NOTES

1. James Burnham, The Machiavellians: Defenders of Freedom (New York: John Day, 1943), 246.

2. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 246.

3. James Burnham, The Struggle for the World (New York: John Day, 1947), 230.

4. James Burnham, “Reply to Letters,” National Review, June 29, 1971, 720.

5. Robert Merry, “Reagan's Geopolitical Genius,” National Interest, June 25, 2014.

6. William Kristol and Robert Kagan, “Toward a Neo-Reaganite Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 1996, 18.

7. Kristol and Kagan, “Toward a Neo-Reaganite Foreign Policy,” 20.

8. Kristol and Kagan, “Toward a Neo-Reaganite Foreign Policy,” 21.

9. See, for example, Timothy Shenk, “The Dark History of Trump's Right Wing Revolt,” The Guardian, August 16, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2016/aug/16/secret-history-trumpism-donald-trump; and Thomas Meany, “Trumpism after Trump,” Harper's, February 2020, https://harpers.org/archive/2020/02/trumpism-after-trump/.

10. Samuel Francis, “The New Shape of American Politics,” Chronicles: A Journal of American Culture, January 1998, 30–31.

11. Francis, “The New Shape of American Politics,” 30.

12. Christopher Hitchens, “How Neoconservatives Perish,” Harper's, July 1, 1990, 67.

13. Hitchens, “How Neoconservatives Perish,” 67.

14. Binoy Kampmark, “The First Neo-Conservative: James Burnham and the Origins of a Movement,” Review of International Studies 37, no. 4 (October 2011): 1892.

15. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 208.

16. Richard Brookhiser, “Notes and Asides,” National Review, January 27, 1997, 20.

17. Michael Lind, The New Class War: Saving Democracy from the Managerial Elite (New York: Portfolio, 2020), xi.

18. Lind, The New Class War, 146.

19. Alan Wald, “From Trotsky to Buckley,” Jacobin, September 15, 2017.

1. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 1.

2. Kelly, James Burnham, 2.

3. Kelly, James Burnham, 5.

4. James Burnham, “Do Present Conditions in America Stimulate the Production of Literature?,” Canterbury Quarterly, June 1923, 25.

5. Burnham, “Present Conditions in America,” 25.

6. Burnham, “Present Conditions in America,” 27.

7. Paul Charles Kemeny, Princeton in the Nation's Service: Religious Ideals and Educational Practice, 1868–1928 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 198.

8. Kemeny, Princeton in the Nation's Service, 201.

9. The Scopes Monkey Trial also occurred when Burnham was at Princeton. At least on the surface, it pitted those who asserted God's divine providence in the world against those who did not. Although the issues were more complex, for the US public at the time, it was a victory for secularists.

10. F. Scott Fitzgerald, This Side of Paradise (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 34.

11. James Burnham, “Through a Glass, Darkly,” Nassau Literary Magazine, June 1925, 101–102.

12. Kelly, James Burnham, 15.

13. Kelly, James Burnham, 10.

14. Kelly, James Burnham, 10.

15. H. J. A. Sire, Father Martin D’Arcy: Philosopher of Christian Love (Herefordshire, UK: Gracewing, 1997), 28.

16. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, part 1, question 2, article 3.

17. Kelly, James Burnham, 24.

18. Stephen Trombley, Fifty Major Thinkers Who Shaped the Modern World (London: Atlantic, 2013), 161.

19. Kelly, James Burnham, 30.

20. George Santayana, The Letters of George Santayana, ed. Daniel Cory (London: Constable, 1955), 264–265.

21. Kelly, James Burnham, 31.

22. David Burnham, This Is Our Exile (New York: Scribner's, 1931), 239.

23. Burnham, This Is Our Exile, 272.

24. Burnham, This Is Our Exile, 272.

25. Kelly, James Burnham, 23–24.

26. James Burnham and Philip Wheelwright, Introduction to Philosophical Analysis (New York: Holt, 1932), 16–17.

27. Burnham and Wheelright, Introduction to Philosophical Analysis, 171–178.

28. Comments, Symposium, Spring 1932, 132.

29. James Burnham, “The Wondrous World of Architecture of the World,” Symposium, April 1931, 166.

30. See Sidney Hook, Out of Step (New York: Harper and Row, 1987), 218; Daniel Oppenheimer, Exit Right (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2016), 87; Kelly, James Burnham, 33–34; Jeffrey Hart, The Making of the American Conservative Mind: National Review and Its Enemies (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2005), 20–21.

31. Erik Larson, In the Garden of the Beasts (New York: Random House, 2011), 25–26.

32. Martha Dodd Papers, box 4, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

33. Larson, In the Garden of the Beasts, 41–42.

34. James Burnham, “Panama or Taiwan,” National Review, September 16, 1977, 1043.

1. Sidney Hook, “Towards the Understanding of Karl Marx,” Symposium, July 1931, 325–367. It would later be published in book form in 1933.

2. Hook, “Towards the Understanding,” 349.

3. Hook, “Towards the Understanding,” 351. Hook's emphasis.

4. Hook, “Towards the Understanding,” 351.

5. Leon Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, trans. Max Eastman, vol. 3 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1933), 166.

6. For a more Hegelian and less dogmatic interpretation of Marx, see György Lukács, History and Class Consciousness (1923). Lukács highlighted the philosophical (Hegelian) side of Marx as opposed to the scientific side. It was condemned by many communist leaders.

7. Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, preface.

8. James Burnham, “Review of History of the Russian Revolution, by Leon Trotsky,” Symposium, July 1932, 371.

9. Burnham, “Review of History,” 375.

10. Burnham, “Review of History,” 376–377.

11. James Burnham and Philip Wheelwright, “Thirteen Propositions,” Symposium, April 1933, 130.

12. Burnham and Wheelwright, “Thirteen Propositions,” 131–132.

13. Burnham and Wheelwright, “Thirteen Propositions,” 132.

14. James Burnham, “Comment,” Symposium, July 1933, 259.

15. Burnham, “Comment,” 267.

16. Burnham, “Comment,” 268.

17. Burnham, “Comment,” 272.

18. Burnham, “Comment,” 273.

19. Burnham, “Comment,” 270.

20. T. S. Eliot, “A Commentary,” The Criterion: A Literary Review, July 1933, 642–643.

21. James Burnham, “Comment,” Symposium, October 1933, 408.

22. Burnham, “Comment,” October 1933, 408.

23. Burnham, “Comment,” October 1933, 404–405.

24. Burnham, “Comment,” October 1933, 410.

25. “Personal Statement,” James Burnham Papers, box 1, folder 1, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

26. Burnham, “Comment,” October 1933, 405.

27. Burnham, “Comment,” October 1933, 413.

28. Beth Thomas Bates, The Making of Black Detroit in the Age of Henry Ford (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 160.

29. Marjorie Murphy, Blackboard Unions: The AFT and the NEA 1900–1980 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), 40–41.

30. Sidney Hook, “Radical, Teacher, Technician,” National Review, September 11, 1987, 32. Burnham's breakup with Wheelwright would be the first of many intellectual fallouts with onetime collaborators.

31. Sidney Hook, Out of Step (New York: Harper and Row, 1987), 192.

32. Hook, Out of Step, 193.

33. American Workers Party (AWP), Statement of Programmatic Orientation, New York: The Provisional Organizing Committee of the American Workers Party, 21.

34. AWP, Statement of Programmatic Orientation, 24.

35. AWP, Statement of Programmatic Orientation, 4.

36. A. J. Muste, The Essays of A. J. Muste, ed. Nat Hentoff (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970), 179–180.

37. Muste, The Essays of A. J. Muste, 180.

38. Muste, The Essays of A. J. Muste, 181.

39. In 1935, Burnham had a falling out with Muste over the best way to promote socialism in the United States. Not long after this, Muste left the socialist party.

40. Hook, Out of Step, 202–203.

41. Hook, Out of Step, 204.

42. James Cannon, Struggle for the Proletarian Party (New York: Pioneer, 1943), 15.

43. Hook, Out of Step, 203.

44. Hook, Out of Step, 204.

45. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 50.

46. Kelly, James Burnham, 50.

47. Burnham to Hook, January 11, 1949, box 8, Sidney Hook Papers, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

48. James Burnham, “Was Europe a Success?,” The Nation, October 3, 1934, 375.

49. Burnham, “Was Europe a Success?,” October 3, 1934, 375.

50. It is worth noting that Martha Dodd's father William Dodd was appointed by Roosevelt as the American ambassador to Adolf Hitler's Germany in 1933. Martha followed him there and lived a public life as a dilettante. Burnham's relentless attacks on Roosevelt could be interpreted as attacks on the entire Roosevelt administration—and by extension Martha Dodd.

51. James Burnham, “THEIR Government,” Labor Action, December 1, 1934, 4.

52. James Burnham, “THEIR Government,” Labor Action, March 15, 1934, 3.

53. Burnham, “THEIR Government,” March 15, 1934, 3.

54. V. I. Lenin, What Is to Be Done?, trans. S. V. and Patricia Utechin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), 169.

55. James Burnham, “His Place in History,” review of Lenin, by Ralph Fox, New Masses, January 23, 1934, 15.

56. Burnham, “His Place in History,” 15.

57. James Burnham, “THEIR Government,” Labor Action, November 15, 1934, 5.

58. Cannon, Struggle for the Proletarian Party, 7–8.

59. Christopher Phelps, Young Sidney Hook: Marxist and Pragmatist (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 121.

60. Leon Trotsky, “How to Conduct a Political Discussion,” in The Writings of Leon Trotsky, 2nd ed., ed. Naomi Allen and George Breitman, vol. 10 (New York: Pathfinder, 1976), 106.

61. Allan Wald, The New York Intellectuals: The Rise and Decline of the Ant-Stalinist Left from the 1930s to the 1980s, 2nd ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 178.

62. Joseph Stalin, “The Possibility of Building Socialism in Our Country,” in J.V. Stalin: Works, vol. 8 (Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House, 1954), 101–104.

63. Leon Trotsky, The Permanent Revolution and Results and Prospects, trans. John G. Wright, revised by Brian Pearce (New York: Pioneer, 1965).

