey P. Newton, In Search of Common Ground: Conversations with Erik H. Erikson and Huey P. Newton (New York, 1973), 31–32, 34–35.

5. See, for example, the accounts of the Kissinger-Rogers rivalry with respect to policy in Vietnam and the Middle East in Chamberlin, The Global Offensive, 85–86; Nguyen, Hanoi’s War, 133–34, 136, 145–46.

6. The delegation included Cleaver and Elaine Brown (representing the BPP), Robert Scheer and Jan Austen (Ramparts), Pat Sumi (Movement for a Democratic Military), Alex Hing (Red Guards), Andy Truskier (Peace and Freedom Party), Ann Froines (women’s liberation movement and New Haven Defense Committee for the BPP), Randy Rappaport and Janet Kranzberg (New York Newsreel), and Regina Blumenfeld (women’s liberation movement). “U.S. People’s Anti-Imperialist Delegation,” Cleaver Papers, carton 4, folder 6. The best account of the delegation’s travels is Wu, Radicals on the Road, 107–92.

7. Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 228.

8. Nikhil Pal Singh, “The Black Panthers and the ‘Undeveloped Country’ of the Left,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 83.

9. “Message from Anti-Imperialist Delegation of American People while Still Enroute to D.P.R.K.,” Black Panther, August 8, 1970.

10. In addition to extensive coverage in Black Panther during August–October 1970, see “Cleaver and Black Panther Group Attend Hanoi Observance,” New York Times, August 19, 1970; “Cleaver’s Arrival in Hanoi Reported,” Sarasota Herald-Tribune, August 16, 1970; “Cleaver Denounces Agnew’s Asian Tour,” New York Times, August 25, 1970; “Cleaver Pledges Fight against U.S. ‘Fascism,’ ” [Baltimore] Sun, August 13, 1970; Jack Anderson, “Justice Department Uses Kid Gloves,” Fresno Bee, October 15, 1970; Victor Riesel, “Black Panthers Are International,” Rome [Georgia] News-Tribune, September 18, 1970; “Cleaver Meets with Hanoi’s Premier,” Chicago Tribune, September 5, 1970; “Black Panthers Open Office in Algiers,” New York Times, September 14, 1970. The CIA monitored Cleaver’s broadcast from North Vietnam, and a transcript was included in a series of documents obtained by the author via the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). On U.S. government interest in the delegation, see Rafalko, MH/CHAOS, 116–19.

11. “An Interview with Elaine Brown, Deputy Minister of Information Black Panther Party,” Black Panther, October 3, 1970, special supplement; Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 234.

12. “Statement to Anti-Imperialist Delegation Delivered July 15, 1970 by Comrade Krang Ryang Unk,” Black Panther, October 10, 1970.

13. “Anti-Imperialist Delegation of American People Here,” Black Panther, August 8, 1970; Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 148; Anti-Imperialist Delegation of American People Here; Wu, Radicals on the Road, 144.

14. “Statement by Eldridge Cleaver to GI’s in South Viet Nam,” Black Panther, September 26, 1970.

15. Wu, Radicals on the Road, 146. On war weariness and morale in the North Vietnam, see Nguyen, Hanoi’s War, 154, 157.

16. Elaine Brown, “Anti-Imperialist Delegation—1970,” Huey P. Newton Foundation Records, Stanford University Manuscripts Division, Stanford University, Stanford, California (hereafter Newton Papers), series 2, box 4, folder 17.

17. Wu, Radicals on the Road, 166–69, 174.

18. Cleaver, Eldridge Cleaver: Post-Prison Writings and Speeches, 143.

19. Wu, Radicals on the Road, 108.

20. Lien-Hang Nguyen, “Revolutionary Circuits: Towards Internationalzing America in the World,” Diplomatic History 39, no. 3 (2015): 414; “Meeting with members of the central committee of the Vietnamese Women’s Union, 8/22/70,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 1; Wu, Radicals on the Road, 139.

21. “Elaine Brown and Andrew Truskier, Members of the U.S. People’s Anti-Imperialist Delegation Speak before a War Crimes Tribunal at the University of California,” Black Panther, December 14, 1970.

22. Wu, Radicals on the Road, 4.

23. “An Interview with Elaine Brown.”

24. Wu, Radicals on the Road, 136–62.

25. Sanche de Gramont, “Our Other Man in Algeria,” New York Times Magazine, November 1, 1970, 228; Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 230; “An Interview with Elaine Brown.”

26. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 235, 250; Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 220.

27. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” 231.

28. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 150–53; “Second Meeting with C. Salah, Wednesday am 16 August 1972,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 40; Eldridge Cleaver to Cetewayo Tabor, September 24, 1972, Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 40; Charlotte O’Neal, interview with Sean L. Malloy, September 23, 2014.

29. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 150.

30. “Eldridge Cleaver—Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 26 March [1971],” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 19.

31. David Rosenzweig, “Ex-Panther Says He Saw Cleaver Kill a Man,” Los Angeles Times, February 24, 2001; Elaine Brown, “Free Kathleen Cleaver,” Black Panther, March 6, 1971; Rafalko, MH/CHAOS, 115–16; “Black Panther Party Factionalism,” March 5, 1971, Eldridge Cleaver FBI File #100-HQ-447251, Section 20.

32. Kathleen Cleaver, “Reply to Article ‘Free Kathleen,’ ” Right On! Black Community News Service, April 3, 1971; Kathleen Cleaver to Eldridge Cleaver, “Re: Letter from T. B.,” August 23, 1969, Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 27.

