“Notes” in “The Geography of Injustice”
NOTES
Archives frequently cited have been identified by the following abbreviations:
AH | Academia Historica, Taiwan |
---|---|
AWM | Australia War Memorial |
CARMD | China’s anti-rightist movement database |
CMOFA | Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives |
CMPD | China’s mid-1950s political movement database |
FRUS | Foreign Relations of the United States |
HIA | Hoover Institute Archives, Stanford, California |
IRCA | International Red Cross Archives, Geneva |
IRRC | Chinese Communist Party Internal Reference Reports Collection, University Services Center, Chinese University Hong Kong |
JPR | Japan’s Parliamentary Record |
KGNA | Kew Garden, National Archives |
MJPHMR | Modern Japanese Political History Materials Room in the National Diet Library, Tokyo |
MODA | Ministry of Defense Archives, Ichigaya, Tokyo |
MOFAAJ | Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives, Japan |
MOFAT | Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives housed in Academia Sinica |
NAA | National Archives of Australia |
NAJ | National Archives of Japan |
NARA | National Archives, College Park, Maryland |
RPP | Rosco Pound Papers at Harvard University Law Library |
SLRA | Sir Leon Radzinowicz Archive, Florida State University |
TBA | Tōyō Bunko Archives |
YSA | Yasukuni Shrine Archives |
Introduction
1. The documentary was broadcast in China in September 2020, but it is also available on DVD: Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Asia Pacific War Crimes Trials), an eight-episode series, Shanghai jiaotong daxue dianzi yinxiang chubanshe, 2021. A book was later produced: Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021).
2. The Beituan massacre is detailed in Itō Toshiharu’s interview for NHK, NHK sensō ākaibuzu, sensō shōgen, produced November 4, 2011, https://www2.nhk.or.jp/archives/shogenarchives/shogen/movie.cgi?das_id=D0001100729_00000.
3. Li Qingxiang, interview, May 30, 2019, in Yatai zhanzheng shenpan, 180–181, 190–192.
4. Flora Sapio, Susan Trevaskes, Sarah Biddulph, and Elisa Nesossi, eds., Justice: The China Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017); Barrie Sander, Doing Justice to History: Confronting the Past in International Criminal Courts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 1–25.
5. Haiyan Lee, A Certain Justice: Toward an Ecology of the Chinese Legal Imagination (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2023).
6. Evelyn Goh, The Struggle for Order: Hegemony, Hierarchy, and Transition in Post-Cold War East Asia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 159–201. For more on processes of reconciliation, see the series: Asano Toyomi, ed., Wakaigaku no kokoromi: kioku, kanjō, kachi, vol. 1 (Akashi shoten, 2021). (Unless otherwise noted, all Japanese books are published in Tokyo).
1. The Kaleidoscope of Defeat in East Asia
1. Fujiwara Akira, Shōwa no rekishi, vol. 5, Nicchū zenmen sensō (Shōgakukan shuppansha, 1994 edition), 68–73.
2. Zheng Fulai, interview, May 29, 2019, in Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 150–151.
3. Masha Gessen, “What HBO’s ‘Chernobyl’ Got Right, and What It Got Terribly Wrong,” New Yorker, June 4, 2019, https://
www ; Na Li, “History, Memory, and Identity: Oral History in China,” Oral History Review 47, no. 1 (2020): 26–51..newyorker .com /news /our -columnists /what -hbos -chernobyl -got -right -and -what -it -got -terribly -wrong 4. “China’s Best Ship Lost,” New York Times, November 23, 1894; Hans van de Ven, Breaking with the Past: The Maritime Customs Service and the Global Origins of Modernity in China (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), 111.
5. Yasuoka Akio, “Meiji 19nen nagasaki shinkoku suihei sōtō jiken,” Hōsei daigaku bungaku kiyō, dai 36gō, (1990): 50–51.
6. Asai Sachiko, “Shinkoku hokuyō kantai raikō to sono eikyō,” Aichi shukutoku daigaku gendai shakai kenkyū hōkoku 4 (2009): 58.
7. Weipin Tsai, “The First Casualty: Truth, Lies and Commercial Opportunism in Chinese Newspapers during the First Sino-Japanese War,” in Print, Profit, and Perception: Ideas, Information and Knowledge in Chinese Societies, 1895–1949, ed. Pei-yin Lin and Weipin Tsai (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 227–234.
8. “China’s Best Ship Lost,” The North-China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette (Shanghai), November 23, 1894; S. C. M. Paine, The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 229–230.
9. “Ueno kōen de kaisai suru daiichi shukushō taikai no junjo,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 8, 1894, morning edition.
10. Tsuchida Seijirō, Tōkyōshi shukushō taikai (Shūeisha, 1895).
11. Kinoshita Naoyuki, Sensō to iu misemono: nisshin sensō shukushō taikai sennyūki (Kyoto: Mineruva shobō, 2013), 1–18.
12. Tsuchida, Tōkyōshi shukushō taikai, 139.
13. The North—China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette (Shanghai), November 23, 1894.
14. “Shinkoku gunkan chinen ga nagasaki ni tōchaku,” Yomiuri shimbun, July 12, 1895, morning edition; The North—China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette (Shanghai), August 16, 1895.
15. Zhong Hanbo, Zhuwai wuguan de shiming—yiwei haijun junguan de huiyi (Taipei: Maitian chubanshe, 1998), 53–54.
16. “Panoramakan,” Fūzoku gahō, 123gō, (September 25, 1896): 26–28.
17. Asahi shimbun, February 10, 1895, Tokyo morning edition.
18. “Chinen no ikari kenpishiki,” Asahi shimbun, May 28, 1942, Tokyo evening edition.
19. Kari Shepherdson-Scott, “Entertaining War: Spectacle and the Great ‘Capture of Wuhan’ Battle Panorama of 1939,” Art Bulletin 100, no. 4 (2018): 81–105.
20. Zhong, Zhuwai wuguan de shiming, 3.
21. Letter from Major General of the Chinese Army Lee Li-Bai to SCAP, June 26, 1946, in “Yaoqiu riben guihuan guqiwu,” Waijiaobu, Guoshiguan, 020—1-119-0013, AH. I thank Professor Chang Li for sharing his archives on this historical episode with me.
22. Letter from Lee Li-Bai to SCAP, July 15, 1946, in “Yaoqiu riben guihuan guqiwu,” Waijiaobu, Guoshiguan, 020—1-119-0013, AH.
23. In February 1948, the Chinese Mission in Tokyo considered whether gifts that Wang Jingwei had sent to Emperor Hirohito could be returned to General Chiang Kai-shek and put on display at his residence in Nanjing as commemorative war victory items. See “Wang niri tianhuang yuwan kefou yunjing,” No. 002000000456A, in Jiangzhongzheng zongton wenwu, diancanghao: 002-020400-00052-124, AH.
24. Chang-tai Hung, Mao’s New World: Political Culture in the Early People’s Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 112.
25. Barak Kushner, “Anchors of History: The Long Shadow of Imperial Japanese Propaganda,” in Fanning the Flames: Propaganda in Modern Japan, ed. Kaoru Ueda (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2021), 29–41.
26. Florian Schneider, China’s Digital Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 141.
27. Tor Krever, “International Criminal Law: An Ideology Critique,” Leiden Journal of International Law 26, no. 3 (September 2013): 708.
28. Kerstin Bree Carlson, Model(ing) Justice: Perfecting the Promise of International Criminal Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 127.
29. Dan Gretton, I You We Them: Journeys beyond Evil: The Desk Killer in History and Today (London: Penguin Random House, 2019), 30–31.
30. Urs Matthias Zachmann, “Yokota Kisaburō—Defending International Criminal Justice in Interwar and Early Post-war Japan,” in The Dawn of a Discipline: International Criminal Justice and Its Early Exponents, ed. Frédéric Mégret and Immi Tallgren (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 335–357; Matthias Zachman, “Loser’s Justice: The Tokyo Trial from the Perspective of the Japanese Defense Counsels and the Legal Community,” in Transcultural Justice at the Tokyo Tribunal: The Allied Struggle for Justice, 1946–48, ed. Kerstin von Lingen (Leiden: Brill, 2018), 284–306.
31. Kim Christian Priemel, The Betrayal: The Nuremberg Trials and German Divergence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 6.
32. Yuma Totani, “International Military Tribunals at Tokyo, 1946–1949: Individual Responsibility for War Crimes,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 2, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Cheah Wui Ling, and Yi Ping (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014), 31–65.