64. Trotsky, The Permanent Revolution and Results and Prospects, 9.

65. James Burnham (as John West), “The Question of Organic Unity,” New International, February 1936, 17.

66. Fearing German expansion, in 1935, the Soviets and French concluded a mutual assistance treaty. It was ratified in early 1936. Hitler used it to justify expansion into the Rhineland. The Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939 effectively ended it.

67. See, for example, Mussolini's “Speech on Rome,” March 18, 1934.

68. James Burnham (as John West), “Non-Violence,” review of The Power of Non-Violence, by Richard B. Gregg, New International, December 1934, 159.

69. Burnham, “Non-Violence,” 159.

70. Burnham, “Non-Violence,” 159.

71. Marx did suggest at times that socialism could be ushered in peacefully in certain parts of the world. See, for example, Marx's speech in Amsterdam in September 1872.

72. James Burnham (as John West), “The Nature and Causes of Modern War,” New Militant, January 26, 1935, 3.

73. James Burnham (as John West), “The Struggle against War,” New Militant, February 2, 1935, 3.

74. Burnham, “The Struggle against War,” 3.

75. Burnham, “The Struggle against War,” 3.

76. These ideas continued Saint Augustine's just war theory. The Christian philosopher argued that if war brings peace, it is a just war.

77. Mathew Josephson, Infidel in the Temple (New York: Knopf, 1967), 108.

78. Cited in The Writings of Leon Trotsky, ed. Evelyn Reed and George Breitman, vol. 6 (New York: Pathfinder, 1969), 300.

79. Cited in Writings of Leon Trotsky, 300.

80. Cited in Writings of Leon Trotsky, 304.

81. James Burnham (as John West), “The Bands Are Playing,” New International, July 1935, 115.

82. Both Lenin and Trotsky emphasized the importance of force and violence in the wake of the Russian Revolution. See, for example, Lenin's “The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky” (1918) and Trotsky's “Terror and Communism” (1920).

83. James Burnham (as John West), “War and the Workers,” originally published in 1936 by the Workers Party, 4.

84. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 35.

85. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 35.

86. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 13.

87. V. I. Lenin, “Military Programme of Proletarian Revolution,” in Lenin: Collected Works, trans. M. S. Levin (Moscow: Progress, 1964), 23: 81.

88. Lenin, “Military Programme,” 81.

89. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 18.

90. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 21.

91. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 21.

92. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 16.

93. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 16.

94. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 17.

95. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 17.

96. Burnham, “War and the Workers,” 17.

97. Trotsky, “How to Conduct a Political Discussion,” 106.

98. Max Eastman, Marx, Lenin and the Science of Revolution (Westport, CT: Hyperion, 1973), 81.

99. Christopher Irmscher, Max Eastman: A Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017), 214. Both Hook and Eastman were students of John Dewey's, one of America's foremost pragmatists.

100. James Burnham (as John West), “Max Eastman's Straw Man,” New International, December 1935, 220.

101. Browder tried to recruit Burnham to the Communist Party in 1933, but Burnham believed that US social conditions differed from those in the USSR, so different ideas and practices were required for revolution.

102. James Burnham, “Browder Defends Imperialism,” Socialist Appeal, February 5, 1938, 4.

103. Burnham, “Browder Defends Imperialism,” 4.

104. James Burnham, “Anti-Semitic Pogroms are a By-Product of Capitalism,” Socialist Appeal, November 26, 1938, 3.

105. James Burnham (as John West), “U.S. Imperialism at Work,” New Militant, February 15, 1936, 4.

106. Burnham, “U.S. Imperialism at Work,” 4.

1. Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is It Going? (New York: Pioneer, 1945), 8.

2. James Burnham, “From Formula to Reality,” in Neither Capitalism nor Socialism: Theories of Bureaucratic Collectivism, ed. Ernest Haberkern (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1996), 7–8.

3. Burnham, “From Formula to Reality,” 8.

4. Burnham, “From Formula to Reality,” 15–16.

5. Burnham, “From Formula to Reality,” 16.

6. Burnham, “From Formula to Reality,” 18.

7. George Breitman, ed., The Founding of the Socialist Workers Party: Minutes and Resolutions, 1938–1939 (New York: Monad, 1982), 221–222.

8. James Burnham to Sydney Hook, August 2, 1938, box 8, Sidney Hook Papers, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

9. Burnham to Hook, August 2, 1938.

10. Burnham to Hook, August 2, 1938.

11. Max Eastman, “Against the Marxist Dialectic,” The New Republic, February 21, 1934, 35–39.

12. Max Eastman, “Russia and the Socialist Ideal,” Harper's Monthly Magazine, March 1938, 374–375.

13. Eastman, “Russia and the Socialist Ideal,” 376.

14. Eastman, “Russia and the Socialist Ideal,” 375.

15. Eastman, “Russia and the Socialist Ideal,” 378.

16. Eastman, “Russia and the Socialist Ideal,” 384.

17. James Burnham, “Max Eastman as Scientist,” New International, June 1938, 178.

18. Burnham, “Max Eastman,” 178.

19. Burnham, “Max Eastman,” 178.

20. Max Eastman, “Burnham Dodges,” New International, August 1938, 244.

21. Eastman, “Burnham Dodges,” 244.

22. In a private letter, Burnham panned most of the article. See “Burnham to Hook,” n.d., box 8, folder 5, Sidney Hook Papers, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

23. Sidney Hook, “Reflections on the Russian Revolution,” The Southern Review, January 1, 1938, 431.

24. Hook, “Reflections on the Russian Revolution,” 457.

25. Hook, “Reflections on the Russian Revolution,” 452.

26. Hook, “Reflections on the Russian Revolution,” 450.

27. Selden Rodman, “Violence, For and Against: A Symposium on Marx, Stalin and Trotsky,” Common Sense, January 1938, 19.

28. Henry A. Wallace, “Jefferson Kept His Sense of Balance,” in Rodman, “Violence, For and Against,” 19.

29. Cited in Joshua Rubenstein, Leon Trotsky, A Revolutionaries Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press), 190.

30. Leon Trotsky, “Their Morals and Ours,” The New International, June 1938, 163.

31. Trotsky, “Their Morals and Ours,” 163.

32. Trotsky, “Their Morals and Ours,” 172.

33. James Burnham and Max Shachtman, “Intellectuals in Retreat,” The New International, January 1939, 3.

34. Burnham and Shachtman, “Intellectuals in Retreat,” 5.

35. Burnham and Shachtman, “Intellectuals in Retreat,” 4.

36. Burnham and Shachtman, “Intellectuals in Retreat,” 9.

37. Burnham and Shachtman, “Intellectuals in Retreat,” 13.

38. Burnham and Shachtman, “Intellectuals in Retreat,” 7.

39. Burnham and Shachtman, “Intellectuals in Retreat,” 8.

40. Burnham and Shachtman, “Intellectuals in Retreat,” 8.

41. Leon Trotsky, “A Petty-Bourgeois Opposition in the Socialist Workers Party,” in In Defence of Marxism (London: New Park, 1942), 60.

42. Terry A. Cooney, The Rise of the New York Intellectuals: Partisan Review and Its Circle, 1934–1945 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), 50.

43. Alan Wald, The New York Intellectuals, 2nd ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 78.

44. Wald, New York Intellectuals, 78.

45. Leon Trotsky, “Art and Politics,” Partisan Review, August–September 1938, 10.

46. With articles from Arthur Koestler and George Orwell, the magazine began to take an anticommunist stance in the mid-1940s. The journal experienced some financial difficulties in the 1950s. To help, the journal received financial assistance from the CIA, precisely when Burnham was there.

47. James Burnham, “‘A Belated Dialectician,’ Review of The Marxist Philosophy and the Sciences by J. B. S. Haldane,” Partisan Review, Spring 1939, 120–123.

48. Burnham, “A Belated Dialectician,” 121.

49. Burnham, “A Belated Dialectician,” 121.

50. Burnham, “A Belated Dialectician,” 122.

51. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 79.

52. Kelly, James Burnham, 79.

53. Kelly, James Burnham, 79.

54. Leon Trotsky, “The USSR in War,” in In Defence of Marxism (London: New Park, 1942), 22–23. Trotsky's emphasis.

55. Leon Trotsky, “A Letter to Max Shachtman,” in In Defence of Marxism (London: New Park, 1942), 51.

56. James Burnham, “On the Character of the War and the Perspective of the Fourth International,” September 5, 1939, cited in Internal Bulletin Issued by the Socialist Workers Party, November 6, 1939, 10–11.

57. Burnham, “On the Character of the War,” 10.

58. James Cannon, Struggle for the Proletarian Party (New York: Pioneer, 1943), 175.

59. Trotsky, “Petty-Bourgeois Opposition,” 63.

60. Trotsky, “Petty-Bourgeois Opposition,” 64–65.

61. Trotsky, “Petty-Bourgeois Opposition,” 68.

62. Trotsky, “Petty-Bourgeois Opposition,” 57.

63. Trotsky, “Petty-Bourgeois Opposition,” 57.

64. Leon Trotsky, “An Open Letter to Comrade Burnham,” in In Defence of Marxism (London: New Park, 1942), 91.

65. Trotsky, “Open Letter to Comrade Burnham,” 91.

66. Trotsky, “Petty-Bourgeois Opposition,” 56.

67. James Burnham, “Politics of Desperation,” New International, April 1940,75–80.

68. Kelly, James Burnham, 83.

69. John P. Diggins, Up from Communism: Conservative Odysseys in American Intellectual History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 163.

70. James Burnham, “Science and Style: A Reply to Comrade Trotsky,” in In Defense of Marxism (London: New York Park, 1942), 233.

71. Burnham, “Science and Style,” 233–234.

72. Burnham, “Science and Style,” 237.

73. Cannon, Struggle for the Proletarian, 242.

74. Cannon, Struggle for the Proletarian, 241.

75. Kelly, James Burnham, 85. Burnham also resigned as an editor for the short-lived Marxist Quarterly in 1937.

76. James Burnham, “Letter of Resignation from the Workers Party,” in In Defence of Marxism (London: New Park, 1942), 257.