33. Timothy Leary, Flashbacks: An Autobiography (New York, 1983), 301–10.

34. “Transcript of Telephone Conversation, Eldridge Cleaver with Radio KFRC, San Francisco, 2 February 1971,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 22; “Interview between Curtice Taylor and Eldridge Cleaver,” n.d. [circa 1974], Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 23; Leary, Flashbacks, 301–6; Robert Greenfield, Timothy Leary: A Biography (Orlando, FL, 2006), 395–98, 401–21.

35. Huey P. Newton, “To the Courageous Revolutionaries of the National Liberation Front and Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam We Send Greetings,” Black Panther, January 9, 1971; Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 314.

36. Huey Newton, “Repression Breeds Resistance,” Black Panther, January 26, 1971.

37. George Jackson, Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson (New York, 1970), 167.

38. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 364–65, 374–75.

39. Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 224.

40. On the NCCF, see Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 301–2; Alkebulan, Survival pending Revolution, 47–48.

41. “Situation Information Report,” September 10, 1970,” CIA files acquired under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) and in possession of the author.

42. “Huey P. Newton’s Address at Boston College, November 18, 1970,” Black Panther, January 23, 1971, special supplement. The first apparent public mention of intercommunalism came at the Revolutionary People’s Convention in Philadelphia on September 4–5, 1970, during which he called for “proportional representation in an inter-communalist framework.” Huey P. Newton, “Towards a New Constitution,” Black Panther, November 28, 1970.

43. Erikson and Newton, In Search of Common Ground, 30.

44. “Huey P. Newton’s Address at Boston College.”

45. Erikson and Newton, In Search of Common Ground, 30.

46. “Huey P. Newton’s Address at Boston College.”

47. Erikson and Newton, In Search of Common Ground, 31–32.

48. Ibid., 31.

49. Ibid., 31–32.

50. Ibid., 140.

51. Ibid., 35.

52. “Statement by Huey P. Newton, Minister of Defense of the Black Panther Party, Supreme Servant of the People at the Chicago, Illinois Coliseum, February 21, 1971,” Black Panther, April 10, 1971.

53. Huey P. Newton, “On the Defection of Eldridge Cleaver from the Black Panther Party and the Defection of the Black Panther Party from the Black Community,” Black Panther, April 17, 1971, special supplement.

54. See, for example, Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,” 26; Jeffries, Huey P. Newton, 78; Lubin, Geographies of Liberation, 111–41.

55. “Huey P. Newton’s Address at Boston College.”

56. On the evolution of the party’s “survival programs,” see Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 179–98.

57. “Statement by Huey P. Newton . . . at the Chicago, Illinois Coliseum.”

58. “Huey P. Newton’s Address at Boston College.”

59. Shakur, Assata, 226.

60. David Hilliard recalled, “Huey’s great in small sessions, enthusiastic, intense, funny. But before large groups he freezes; his voice gets high—the soprano that used to be a cause of fights back in school—and his style stiffens; he sounds academic, goes on incessantly, and becomes increasingly abstract, spinning out one dialectical contradiction after another. Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 302.

61. Shakur, Assata, 226.

62. Abu-Jamal, We Want Freedom, 74.

63. Erikson and Newton, In Search of Common Ground, 38.

64. Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, 319; Robyn Spencer, “Merely One Link in the Worldwide Revolution: Internationalism, State Repression, and the Black Panther Party,” in West, Martin, and Wilkins, eds., From Toussaint to Tupac, 224; Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left, 152; Alkebulan, Survival pending Revolution, 23.

65. “A Letter from Huey to the Revolutionary Brothers and Sisters about the Women’s Liberation and Gay Liberation Movements,” Black Panther, August 21, 1970.

66. “Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 28 March,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 19.

67. Eldridge Cleaver, “Neither the People Inside Nor Outside the U.S.A. Will Tolerate Bobby Seale Being Condemned to Death,” Black Panther, December 14, 1970.

68. Kathleen Cleaver interview.

69. United States Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports, book 3, 201; Rafalko, MH/CHAOS, 101–23; Ward Churchill and Jim Vander Wall, The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI’s Secret Wars against Dissent in the United States (Cambridge, MA, 2002), 150–59. A selection of declassified COINTELPRO documents detailing the FBI’s efforts to exploit the tensions between Newton and Cleaver can be found in the Cleaver Papers, carton 24, folder 1.

70. “SAC, San Francisco (157–601) to Director, FBI, 2/25/71,” Cleaver Papers, carton 24, folder 1.

71. Charlotte O’Neal interview; Supplementary Detailed Staff, book 3, 206.

72. Eldridge Cleaver to Huey P. Newton, December 20, 1970, Newton Papers, series 2, box 11, folder 10.

73. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 342–46.

74. Gaidi Faraj, “Unearthing the Underground: A Study of Radical Activism in the Black Panther Party and the Black Liberation Army,” PhD thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 2007, 144–45; “Free Geronimo—The Urban Guerrilla: Part I,” Right On! Black Community News Service, April 3, 1971.

75. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 356–62; “An Open Letter to the People from ‘Bobby Hutton,’ ” Right On! Black Community News Service, April 3, 1971.

76. Eldridge Cleaver, “On the Weathermen,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 10. On the Weather Underground’s connection to Cleaver, see also Bernadine Dorn et al. to Eldridge Cleaver et al., December 6, 1970, Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 48.

77. Donald B. Thackrey, “Panther Leader[s] ‘Disagree’ on TV,” Afro-American, March 6, 1971.

78. Newton, “On the Defection of Eldridge Cleaver.”

79. A transcript of the Cleaver-Newton telephone conversation, which was recorded in Algiers, was reprinted in “On the Contradictions within the Black Panther Party,” Right On! Black Community News, April 3, 1971. Also see Hilliard, Huey, 151.