33. Higurashi Yoshinobu, Tokyo saiban (Kōdansha, 2008), 27–28; Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Pursuit of Justice in the Wake of World War II (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 20–23.
34. Hayashi Hirofumi, Sensō hanzai no kenkyū: senpan saiban seikaku no keisei kara tokyo saiban bishikyū saiban made (Bensei shuppan, 2010); Sandra Wilson, Robert Cribb, Beatrice Trefalt, and Dean Aszkielowicz, Japanese War Criminals: The Politics of Justice after the Second World War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 77–78, provides the most recent reliable figures and demonstrates where discrepancies originate.
35. Wang Guodong, Riben xijunzhan zhanfan boli shenpan shilu (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 2005); Grégory Dufaud, “Khabarovsk, 1949 L’autre procès des criminels de guerre japonais,” 20&21 Revue d’histoire, no. 148 (April 2020): 51–64; Valentina Polunina, “The Khabarovsk Trial: The Soviet Riposte to the Tokyo Tribunal,” in Trials for International Crimes in Asia, ed. Kirsten Sellars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 121–144.
36. Yun Xia, Down with Traitors: Justice and Nationalism in Wartime China (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017).
37. Aiyaz Husain, Mapping the End of Empire: American and British Strategic Visions in the Postwar World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 2.
38. Robert Gildea, Empires of the Mind: The Colonial Past and the Politics of the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 64.
39. Robert Cribb, “The Burma Trials of Japanese War Criminals, 1946–1947,” in War Crimes Trials in the Wake of Decolonization and Cold War in Asia, 1945–1956: Justice in Time of Turmoil, ed. Kerstin von Lingen (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 121. Cribb elucidates these goals specifically in reference to Burma, but I believe they hold true in general for the European colonial powers and other Allied aims.
40. Beatrice Trefalt, “The French Prosecution at the IMTFE: Robert Oneto, Indochina and the Rehabilitation of French Prestige,” in von Lingen, Wake of Decolonization, 51–67; Ann-Sophie Schoepfel, “Justice and Decolonization: War Crimes on Trial in Saigon, 1946–1950,” in von Lingen, Wake of Decolonization, 168.
41. See Rana Mitter, China’s Good War: How World War II Is Shaping a New Nationalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 2020.
42. Kamila Szczepanska, The Politics of War Memory in Japan: Progressive Civil Society Groups and Contestation over Memory of the Asia-Pacific War (London: Routledge, 2014).
43. Martti Koskenniemi, “Between Impunity and Show Trials,” in Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, vol. 6, ed. J. A. Frowein and R. Wolfrum (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 11; Neil Boister, “The Tokyo Military Tribunal: A Show Trial?,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 2, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Cheah Wui Ling, and YI Ping, (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014), 3–29. See also Otto Kirchheimer, Political Justice: The Use of Legal Procedure for Political Ends (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962).
44. Koskenniemi, “Show Trials,” 18.
45. Seumas Milne, “Hague Is Not the Place to Try Milosevic,” The Guardian, August 2, 2001, https://
www ..theguardian .com /politics /2001 /aug /02 /warcrimes .serbia 46. Koskenniemi, “Show Trials,” 30; Jacques Vergès, De La Stratégie Judiciaire (Paris: Les edition de minuit, 1968), 104; Filip Strandberg Hassellind, “The International Criminal Trial as a Site for Contesting Historical and Political Narratives: The Case of Dominic Ongwen,” Social & Legal Studies 20, no. 10 (2020): 1–20.
47. Koskenniemi, “Show Trials,” 33.
48. Viet Thanh Nguyen, Nothing Ever Dies: Vietnam and the Memory of War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 17; Woo Kyung Im, “Jiyizhizhan: quanqiuhua shidai minzu jiyi de liebian, fenghe ji qi xingbie,” Taiwan shehui yanjiu jikan 70 (June 2008): 245–271.
49. Masi Noor, Nurit Shnabel, Samer Halabi, and Arie Nadler, “When Suffering Begets Suffering: The Psychology of Competitive Victimhood between Adversarial Groups in Violent Conflicts,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 16, no. 4 (2012): 362.
50. Mariska Kappmeier and Aurélie Mercy, “The Long Road from Cold War to Warm Peace: Building Shared Collective Memory through Trust,” Journal of Social and Political Psychology 7, no. 1 (2019): 538.
51. Lord Sumption, “The Limits of the Law” (27th Sultan Azlan Shah Lecture, Kuala Lumpur, November 20, 2013), online publication of the speech. Listen to his lecture “Law’s Expanding Empire,” The Reith Lectures, BBC, https://
www ; Jonathan Sumption, Trials of the State: Law and the Decline of Politics (London: Profile Books, 2019)..bbc .co .uk /programmes /m00057m8 52. Yukiko Koga, “Between the Law: The Unmaking of Empire and Law’s Imperial Amnesia,” Law and Social Inquiry 41, no. 2 (Spring 2016): 404.
53. Madoka Futamura, War Crimes Tribunals and Transitional Justice: The Tokyo Trial and the Nuremberg Legacy (Abingdon: Routledge, 2008), 65.
54. See Suping Lu’s book review in China Review International 21, no. 2 (2014): 149–179. While Lu’s criticism is in some ways valid, he misses the larger point that justice was not so easily pursued and became a pawn of larger forces.
55. Suzuki Chieko, “Maboroshi de wa nakatta hyakuningiri kyōsō,” Chūkiren, no. 27 (Winter 2003): 3–12.
56. Karl Gustafsson, “Memory Politics and Ontological Security in Sino-Japanese Relations,” Asian Studies Review 38, no. 1 (2014): 71–86; Shogo Suzuki, “Japanese Revisionists and the ‘Korea Threat’: Insights from Ontological Security,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 32, no. 3 (2019): 303–321.
57. Inada Tomomi, Hyakuningiri saiban kara nankin e (Bungei shunjū, 2007).
58. The Nippon Kaigi states its position toward the Tokyo Trial, borrowing heavily from Satō Kazuo, ed., Sekai ga sabaku tokyo saiban (Meiseisha, 2005). See: https://
www (originally posted December 11, 2008, Nippon kaigi website, Opinion). Sugano Tamotsu, Nihon kaigi no kenkyū (Fusōsha, 2016); Daiki Shibuichi, “The Japan Conference (Nippon Kaigi): An Elusive Conglomerate,” East Asia 34 (2017): 179–196; Sachie Mizohata, “Nippon Kaigi: Empire, Contradiction, and Japan’s Future,” Asia-Pacific Journal 14, issue 21, no. 4 (November 1, 2016): 9..nipponkaigi .org /opinion /archives /865 59. Mary Fulbrook, Reckonings: Legacies of Nazi Persecution and the Quest for Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 353. See also Tony Judt, “The Past Is Another Country: Myth and Memory in Postwar Europe,” in The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and Its Aftermath, ed. István Deák, Jan T. Gross, and Tony Judt (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 305.
60. David Cohen and Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 256.
2. The Shape of Justice
1. “Yuandong guoji fatingshang de guaiju,” Jiefang ribao, July 30, 1946.
2. Ju-Ao Mei, “China and the Rule of Law,” Pacific Affairs 5, no. 10 (October 1932): 863–872.
3. Xiaoqun Xu, Trial of Modernity: Judicial Reform in Early Twentieth-Century China, 1901–1937 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 91.
4. Fan Zhongxin, You Chenjun, and Gong Xianzhai, ed., Wei shenme yao chongjian zhongguo faxi: Ju Zheng fazheng wenxuan (Beijing: Zhongguo zhengfa daxue chubanshe, 2009), 24–26; Terada Hiroaki, “The Crowded Train Model: The Concept of Society and the Maintenance of Order in Ming and Qing Dynasty China,” in Law in a Changing World: Asian Alternatives, ed. Morigawa Yasumoto (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1998), 100–109.
5. Fan et al., Wei shenme, 26.
6. Fan et al., Wei shenme, 27–29.
7. Fan et al., Wei shenme, 47.
8. Yang Zhaolong, “Zhongguo falu jiaoyu zhi ruodian ji qi bujiu zhi fanglue,” in Yang Zhaolong faxue wenji, ed. Yang Zhaolong, Ai Yongming, and Lu Jinbi (Beijing: Falu chubanshe, 2005), 229–243.
9. Glenn Douglas Tiffert, “Judging Revolution: Beijing and the Birth of the PRC Judicial System (1906–1958)” (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2015).