77. Burnham, “Letter of Resignation,” 258.

78. Burnham, “Letter of Resignation,” 261.

79. Leon Trotsky, “Balance Sheet of the Finnish Events,” in In Defence of Marxism (London: New Park, 1942), 221.

80. Cited in Kelly, James Burnham, 79.

1. James Burnham, The Managerial Revolution: What is Happening in the World? (New York: John Day, 1941), 4.

2. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 31.

3. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 31.

4. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 31–32.

5. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 34.

6. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 32.

7. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 35.

8. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 36.

9. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 42.

10. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 82.

11. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 95.

12. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 66–67.

13. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 67.

14. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 72.

15. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 59. Burnham's description of this era is simplistic. In fact, a series of complicated arrangements characterize this era, partially depending on where in Europe one lived.

16. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 71.

17. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 137.

18. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 154.

19. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 126.

20. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 126.

21. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 133.

22. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 133.

23. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 135.

24. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 135.

25. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 190–191.

26. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 191.

27. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 155–156.

28. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 156.

29. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 147.

30. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 147.

31. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 147.

32. Leon Trotsky, The New Course: The Struggle for the New Course, trans. Max Shachtman (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965), 91–92.

33. Robert V. Daniels, The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 184.

34. Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is It Going? (New York: Pioneer, 1945), 93–94.

35. Leon Trotsky, “The USSR in War,” in In Defence of Marxism (London: New Park, 1942), 10.

36. James Burnham, “From Formula to Reality,” in Neither Capitalism nor Socialism: Theories of Bureaucratic Collectivism, ed. Ernest Haberkern (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1996), 17.

37. Burnham, “From Formula to Reality,” 22–23.

38. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 156.

39. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 225.

40. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 225.

41. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 225.

42. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 253.

43. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 255–256.

44. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 257.

45. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 273.

46. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 25.

47. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 161.

48. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 161.

49. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 152.

50. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 144.

51. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 167.

52. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 167.

53. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 167.

54. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 168.

55. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 168–169.

56. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 169.

57. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 170.

58. Burnham, The Managerial Revolution, 171.

59. Lawrence Dennis's The Coming of Fascism to America (New York: Harper, 1936) and Anne Lindberg's The Wave of the Future (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1940) are two right-wing examples. Burnham admitted reading the first and he was certainly familiar with the second.

60. Leon Trotsky, “A Petty-Bourgeois Opposition in the Socialist Workers Party,” in In Defence of Marxism (London: New Park, 1942), 68.

61. Bruno Rizzi, The Bureaucratization of the World (New York: Free Press, 1985), 50.

62. See “Introduction” to Neither Capitalism Nor Socialism, and Daniel Bell, “The Strange Tale of Bruno R.,” in New Leader, September 28, 1959, 19. Rizzi may have been influenced by Burnham's 1937 piece “From Formula to Reality.” In this case, plagiarism is too strong a word to apply to Burnham's The Managerial Revolution.

63. “Letter to Silva Norkela,” James Burnham Papers, box 1, folder 2, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

64. Bell, “The Strange Tale of Bruno R.,” 20.

65. “Rizzi Letter to James Burnham,” James Burnham Papers, box 7, folder 21, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

66. “Rizzi Letter to James Burnham,” James Burnham Papers.

67. “Rizzi Letter to James Burnham,” James Burnham Papers.

68. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 93.

69. Thorstein Veblen, The Engineers and the Price System (New York: Huebsch, 1921), 142.

70. Veblen expanded on this idea in Absentee Ownership and Business Enterprise in Recent Times: The Case of America (New York: Huebsch, 1923), a work that influenced Berle and Means.

71. Lincoln Gordon, “Review of The Managerial Revolution: What Is Happening in the World?, by James Burnham,” American Economic Review, September 1942, 626.

72. Ralph Thompson, “Books of the Times,” New York Times, May 5, 1941.

73. “Coming Rulers of the U.S.,” Fortune 24, no. 5 (1941): 100.

74. Time, “The Year in Books,” December 15, 1941, 108.

75. Robert Gale Woolbert, “Recent Books on International Relations,” Foreign Affairs, January 1942, 373.

76. Dwight Macdonald, “The Burnhamian Revolution,” Partisan Review, January 1942, 81.

77. Macdonald, “The Burnhamian Revolution,” 76.

78. Macdonald, “The Burnhamian Revolution,” 80.

79. Albert Gates, “Burnham and His Managers,” New International, July 1941, 144.

80. Paul Sweezy, “The Illusion of the ‘Managerial Revolution,’” Science and Society, January 1, 1942, 9.

81. Sweezy, “Illusion Managerial Revolution,” 11.

82. Joseph Hansen, “Burnham's Managerial Revolution,” Fourth International, June 1941, 157.

83. J. K. Galbraith, “Radical, Teacher, Technician,” National Review, September 11, 1987, 35. Other important liberal academics who later drew from The Managerial Revolution include C. Wright Mills and Daniel Bell. In his review of the book, the future elite theorist Mills called Burnham a “Marx for Managers.” Bell argued that the managerial revolution was merely a contradiction within capitalism, not a replacement society.

84. Peter Drucker, “The Rulers of Tomorrow,” The Saturday Review, May 10, 1941, 9.

85. Peter Drucker, The Future of Industrial Man (New York: John Day, 1942), 13–14.

86. Drucker, The Future of Industrial Man, 144–146.

87. Ludwig von Mises, Bureaucracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1944), 11.

88. von Mises, Bureaucracy, 12.

89. von Mises, Bureaucracy, 17–18.

90. von Mises, Bureaucracy, 64.

91. Friedrich August Hayek, “Review of The Managerial Revolution by James Burnham,” Economica, November 1942, 401–402.

92. Friedrich August Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (London: Routledge, 2001), 227.

93. The idea of planned economies was fashionable at this time. Other popular examples that Hayek was attempting to refute include Sidney and Beatrice Webb's Soviet Communism (1935), Karl Manheim's Man and Society in and Age of Reconstruction (1940), and H. G. Wells's The New World Order (1940).

94. Hayek, Road to Serfdom, 95.

95. Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 6.

96. James Burnham, “Is Democracy Possible?,” in Whose Revolution: A Study of the Future Course of Liberalism in the United States, ed. Irving DeWitt Talmadge (New York: Howell, Soskin, 1941), 213.

97. Burnham, “Is Democracy Possible?,” 214.

98. Burnham, “Is Democracy Possible?,” 215.

99. Burnham, “Is Democracy Possible?,” 217.

100. Burnham, “Is Democracy Possible?,” 216.

101. Burnham, “Is Democracy Possible?,” 202.

1. Burnham, now thirty-six, was married to Marcia Lightner with children. He held a 2A draft classification, exempting him from military service.

2. James Burnham, The Machiavellians: Defenders of Freedom (New York: John Day, 1943), 246.

3. Niccolò Machiavelli, Discourses on Titus Livius, trans. Ninian Hill Thomson (London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co. 1883), 19.

4. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 3.

5. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 1.

6. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 20.

7. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 9. Leo Strauss presented similar concepts in a 1941 essay titled “Persecution and the Art of Writing.” This essay argued that a hidden meaning permeated philosophical texts. Strauss distinguished between the words philosophers used and the real meaning of the text where truth was “presented exclusively between the lines.” Like Burnham, Strauss exerted influence on various conservative sects—albeit precisely how and over whom remains debated. See Paul Gottfried's Leo Strauss and the Conservative Movement in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

8. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 10.

9. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 24.

10. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 24.

11. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 24.

12. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 5.

13. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 25.

14. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 66.

15. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 81–82.

16. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 82.

17. “Letter to Silva Norkela,” James Burnham Archive, box 1, folder 2, Hoover Institution Archives.

18. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 87.

19. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 88.

20. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 91.

21. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 91.

22. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 96.

23. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 97.

24. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 97.

25. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 93.

26. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 102.

27. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 102–103.

28. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 103–104.

29. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 103.

30. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 103.

31. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 104.

32. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 108.

33. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 109.

34. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 111.

35. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 111.

36. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 112.

37. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 112.

38. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 112.

39. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 113.

40. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 119.

41. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 119.

42. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 121.

43. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 121.

44. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 122.

45. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 127.

46. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 126–127.

47. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 126.

48. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 129.

49. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 129–130.

50. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 131.

51. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 131.

52. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 131.

53. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 132.

54. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 132.

55. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 135.

56. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 142.

57. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 145.

58. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 146.

59. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 159–160.

60. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 167–168

61. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 167.

62. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 171.

63. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 171.

64. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 172.

65. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 175.

66. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 175.

67. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 208.

68. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 209.

69. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 208.

70. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 176.

71. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 177.

72. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 176.

73. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 177–178.

74. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 177–178.

75. James Burnham, preface to second edition of The Machiavellians: Defenders of Freedom (New York: Gateway, 1963), xx.

76. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 135.

77. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 135.

78. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 135.

79. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 195.

80. See Murray Rothbard, The Betrayal of the American Right (Auburn, AL: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007), 167; or Michael Malice The New Right: A Journey to the Fringe of American Politics (New York: St. Martin's, 2019), 119.

81. Sidney Hook, “On James Burnham's The Machiavellians,” Society, March 1988, 68.

82. Brian Crozier, “Activist, Strategist,” National Review, September 11, 1987, 36.

83. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 236.

84. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 238.

85. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 239.

86. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 239.

87. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 244.

88. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 244.

89. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 245.

90. Machiavelli, Discourses, 24.

91. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 245.

92. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 246.

93. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 246.

94. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 248.

95. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 244. Burnham's emphasis.

96. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 247.

97. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 248.

98. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 248.

99. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 248.

100. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 247.

101. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 251.

102. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 249.

103. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 252.

104. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 252.

105. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 252.

106. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 69.

107. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 69.

108. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 70.

109. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 77.

110. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 77.