80. These letters were enclosed in Elaine Brown to Martin Kenner, Committee to Defend the Panthers, March 20, 1971, Newton Papers, series 2, box 11, folder 10.

81. Washington, All Power to the People, 39.

82. “On the Assassination of Deputy Field Marshall Robert Webb,” Right On! Black Community News Service, April 2, 1971; Huey P. Newton, “Eulogy for Samuel Napier,” Black Panther, May 1, 1971; Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 362–64.

83. Washington, All Power to the People, 40.

84. Flores Alexander Forbes, Will You Die with Me? My Life in the Black Panther Party (New York: Washington Square Press, 2006), 56.

85. Mumia Abu-Jamal, Live from Death Row (New York, 1995), 153.

86. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 373.

87. Abu-Jamal, We Want Freedom, 233–36.

88. “On the Contradictions within the Black Panther Party,” 9.

Chapter 7. “Cosmopolitan Guerrillas”

1. Right On! Black Community News, April 3, 1971.

2. “Eldridge Cleaver—Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 26 March [1971],” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 19.

3. Elaine Brown to Martin Kenner, Committee to Defend the Panthers, March 20, 1971, Newton Papers, series 2, box 11, folder 10; “Intercommunal Section Defects,” Black Panther, March 20, 1971.

4. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 239.

5. “Eldridge Cleaver—Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 26 March [1971].”

6. Untitled manuscripts, Algiers, n.d. [circa 1972], Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 36.

7. “Freeman Forum—Transcript of [Eldridge Cleaver] Interview,” n.d. [circa 1981], Cleaver Papers, carton 13, folder 70.

8. “Interview between [Curtice] Taylor and [Eldridge] Cleaver,” n.d. [circa 1974], Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 23.

9. Suri, Power and Protest.

10. “Memorandum of Conversation, Beijing, October 24, 1971, 9:23–11:20 p.m.,” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, volume E-13, Documents on China, 1969–1972, document 52, U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve13/d52.

11. “Eldridge Cleaver Interview, November 9, 1977, Fresno to Waco Texas,” Cleaver Papers, carton 9, folder 37.

12. Eldridge Cleaver, “Greetings to the Black GI’s,” Voice of the Lumpen 1, no. 7 (1971): 20.

13. Eldridge Cleaver, “Towards a People’s Army,” Babylon, n.d. [circa 1971], 17, Cleaver Papers, oversize box 2.

14. Charles K. Armstrong, Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992 (Ithaca, NY, 2013), 158, 168–69, 175.

15. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 244.

16. Nguyen, Hanoi’s War, 261, 300–301.

17. “Freeman Forum—Transcript of [Eldridge Cleaver] Interview.”

18. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 240–42.

19. Eldridge Cleaver, “On the Private Abuse of Public Power,” Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 19.

20. Ernest Ndalla, “Message to Afro-Americans,” Message to the Afro-American People from the Peoples’ Republic of Congo (May 1971), 6, Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 5. On the filmmaking process, see “Participations diverses de Chris Marker à des films d’autres réalisateurs,” Chris Marker, http://chrismarker.ch/participation/index.html#bv000125.

21. Cleaver, “On the Private Abuse of Public Power.”

22. Eldridge Cleaver, “After Brother Malcolm,” Message to the Afro-American People from the Peoples’ Republic of Congo, 9–10, Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 5.

23. Eldridge Cleaver, “Afro-America and the Congo,” Message to the Afro-American People from the Peoples’ Republic of Congo, 20, Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 5.

24. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 242.

25. Huey P. Newton to Marien N’Gouabi, President of the People’s Republic of Congo-
Brazzaville, November 15, 1971, Newton Papers, series 2, box 7, folder 3.

26. Eldridge Cleaver, “Hidden Cancer,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 17.

27. “What Is the Revolutionary Peoples Communications Network,” September 13, 1971, Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 51.

28. “Kathleen Cleaver press conference, October 21, 1971,” Eldridge Cleaver FBI File #100-HQ-447251, Section 22.

29. Contributor information comes from Babylon, n.d, Cleaver Papers, oversize box 2.

30. “Who the ‘Voice of the Lumpen’ Are,” Voice of the Lumpen 1, no. 2 (1971): 6; Martin Klimke, The Other Alliance, 124

31. Höhn and Klimke, A Breath of Freedom, 148–49; Maria Höhn, “The Black Panther Solidarity Committee and the Voice of the Lumpen,” German Studies Review 31, no. 1 (February 2008: 138.

32. Höhn, “The Black Panther Solidarity Committee and the Voice of the Lumpen,” 133, 137–38.

33. Cleaver, “Greetings to the Black GIs,” 19; “On the Prison Rebellions in Babylon,” Information Bulletin [Revolutionary People’s Communications Network] 1, no. 1.

34. Höhn and Klimke, A Breath of Freedom, 152.

35. Klimke, The Other Alliance, 126.

36. “Black GI Released from West German Prison to International Section Black Panther Party Algiers,” Voice of the Lumpen 1, no. 8 (October 1971): 12. Jackson was convicted and sentenced to six years in prison. Klimke, The Other Alliance, 123.

37. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 243.

38. “The Kidnapping of Kathleen Cleaver,” Voice of the Lumpen 1, no. 1 (1971): 2; Klimke, The Other Alliance, 124.

39. Kathleen Cleaver, “Daily Report, 12 March 1971,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 46; Charlotte O’Neal interview.

40. “Participations diverses de Chris Marker à des films d’autres réalisateurs.”

41. Donald Cox, “The Split in the Party, in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, eds., Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party, 119.

42. Babylon, n.d., Cleaver Papers, oversize box 2.

43. Eldridge Cleaver, “On the Contradictions between the Outlaws and the Inlaws, between the Oldlaws and the Newlaws,” Cleaver Papers, carton 4, folder 10.