10. Tahirih Lee, “Orienting Lawyers in China’s Tribunals before 1949,” Maryland Journal of International Law 27, no. 129 (2012): 182. See also Pasha L. Hsieh, “The Discipline of International Law in Republican China and Contemporary Taiwan,” Washington University Global Studies Law Review 14, no. 1 (2015): 87–129. Dongwu University was referred to in English as Soochow University, or Suzhou University in modern pinyin.
11. Li Xiuqing, “John C. H. Wu at the University of Michigan School of Law,” Journal of Legal Education 58, no. 4 (December 2008): 549; John C. H. Wu, Beyond East and West (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1951), 66–67; Sei Jeong Chin, “Autonomy through Social Networks: Law, Politics, and the News Media in Modern China, 1931–1957” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2008), 52.
12. I am grateful to Isaac Gagné for suggesting this idea. The language of thinking of justice as a commodity and a transaction is his.
13. Renmin fayuanbaoshe, ed., Zhengyi de shenpan: jinian zhongguo renmin kangri zhanzheng shengli qishi zhounian (Beijing: Renmin fayuanchubanshe, 2016), 422. See Review of the Records of Trials before United States of American Military Commissions, Shanghai, China, a review of its own record of trials that lists ten trials of Japanese and one trial of German nationals. Found at the ICC Legal Tools Database: https://
www . Chaen Yoshio, ed., Bishikyū senpan beigun shanhai nado saiban shiryō (Fuji shuppansha, 1989), 132–135; Timothy Brook, “The Shanghai Trials, 1946: Conjuring Postwar Justice,” in Zhanhou bianju yu zhanzheng jiyi, ed. Lyu Fangshang (Taipei: Academia Historica, 2015), 127–155..legal -tools .org /doc /282e93 /pdf / 14. “Tilanqiao jianyu—jingnei shouci qiaoxiang shenpan riben zhanfan fachui,” September 3, 2015, in series Zhengyi de shenpan zhi meiguo shenpan shanghai, in the Renmin fayuanbao, tekan, from 2015 (available for download or online reading at the People’s Court Daily [Renmin fayuanbao] website, http://
rmfyb )..chinacourt .org / 15. RG 153, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), War Crimes Branch, China War Crimes File, 1945–1948, XIV-A thru XIV-F, box 12, War Crimes Files, Nanking, China, Master Index XIV-A Folder “War Crimes Summary,” NARA.
16. Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story: The Account of Four Years of Humiliating Defeat, Surrender, and Captivity (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1970; originally published in 1945), 245–246; Prisoner of the Rising Sun: The Lost Diary of Brig. Gen. Lewis Beebe, ed. John M. Beebe (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006).
17. RG 153, Records of the Office of Judge Advocate General (Army), War Crimes Branch, Historian Background Files, box 2, Legal Section—SCAP, Shanghai, NARA.
18. Katō Tetsurō, Hōshoku shita akuma no sengo—731 butai to Futaki Hideo seikai jīpu (Kadensha, 2017), 23.
19. William S. Hamilton, Notes from Old Nanking, 1947–1949: The Great Transition (Canberra: Pandanus Books, 2004), 30.
20. WO 32/15509, Confidential Memo, subj: War Crimes against British Subjects in the Far East, June 14, 1946, KGNA.
21. Guillaume Mouralis, “The Invention of ‘Transitional Justice,’ in the 1990s,” in Dealing with Wars and Dictatorships, ed. Liora Israël and Guillaume Mouralis (The Hague: Asser Press, 2014), 83–100.
22. Tanaka Hiromi, Bishikyū senpan (Chikuma shobō, 2002), 21.
23. Jeanne Guillemin, Hidden Atrocities: Japanese Germ Warfare and American Obstruction of Justice at the Tokyo Trial (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 116.
24. See Amanda Weiss, “ ‘A Continuous Retrial’: Trans/national Memory in Chinese and Japanese Tribunal Films,” Arts 9, no. 1:2 (2020): 1–16.
25. Kaya Okinori, Senzen/sengo hachijūnen (Keizai ōraisha, 1976), 191.
26. Kaya, Senzen/sengo hachijūnen, 174.
27. Udagawa Kōta, “Senpan no sengo—senpan no sensō sekinin sensōkan sengo shakaikan,” Kikan sensō sekinin kenkyū 78 (2012): 22–23.
28. Harold R. Isaacs, No Peace for Asia, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967; originally published in 1947), 195.
29. Isaacs, No Peace for Asia, 197.
30. “Japanese Appeal to U.S.,” Manchester Guardian, September 15, 1945. See also Barak Kushner, “Imperial Loss and Japan’s Search for Postwar Legitimacy,” in The Dismantling of Japan’s Empire in East Asia: De-imperialization, Postwar Legitimation and Imperial Afterlife, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Routledge, 2017), 48–65.
31. Shōwa tennō jitsuroku, December 10, 1945, volume 34, Iwanami shoten, 176 (digital version). I thank Katō Yōko for sharing this resource.
32. John D. Pierson, Tokutomi Soho, 1863–1957: A Journalist for Modern Japan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 381–397; Tokutomi Sohō, Tokutomi Sohō ‘ganso yume monogatari’ (Kōdansha, 2015). Tokutomi also published a book in 1948, The School of Defeat (Haisen no gakkō), which examines the nature of the defeat for the Japanese public.
33. Nakasone Yasuhiro, Jiseiroku: rekishi hōtei no hikoku to shite (Shinchōsha, 2004), 33–34.
34. Nakasone, Jiseiroku, 32.
35. Hosaka Masayasu, Tennō ga jūkunin ita (Kadokawa bunko, 2001), 15.
36. John Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 243–244.
37. Ariyama Teruo, “Sengo nihon ni okeru rekishi kioku media,” Mediashi kenkyū 14 (April 2003): 7–9.
38. Narelle Morris, “Obscuring the Historical Origins of International Criminal Law in Australia: The Australian War Crimes Investigations and Prosecutions of Japanese, 1942–1951,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 2, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Wui Ling Cheah, and Ping Yi (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014), 388.
39. Andrew Levidis, “Politics in a Fallen Empire: Kishi Nobusuke and the Making of the Conservative Hegemony in Japan,” in In the Ruins of the Japanese Empire: Imperial Violence, State Destruction, and the Reordering of Modern East Asia, ed. Barak Kushner and Andrew Levidis (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2020), 161–184.
40. Ian Buruma, Year Zero: A History of 1945 (London: Atlantic Books, 2013), 239.
41. Akira Iriye, “Historicizing the Cold War,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, ed. Richard Immerman and Petra Goedde (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 16–17.
42. Tanaka Akihiko, Ajia no naka no nihon (NTT shuppan, 2007), 3–4.
43. Kent Calder and Min Ye, The Making of Northeast Asia (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), 227.
44. See Araragi Shinzō, Kawakita Atsuko, and Matsuura Yūsuke, Hikiage tsuihō zanryū: sengo kokusai minzoku idō no hikaku kenkyū (Nagoya: Nagoya daigaku shuppan, 2019); Araragi Shinzō, ed., Teikoku hōkai to hito no saiidō (Bensei shuppan, 2011).
45. Kawashima Shin, “ ‘De-imperialization’ in Early Postwar Japan: Adjusting and Transforming Institutions of Empire,” in Dismantling, 30–47.
3. When the Hero of Your Story Is the Villain of Another
1. Lyu Fangshang, “Cong riji ji danganzhong guancha Jiang Jieshi duiri waijiao celue 1930–1940s,” in 2003 niandu caituan faren jiaoliu xiehui ritai jiaoliu sentā lishi yanjiuzhe jiaoliu shiye baogaoshu, Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, March 2004.
2. Anja Bihler, “Late Republican China and the Development of International Criminal Law: China’s Role in the United Nations War Crimes Commission in London and Chungking,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law, vol. 1, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Wui Ling Cheah, and Ping Yi (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic Publisher, 2014), 507–540.
3. Odd Arne Westad, Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War: 1946–1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 69–70.
4. Shimomura Kainan, Shūsen hishi (Kōdansha, 1985), 301–304.
5. Diane Lary, China’s Civil War: A Social History, 1945–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 45.
6. For a critique of Pound, see Jedidiah J. Kroncke, “Roscoe Pound in China: A Lost Precedent for the Liabilities of American Legal Exceptionalism,” Brooklyn Journal of International Law 38, no. 1 (2012): 2–67; Wen-Wei Lai, “Forgiven and Forgotten: The Republic of China in the United Nations War Crimes Commission,” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 25, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 306–339.