111. Burnham, The Machiavellians, 74.

112. Hook, “On James Burnham's The Machiavellians,” 68.

113. Sidney Hook, “The Fetishism of Power,” The Nation, May 13, 1939.

114. Hook, “The Fetishism of Power,” 562.

115. Hook, “The Fetishism of Power,” 562.

116. Hook, “The Fetishism of Power,” 563.

117. “The Atlantic Bookshelf,” The Atlantic, June 1943, 129.

118. Benedetto Croce, “Political Truth and Popular Myths,” in My Philosophy: Essays on the Moral and Political Problems of Our Time (London: George Allen, 1949), 89.

119. Croce, “Political Truth and Popular Myths,” 89.

120. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Study in Cynicism,” The Nation, May 1, 1943, 637.

121. Niebuhr, “Study in Cynicism,” 637.

122. “Is Democracy Possible?,” Time, May 17, 1943, 90.

1. James Burnham, “The Federal Bureaucracy: The Fourth Branch of Government,” Human Events, June 3, 1959, 2. Burnham's emphasis.

2. Burnham, “The Federal Bureaucracy,” 2.

3. Burnham, “The Federal Bureaucracy,” 2.

4. Burnham, “The Federal Bureaucracy,” 2.

5. Mike Lofgren, The Deep State (New York: Viking, 2016), 32–33.

6. Lofgren, The Deep State, 33.

7. Lofgren, The Deep State, 36.

8. Lofgren, The Deep State, 14.

9. Milovan Djilas employs the concept of the “managerial revolution” in The New Class (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1983), although he does not cite Burnham.

10. See Samuel Francis, Power and History: The Political Thought of James Burnham (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984), chap. 2.

11. Patrick Buchanan, foreword to Shots Fired: Sam Francis on America's Culture War (Vienna, VA: Fitzgerald Griffin Foundation, 2006).

12. Howard Kurtz, “Washington Times Clips Its Right Wing,” Washington Post, October 19, 1995, D.

13. Samuel Francis, “Crossfire of Culture Camps,” Washington Times, September 1, 1992.

14. Samuel Francis, Beautiful Losers: Essays on the Failures of American Conservatism (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1993), 31.

15. Samuel Francis, “From Household to Nation,” Chronicles, March 1996, 13.

16. Samuel Francis, “Principalities and Powers,” Chronicles, November 1, 1996, 41.

17. Samuel Francis, Leviathan and Its Enemies (Arlington, VA: Washington Summit, 2016), 52.

18. Francis, Leviathan and Its Enemies, 52.

19. Francis, Leviathan and Its Enemies, 35.

20. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “Manifesto of the Communist Party,” in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Collected Works, VI (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1996), 482.

21. Francis, “From Household to Nation,” 13.

22. Francis, “From Household to Nation,” 13.

23. William Steinhoff, George Orwell and the Origins of 1984 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1976), 43.

24. George Orwell, “As I Please,” February 2, 1945, James Burnham Papers, box 1, folder 10, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

25. James Burnham, “Letter to Tribune,” February 19, 1944, James Burnham Papers, box 1, folder 10, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

26. Burnham, “Letter to Tribune.”

27. Burnham, “Letter to Tribune.”

28. Burnham, “Letter to Tribune.”

29. Burnham, “Letter to Tribune.”

30. Orwell, “As I Please,” cited in Orwell, As I Please 1943–1945, ed. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus (Boston: Godine, 2000), 328.

31. Orwell, “As I Please,” 328.

32. Orwell, “Second Thoughts on James Burnham,” Published by Polemic, May 1946, https://www.orwell.ru/library/reviews/burnham/english/e_burnh.

33. Orwell, “Second Thoughts.”

34. Orwell, “Second Thoughts.”

35. Orwell, “Second Thoughts.”

36. John Atkins, George Orwell: A Literary Study (London: Calder and Boyars, 1954), 238.

37. Orwell's emphasis. Orwell expanded on how words get used, misused, and abused in a 1946 essay titled “Politics and the English Language,” Horizon, April 1946, 252–265.

38. George Orwell, 1984 (New York: Penguin, 1983), 182.

39. Orwell, 1984, 182.

40. Orwell, 1984, 183.

41. Orwell, 1984, 183.

42. Orwell, 1984, 183–184.

43. Orwell, 1984, 234.

44. For other sources of Orwell's concept of power, see chapter 4 of William R. Steinhoff, George Orwell and the Origins of 1984 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975).

1. Francis Sempa, “Foundation for Victory,” Claremont Review of Books, March 18, 2019, https://claremontreviewofbooks.com/digital/foundation-for-victory/.

2. Robert Merry, “James Burnham: Reagan's Geopolitical Genius,” The National Interest, June 25, 2014, https://nationalinterest.org/feature/james-burnham-reagans-geopolitical-genius-10741?page=0%2C1.

3. George H. Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 91.

4. James Burnham, The War We Are In (New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1967), 10.

5. John B. Diggins, Up from Communism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 319.

6. James Burnham, “The Sixth Turn of the Communist Screw,” Partisan Review, Summer 1944, 365.

7. ELAM was the military wing of the Greek Communist Party. While Greece was still under Axis control, the British assisted its primary opponent, the National Greek Republic League.

8. James Burnham, “Sixth Turn of the Communist Screw,” 366.

9. James Burnham, “Stalin and the Junkers: The Logic of the New Line-up,” The Commonweal, September 15, 1944, 514.

10. Burnham, “Stalin and the Junkers,” 516.

11. James Burnham, “Lenin's Heir,” Partisan Review, Winter 1945, 70.

12. Burnham, “Lenin's Heir,” 72.

13. Burnham, “Lenin's Heir,” 64.

14. According to Daniel Kelly, Burnham later admitted that parts of the article were a put-on. Maybe taking the piece too literally, Dwight Macdonald wrote in Partisan Review that the essay demonstrated Burnham's need for a father figure. First Aquinas, then Trotsky, then Hitler, and now as Hitler neared defeat, Stalin. Burnham retorted in a Partisan Review piece that Macdonald resembled a whiny child who complained when he did not get his way.

15. Burnham, “Lenin's Heir,” 67.

16. Burnham, “Lenin's Heir,” 67.

17. Burnham, “Lenin's Heir,” 67.

18. James Burnham, “On Eisenstein's Mea Culpa,” New Leader, January 4, 1947, 12.

19. Burnham, “Eisenstein's Mea Culpa,” 12.

20. Burnham, “Eisenstein's Mea Culpa,” 12.

21. Burnham, “Eisenstein's Mea Culpa,” 12.

22. Burnham, “Eisenstein's Mea Culpa,” 12.

23. Martha Dodd was by now an active communist spy. She worked for the Soviet secret police in an effort to promote communism in America. Burnham's attacks on communism may partly be interpreted as attacks on Dodd.

24. Burnham to Hook, August 19, 1946, box 8, Sidney Hook Papers, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

25. Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (London: Robert Hale, 1946), 478.

26. James Burnham, The Struggle for the World (New York: John Day, 1947), 1.

27. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 6.

28. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 6.

29. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 7.

30. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 9.

31. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 12.

32. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 12.

33. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 10.

34. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 11.

35. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 62.

36. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 62.

37. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 65.

38. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 72.

39. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 74.

40. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 74.

41. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 109.

42. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 110.

43. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 110.

44. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 110.

45. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 119.

46. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 120.

47. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 122.

48. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 123.

49. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 124.

50. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 125.

51. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 125.

52. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 125.

53. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 127.

54. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 127–128.

55. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 128–129.

56. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 128.

57. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 141.

58. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 141.

59. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 142.

60. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 143.

61. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 143.

62. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 181.

63. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 189.

64. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 8.

65. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 178.

66. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 178.

67. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 182.

68. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 53.

69. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 212.

70. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 213–214.

71. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 187–188.

72. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 188.

73. As Burnham would have noted, terms must be defined. What makes someone a neoconservative must be clarified for anyone making an argument. Certainly, neoconservatives recommend an activist US foreign policy to promote and protect democracy. But there is more to neoconservatism than this. Burnham critiques other aspects of neoconservatism in a May 12, 1972 National Review article titled “Selective, Yes. Huamnism, Maybe.”

74. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 230.

75. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 229.

76. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 229.

77. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 229.

78. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 212.

79. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 393, n33.

80. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 239–240.

81. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 240.

82. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 240.

83. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 240.

84. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 240–241.

85. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 243.

86. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 244.

87. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 244.

88. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 244.

89. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 35.

90. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 243.

91. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 244.

92. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 244–245.

93. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 245.

94. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 245–246.

95. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 246.

96. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 246.

97. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 246.

98. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 244–245.

99. Burnham, The Struggle for the World, 223.

100. Kelly, James Burnham, 129.

101. Roughly the same percentage of Americans perished in World War II as have died from COVID-19 between 2020 and 2024.

102. Former Soviet Ambassador William C. Bullitt's The Great Globe Itself (New York: Scribner, 1946), Kennan's “long telegram” (more in note 110) and John Foster Dulles's two articles in Life magazine titled “Thoughts on Soviet Foreign Policy and What to Do About It” are some examples that Burnham was familiar with. Dean Acheson stated that the United States was not ready for world leadership, Ambassador Averell Harriman argued that the Soviet economy was weak, and Secretary of State James F. Byrnes demanded a US monopoly of nuclear weapons before Burnham's book.

103. Andrew Swanberg, Luce and His Empire (New York: Scribner, 1972), 254.

104. “The Truman-Burnham Parallel,” Christian Century, June 4, 1947, 702.

105. Life Magazine, March 31, 1937, 52–80.

106. Swanberg, Luce and His Empire, 254.

107. New York Times, Best Seller List, April 20, 1947, Non-Fiction.

108. Louis Menand, The Free World: Art and Thought in the Cold War (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2021), 9.

109. Menand, The Free World, 9.

110. George Kennan, “Long Telegram,” February 22, 1946, https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116178.pdf.

111. Sarah-Jane Corke, US Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy: Truman, Secret Warfare and the CIA, 1945–1953 (New York: Routledge, 2007), 193, n95.

112. Corke, US Covert Operations, 193, n95. Burnham would later skewer Bohlen and Davies while writing for The Freeman. More in chapter 9.