44. Eldridge Cleaver, “Towards a People’s Army.”

45. “What Is the Revolutionary Peoples Communications Network.”

46. André Moncourt and J. Smith, eds., The Red Army Faction: A Documentary History, vol. 1, Projectiles for the People (Oakland, CA, 2009), 44.

47. Ibid., 48; Jeremy Varon, Bringing the War Home: The Weather Underground, the Red Army Faction, and Revolutionary Violence in the Sixties and Seventies (Berkeley, CA, 2004), 20, 41–42, 63–66.

48. Stefan Aust with Anthea Bell, trans., Baader-Meinhof: The Inside Story of the RAF (New York, 2008), 66–75.

49. Ibid., 82.

50. Klimke, The Other Alliance, 132; Varon, Bringing the War Home, 209–11.

51. Kathleen Cleaver interview; Klimke, The Other Alliance, 127.

52. Moncourt and Smith, Projectiles for the People, 81.

53. Höhn and Klimke, A Breath of Freedom, 118.

54. Moncourt and Smith, Projectiles for the People, 82; Varon, Bringing the War Home, 206.

55. Moncourt and Smith, Projectiles for the People, 105; Klimke, The Other Alliance, 124

56. Klimke, The Other Alliance, 127.

57. Moncourt and Smith, Projectiles for the People, 105.

58. Varon, Bringing the War Home, 254–89.

59. Chamberlin, The Global Offensive, 149–50.

60. On Black September’s “external operations,” see ibid., 161–67, 185–93; John K. Cooley, Green March, Black September: The Story of the Palestinian Arabs (London, 1973).

61. Moncourt and Smith, Projectiles for the People, 205–36.

62. Chamberlin, The Global Offensive, 3.

63. Cleaver, “Statement in Support of Palestinians,” September 18, 1970, carton 5, folder 9.

64. Cleaver, untitled manuscripts, Algiers, n.d. [circa 1970–71], Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 26.

65. Ibid.

66. Chamberlin, The Global Offensive, 172, 176, 192.

67. Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual, 397.

68. Cleaver, “Towards a People’s Army,” 17.

69. Kelley and Esch, “Black Like Mao,” 20.

70. Cleaver, “Towards a People’s Army,” 17. Emphasis in original.

71. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 243.

72. Ibid., 245; Brenden I. Koerner, The Skies Belong to Us: Love and Terror in the Golden Age of Hijacking (New York, 2013), 164–68.

73. “National Intelligence Estimate 62–71, July 31, 1971,” in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, volume E-5, part 2, Documents on North Africa, 1969–1972, document 27, U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve05p2/d27; Samir Meghelli, “From Harlem to Algiers: Transnational Solidarities between the African American Freedom Movement and Algeria, 1962–1978, in Black Routes to Islam (New York, 2009), ed. Manning Marable and Hishaam D. Aidi, 114.

74. Koerner, The Skies Belong to Us, 174–76, 180–83.

75. Kathleen Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 228; Kathleen Cleaver, “El Bair, 12:30 PM Dec 22 1971,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 46.

76. Leary, Flashbacks, 303.

77. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 246.

78. Ibid.

79. Ibid., 247–48; Koerner, The Skies Belong to Us, 194.

80. Cleaver, Soul on Fire, 150.

81. “Memorandum of Conversation, July 31, 1972,” in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, volume E-5, Part 2, Documents on North Africa, 1969–1972, document 33, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve05p2/d33.

82. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 246.

83. Ibid., 247.

84. Ibid., 249; Kathleen Cleaver interview; Charlotte O’Neal interview.

85. “Second Meeting with C. [sic] Salah, Wednesday am 16 August 1972,” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 40.

86. “Telegram 188030 from the Department of State to the Mission to the United Nations and the Interests Section in Algeria, October 14, 1972, “1933Z, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, volume E-5, Part 2, Documents on North Africa, 1969–1972, document 34, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve05p2/d34.

87. “Situation Information Report,” September 5, 1972,” CIA files obtained by the author through FOIA.

88. Cleaver, “Back to Africa,” in Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 250; James C. McKinley, Jr., “A Black Panther’s Mellow Exile: Farming in Africa,” New York Times, November 23, 1997; Gaidi Faraj, “Unearthing the Underground,” 215–20.

89. Charlotte O’Neal interview; Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 258–59; Larry Mack and Sekou Odinga to the Black Panther Party Coordinating Committee, September 18, 1972, Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 40.

90. Martin Luther King, Jr., “Beyond Vietnam: Address Delivered to the Clergy and Laymen Concerned about Vietnam at Riverside Church, April 4, 1967,” in A Call to Conscience: The Landmark Speeches of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University, http://kingencyclopedia.stanford.edu/kingweb/publications/speeches/Beyond_Vietnam.pdf.

91. “Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 28 March [1971],” Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 12.

92. Cleaver, “Towards a People’s Army.”

93. Charlotte O’Neal interview.

94. “Eldridge Cleaver—Transcript of Tape Recorder Notes, 26 March [1971].”

95. On Denise Oliver, see Johanna Fernández, “Denise Oliver and the Young Lords Party: Stretching the Political Boundaries of Struggle,” in Gore, Theoharis, and Woodard, eds., Want to Start a Revolution?, 271–93. On Connie Matthews, see Robyn Spencer, “Merely One Link in the Worldwide Revolution: Internationalism, State Repression, and the Black Panther Party,” in West, Martin, and Wilkins, From Toussaint to Tupac: The Black International since the Age of Revolution, 220. For internal critiques of gender politics within the movement from the RPCN, see Donald Cox, “The Man Question,” Voice of the Lumpen 2, no. 3 (April 1972): 7; Denise Oliver, “To Our Brothers in Jail from the Sisters,” Voice of the Lumpen 2, no. 3 (April 1972): 8–9.