7. The Roscoe Pound Papers, Part I: Correspondence, 1907–1964, reel 68 of 127, RPP.
8. The Roscoe Pound Papers, Part I: Correspondence, 1907–1964, reel 68 of 127, RPP.
9. Letter from November 7, 1946, The Roscoe Pound Papers, Part I: Correspondence, 1907–1964, reel 68 of 127, RPP.
10. Barak Kushner, Men to Devils, Devils to Men: Japanese War Crimes and Chinese Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 80–82.
11. Xiang Longwan and Marquise Lee Houle, “In Search of Justice for China: The Contributions of Judge Hsiang Che-chun to the Prosecution of Japanese War Criminals at the Tokyo Trial,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law, vol. 2, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Wui Ling Cheah, and Ping Yi (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic Publisher, 2014), 143–175. See also Qing Dechun, Qin Dechun huiyilu (Taipei: Zhuanji wenxue chubanshe, 1967).
12. Li Lingling, Fajie jubo, Ni Zhengyu zhuan (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 2008), 42–43.
13. Li, Fajie jubo, Ni Zhengyu zhuan, 44.
14. David Cohen and Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 213; Son Ansoku, “Shanghai no ‘ashū seiki’ga mita sengo nihon no seiji,” in Sengo nihon to chūgoku chōsen: Purange bunko o hitotsu no tegakari toshite, ed. Ōsaki Hiroaki (Kenbun shuppan, 2013), 218–220.
15. Li, Fajie jubo, Ni Zhengyu zhuan, 44; Kayoko Takeda, Interpreting the Tokyo War Crimes Trial: A Sociopolitical Analysis (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2010); Kayoko Takeda, “The Visibility of Collaborators: Snapshots of Wartime and Post-war Interpreters,” in Framing the Interpreter: Towards a Visual Perspective, ed. A. Fernández-Ocampo and M. Wolf (London: Routledge, 2014), 150–159.
16. Li, Fajie jubo, Ni Zhengyu zhuan, 45. These included Xiang’s brother-in-law, Zhou Yangqing, along with Gao Wenbin, Zheng Luda, Liu Jisheng, and interpreter Liu Zijian.
17. Huang Zijin, “Kangzhan jieshu qianhou Jiang Jieshi de duiri taidu: yide baoyuan zhenxiang de tantao,” Jindaishi yanjiusuo jikan, di 45qi, (2014): 143–194. For a fuller overview of Chinese Nationalist POW camps which housed Japanese solders see: Kishi Toshihiko, Ajia taiheiyō sensō to shūyōjo—jūkei seikenka no hishūyōsha no shōgen to kokusai kyūsai kikan no kiroku kara (Kokusai shoin, 2021).
18. Matsumoto Masao and Furusawa Toshio, Geishunka: Chō Ikushō no chūgoku kakumei kaikoroku (Meitoku shuppansha, 1978), 220–221.
19. Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (New York: Harper Collins, 2000, 360.
20. Tanaka Hiroshi and Matsuzawa Tetsunari, eds., Chūgokujin kyōsei renkō shiryō: gaimushō hōkokusho zen gobunsatsu hoka (Gendai shokan, 1995); and NHK, Maboroshi no gaimushō hōkokusho: chūgokujin kyōsei renkō no kiroku (NHK Publishers, 1994); Yukiko Koga, “Inverted Compensation: Wartime Forced Labor and Post-imperial Reckoning,” in Overcoming Empire in Post-imperial East Asia: Repatriation, Redress and Rebuilding, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Bloomsbury Publishers, 2020), 183–197.
21. Barbara R. Ambros, Bones of Contention: Animals and Religion in Contemporary Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2012), 208; Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War Two, updated ed. (New York: Routledge, 2018).
22. Japan’s National Diet Library has digital copies of the main prewar and wartime cabinet decisions online (https://
rnavi )..ndl .go .jp /politics /entry /bib00428 .php 23. Hosaka Masayasu, “Sensō ni makeru to, ānaru Yamada Fūtarō to chūgokuhei horyo,” Sandei mainichi, July 25, 2010, 52–55; Yamada Fūtarō, Senchūha fusen nikki (Kōdansha, 2002), 306–309.
24. Gavan McCormack, The Emptiness of Japanese Influence, rev. ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015), 253–255; Higaki Takashi, Matsushiro daihon’ei no shinjitsu (Kōdansha gendaishinsho, 1994).
25. Yukiko Koga, “Accounting for Silence: Inheritance, Debt, and the Moral Economy of Legal Redress in China and Japan,” American Ethnologist 40, no. 3 (2013): 494–507; Yukiko Koga, “Between the Law: The Unmaking of Empire and Law’s Imperial Amnesia,” Law & Social Inquiry 41, no. 2 (Spring 2016): 402–434.
26. Tanaka and Matsuzawa, eds., Chūgokujin kyōsei renkō shiryō, 14–15.
27. Tanaka and Matsuzawa, Chūgokujin kyōsei renkō shiryō, 785.
28. NHK shuzaihan, NHK supesharu maboroshi no gaimushō hōkokusho chūgokujin kyōsei renkō no kiroku (Nihon hōsō shuppan kyōkai, 1994); William Brand Simpson, Special Agent in the Pacific, WWII: Counter-intelligence; Military, Political and Economic (New York: Rivercross Publishing, 1995).
29. Li Enmin, “Nicchūkan no rekishi wakai wa kanōka: chūgokujin kyōsei renkō no rekishi wakai o jirei ni,” Kyōkai kenkyū, no. 1 (October 2010): 97–112; Richard Minear and Franziska Seraphim, “Hanaoka Monogatari: The Massacre of Chinese Forced Laborers, Summer 1945,” Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 13, issue 26, no. 1 (2015): 1–46.
30. William Underwood, “NHK’s Finest Hour: Japan’s Official Record of Chinese Forced Labor,” Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 4, no. 8 (2006): 6.
31. Tanaka Hiroshi, “Kaisetsu,” in Chūgokujin kyōsei renkō shiryō: gaimushō hōkokusho, ed. Tanaka Hiroshi and Matsuzawa Tetsunari (Gendai shokan, 1995), 802.
32. Koga, “Between the Law,” 407.
33. Ishitobi Jin, Hanaoka jiken kajima kōshō no kiseki (Sairyūsha, 2010), 38–39. “Shōwa sanjūgonen shigatsu nijūshichinichi teishutsu, shitsumon daigogō, chūgokujin kyōsei renkō junnansha ni kansuru shitsumon shuisho,” April 27, 1958, available online at the House of Representatives, Japan website: http://
www ..shugiin .go .jp /internet /itdb _shitsumona .nsf /html /shitsumon /a034005 .htm 34. Ishitobi, Hanaoka jiken kajima kōshō no kiseki. The author’s actual name is Higuchi Jinichi.
35. Nozoe Kenji, ed., Hanaoka jiken o mita nijūnin no shōgen (Ochanomizu shobō, 1993), 140–141.
36. Nozoe, Hanaoka jiken o mita nijūnin no shōgen, 25–27.
37. Lu Junsheng and Zeng Xiaowen, eds., Nanyang yinglie: erzhan qijian babuyaniujineiya jingnei guojun jiangshi jilu (Taibei: Guofangbu shizheng bianyishi, 2009), 25.
38. G. J. Douds, “The Men Who Never Were: Indian POWs in the Second World War, South Asia,” Journal of South Asian Studies 27, no. 2 (2004): 183–216; Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 92–96.
39. Lu and Zeng, Nanyang yinglie, 36.
40. Lu and Zeng, Nanyang yinglie, 43. David Sissons incorrectly states that these Chinese brought to Rabaul were all from puppet Chinese militaries. D. C. S. Sissons, “The Australian War Crimes Trials and Investigations (1942–51),” p. 38, accessed July 15, 2020, https://
www . According to postwar Chinese oral history interviews, the Chinese dragooned into labor were from a variety of military and other backgrounds. See Tian Jitian, “Babai zhuangshi xingcunzhe de xuelei huiyi,” in Erzhan luri zhongguo laogong koushushi, vol. 5, Gangwan dangniuma, ed. He Tianyi (Jinan: Qilushushe, 2005), 387–392..ocf .berkeley .edu /~changmin /documents /Sissons%20Final%20War%20Crimes%20Text%2018 -3 -06 .pdf 41. Lu and Zeng, Nanyang yinglie, 183.