113. John Lewis Gaddis, George Kennan (New York: Penguin, 2011), 258–259.

114. George Orwell, “Burnham's View of the Contemporary Struggle,” cited in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letter of George Orwell, 1945–1950, vol. 4, ed. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1968), 313.

115. Orwell, “Burnham's View,” 317.

116. Orwell, “Burnham's View,” 317.

117. Orwell, “Burnham's View,” 324.

118. Orwell, “Burnham's View,” 325.

119. Orwell, “Burnham's View,” 325.

120. Arthur Schlesinger, “World War III,” The Nation, April 5, 1947, 398.

121. Schlesinger, “World War III,” 398.

122. Arthur Schlesinger, The Vital Center (Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2018), 236.

123. Schlesinger, The Vital Center, 236.

124. Schlesinger, The Vital Center, 239.

125. Schlesinger, The Vital Center, 240.

126. Joseph Romano, “James Burnham in France: The Export-Import of the ‘Managerial Revolution’ after 1945,” Revue française de science politique 53, no. 2 (April 2003): 261.

127. Romano, “James Burnham in France,” 261.

128. Michael Curtis, “Raymond Aron and La France libre,” in Political Reason in the Age of Ideology: Essays in Honor of Raymond Aron, ed. Bryan-Paul Frost and Daniel J. Mahoney (New York: Routledge, 2007), 168.

129. Carlos Gasper, “Raymond Aron and the Origins of the Cold War,” in Political Reason in the Age of Ideology, 179.

130. Gasper, “Raymond Aron and the Origins,” 184.

131. Andre Malraux and James Burnham, The Case for De Gaulle: A Dialogue Between Andre Malraux and James Burnham (New York: Random House, 1948), 45.

132. Malraux and Burnham, Case for De Gaulle, 46.

133. Malraux and Burnham, Case for De Gaulle, 43.

134. Malraux and Burnham, Case for De Gaulle, 53.

135. Burnham, “What Is the Purpose of the United Nations?,” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, July 1947, 1.

136. Burnham, “What Is the Purpose,” 2.

137. Burnham, “What Is the Purpose,” 7.

138. Burnham, “What Is the Purpose,” 7.

139. Burnham, “What Is the Purpose,” 8. The United Nations was a Cold War battleground almost from the outset. An early proxy war occurred over Iran. During World War II, the British, Americans, and Soviets stationed troops there. After World War II, the British and Americans left per an agreement, but Soviet troops remained. Iran demanded a UN investigation. Soviet representative to the UN Andrei Gromyko used procedural maneuvers to delay the process.

140. Burnham, “What Is the Purpose,” 10.

141. Hearings on Proposed Legislation to Curb or Control the Communist Party of the United States: Hearings, US Government Printing Office, 1948, 380.

142. Hearings on Proposed Legislation, 380.

143. John Parnell Thomas, Hearings Regarding the Communist Infiltration of the Motion Picture Industry: Hearings Before the Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, Eightieth Congress, First Session, Public Law 601 (section 121, subsection Q(2)), US Government Printing Office, 1947, 217.

1. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 138.

2. “Burnham to Hook,” January 11, 1949, Sidney Hook Papers, box 8, folder 5, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

3. “Burnham to Hook,” January 11, 1949.

4. James Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism (New York: John Day, 1950), 9.

5. See, for example, Lenin's “The Latest Word in Bundist Nationalism,” in Lenin: Collected Works, VI (Moscow: Progress, 1903), 518.

6. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 2.

7. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 17–18.

8. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 28.

9. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 29.

10. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 34.

11. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 34.

12. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 21. A February 1948 communist coup in Czechoslovakia was followed by purges and restrictions of basic rights, such as competitive elections. The coup helped inspire passage of the Marshall Plan. Two months after the coup, President Truman put into effect a trade agreement that was arranged before the coup. It involved basic home goods, clothes, and food. Burnham was not alone in his criticism.

13. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 23.

14. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 24.

15. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 27.

16. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 27.

17. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 36–37.

18. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 36.

19. After reading Lippmann's work, Kennan came to believe that he overstated his case for US intervention through the policy of containment.

20. Walter Lippmann, The Cold War (New York: Harper, 1947), 16–17. Burnham stressed the importance of ideology and the Red Army. He related to the two in “Stalin and the Junkers: The Logic of the New Line-up,” The Commonweal, September 15, 1944.

21. Lippmann, The Cold War, 18–19.

22. Lippmann, The Cold War, 33–34.

23. Lippmann, The Cold War, 61.

24. Lippmann, The Cold War, 61.

25. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 44.

26. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 44.

27. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 44.

28. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 58.

29. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 136.

30. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 107.

31. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 110.

32. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 130.

33. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 146.

34. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 132.

35. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 133.

36. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 140.

37. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 23.

38. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 145.

39. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 146–147.

40. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 147.

41. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 24.

42. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 148.

43. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 165.

44. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 165.

45. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 169.

46. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 169.

47. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 177.

48. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 177.

49. George Kennan, “The Inauguration of Organized Political Warfare,” National Archives and Records Administration, Record group 59, entry A1 558-B, Policy Planning Staff/Council, Subject files, 1947–1962, box 28, https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/208714.pdf?v=0dcd3b6b5638d93857f6ba75cee7c0cf.

50. Kennan, “Inauguration of Organized Political Warfare,” memorandum, April 1948.

51. Kennan, “Inauguration of Organized Political Warfare.”

52. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 150.

53. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 152.

54. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 152.

55. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 153.

56. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 152–153.

57. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 151.

58. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 153–154.

59. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 154.

60. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 154.

61. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 154.

62. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 227.

63. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 227.

64. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 254.

65. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 255.

66. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 272–273.

67. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 275.

68. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 273–274.

69. Burnham, The Coming Defeat of Communism, 278.

70. The initial divide was between reform-minded communists led by Mikhail Gorbachev and hardliners who resisted change, such as Erich Honecker.

71. Pope John Paul II, in particular, inspired anticommunist forces in Poland. It is not a coincidence that the first popular protests and free elections that brought down a communist regime occurred in Eastern Europe's most Catholic country.

72. Numerous Soviet sources suggest that the US military buildup in the early 1980s helped provoke reform by showing how far the Soviets lagged in the arms race. Always a key component in determining who was winning the Cold War, Soviet failures in this area showed that change was needed. Other issues that inspired reforms include Soviet military failure in Afghanistan, a stagnated economy and rising discontent among satellite states.

73. Christian F. Ostermann, Between Containment and Rollback: The United States and Cold War History (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2021), 169.

74. Stefan Creuzberger, Kampf für die Einheit: Das gesamtdeutsche Ministerium und die Politische Kultur des Kalten Krieges 1949–1969 (Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag, 2008), 53.

75. Cited in Benjamin Tromly, Cold War Exiles and the CIA: Plotting to Free Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 279.

76. Tromly, Cold War Exiles and the CIA, 281.

77. Franklin Burdette, “Review of The Coming Defeat of Communism by James Burnham,” Social Science 25, no. 4 (October 1950): 269.

78. John P. Diggins, Up from Communism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 12.

79. Charles Poore, “Books of the Times,” review of The Coming Defeat of Communism by James Burnham, New York Times, February 16, 1950, 21.

80. James Reston, “A Chart for Taming the Russians,” review of The Coming Defeat of Communism by James Burnham, New York Times, February 19, 1950, Section BR.

81. “Talk with James Burnham,” New York Times, February 26, 1950, Section BR.

82. A 2000 book argued that Kennan favored rollback, too. See Peter Grose, Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000).

83. “Burnham versus Kennan,” Washington Post, March 25, 1950.

84. “Burnham versus Kennan.”

85. Paul Nitze, From Hiroshima to Glasnost: At the Center of the Decision (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1989), 93.

86. National Security Council Report 68 (NSC-68), Report to the National Security Council by the Executive Secretary on United States Objectives and Programs for National Security, April 11, 1950, https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116191.pdf?v=2699956db534c1821edefa61b8c13ffe.

87. NSC-68.

88. NSC-68.

89. Editorial, “For the Sake of Koreans,” New York Times, July 1, 1950.

90. Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), 118.

91. Hoopes, Devil and John Foster Dulles, 118.

92. John Foster Dulles, War or Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1950), 2.

93. Dulles, War or Peace, 32.

94. Dulles, War or Peace, 162.

1. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 138. It would become a permanent leave.

2. Kelly, James Burnham, 151.

3. Kelly, James Burnham, 152.

4. Kelly, James Burnham, 152.

5. Kelly, James Burnham, 154.

6. CIA, “Project Outline,” QKDROOP, August 28, 1950, 7, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/QKDROOP_0001.pdf.

7. CIA, “Project Outline,” 8.

8. CIA, “Project Outline,” 7.

9. “Catholic Jubilee Year,” December 1, 1949, James Burnham Papers, box 11, folder 1, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

10. Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2013), 303.

11. “The 35th Anniversary of Lenin's Death, December 6, 1949, James Burnham Papers, box 11, folder 1, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

12. “Lenin's Anniversary,” December 8, 1949, James Burnham Papers, box 11, folder 1, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

13. “Cartoons,” December 8, 1949, James Burnham Papers, box 11, folder 1, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

14. Niccolò Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy (New York: Open Road Media, 2020), 249.

15. Miles Copeland, “Activist, Strategist,” National Review, September 11, 1987, 37. Roosevelt makes no mention of Burnham in his Countercoup: The Struggle for Control of Iran (New York: McGraw Hill, 1979).

16. Kelly, James Burnham, 183.

17. Kelly, James Burnham, 183–184.

18. Kelly, James Burnham, 184.

19. “Psychological Warfare in China,” December 13, 1949, James Burnham Papers, box 11, folder 1, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

20. “Psychological Warfare in China.”

21. “Psychological Warfare in China.”

22. James Burnham, “Psychological Warfare or Else,” James Burnham Papers, box 2, folder 18, Hoover Institution Library Archives.

23. Burnham, “Psychological Warfare or Else.”

24. Burnham, “Psychological Warfare or Else.”

25. Burnham, “Psychological Warfare or Else.”

26. Burnham, “Psychological Warfare or Else.”

27. CIA, “Information Report on Cultural and Scientific Conference for World Peace,” May 2, 1949, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00926A001100030004-4.pdf.