96. Kathleen Cleaver, “El Bair, 12:30 PM Dec 22 1971.” Charlotte O’Neal offered a differing viewpoint, declaring, “I never had a problem with Eldridge. Some people might have, but I never did. He was a good brother. Very respectful.” Charlotte O’Neal interview.

Chapter 8. The Panthers in Winter, 1971–1981

1. Central Intelligence Agency, “Situation Information Report,” September 5, 1972, document provided under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) and in possession of the author.

2. Aaron Dixon, My People Are Rising, 257; Forbes, Will You Die with Me?, 6.

3. Newton and Blake, Revolutionary Suicide, 349, 352; Spencer, “Merely One Link in the Worldwide Revolution,” in West, Martin, and Wilkins, eds., From Toussaint to Tupac, 227.

4. “Huey P. Newton, Servant of the People, Returns from the People’s Republic of China,” Black Panther, October 16, 1971.

5. Brown, A Taste of Power, 313.

6. Forbes, Will You Die with Me?, 6, 65.

7. Robert Seier, “Has China Betrayed the ‘Revolution’?,” Black Panther, April 15, 1972.

8. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 381.

9. Forbes, Will You Die with Me?, 66.

10. Elaine Brown, “We Can Win on April 15!,” Black Panther, February 15, 1975.

11. Self, American Babylon, 154–55.

12. “We’re Talking about Winning in Oakland’: Sister Elaine Brown Speaks at Grove Street College,” Black Panther, November 9, 1972; “Oakland: An All-American Example,” Newton Papers, series 1, box 50.

13. Dixon, My People Are Rising, 269.

14. Huey P. Newton, “On the Defection of Eldridge Cleaver from the Black Panther Party and the Defection of the Black Panther Party from the Black Community,” Black Panther, April 17, 1971, special supplement.

15. Brown, A Taste of Power, 313.

16. “We’re Talking about Winning in Oakland.”

17. Revised on March 29, 1972, the new program appeared in the pages of the Black Panther for the first time in the June 3, 1972, edition.

18. Forbes, Will You Die with Me?, 6.

19. “Make Your Vote Count on April 17: Elect Two Democrats,” Newton Papers, series 2, box 45, folder 19.

20. “The Seale-Brown 14-Point Program to Rebuild Oakland,” Black Panther, May 12, 1973.

21. “A Multi Ethnic International Trade and Cultural Center,” Black Panther, April 7, 1973.

22. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire¸ 381.

23. On Chavez’s endorsement, see the press release in Newton Papers, series 2, box 45, folder 19.

24. Brown, A Taste of Power, 361–62, 401–16; Dixon, My People Are Rising, 252, 268; Hugh Pearson, Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York, 1995), 274–75.

25. Huey P. Newton to Congressmen Robert N. C. Nix, April 17, 1972, Newton Papers, series 2, box 1, folder 2. Also see Charles B. Rangel to Newton, May 5, 1972, and John Conyers Jr. to Newton, May 1, 1972, both in Newton Papers, series 2, box 1, folder 2.

26. Forbes, Will You Die With Me?, 56, 69.

27. On the Oakland Community School, see Ericka Huggins and Angela D. LeBlanc-Ernest, “Revolutionary Women, Revolutionary Education: The Black Panther Party’s Oakland Community School,” in Gore, Theoharis, and Woodard, eds., Want to Start a Revolution?, 161–84.

28. “Statement by Huey P. Newton, Minister of Defense Black Panther Party, Servant of the People, to the Black Odyssey Festival,” Black Panther, May 29, 1971.

29. Dixon, My People Are Rising, 250.

30. Brown, A Taste of Power, 3, 368–71.

31. Huggins and LeBlanc-Ernest, “Revolutionary Women, Revolutionary Education,” 179.

32. “Why Gay People Should Vote for Bobby Seale and Elaine Brown,” Newton Papers, series 2, box 45, folder 19. Also see Alkebulan, Survival pending Revolution, xv.

33. For a good selection of Douglas’s 1970s artwork on behalf of the party, see Durant, ed., Black Panther, 144–59.

34. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 386.

35. Self, American Babylon, 326.

36. “Introduction by Huey P. Newton, Servant of the People, Black Panther Party,” Black Panther, April 29, 1972.

37. “Progressive Americans, Led by Panthers, Return from China,” Black Panther, April 22, 1972, special supplement.

38. Lubin, Geographies of Liberation, 112; Frazier, The East Is Black, 44.

39. See, for example, the series of letters enclosed along with Elaine Brown to Martin Kenner, Committee to Defend the Panthers, March 20, 1971, Newton Papers, series 2, box 11, folder 10.

40. For an overview of the way in which the internationalism of the BPP influenced other groups, see Slate, ed., Black Power beyond Borders; Lubin, Geographies of Liberation, 130–41.

41. On the evolution of African Liberation Day and the global anti-apartheid struggle, see Brenda Plummer, In Search of Power: African Americans in the Era of Decolonization, 1956–1974 (New York, 2013), 277–78; Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line, 248–64; Donald R. Culverson, “From Cold War to Global Interdependence: The Political Economy of African American Antiapartheid Activism, 1969–1988,” in Plummer, ed., Window on Freedom, 221–38.

42. “African Solidarity Conference Ignores Day to Day Issues,” Black Panther, October 13, 1973.

43. “Interparty Memorandum #32,” April 26, 1973, Newton Papers, series 2, box 4, folder 10.