42. Lu and Zeng, Nanyang yinglie, 154–157. See also Lan Shichi, “Beizhiminzhe de zaoyu, diguo bufu de zeren: erzhanhou zaihaiwai beijuliu qianfan de taiwanren,” in Zhanzheng de lishi yu jiyi, ed. Lyu Fangshang (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2015), 348–388.
43. Yuma Totani, “Crimes against Asians in Command Responsibility Trials,” in Australia’s War Crimes Trials 1945–51, ed. Georgina Fitzpatrick, Tim McCormack, and Narrelle Morris (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Nijhoff, 2016), 266–290. Woo’s name in English is spelled in a variety of ways: Woo Yin, Woo Yian, Woo Yien. See also “Treatment of Chinese Prisoners of War,” Series Number AWM54, 1010/4/153, AWM.
44. See Peter Cahill, “Chinese in Rabaul—1921 to 1942: Normal Practices, or Containing the Yellow Peril?,” Journal of Pacific History 31, no. 1 (June 1996): 72–91.
45. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—MATSUSHIMA Tozaburo (Sergeant),” NAA: A471, 80915, 60 of the digital archived trial record, NAA. The island of Taiwan was more commonly referred to as Formosa in earlier times.
46. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—MATSUSHIMA Tozaburo (Sergeant),” 21–34 of the digital archived trial record, NAA.
47. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—HIROTA Akira (Major-General),” NAA: A471, 81653 PART B, 4 of the digital archived trial record, NAA; Yuma Totani, Justice in Asia and the Pacific Region, 1945–1952: Allied War Crimes Prosecutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 106–111.
48. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—HIROTA Akira (Major-General),” 7 of the digital archived trial record, NAA.
49. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—IMAMURA Hitoshi (General),” NAA: A471, 81635 PART A, 109 of the digital archived record of the trial, NAA. There seems to be agreement with this from the Australian side as well. Emmi Okada, “The Australian Trials of Class B and C Japanese War Crime Suspects, 1945–51,” Australian International Law Journal 16 (2009): 65. On the issue of legal status of Chinese POWs, see pages 67–68.
50. Georgina Fitzpatrick, “War Crimes Trials, ‘Victor’s Justice’ and Australian Military Justice in the Aftermath of the Second World War,” in The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials, ed. Kevin Jon Heller and Gerry Simpson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 337. At the end of the war, Imamura was initially tried and found guilty in Rabaul in 1947, under Australian jurisdiction. He was then transferred to the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) in 1949 and put on trial a second time for war crimes of command responsibility. See Fred L. Borch, Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies, 1946–1949 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 188–194.
51. Banzuiin Chōbei was a Tokugawa-era character who “allegedly fought against injustice, helped the weak, and defeated the strong.” He supposedly opposed the shogun’s henchmen who “tormented and bullied the townspeople of Edo.” Eiko Maruko Siniawer, Ruffians, Yakuza, Nationalists: The Violent Politics of Modern Japan, 1860–1960 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008), 114.
52. Giorgio Fabio Colombo, “Sakura Sōgōro: Law and Justice in Tokugawa Japan through the Mirror of a Ghost Story,” Law & Literature 29, no. 2 (2017): 334–336. Sakura contravened proper Tokugawa legal procedure and went over the heads of local lords to petition the shogun directly. He was executed by crucifixion.
53. Aso guni no eiyakubun (0295). The official call number and title are “Tōnan—soromon bizumaruku—163, Imamura Hitoshi taishō shūsen hiroku,” MODA. I thank Aiko Otsuka for typing this out from the handwritten documents. It is unclear if this letter was ever dispatched to the troops.
54. Georgina Fitzpatrick, “The Trials in Rabaul,” in Australia’s War Crimes Trials 1945–51, ed. Georgina Fitzpatrick, Tim McCormack, and Narrelle Morris (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Nijhoff, 2016), 556.
55. Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin (London: Bodley Head, 2010).
56. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 28.
57. “Mamoranakereba naranu heiwa, jūgonenkan de shakaishugi shiage,” Asahi shimbun, December 7, 1955, Tokyo morning edition.
58. Uchiyama Kanzō, Kakōroku: nicchū yūkō no kakehashi (Heibonsha, 2011), 514–516.
59. Minji Jeong and Youseop Shin, “Post-war Korean Conservatism, Japanese Statism, and the Legacy of President Park Chung-hee in South Korea,” Korean Journal of International Studies 16, no. 1 (April 2018): 68.
60. Carter Eckert, Park Chung Hee and Modern Korea: The Roots of Militarism, 1866–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2016), 4; Miura Hideki, Goshiki no niji: manshū kenkoku daigaku sotsugyōseitachi no sengo (Shūeisha, 2015); Barak Kushner, “Introduction: The Search for Meaning in Defeat and Victory,” in In the Ruins of the Japanese Empire: Imperial Violence, State Destruction, and the Reordering of Modern East Asia, ed. Barak Kushner and Andrew Levidis (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2020), 1–24; Hamaguchi Yūko, Manshūkoku ryūnichi gakusei no nicchū kankeishi: manshū jihen nicchūsensō kara sengo minkan gaikō e (Keisei shobō, 2015).
61. Barak Kushner, “Ghosts of the Japanese Imperial Army: The ‘White Group’ (Baituan) and Early Post-war Sino-Japanese Relations,” in “Transnationalism and Contemporary Global History,” supplement, Past and Present 218, no. S8 (2013): 117–150.
62. Jiang Jieshi, “Junguan xunliantuan biye xueyuan de renwu,” June 27, 1950, speech in Zongtong Jianggong sixiang yanlun zongji, vol. 23, 312–313, http://
www . I would like to thank Professor Huang Zijin for allowing me to paraphrase from two of his at that time unpublished papers..ccfd .org .tw /ccef001 /index .php 63. Jiang Zhongzheng, “Shijiu shiji yilai yazhou de xingshi he women fuguo jianguo de yaodao, (shang),” Zongtong Jianggong sixiang yanlun zongji, vol. 29, 96–99, http://
www . I would like to thank Professor Huang Zijin for allowing me to paraphrase from his then unpublished papers..ccfd .org .tw /ccef001 /index .php
4. Laying Blame for Japan’s War Responsibility
1. “Teki no hijindō, danko hōfuku shingata bakudan ni taisaku o kakuritsu,” Asahi shimbun, August 9, 1945, morning edition.
2. Shimokawa Masaharu, “Shūsenji no rikushō Anami Korechika: izoku ga kataru jiketsu nanjūnenme no shinjitsu,” Seiron, (November 2015): 312–325.
3. Georgina Fitzpatrick, “The Trials in Rabaul,” in Australia’s War Crimes Trials, 1945–51, ed. Georgina Fitzpatrick, Tim McCormack, and Narrelle Morris (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Nijhoff, 2016), 556–557; Fujiwara Akira, “ ‘Tennō no guntai’ no rekishi to honshitsu,” Kikan sensō sekinin kenkyu 11 (Spring 1996): 62.
4. Norimura Kaneko, Chiisa na chōsei—kodomo ga mita chūgoku no naisen (Shakai shisōsen, 1989), 14.
5. Shirōchi Asunobu and Fujigawa Hiroki, Chōsen hantō de mukaeta haisen: zairyū hōjin ga tadotta kunan no kiseki (Ōtsuki shoten, 2015), 41–42.
6. Marc Gallicchio, The Scramble for Asia: US Military Power in the Aftermath of the Pacific War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008), 29.
7. Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007), 12.
8. “Shengli shoujiang (1),” 002000002120A, in Jiangzhongzheng zongtong wenwu, diancanghao, 002-090105-00012-272, AH.
9. Stephen B. Connor, Mountbatten’s Samurai: Imperial Japanese Forces under British Control, 1945–1948 (Warrington: Seventh Citadel, 2015), 77–93.
10. Bayly and Harper, Forgotten Wars, 49.
11. Hayes report to UK Ambassador and Lt. General Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart, September 13, 1945, from Rupert Wingfield-Hayes, “Witnessing Japan’s surrender in China,” BBC News Magazine, September 2, 2015, http://
www ..bbc .co .uk /news /magazine -34126445 12. Akiko Hashimoto, The Long Defeat: Cultural Trauma, Memory, and Identity in Japan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 8.
13. Komatsu Shinichi, Ryojin nikki (Chikuma shobō, 1975), 213.
14. Asahi Shimbun Company, Media, Propaganda and Politics in 20th-Century Japan, trans. Barak Kushner (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 62–69, 71–81.