28. CIA, “Information Report.”

29. CIA, “Information Report.”

30. CIA, “Information Report.”

31. CIA, “Information Report.”

32. Cited in Sarah Miller Harris, CIA and the Congress for Cultural Freedom (New York: Routledge, 2018), 68.

33. Cited in Harris, CIA and the Congress, 69.

34. James Burnham, “Rhetoric and Peace,” Partisan Review, November–December 1950, 861.

35. Burnham, “Rhetoric and Peace,” 863.

36. Burnham, “Rhetoric and Peace,” 863.

37. Burnham, “Rhetoric and Peace,” 866.

38. Burnham, “Rhetoric and Peace,” 868.

39. Kelly, James Burnham, 134.

40. James Burnham, “Philosophy of Communism,” Naval War College Information Service for Officers, March 1952, 73–75.

41. Burnham, “Philosophy of Communism,” 77.

42. James Burnham, Containment or Liberation: An Inquiry into the Aims of United States Foreign Policy (New York: John Day, 1953), 31.

43. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 31.

44. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 34.

45. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 34–35.

46. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 61.

47. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 64.

48. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 65.

49. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 68.

50. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 69.

51. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 70.

52. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 80.

53. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 98.

54. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 95.

55. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 112.

56. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 112.

57. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 183.

58. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 185.

59. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 189.

60. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 189.

61. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 192–193. The US Air Force helped thousands of stranded Muslims in Beirut reach Mecca in 1952.

62. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 191.

63. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 208.

64. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 208.

65. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 217.

66. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 217.

67. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 218.

68. George Kennan, “The Sources of Soviet Conduct,” Foreign Affairs, July 1947, 582.

69. George F. Kennan, “Preparedness as Part of Foreign Relations,” Armed Services Committee Washington, DC, January 8, 1948.

70. V. I. Lenin, “Letter to Central Committee Members,” October 24, 1917.

71. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 220.

72. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 222.

73. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 225.

74. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 225.

75. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 226. Burnham spent much time trying to help organize the American-sponsored The Free Europe College in the early 1950s. See box 9, folder 2 for a host of his recommendations to leaders at the university.

76. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 227.

77. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 240–241.

78. Burnham, Containment or Liberation, 242.

79. James Burnham, “Can America Liberate the World?,” This Week Magazine, February 8, 1953; James Burnham Papers, box 1, folder 8, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

80. Burnham was referring to the Egyptian Revolution and the Iraqi intifada, both in 1952.

81. Burnham, “Can America Liberate the World?”

82. Burnham, “Can America Liberate the World?”

83. Burnham, “Can America Liberate the World?”

84. Arthur Schlesinger Jr., “Middle Aged Man with a Horn,” New Republic, March 16, 1953, 17. Burnham was in the process of having a falling out with the Harvard historian over the issue of Joseph McCarthy. More later in this chapter.

85. George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1950–1963 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), 100.

86. “Nomination of Charles E. Bohlen,” March 2, 1953, US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.

87. CIA Deputies Meeting, February 26, 1953, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80B01676R002300120032-1.pdf.

88. Martha Dodd and her husband Alfred K. Stern were two figures accurately accused of communism by McCarthy. This may help explain why Burnham refused to condemn the senator.

89. James Burnham, “Editor Meets Senator,” The Freeman, June 15, 1953, 661.

90. Sidney Hook, Out of Step (New York: Harper and Row, 1987), 422.

91. Kelly, James Burnham, 190.

92. Kelly, James Burnham, 187.

93. Kelly, James Burnham, 189.

94. John P. Diggins, Up from Communism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 328.

95. Diggins, Up from Communism, 328.

96. James Burnham, “A Letter of Resignation,” Partisan Review, November–December 1953, 716.

97. Burnham, “Letter of Resignation,” 716.

98. Burnham, “Letter of Resignation,” 716.

99. Diggins, Up from Communism, 328.

100. Kelly, James Burnham, 192.

101. Kelly, James Burnham, 204.

102. Kelly, James Burnham, 204.

103. James Burnham, Web of Subversion (New York: John Day, 1954), 19.

104. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 15, 18–19.

105. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 18.

106. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 19–20.

107. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 20.

108. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 20.

109. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 22.

110. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 36.

111. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 36–37.

112. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 71.

113. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 72.

114. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 160.

115. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 71.

116. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 75.

117. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 139–140.

118. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 169.

119. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 224. Racism has been described in the same way by scholars. See María del Carmen Salazar and Jessica Lerner, Teacher Evaluation as Cultural Practice: A Framework for Equity and Excellence (New York: Routledge, 2019), chap. 3; or Malcolm Cross and Michael Keith, eds., Racism, the City and the State (New York: Routledge, 1993), 207.

120. See, for example, Cotton Mather, More Wonders of the Invisible World (1693).

121. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 219.

122. Burnham, Web of Subversion, 219.

123. Burnham, Web of Subversion.

124. Schlesinger, “Freedom's Enemies,” The Saturday Review, March 20, 1954, 16.

125. Schlesinger, “Freedom's Enemies,” 16.

126. Irving Kristol, “Web of Realism,” Commentary, June 1954, 609.

127. Kristol, “Web of Realism,” 610.

128. Kristol, “Web of Realism,” 610.

129. James Burnham, “Was Bohlen a Blunder?,” The Freeman, May 4, 1953, 551–552.

130. James Burnham, “How the IPR Helped Stalin Seize China,” The Freeman, June 30, 1952, 645–650.

131. James Burnham, “No Firecrackers Allowed,” The Freeman, October 1955, 684.

132. Burnham, “No Firecrackers Allowed,” 686.

1. “Publisher's Statement,” National Review, November 19, 1955, 5–7.

2. That does not mean it tolerated all right-wing voices. With Burnham's support, Buckley generally excluded John Birchers and Ayn Randians.

3. William F. Buckley, “James Burnham,” National Review, September 11, 1987, 31.

4. James Burnham, “Down Stalin, Up Lenin, ? ? Trotsky,” National Review, July 25, 1956, 8.

5. James Burnham (unsigned), “End the Masquerade,” National Review, July 18, 1956, 5.

6. Burnham, “End the Masquerade,” 5.

7. Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2013), 460.

8. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), 232.

9. James Burnham, “The Week,” National Review, November 24, 1956, 3.

10. James Burnham, “The Week,” National Review, December 8, 1956, 3.

11. James Burnham, Suicide of the West: An Essay on the Meaning and Destiny of Liberalism (New York: John Day, 1964), 306.

12. James Burnham (unsigned), “Earthquake at Suez,” National Review, August 11, 1956, 4.

13. Burnham, “Earthquake at Suez,” 4.

14. Burnham, “Earthquake at Suez,” 4.

15. Burnham, “The Third World War,” National Review, November 26, 1955, 20. The 1955 Baghdad Pact, an alliance between Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom, helped trigger the arms sale. It was designed to counter Soviet influence in the region, but Egypt interpreted the pact as aggressive.

16. Burnham, “The Third World War,” 20.

17. James Burnham, “Abstractions Kill the West,” National Review, December 8, 1956, 6.

18. Burnham, “Abstractions Kill the West,” 6.

19. Burnham, “Abstractions Kill the West,” 6.

20. Lippman had made a similar proposal in 1947. Kennan would too.

21. James Burnham, “Sighting the Target,” National Review, December 29, 1956, 12.

22. The description of the conflict between Burnham and Schlamm is based on Daniel Kelly's account in James Burnham, 234–236.

23. James Burnham, “Disinformation Bureaus,” National Review, November 30, 1957, 488.

24. Burnham, “Disinformation Bureaus,” 488.

25. James Burnham, “The Burnt Child Jumps Into the Fire,” National Review, October 5, 1957, 300.

26. James Burnham, “Words East and West,” in The War We Are In: The Last Decade and the Next (New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1967), 263.

27. James Burnham, “Horns of a Nuclear Dilemma,” National Review, August 31, 1957, 187.

28. Burnham, “Horns of a Nuclear Dilemma,” 187.

29. Burnham, “Horns of a Nuclear Dilemma,” 187.

30. Burnham, “Horns of a Nuclear Dilemma,” 189.

31. Burnham, “Horns of a Nuclear Dilemma,” 189.

32. Burnham wrote a 1962 piece for NR that scolded then-ambassador Galbraith for not representing American interests. Like Schlesinger, Burnham and Galbraith were one-time friends. Galbraith sent Burnham a get-well note after a stroke in the late 1970s.

33. Galbraith to Burnham, August 6, 1971, James Burnham Papers, box 6, folder 27, Hoover Institution Library and Archives.

34. John Kenneth Galbraith, The New Industrial State (New York: Penguin, 1991), 126–127, n5.

35. James Burnham, “Books in Brief,” National Review, May 3, 1959, 430.

36. Burnham was not alone in his criticism at this point. Kennan's lectures may have been widely reported, but that does not mean that the contents were widely supported.

37. James Burnham (unsigned), “At Home,” National Review Bulletin, December 13, 1958, 4. Kennan had to have known that Burnham wrote this unsigned piece.

38. George Kennan, “Letter to the Editor,” National Review Bulletin, December 27, 1958, 2.

39. George Kennan, “Draft of Unused Letter to Mr. W. Buckley,” April 11, 1960, George F. Kennan Papers. 1861–2014, Series 4, writings 1879–2004, subseries 4D, Major Unused Drafts, box 241, folder 21, Mudd Library, Princeton, NJ.

40. Kennan, “Draft of Unused Letter.”

41. Burnham adopted this concept from Oswald Spengler who predicted the rise of “Caesarism” in The Decline of the West (New York: Knopf, 1926).

42. James Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1959), 23.

43. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 23.

44. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 23.

45. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 25.

46. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 36.

47. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 34.

48. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 127.

49. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 130.

50. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 150.

51. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 54.

52. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 157.

53. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 160.

54. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 163.

55. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 29.

56. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 61.

57. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 120.

58. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 221.

59. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 223–224.

60. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 224.

61. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 234.

62. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 252.

63. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 234–235.

64. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 333.

65. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 333–334.

66. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 334.

67. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 336.

68. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 335.

69. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 336.

70. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 349.

71. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 344.

72. Burnham, Congress and the American Tradition, 344.

73. Samuel Francis, “Burnham Agonistes,” Chronicles: A Magazine of American Culture, July 2002.

74. James Burnham, “The Dulles Record: An Appraisal,” National Review, May 9, 1959, 44.

75. Burnham, “Dulles Record: An Appraisal,” 44.

76. Burnham, “Dulles Record: An Appraisal,” 44.

77. James Burnham, “A Foreign Policy for the Republican Party,” in The War We Are In, 124.

78. Burnham, “Foreign Policy for the Republican Party,” 124.

79. Burnham, “Foreign Policy for the Republican Party,” 126.

80. Burnham, “Foreign Policy for the Republican Party,” 126.

81. James Burnham, “Needed: A Blow,” National Review, April 22, 1961, 248.

82. Burnham, “Needed: A Blow,” 248.

83. Burnham, “Who Gives a Whoop?,” National Review, April 9, 1963, 279.

84. James Burnham, “The Choking Point,” National Review, March 27, 1962, 203.

85. Burnham, “Choking Point,” 203.

86. Burnham, “Who Gives a Whoop?,” 279.

87. James Burnham, “Can’t Make a Policy without Breaking Some Eggheads,” National Review, February 26, 1963, 141.

88. In early April 1961, the State Department released a pamphlet about Cuba. It was extensively revised by Schlesinger and contended “we are confident that the Cuban people, with their passion for liberty, will continue to strive for a free Cuba.” US Department of State, Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. X, Cuba, January 1961–September 1962, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d79.

89. Burnham, “Can’t Make a Policy,” 141.

90. James Burnham, “What Lessons, What Profit?,” National Review, May 6, 1961, 276.

91. Burnham, “What Lessons,” 82.

92. James Burnham, “On the Horns of Our Dilemma,” National Review, October 21, 1961, 265.

93. James Burnham, “The Gentle Khrushchev,” National Review, December 31, 1962, 505.

94. James Burnham, “Turn of the Kaleidoscope,” National Review, February 26, 1963, 154.

95. Burnham, “Turn of the Kaleidoscope,” 154.

96. James Burnham (unsigned), National Review Bulletin, December 10, 1963, 1.

97. James Burnham, “Operation Will-o’the-Wisp,” National Review supplement, November 5, 1960, 6.

98. Burnham, “Operation Will-o’the-Wisp,” 8.

99. Burnham, “Operation Will-o’the-Wisp,” 8.

100. Lee Edwards, Barry Goldwater: The Man Who Made a Revolution (Washington, DC: Regnery, 1995), 129.

101. Barry Goldwater, The Conscience of a Conservative (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 9.

102. Goldwater, The Conscience of a Conservative, 81–82.

103. Goldwater, The Conscience of a Conservative, 82.

104. Goldwater, The Conscience of a Conservative, 84.

105. James Burnham, “Foreign Affairs,” National Review, July 14, 1964, 589.

106. James Burnham, “What to Do about the UN,” National Review, April 24, 1962, 284.

107. Burnham, “What to Do about the UN,” 284.

108. Burnham, “What to Do about the UN,” 284.

109. Burnham, “What to Do about the UN,” 284.

110. James Burnham, “Ideology and Foreign Aid,” National Review, April 10, 1962, 243.

111. Burnham, “Ideology and Foreign Aid,” 243.

112. Burnham, “Ideology and Foreign Aid,” 243.

113. James Burnham, “Foreign Aid: Distinctions Needed,” in The War We Are In, 164.

114. Burnham, “Foreign Aid,” 164.

115. Burnham, “Foreign Aid,” 164.

116. Cited in Kelly, James Burnham, 245.

117. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the French Revolution (New York: Dutton, 1951), 58.

118. Edmund Burke, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1962), 134.

119. Edmund Burke, “A Letter to Sir Hercules Langrishe, Bart., M.P,” in Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke (London: Nimmo, 1887), 4: 301.

120. Brent Bozell, “Freedom or Virtue,” National Review, September 11, 1962, 181–187.

121. Frank Meyer, “The Twisted Tree of Liberty,” National Review, January 16, 1962, 25–26.

122. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 5.

123. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 40–42.

124. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 126.

125. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 129.

126. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 136.

127. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 136.

128. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 136.

129. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 127.

130. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 148.

131. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 137.

132. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 138.

133. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 69.

134. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 69.

135. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 70.

136. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 71.

137. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 135.

138. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 141.

139. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 107–108.

140. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 123.

141. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 123.

142. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 132.

143. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 145.

144. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 145.

145. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 145.

146. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 109.

147. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 109.

148. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 106.

149. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 107.

150. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 107.

151. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 108. In the early 1960s, clean-up drives were launched to improve the Bowery area of New York City.

152. Burke, Reflections on the French Revolution, 46.

153. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 188.

154. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 189.

155. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 203.

156. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 190–191.

157. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 204.

158. Burnham's views of the bureaucracy as presented in The Managerial Revolution are briefly discussed in the book.

159. Russell Kirk, Conservative Mind: From Burke to Santayana (Chicago: Regnery, 1953), 444.

160. Kirk, Conservative Mind, 444.

161. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 281.

162. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 288.

163. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 282.

164. Michael Oakeshott, Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1991), 54.

165. “Russel-Einstein Manifesto,” July 9, 1955, Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/key-documents/russell-einstein-manifesto.

166. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 227.

167. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 227.

168. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 292.

169. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 292.

170. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 294.

171. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 288.

172. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 289–290.

173. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 289.

174. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 289.

175. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 305.

176. The War We Are In (1967) is mostly a collection of past essays.

177. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 193.

178. Burnham, Suicide of the West, 194.

179. Irving Howe, “Bourbon on the Rocks,” New York Review, May 14, 1964, 12.

180. Gerhart Niemeyer, “Ideology as Fate,” Modern Age, Summer 1964, 320.

181. Henry Kissinger, “Begeht Der Westen Selbstmord,” Henry A. Kissinger Papers, part II, series VI, press clippings, German reviews of writings by Henry Kissinger, Yale University Digital Collections.

1. James Burnham, “What Are We Doing in Vietnam?,” National Review, March 23, 1965, 232.

2. James Burnham, “The Weakest Front,” National Review, June 15, 1965, 499.

3. Burnham, “The Weakest Front,” 499.

4. George F. Kennan, “The Conceptual Element in Recent American Foreign Policy,” lecture at the Charles Warren Center at Harvard University, April 19, 1967.

5. Hans Morgenthau, In Defense of the National Interest (New York: Knopf, 1951), 242.

6. Hans Morgenthau, A New Foreign Policy for the United States (New York: Praeger, 1969), viii.

7. James Burnham, “Whose National Interest,” National Review, May 6, 1969, 442.

8. Burnham, “Whose National Interest,” 443.

9. Burnham, “Whose National Interest,” 443.

10. James Burnham, “Bell for the Next Round,” National Review, July 13, 1965, 583.

11. Burnham, “Bell for the Next Round,” 583.

12. James Burnham, “Knots of Our Own Tying,” National Review, September 7, 1965, 762.

13. Burnham, “Knots of Our Own Tying,” 762.

14. Burnham, “Knots of Our Own Tying,” 762.

15. Burnham, “Knots of Our Own Tying,” 762.

16. Burnham, “Knots of Our Own Tying,” 762.

17. Leon Trotsky, The Permanent Revolution and Results and Prospects, trans. John G. Wright, revised Brian Pearce (New York: Pioneer, 1965).

18. Different protests across the country had different immediate causes. The Vietnam War is just part of the broader context.

19. James Burnham, “Whose Peace,” in The War We Are In: The Last Decade and the Next (New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1967), 274.

20. Burnham, “Whose Peace,” 274.

21. Burnham, “Whose Peace,” 276.

22. Burnham, “Whose Peace,” 276.

23. James Burnham, “Student Riots and Blanqui's Legacy,” National Review, June 18, 1960, 392.

24. James Burnham, “From Ho, With Love,” National Review, March 8, 1966, 203.

25. James Burnham, “While in That Corner,” National Review, March 9, 1969, 186.

26. Burnham, “While in That Corner,” 186.

27. Burnham, “Globalism,” in The War We Are In, 137–138.

28. Burnham, “Globalism,” 138.

29. Burnham, “Globalism,” 138.

30. Burnham, “Globalism,” 138–139.

31. James Burnham, “Joys and Sorrows of Empire,” National Review, July 13, 1971, 748.

32. Burnham, “Joys and Sorrows,” 748.

33. Burnham, “Joys and Sorrows,” 748.

34. Burnham, “Joys and Sorrows,” 748.

35. This treaty banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and under water.

36. James Burnham, “Questions Begging,” National Review, August 27, 1963, 148.

37. Burnham, “Questions Begging,” 148.

38. Burnham,” Questions Begging,” 148.

39. James Burnham, “Is Disarmament Possible?,” in The War We Are In, 151.

40. James Burnham, “A War Distorted,” New York Times, April 9, 1971.

41. Burnham, “A War Distorted,” 31.

42. Burnham, “A War Distorted,” 31.

43. Before the late 1960s, elements of both parties supported these ideas.

44. James Burnham, “Reply to Letters,” National Review, June 29, 1971, 720.

45. James Burnham, “Rhetoric and Medicare,” National Review, August 24, 1965, 720.

46. James Burnham, “Logical Steps Forward,” National Review, April 6, 1957, 323–324.

47. James Burnham, Suicide of the West (New York: John Day, 1964), 167–168.

48. James Burnham, “Why Not Investigate the Court?,” National Review, July 20, 1957, 84.

49. James Burnham, “Earl Warren: Ideologue,” National Review, July 4, 1956, 5.

50. James Burnham, “Utopia and Civil Rights,” National Review, August 3, 1957, 127.

51. Burnham, “Utopia and Civil Rights,” 127.

52. Editorial, “Why the South Must Prevail,” National Review, August 24, 1957, 148–149.

53. Editorial, “Why the South Must Prevail,” 148.

54. Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002), xix.