44. Brown, A Taste of Power, 335; JoNina Albron to Huey P. Newton, November 11, 1978, “Re: OCLC Reception for Namibian Liberation Leader,” Newton Papers, series 2, box 4, folder 11.

45. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 374–76.

46. Romaine Fitzgerald, “Prospects for Intercommunal Warfare,” Black Panther, May 8, 1971.

47. “The Spook Who Sat by the Door: Suicidal!,” Black Panther, November 3, 1973.

48. “Statement by Huey P. Newton, Minister of Defense Black Panther Party, Servant of the People, to the Black Odyssey Festival,” 12.

49. Forbes, Will You Die With Me?, 2, 76, 94, 125; Dixon, My People Are Rising, 250, 257–59.

50. Forbes, Will You Die With Me?, 6.

51. Hilliard, Huey: Spirit of the Panther, 200–201.

52. Forbes, Will You Die With Me?, 94, 109.

53. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 382.

54. Central Intelligence Agency, “Situation Information Report,” September 5, 1972.

55. Hilliard and Cole, The Side of Glory, 339.

56. Forbes, Will You Die With Me?, 93; Dixon, My People Are Rising, 244.

57. Dixon, My People Are Rising, 259.

58. Ibid., 284–85.

59. Faraj, “Unearthing the Underground.” Also see Akinyele Omowale Umoja, “Repression Breeds Resistance: The Black Liberation Army and the Radical Legacy of the Black Panther Party,” in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, eds., Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party, 3–19; Russell Shoats, “Black Fighting Formations: Their Strengths, Weaknesses and Potentialities,” in Cleaver and Katsiaficas, ed., Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party, 128–40.

60. Bryan Burrough, Days of Rage: America’s Radical Underground, the FBI, and the Forgotten Age of Revolutionary Violence (New York, 2015); John Castellucci, The Big Dance: The Untold Story of Kathy Boudin and the Terrorist Family that Committed the Brink’s Robbery Murders (New York, 1986).

61. “Rules of the Black Panther Party,” Black Panther, September 28, 1968.

62. Washington, All Power to the People, 36.

63. Jalil Muntaqim, On the Black Liberation Army (Montreal, 2002), 4.

64. “Bunchy,” Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 52; Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 144.

65. Faraj, “Unearthing the Underground,” 122–24, 143; Jack Olson, Last Man Standing: The Tragedy and Triumph of Geronimo Pratt (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 38.

66. Olson, Last Man Standing, 30–33, 37–39.

67. Ibid., 42, 53; “The Black Panthers: An Interview with Geronimo ji Jaga Pratt, 1992,” in Joy James, ed., The New Abolitionists: (Neo) Slave Narratives and Contemporary Prison Writings (Albany, NY, 2005), 238.

68. Olson, Last Man Standing, 61–62.

69. Ibid., 69; Faraj, “Unearthing the Underground,” 145–47; Abu-Jamal, We Want Freedom, 214. See also the account by Jalil Muntaqim, who dates the creation of a dispersed military wing of the BPP to late 1968 and early 1969. Muntaqim, On the Black Liberation Army, 3.

70. “The Black Panthers: An Interview with Geronimo ji Jaga Pratt, 1992,” 241.

71. Abu-Jamal, We Want Freedom, 214.

72. Ibid., 199.

73. Huey P. Newton, “Pigs Run Amuck: Executive Mandate No. 3,” Black Panther, March 16, 1968.

74. Shakur, Assata, 227.

75. Quoted in Umoja, “Repression Breeds Resistance,” 10.

76. Washington, All Power to the People, 39.

77. Quoted in Burroughs, Days of Rage, 195.

78. Safiya Bukhari, The War Before: The True Life Story of Becoming a Black Panther, Keeping the Faith in Prison and Fighting for Those Left Behind (New York, 2010), 92.

79. Quoted in Burroughs, Days of Rage, 195.

80. Ibid.

81. Kuwasi Balagoon: A Soldier’s Story: Writings by a New Afrikan Anarchist (Montreal, 2003), 69.

82. Ibid., 60, 69.

83. Dhoruba bin Wahad, “COINTELPRO and the Destruction of Black Leaders and Organization,” in Joy James, ed., Imprisoned Intellectuals: America’s Political Prisoners Write on Life, Liberation, and Rebellion (Lanham, MD), 100.

84. Black Liberation Army Coordinating Committee, Message to the Black Movement (Black Liberation Army, 1975), ii.

85. Quoted in Burroughs, Days of Rage, 176.

86. Huey P. Newton, “Functional Definition of Politics,” Black Panther, May 15, 1967.

87. Muntaqim, On the Black Liberation Army, 11.

88. Washington, All Power to the People, 40.

89. Donald Cox, “Criticism of Your Communique of December 20, 1971,” Donald L. Cox FBI file, 1334053-0 Section 4.

90. Quoted in Burroughs, Days of Rage, 538.

91. “ ‘Madmen’ Ambush, Kill Policemen in N.Y. Violence,” Tuscaloosa News, May 22, 1971.

92. Muntaqim, On the Black Liberation Army, 12.

93. Ibid., 14. Writings by former BLA members on the issue of prison reform/abolition can be found in James, ed., Imprisoned Intellectuals and The New Abolitionists. Also see Dhoruba bin Wahad, Mumia Abu-Jamal, and Assata Shakur, Still Black, Still Strong: Survivors of the U.S. War Against Black Revolutionaries (South Pasadena, CA), 1993; Abu-Jamal, Live from Death Row.