15. Carol Gluck, “Sekinin/Responsibility in Modern Japan,” in Words in Motion: Toward a Global Lexicon, ed. Carol Gluck and Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), 94–97.
16. Intermittent Diplomat: The Japan and Batavia Diaries of W. Macmahon Ball, edited and with an introduction by Alan Rix (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1988), 67, diary entry from June 6, 1946.
17. David Cohen and Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 144.
18. John Dower, Japan in War and Peace: Selected Essays (New York: New Press, 1993), 12.
19. Ishizaka Kimishige, “Shūsen zengo no tōdai to wareware ga uketa kyōiku,” in Nanbara Shigeru no kotoba: 8-gatsu 15-nichi, kenpō, gakumon no jiyū, ed. Tachibana Takashi (Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 2007), 31–32.
20. Nagai Hitoshi, Firipin to tainichi senpan saiban: 1945–1953 nen (Iwanami shoten, 2010), 62. See also Kerstin von Lingen, “Setting the Path for the UNWCC: The Representation of European Exile Governments on the London International Assembly and the Commission for Penal Reconstruction and Development, 1941–1944,” Criminal Law Forum 25, no. 1 (2014): 45–76; Dan Plesch and Shanti Sattler, “Before Nuremberg: Considering the Work of the United Nations War Crimes Commission of 1943–1948,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 1, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Wui Ling Cheah, and Ping Yi. (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014), 437–473.
21. Dai 88kai teikokukaigi, shūgiin, honkaigi, dai2gō, September 5, 1945, JPR. See also Shindō Eiichi, ed., Ashida Hitoshi nikki, vol. 1 (Iwanami shoten, 1986), 213.
22. Dai 88kai teikokukaigi, shūgiin, honkaigi, dai2gō, September 5, 1945, JPR.
23. Dai 88kai teikokukaigi, shūgiin, honkaigi, dai2gō, September 5, 1945, JPR.
24. Higashikuni Naruhiko, Higashikuni nikki (Tokuma shoten, 1968), 204.
25. Tanaka Hiromi, ed., Bishikyū senpan kankei shiryōshū, vol. 3 (Ryokuin shobō, 2012), 33–35.
26. Nagai, Firipin to tainichi, 68.
27. “Senpan yōgisha no toriatsukai ni kansuru nihon seifu tōsho no sochi,” within Senpan jimu shiryō (shōwa 16–20 nen) sono 1, Honkan 4B-023-00, Hei 11 hōmu 06335100, NAJ.
28. “Senpan yōgisha no toriatsukai ni kansuru nihon seifu tōsho no sochi,” within Senpan jimu shiryō (shōwa 16–20 nen) sono 1, Honkan 4B-023-00, Hei 11 hōmu 06335100, NAJ. See also “Senpan mondai ni kansuru moto rikusō Shimomura Sadamu-shi no kōjutsu, Shōwa 42 nen 1 gatsu,” part of the Inoue Tadao archives in Yasukuni kaikō bunko, YSA, 393.4e; Nagai Hitoshi, “Sensō hanzainin ni kansuru seifu seimeian—Higashikuninomiya naikaku ni yoru kakugi kettei no myakuraku,” in “Teikoku” to shokuminchi—“dainipponteikoku” hōkai rokujūnen, ed. Nenpō nihon gendaishi henshū iinkai, Nenpō nihon gendaishi, vol. 10 (Gendaishiryō shuppan, 2005), 277–321; and Shibata Shin’ichi, “Nihongawa senpan jishu saiban kōsō no tenmatsu” (in Dainiji sekai taisen—3, shūsen: fukuin to senryō), Gunjishigaku 31, no. 1–2 (September 1995): 338–349.
29. “Senpan mondai ni kansuru moto rikusō Shimomura Sadamushi no kōjutsu.”
30. Higashikuni, Higashikuni nikki, 239–240.
31. Tanaka Hiromi, ed., Bishikyū senpan kankei shiryōshū, vol. 1 (Ryokuin shobō, 2011), 331.
32. Suzuki Tadakatsu kanshū, Shūsen kara kōwa made, in series Nihon gaikōshi, vol. 26, ed. Kajima kenkyūjo shuppankai (Kajima kenkyūjo shuppankai, 1973), 37. Suzuki Tadakatsu in Amakawa Akira, ed., Gendaishi o kataru, vol. 6, Suzuki Tadakatsu (Gendai shiryō shuppan, 2008), 187–213. Toyota Kumao says this cabinet decision was never officially released. Toyoda Kumao, Sensō saiban yoroku (Taiseisha, 1986), 51.
33. Tanaka, Bishikyū senpan kankei shiryōshū, vol. 1, 330.
34. “Senpan yōgisha no toriatsukai ni kansuru nihon seifu tōsho no sochi.” The Americans executed Homma in the Philippines in 1946.
35. Sugita Ichiji, “Sensō shūketsu ni tomonau kongo no taikan to teikoku ni tsuite,” September 15, 1945, Chūō—sengo shori—80, MODA.
36. Okino Matao, Ikeru shikabane no ki (Tōhō shobō, 1999; originally published in 1946), 204; Todaka Kazushige, Nihon kaigunshi (PHP kenkyūjo, 2009), 220–221.
37. Nakata Seiichi, Torēshii nihonhei horyo himitsu jinmonsho (Kōdansha, 2010), 182–205. It was more unusual for a Japanese POW to be interrogated at Fort Hunt compared with the other secret Camp Tracy.
38. Yamada Akira, “Nihon no haisen to daihonei meirei,” Sundai shigaku, 94 (March 1995): 147–148.
39. “Shinnihon kensetsu no michi,” Mainichi shimbun, August 28, 1945, Tokyo morning edition; C. Clinton Godart, “Nichirenism, Utopianism, and Modernity: Rethinking Ishiwara Kanji’s East Asia League,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 42, no. 2 (2015): 235–274.
40. Mark Gayn, Japan Diary (Rutland, VT: Tuttle Publishers, 1984; second printing), 68.
41. “Senpan jimu shiryō (shōwa 16–20 nen) sono 1,” Honkan 4B-023-00, Hei 11 hōmu 06335100, NAJ.
42. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 477.
43. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 480.
44. Inoue Tadao shiryō, “Sensō saiban ni taisuru nihon seifu no kihon taido narabi ni hōshin,” 61023, 393.4. This is written on “Daini fukuinkyoku zanmu shoribu” stationery, no pagination, YSA. See also Toyoda, Sensō saiban yoroku, 48–62; Higurashi Yoshinobu, Tōkyō saiban (Kōdansha, 2008), 147–150. Udagawa Kōta digs further into preparations and inside Japanese maneuvering concerning the trial in Tōkyō saiban kenkyū (Iwanami shoten, 2022).
45. “Haisen no genin oyobi jissō chōsa no ken,” October 30, 1945, Kakugiketsu (Cabinet Decision). Japan’s national library has a website that details all key cabinet decisions (https://
rnavi )..ndl .go .jp /politics /entry /bib00678 .php 46. Tomita Kei’ichirō, “Haisen chokugo no sensō chōsakai ni tsuite—seisaku o kenshō suru kokoromi to sono zasetsu,” Refarensu 63, no. 1 (January 2013): 92–93.
47. Yoshida Yutaka, Nihonjin no sensōkan: sengoshi no naka no henyō, rev. ed (Iwanami shoten, 2005), 31. Aoki remembers it as 24th in Shidehara’s memoirs. See Shidehara heiwa zaidanhen, ed., Shidehara Kijūrō (Shidehara heiwa zaidan, 1955), 590.
48. Shidehara heiwa zaidanhen, Shidehara Kijūrō, 589.
49. Shidehara heiwa zaidanhen, Shidehara Kijūrō, 592.
50. “Shōwa 20nen 12gatsu 2nichizuke kizokuin […] Matsumura Giichikun no shitsumon,” in volume 1 of the collection Sensō chōsakai kankei shiryō, shū1244, MJPHMR. Matsumura was later purged from public office.
51. Tomita, “Haisen chokugo no sensō chōsakai ni tsuite,” 85–108.
52. “Tensei jingo” column, Asahi shimbun, January 9, 1946, Tokyo morning edition. The translation is from GHQ/SCAP RG 331, box 3462, folder 576 (8), Nov 1945–Sept 1948, MJPHMR.
53. “Sensō chōsakai dai2kai sōkaigi, shōwa 21.4.4,” in volume 1 of the collection Sensō chōsakai kankei shiryō, shū1244, MJPHMR.