55. James Burnham, “Parakeets and Parchesi: An Indian Memorandum,” Partisan Review, September–October 1951, 559.

56. Burnham, “Parakeets and Parchesi,” 561.

57. Burnham, “Parakeets and Parchesi,” 561.

58. Daniel Kelly attributed Burnham's sentiments about India to his distaste for its prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, whom Burnham believed was not pro-Western enough.

59. James Burnham, “In Tribute to Sir John Kotelawala,” in The War We Are In, 213.

60. Burnham, “In Tribute to Sir John Kotelawala,” 213.

61. Burnham, “In Tribute to Sir John Kotelawala,” 213.

62. James Burnham, “Rising Expectations of What?,” in The War We Are In, 228.

63. James Burnham, “Too Much Too Soon,” National Review, August 27, 1960, 107.

64. Burnham, “Rising Expectations,” 229.

65. Burnham, “Rising Expectations,” 229.

66. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Richard Philcox (New York: Grove, 1963), 1.

67. James Burnham, “Are Americans Black Natives?,” National Review, February 9, 197l, 133.

68. Burnham, “Are Americans Black Natives?,” 133.

69. James Burnham, “The Explosion of Africa,” in The War We Are In, 218.

70. James Burnham, “What Is Ahead for Black Africa?,” in The War We Are In, 221.

71. Burnham, “What Is Ahead for Black Africa?,” 221.

72. James Burnham, “The Week,” National Review, March 12, 1960, 164.

73. James Burnham, “Danger! Ideologues at Large!,” in The War We Are In, 229.

74. James Burnham, “The Loneliest Men,” National Review, March 12, 1960, 164.

75. James Burnham, “Fire Burn, Cauldron Bubble,” National Review, November 30, 1965, 1062–1063.

76. Burnham, “Fire Burn, Cauldron Bubble,” 1063.

77. Burnham, “Fire Burn, Cauldron Bubble,” 1063.

78. Burnham, “Fire Burn, Cauldron Bubble,” 1063.

79. James Burnham, “Global Apartheid?,” National Review, October 18, 1966, 1036.

80. Boumédiène came to power through a bloodless coup and then abolished the constitution and parliament.

81. Ghana became a one-part state in 1964.

82. Burnham, “Global Apartheid,” 1036. Although he recognized that all groups are part of history, Spengler distinguished between ahistorical people and those who had world historical consciousness.

83. Burnham, “Global Apartheid,” 1036.

84. Burnham, “Global Apartheid,” 1036.

85. James Burnham (unsigned), “Closing the Doors,” National Review, June 17, 1969, 578.

86. Burnham, “Closing the Doors,” 578.

87. Burnham, “Closing the Doors,” 578.

88. Burnham, “The Loneliest Men,” 164.

89. Burnham, “The Loneliest Men,” 164.

90. Burnham, “The Loneliest Men,” 164.

91. Burnham, “The Loneliest Men,” 164.

92. James Burnham, “The Balance Sheet,” National Review, May 18, 1971, 518.

93. James Burnham, “Who Shall Be Master?,” National Review, August 11, 1964, 688.

94. James Burnham, “How Blows the East Wind,” National Review, March 24, 1964, 230.

95. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 218. Gaddis's emphasis.

96. Burnham seemed to have grasped this at the very end of his writing career. In a letter to Buckley in 1978, he questioned the loyalty of the Chinese to the Soviets.

97. Patrick J. Buchanan, memorandum to Attorney General H. R. Haldeman, December 3, 1971, Richard Nixon Presidential Library, “Contested Materials Collection,” box 3, folder 56.

98. Laurence Jurdem, Paving the Way for Reagan (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2018), 73.

99. Jurdem, Paving the Way, 73.

100. Jurdem, Paving the Way, 73.

101. James Burnham to Henry Kissinger, December 7, 1973, Henry Kissinger Papers, part II, MS 1981, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.

102. James Burnham, “It's All Your Fault,” National Review, April 25, 1975, 441.

103. Burnham, “It's All Your Fault,” 441.

104. Burnham, “It's All Your Fault,” 441.

105. James Burnham, “Go East, Old Man,” National Review, May 23, 1975, 549.

106. Burnham, “Reflections on Defeat,” 549.

107. Burnham, “Reflections on Defeat,” 549.

108. Burnham, “Reflections on Defeat,” 549.

109. Burnham, “Reflections on Defeat,” 549.

110. Burnham, The War We Are In, 20.

111. Burnham, The War We Are In, 20.

112. Burnham, The War We Are In, 20.

113. James Burnham, “A Ford Foreign Policy,” National Review, August 30, 1974, 959.

114. Burnham, “A Ford Foreign Policy,” 959.

115. James Burnham, “Détente, the Tarnished Banner,” National Review Bulletin, May 2, 1975, B57.

116. James Burnham, “Helsinki, Here We Come,” National Review, August 1, 1975, 813.

117. Burnham, “Helsinki, Here We Come,” 813.

118. James Burnham, “The Logic of Détente,” National Review, August 15, 1975, 873.

119. Burnham, “The Logic of Détente,” 873.

120. Burnham, “The Logic of Détente,” 873.

121. James Burnham, “The Dialectics of Détente,” National Review, August 29, 1975, 928.

122. Burnham, “The Dialectics of Détente,” 928.

123. James Burnham, “Politics and Morality,” National Review, November 12, 1976, 1226.

124. Burnham, “Politics and Morality,” 1226.

125. See Ron Reagan, My Father at 100 (New York: Viking, 2011) for a personal account of Reagan's love of reading.

126. Thomas W. Evans, The Education of Ronald Reagan (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 9.

127. James Burnham, “The Resonance Differential,” National Review, June 6, 1975, 602.

128. Burnham, “Resonance Differential,” 602.

129. Ronald Reagan, Reagan, In His Own Hand (New York: Free Press, 2001), 130.

130. Reagan, In His Own Hand, 130.

131. James Burnham, “Salt—Verifiability 0,” National Review, January 6, 1978, 22.

132. Reagan, In His Own Hand, 76.

133. Reagan, In His Own Hand, 78. Reagan's emphasis.

134. The “trust but verify” idea has played an important role in twenty-first century American politics. Regarding the Iran deal, President Obama stated: “This deal is not built on trust. It is built on verification.” Republican critic of the Iran deal, Senator James Inhofe (R-OK) said, “President Reagan's method to diplomatic negotiations was trust but verify. This deal has no guarantee of verification.” President Joe Biden has insisted that verification be part of any extension of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START). Verification, in fact, has been part of all START treaties.

135. Ronald Reagan, “The President's News Conference,” January 29, 1981, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum, https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/presidents-news-conference-1.

136. Reagan, “The President's News Conference.”

137. Interview with the President, October 16, 1981, Presidential Documents, 1160–1161, Ronald Reagan, “Remarks and a Question-and-Answer Session at a Working Luncheon with Out-of-Town Editors,” October 16, 1981, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum, https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/remarks-and-question-and-answer-session-working-luncheon-out-town-editors.

138. Ronald Reagan, “Remarks at the Annual Convention of the National Association of Evangelicals in Orlando, FL,” March 8, 1983, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum, https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/remarks-annual-convention-national-association-evangelicals-orlando-fl.

139. Ronald Reagan, “Address to Members of the British Parliament,” June 8, 1982, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum, https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/address-members-british-parliament. These ideas should not be labeled as merely the thoughts of the president's speechwriters. Their speeches were based on ideas that Reagan has been publicly expressing for many years. And Reagan always carefully edited his important presidential speeches.

140. Ronald Reagan, “Remarks at the Presentation Ceremony for the Presidential Medal of Freedom,” February 23, 1983, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum, https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/remarks-presentation-ceremony-presidential-medal-freedom.

1. Ronald Reagan, “Statement on Death of James Burnham,” July 29, 1987, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum, https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/statement-death-james-burnham.

2. William Kristol and Robert Kagan, “Bombing Iraq Isn’t Enough,” New York Times, January 30, 1998, Section A.

3. Robert Kagan and William Kristol, “What to Do about Iraq?,” Weekly Standard, January 21, 2002, 23.

4. Robert Kagan wrote a 2002 piece titled “Power and Weakness” for Policy Review, no. 113 (June and July 2002). It examines European and US conceptions of power in the international arena. The twenty-five-page essay uses the word “power” 156 times.

5. Vivek Ramaswamy, @VivekGRamaswamy, “The real divide isn’t black vs. white or even Democrat vs. Republican. It's the managerial class vs. the everyday citizen,” X, January 21, 2024.

6. See, for example, Malcom Kyeyune, “Wokeness, the Highest Stage of Managerialism,” City Journal, Spring 2022, https://www.city-journal.org/article/wokeness-the-highest-stage-of-managerialism; or Julius Krein, “James Burnham'sManagerial Elite,” American Affairs, Spring 2017, https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2017/02/james-burnhams-managerial-elite/.

7. Thomas Meany, “Trumpism after Trump,” Harper's Magazine, February 2020, https://harpers.org/archive/2020/02/trumpism-after-trump/.

8. Donald Trump, inaugural address, January 20, 2017, Washington, DC, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/the-inaugural-address/.

9. Donald Trump, speech, Billings, MT, September 6, 2018, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-make-america-great-again-rally-billings-montana.

10. Donald Trump, speech, Warsaw, Poland, July 6, 2017, https://www.cnn.com/2017/07/06/politics/trump-speech-poland-transcript/index.html.

11. Donald J. Trump, @realDonaldTrump, “The United Nations has such great potential but right now it is just a club for people to get together, talk and have a good time. So sad!,” Twitter, December 26, 2016.

12. Donald Trump, “Remarks by Donald Trump on Actions against China,” May 29, 2020, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-actions-china/.

13. Donald Trump, “Remarks to the United Nations General Assembly,” September 25, 2018, New York City, https://2017-2021.state.gov/president-trump-addresses-the-73rd-un-general-assembly/.

14. James Burnham, “Joys and Sorrows of Empire,” National Review, July 13, 1971, 748.