94. Mutulu Shakur et al., “Biography of Mutulu Shakur,” in James, ed., Imprisoned Intellectuals, 187.

95. There is little or no scholarly writing on this second incarnation of the BLA and its white allies. For journalistic accounts, see Castellucci, The Big Dance; Burroughs, Days of Rage.

96. Abu-Jamal, Live from Death Row, 147.

97. “Interview between [Curtice] Taylor and [Eldridge] Cleaver,” n.d. [circa 1974], Cleaver Papers, carton 5, folder 23.

98. “The Golden Shower: The Testimony of Eldridge Cleaver,” Valley Christian Center, Dublin, California, January 23, 1977, Cleaver Papers, carton 2, folder 84. For more on his unique pants (including sketches and photos), see Cleaver Papers, carton 13, folders 54, 56. The most complete account of Cleaver’s winding and often bizarre post-Algerian journey is Rout, Eldridge Cleaver, 171–280.

99. “Interview with Eldridge Cleaver (1981),” in Anthony, Spitting in the Wind, 179.

100. “Impact 77,” Crusader, June 1, 1977; “Eldridge Cleaver Joins Leary for Immortality Benefit,” Cleaver Papers, carton 9, folder 6; The Anarchist Party of Canada (Groucho Marxist), press release, April 1977, carton 14, folder 32; Mike Campi (employment rep., Apple Computer), to Cleaver, February 2, 1981, Cleaver Papers, carton 13, folder 61.

101. Cleaver, ed., Target Zero, 289–92, 297–300.

102. Dixon, My People Are Rising, 292.

103. Jasmine Guy, Afeni Shakur: Evolution of a Revolutionary (New York, 2004), 66.

Epilogue

1. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Department of Justice Report Regarding the Criminal Investigation into the Shooting Death of Michael Brown by Ferguson, Missouri Police Officer Darren Wilson (Washington, D.C., 2015), 5–7.

2. State of Missouri v. Darren Wilson, Grand Jury vol. 5 (St. Louis, 2014), 225, 228. Emphasis added.

3. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Department of Justice Report Regarding the Criminal Investigation into the Shooting Death of Michael Brown, 5.

4. Aura Bagado, “Police Officer Calls Ferguson Protestors ‘Animals,’ ” Colorlines, August 11, 2014, http://www.colorlines.com/.

5. Philip Carter, “Ferguson’s Cops Are Armed Liked I Was in Iraq,” Daily Beast, August 8, 2014, http://www.thedailybeast.com. Also see Thomas Gibbons-Neff, “Military Veterans See Deeply Flawed Police Response in Ferguson,” Washington Post, August 14, 2014; Nick Wing, “Actual Military Veterans Say Cops in Ferguson Are Excessively Armed, Untrained Wannabes,” Huffington Post, August 14, 2014, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/.

6. Taylor Wofford, “How America’s Police Became an Army: The 1033 Program,” Newsweek, August 13, 2014, http://www.newsweek.com/; Defense Logistics Agency, “1033 Program Overview,” PowerPoint presentation, http://dispositionservices.dla.mil/leso/Documents/1033
%20Program.pptx; Arezou Rezvani, Jessica Purovac, David Eads, and Tyler Fisher, “MRAPs and Bayonets: What We Know About the Pentagon’s 1033 Program,” National Public Radio, September 2, 2014, http://www.npr.org/.

7. Alicia Garza, “A Herstory of the #BlackLivesMatter Movement,” Feminist Wire, October 7, 2014, http://www.thefeministwire.com/; Julia Craven, “Black Lives Matter Co-Founder Reflects on the Origins of the Movement,” Huffington Post, September 30, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/; Jamilah King, “#blacklivesmatter: How Three Friends Turned a Spontaneous Facebook Post into a Global Phenomenon,” California Sunday Magazine, March 2015, https://stories.californiasunday.com/.

8. Jon Swaine, Oliver Laughland, and Jamiles Lartey, “Black Americans Killed by Police as Likely to Be Unarmed as White People,” Guardian, June 1, 2015.

9. Fredrick C. Harris, “The Next Civil Rights Movement?,” Dissent, Summer 2015, 34.

10. New Black Panther Party, “Aims and Objectives,” http://www.newblackpanther.com/. There is little scholarly writing on the NBPP. The best overview is D. J. Mulloy, “New Panthers, Old Panthers, and the Politics of Black Nationalism in the United States,” Patterns of Prejudice 44, no. 3 (2010): 217–38. On the Huey P. Newton Gun Club, see Aaron Lake Smith, “The Revolutionary Gun Clubs Patrolling the Black Neighborhoods of Dallas,” Vice, January 5, 2015, http://www.vice.com/.

11. Elbert “Big Man” Howard, “Concerning Reactionaries and Thugs,” San Francisco Bay View National Black Newspaper, August 23, 2015, http://sfbayview.com/; Mulloy, “New Panthers, Old Panthers,” 230–35; Southern Poverty Law Center, “New Black Panther Party,” https://www.splcenter.org/.

12. Angela Y. Davis, Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: Ferguson, Palestine, and the Foundations of a Movement (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016), 2.

13. Young, Soul Power, 14. For similar critiques, see Alkebulan, Survival pending Revolution, 73; Frazier, The East Is Black, 10.

14. Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation (Chicago, IL, 2016), 196.

15. Cruse, Rebellion or Revolution, 76.

16. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York, 2012).

17. Richard Rothstein, The Making of Ferguson: Public Policies at the Roots of Its Troubles (Washington, DC, 2014), 2; “Ferguson (city), Missouri,” United States Census QuickFacts, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/29/2923986.html; Elizabeth Kneebone, “Ferguson, Mo. Emblematic of Growing Suburban Poverty, The Avenue (Brookings Institution), http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/the-avenue/posts/2014/08/15-ferguson-suburban-poverty.