54. “Sensō chōsakai dai2kai sōkaigi, shōwa 21.4.4,” MJPHMR.
55. Inoue Toshikazu, Sensō chōsakai: maboroshi no seifu bunsho o yomitoku (Kōdansha, 2017). See also Hirose Yoshihiro, ed., Sensō chōsakai jimukyoku shorui, vol. 1 (Yumani shobō, 2015).
56. As quoted in Jongsoo James Lee, The Partition of Korea after World War II: A Global History (New York: Palgrave, 2006), 51.
57. Nisso shinzen kyōkaihen, ed., Soren wa nihon ni nani o nozomuka: tainichi rijikai ni okeru soren daihyō no hatsugen/ Terebuyanko Kisurenko kyōjutsu (Ōdosha, 1949), 45–46.
58. Nisso shinzen kyōkaihen, Soren wa nihon ni nani o nozomuka, 50.
59. Higurashi, Tokyo saiban, 149.
60. Higurashi, Tokyo saiban, 151–152.
61. Higurashi, Tokyo saiban, 153.
62. Higurashi, Tokyo saiban, 154–155; Barak Kushner, “Imperial Loss and Japan’s Search for Postwar Legitimacy,” in The Dismantling of Japan’s Empire in East Asia: De-imperialization, Postwar Legitimation and Imperial Afterlife, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Routledge, 2017), 48–65; Urs Matthias Zachmann, “Sublimating the Empire: How Japanese Experts of International Law Translated Greater East Asia into the Postwar Period,” in Dismantling, 167–181.
63. Komatsu, Ryojin nikki, 260–261.
64. Komatsu, Ryojin nikki, 262.
65. Yuki Tanaka, “Last Words of the Tiger of Malaya, General Yamashita Tomoyuki,” Asia-Pacific Journal 3, no. 9 (September 2005): 7. The original Japanese text can be found in Satō Yoshinori and Morita Shōgaku, Rosubaniosu keijō no ryūseigun: Yamashita Tomoyuki, Honma Masaharu no saigo (Fuyō shobō, 1981), 34–44, for the whole personal reflection, and 39 for the above specific quote. Morita was the Buddhist cleric who took down these thoughts forty minutes before Yamashita’s execution.
66. Duan Ruicong, “Zhanhou riben dui rizhan qijian waijiao junshi de fanxing shuping,” Kangri zhanzheng yanjiu, dierqi, (2020): 67.
5. The Tyranny of Tiny Decisions
1. Daizaburo Yui, “Democracy from the Ruins: The First Seven Weeks of the Occupation in Japan,” Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies 19, no. 1 (April 1987): 37–38.
2. “Sayoku no dōkō,” Naimushō keihokyoku hoanka, no date but estimated at late August, in Awaya Kentaro, ed., Shiryō nihon gendaishi 2, Haisen chokugo no seiji to shakai, vol 2. (Ōtsuki shoten, 1981), 170–171. (This is document 70 in the archival collection.)
3. “Sayoku no dōkō,” Naimushō keihokyoku hoanka, 171–172. (This is document 71 in the archival collection.)
4. Guillain recounts the whole episode and I have selected a few moments to quote from the larger Japanese language article in Robēru Giran, “Tokkyū o shakuhō saseta no wa, watashi da,” Bungei shunjū 33, no. 19 (October 1955): 110–116. See also Yoshida Kenji, “ ‘Shōgen,’ shūsen no wahei kōsaku to seijihan shakuhō no koro: Yamasaki Sōichishi ni kiku (1),” Ōhara shakai mondai kenkyūjo zasshi, no. 626 (December 2010): 51–64.
5. “Japan Wants to Swap Silk, Rayon for Food: Will Ask for Barter to Avert,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 4, 1945.
6. Tokuda Kyūichi and Shiga Yoshio, Gokuchū jūhachinen (Kōdansha, 2017), 15–17. (The book was originally published in 1947.)
7. Rodger Swearingen and Paul Langer, Red Flag in Japan: International Communism in Action, 1919–1951 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), 107.
8. Swearingen and Langer, Red Flag in Japan, 108.
9. Tokuda Kyūichi, Tokuda Kyūichi zenshū, vol. 5 (Gogatsu shobō, 1986), 386.
10. Tokuda and Shiga, Gokuchū jūhachinen, 74. See also Hyōmoto Tatsukichi, Nihon kyōsantō no sengo hishi (Shinchōsha, 2005), 26–30.
11. Tokuda and Shiga, Gokuchū jūhachinen, 74.
12. Mark Gayn, Japan Diary (Rutland, VT: Tuttle Publishers, 1984; second printing), 10.
13. John K. Emmerson, The Japanese Thread: A Life in the U.S. Foreign Service (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1978), 257; J.K. Emāsonshi danwa sokkiroku (Naiseishi kenkyū shiryō dai170shū) (Naiseishi kenkyūkai, 1973).
14. Swearingen and Langer, Red Flag in Japan, 111.
15. Emmerson, Japanese Thread, 258; Takemae Eiji, Inside GHQ: The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy, trans. Sebastian Swann and Robert Ricketts (New York: Continuum, 2001), 239–240.
16. Emmerson, Japanese Thread, 259.
17. Yui, “Democracy from the Ruins,” 41.
18. Inoue Manabu, “1945nen 10gatsu tōka, ‘seijihan shakuhō,’ ” Mita gakkai zasshi 105, no. 4 (January 2013): 761–776.
19. Robert Scalapino, The Japanese Communist Movement, 1920–1966 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 45, 72; Central Committee Japanese Communist Party, ed., Sixty-Year History of Japanese Communist Party, 1922–1982 (Tokyo: Japan Press Service, 1984), 120–145; Kurokawa Iori, Sensō kakumei no higashi ajia to nihon no komyunisuto, 1920–1970 (Yūshisha, 2020).
20. “Shutsugokusha kangeikai, kyōsanha no kisei,” Asahi shimbun, October 11, 1945, Tokyo morning edition.
21. Fuse Tatsuji, Tennōsei no hihan: datō? shiji? kenpōkaisei (shian) (Shinseikatsu undōsha, 1946).
22. Kamo Michiko, Woa giruto puroguramu: GHQ jōhō kyōiku seisaku no jitsuzō (Hōsei daigaku shuppan, 2018), 126.
23. “Tennōsei shiji wa kokumin no ippan kanjō,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 9, 1945, morning edition.
24. Young-hwan Chong, “The Tokyo Trial and the Question of Colonial Responsibility: Zainichi Korean Reactions to Allied Justice in Occupied Japan,” International Journal of Korean History 22, no. 1 (February 2017): 77–105.
25. T’ae-gi Kim, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai: SCAP no tai zainichi chōsenjin seisaku, 1945–1952nen (Keisō shobō, 1997), 164.
26. Apichai W. Shipper, “Nationalisms of and against Zainichi Koreans in Japan,” Asian Politics & Policy 2, no. 1 (January 2010): 55–75; Deokhyo Choi, “The Empire Strikes Back from Within: Colonial Liberation and the Korean Minority Question at the Birth of Postwar Japan, 1945–47,” American Historical Review, (June 2021): 1–30.
27. Kim Chanjun, Chōsen sōren (Shinchō shinsho, 2004), 27–28.
28. Deokhyo Choi, “Defining Colonial ‘War Crimes’: Korean Debates on Collaboration, War Reparations, and the International Military Tribunal for the Far East,” in Debating Collaboration and Complicity in War Crimes Trials in Asia, 1945–1956, ed. Kerstin von Lingen (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 46.
29. John Lie, Zainichi (Koreans in Japan): Diasporic Nationalism and Postcolonial Identity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 39–41.
30. Mark E. Caprio and Yu Jia, “Occupations of Korea and Japan and the Origins of the Korean Diaspora in Japan,” in Diaspora without Homeland: Being Korean in Japan, ed. Sonia Ryang and John Lie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 31–32.
31. “Dokuritsu teishin chikau Boku Retsushi no kangeikai,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 8, 1945, morning edition; T’ae-gi, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai, 209; “Chōsen dokuritsu no ippeisotsu ni shakuhō sareta Boku Retsu […]” Mainichi shimbun, December 8, 1945, Tokyo morning edition.
32. “Dokuritu teishin chikau Boku Retsushi no kangeikai,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 8, 1945, morning edition; T’ae-gi, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai, 210–211.