18. Rothstein, The Making of Ferguson, 1.

19. Ibid., 2, 4, 28; Self, American Babylon; Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis (Princeton, NJ, 1996); Douglas S. Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA, 1993).

20. Singh, Black Is a Country, 7.

21. Alexander, The New Jim Crow.

22. Rothstein, The Making of Ferguson, 22.

23. Self, American Babylon, 330.

24. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Department of Justice Report Regarding the Criminal Investigation into the Shooting Death of Michael Brown, 2.

25. “An Exclusive Interview with Minister of Defense, Huey P. Newton,” Black Panther, March 16, 1968.

26. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Department of Justice Report Regarding the Criminal Investigation into the Shooting Death of Michael Brown, 2.

27. Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Paranoid Style of American Policing,” Atlantic, December 30, 2015, http://www.theatlantic.com/.

28. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, 3–4.

29. Jay Caspian King, “The Witnesses,” New York Times Magazine, May 10, 2015, 37.

30. “Bree Newsome: As SC Lawmakers Debate Removing Confederate Flag, Meet the Activist Who Took It Down,” Democracy Now!, July 6, 2015, http://www.democracynow.org/.

31. Ibid.

32. Sanjay Sharma, “Black Twitter? Racial Hashtags, Networks and Contagion,” New Formations 78 (2013): 51. Also see Makeba Lavan, “The Negro Tweets His Presence: ‘Black Twitter’ as Social and Political Watchdog,” Modern Language Studies 45, no. 1 (2015): 56–65.

33. King, “The Witnesses,” 36.

34. Charlotte Alfred, “Protestors Say Ferguson Feels like Gaza, Palestinians Tweet Back Advice,” Huffington Post, August 14, 2014, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/.

35. “FBI Deputy Director Speaks ahead of Brelo Verdict,” WKCY News, May 14, 2015, http://www.wkyc.com/. For documents outlining government efforts to keep track of #BlackLivesMatter, see George Joseph, “Exclusive: Feds Regularly Monitored Black Lives Matter since Ferguson,” Intercept, July 24, 2015, https://theintercept.com/.

36. Harris, “The New Civil Rights Movement?,” 36–37.

37. Davis, Freedom Is a Constant Struggle, 86.

38. For a discussion of gender in the #BlackLivesMatter movement and #SayHerName, see Marcia Chatelain and Kaavya Aoka, “Women and Black Lives Matter: An Interview with Marcia Chatelain,” Dissent, Summer 2015, 54–61; African American Policy Forum, Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality against Black Women (New York, 2015); African American Policy Forum, “#SayHerName: Resisting Police Brutality against Black Women: A Social Media Guide (n.d.); Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 165.

39. Tim Constantine, “Black Lives Matter Is a Terrorist Group,” Washington Times, September 2, 2015, http://www.washingtontimes.com/; Katherine Krueger, “Frequent Fox News Guest: ‘Black Lives Matter Will Join Forces with ISIS,’ ” Talking Points Memo, October 28, 2015, http://talkingpointsmemo.com/.

40. King, “The Witnesses,” 52

41. Forbes, With You Die with Me?, 56.

42. Christopher B. Strain, Pure Fire: Self-Defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era (Athens, GA, 2005), 166.

43. Eldridge Cleaver, “Towards a People’s Army,” Cleaver Papers, oversize box 2.

44. Shakur, Assata, 139.

45. Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 103.

46. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, 1.

47. Roqayah Chamseddine, “Understanding the US’ Violent Response to Indignation over Ferguson,” Al-Akhbar English, November 27, 2014, http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/22664.

48. Breitman, ed., Malcolm X Speaks, 129.

49. Harris, “The New Civil Rights Movement?,” 39–40; Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 180.

50. Jordan T. Camp and Christina Heatherton, “We Charge Genocide: An Interview with Breanna Champion, Page May, and Asha Rosa Ransby-Sporn,” in Camp and Heatherton, Policing the Planet: Why the Policing Crisis Led to Black Lives Matter (New York, 2016), 261.

51. Christina Heatherton, “#BlackLivesMatter and Global Visions of Abolition: An Interview with Patrisse Cullors,” in Camp and Heatherton, Policing the Planet, 38–39.

52. Davis, Freedom Is a Constant Struggle, 139–40; Heatherton, “#BlackLivesMatter and Global Visions of Abolition: An Interview with Patrisse Cullors,” 39; Dani McClain, “Why Black Lives Matter Activists Are Showing Up for a Palestinian Woman Threatened with Deportation,” Nation, October 26, 2015, http://www.thenation.com/. Also see “Black on Palestine,” http://blackonpalestine.tumblr.com/; “Black Solidarity with Palestine,” http://www.blackforpalestine.com/.

53. Lubin, Geographies of Liberation, 162, 171.

54. On government filtering and denial of access to the Internet, see the various reports produced by the OpenNet Initiative, https://opennet.net/. Also see Moisés Naím and Philip Bennett, “The Anti-Information Age: How Governments Are Reinventing Censorship in the 21st Century,” Atlantic, February 16, 2015, http://www.theatlantic.com/.

55. “Twitter and Black Lives Matter—Jack Dorsey and Deray McKesson—Code Conference 2016,” YouTube, https://youtu.be/NqW45PsjXcE.

56. Mark S. Luckie, “Twitter Still Has a Major Problem with Employee Diversity,” Verge, December 30, 2015, http://www.theverge.com/; “Is Deray a Corporate Shill?,” DeployBurners, https://storify.com/DeployBurners/is-deray-a-corporate-shill.

57. Bloom and Martin, Black against Empire, 398.

58. Washington, All Power to the People, 41.