33. Lie, Zainichi (Koreans in Japan), 42.
34. “Sensō sekinin ni kansuru kettei, Shidehara naikaku giketsutei,” November 5, 1945, in Awaya Kentarō, ed., Shiryō to nihon gendaishi 2—haisen chokugo no seiji to shakai (1) (Ōtsuki shoten, 1980), 341–343; Akazawa Shirō, “Sengo nihon no sensō sekininron no dōkō,” Ritsumeikan hōgaku, June 2000, 2607–2633.
35. Yoshida Kenji, “ ‘Minshū shinbun’ no shuhitsu toshite (jō): Sunama Ichirōshi ni kiku,” Hōsei daigaku Ōhara shakai mondai kenkyūjo zasshi, December 2008, 59.
36. Yoshida, “ ‘Minshū shinbun’ no shuhitsu toshite (ge): Sunama Ichirōshi ni kiku,” Hōsei daigaku Ōhara shakai mondai kenkyūjo zasshi, January 2009, 48–60.
37. The event was called the “Kaihō undō shutsugoku dōshi kangei taikai.” Yoshida, “ ‘Minshū shinbun’ no shuhitsu toshite (ge),” 50.
38. “Sensō sekinin tsuikyū jinmin taikai,” Asahi shimbun, December 7, 1945.
39. Gayn, Japan Diary, 9.
40. Gayn, Japan Diary, 11.
41. Gayn, Japan Diary, 12.
42. Nihon rōdō nenkan, sengo tokushū, vol. 22, which is reproduced online for the Ōhara Institute for Social Research at Hōsei University (https://
oisr ).-org .ws .hosei .ac .jp /images /research /dglb /rn /rn _list /rn1949 -387 .pdf 43. “Kyōsantō senpan meibo shukō,” Asahi shimbun, December 12, 1945, Tokyo morning edition. According to some sources, the JCP’s list included the names of some pro-Japanese Korean traitors.
44. “Sanshū no taishū yaku sanman—Nosaka Sanzōshi kikoku,” Asahi shimbun, January 27, 1946, Tokyo morning edition.
45. Nihon kyōsantō shuppanbu, ed., Jinmin no te de sensō hanzainin o (Jinminsha, 1946), 3. The first postwar issue of the JCP’s Red Flag newspaper (Akahata), produced on October 20, 1945, had also called for toppling the imperial system and establishing democracy, digital archive version on Japan’s National Diet Library portal, https://
www ..ndl .go .jp /modern /img _r /100 /100 -001r .html 46. Nihon kyōsantō shuppanbu, Jinmin no te de sensō hanzainin o, 23.
47. Nihon kyōsantō shuppanbu, Jinmin no te de sensō hanzainin o, 24.
48. “Sekai ni kasu rekishi meidai,” Asahi shimbun, May 2, 1946, Tokyo morning edition.
49. David Wolff, “Japan and Stalin’s Policy toward Northeast Asia after World War II,” Journal of Cold War Studies 15, no. 2 (Spring 2013): 4–29.
50. J. P. Napier, A Survey of the Japanese Communist Party (Tokyo: Nippon Times, 1952), 12.
51. Rodger Swearingen, “Japanese Communism and the Moscow-Peking Axis,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 308 (November 1956): 64.
52. Napier, Survey of the Japanese Communist Party, 40–41.
53. Napier, Survey of the Japanese Communist Party, 45.
54. Charles Willoughby, Shanghai Conspiracy: The Sorge Spy Ring (New York: EP Dutton, 1952), preface, p. 5.
55. Chelsea Szendi Schieder, “The Only Woman in the Room: Beate Sirota Gordon, 1923–2012,” Dissent, January 15, 2013, https://
www ..dissentmagazine .org /blog /the -only -woman -in -the -room -beate -sirota -gordon -1923 -2012 56. Chalmers Johnson, An Instance of Treason: Ozaki Hotsumi and the Sorge Spy Ring, expanded ed. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), 200–201.
57. Johnson, Instance of Treason, 208.
58. JCP chairman Miyamoto Kenji was quoted as saying as much. “Jidai sakugo no hitotsu,” Asahi shimbun, December 31, 1980, Tokyo morning edition.
59. Erik Esselstrom, “From Wartime Friend to Cold War Fiend: The Abduction of Kaji Wataru and U.S.-Japan Relations at Occupation’s End,” Journal of Cold War Studies 17, no. 3 (Summer 2015): 177.
60. Willoughby, Shanghai Conspiracy, 274 (italics are mine).
61. Willoughby, Shanghai Conspiracy, 314–315.
62. Institute of Pacific Relations, Hearings before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Eighty-second Congress, first[-second] session by United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary, 1951–1952, 748, https://
archive ..org /stream /instituteofpacif03unit#page /748 /mode /2up 63. Reto Hoffman, “What’s Left of the Right: Nabeyama Sadachika and Anti-communism in Transwar Japan, 1930–1960,” Journal of Asian Studies 79, no. 2 (2020): 3.
64. Brian Tsui, China’s Conservative Revolution: The Quest for a New Order, 1927–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018); Hao Chen, “Resisting Bandung? Taiwan’s Struggle for ‘Representational Legitimacy’ in the Rise of the Asian Peoples’ Anti-Communist League, 1954–57,” International History Review, (May 2020): 1–21.
65. Chen Guting, Zhanhou riben gongchandang de toushi (Taipei: Zhongri wenhua jingji xiehui yanjiusuo, 1954), 69.
66. See “Schemes for Survival of the Imperial,” in Hata Ikuhiko, Hirohito: The Showa Emperor in War and Peace, ed. Marius B. Jansen (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 88–159.
67. See Fujiwara Akira, Yoshida Yutaka, and Awaya Kentarō, eds., Tettei kenshō shōwa tennō “dokuhakuroku” (Ōtsuki shoten, 1991).
68. Chokurei dai 511 gō, in Ōkurashō insatsukyoku, ed., Kanpō, gōgai, November 3, 1946, the National Diet Library Digital Collections, http://
dl ..ndl .go .jp /info:ndljp /pid /2962456 ?tocOpened =1 69. Chokurei dai 511 gō.
70. “Sanjūsanmannin ni onsharei taishatō nana shurui no kōhan’i ni wataru,” Yomiuri shimbun, November 3, 1946, morning edition.
71. Katō Kyōko, Shōwa tennō shazai shōchoku sōkō no hakken (Bungei shunjū, 2003); Peter Mauch, “Emperor Hirohito’s Post-surrender Reflections,” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 29, no. 2 (2022): 221–228.
72. Ōe Hiroyo and Kaneda Toshimasa, “Kokuritsu kōbunshokan shozō ‘sensō hanzai saiban kankei shiryō’ no keisei katei to bishikyū sensō saiban kenkyū no kanōsei,” Rekishigaku kenkyū, no. 930 (April 2015): 22.
73. Chūō—shūsen shori—546, “Dai 23 gunshireikan rikugun chūjō (rikushi nijūni-ki) Tanaka Hisakazu-shi ni kansuru chūgoku saiban kiroku, sono 4,” MODA.
74. Alessio Patalano, Post-war Japan as a Sea Power: Imperial Legacy, Wartime Experience and the Making of a Navy (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015).
75. Fujiwara Akira, “ ‘Tenno no guntai’ no rekishi to honshitsu,” Kikan sensō sekinin kenkyū 11 (Spring 1996): 61; Fujiwara Akira, “ ‘Eirei’ wa nan no tame ni shinda no ka—inujini o megutte,” Chūkiren, 11gō, (December 1999): 2–15; Tanaka Hiromi, Kesareta Makkāsā no tatakai—nihonjin ni surikomareta taiheiyō sensōshi (Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 2014), 38–39.
76. “Sensō sekinin o toinaosu natsu,” Nihon keizai shimbun, August 1, 1994, evening edition; Fujiwara, “ ‘Tennō no guntai’ no rekishi to honshitsu,” 67.
77. Fujiwara, “Eirei wa nan no tame ni shinda no ka,” 2–15.
78. Oda Makoto, Nanshi no shisō (Iwanami shoten, 2008), 5–6; Yoshida Yutaka, Heishitachi no sengoshi: sengo nihon shakai o sasaeta hitobito (Iwanami shoten, 2020).
79. Hirai Kazuomi, “Saikō Oda Makoto to beheiren: beheiren e no sanka to nanshi no shisō kagai no ronri,” Kokuritsu rekishi minzoku hakubutsukan kenkyū hōkoku, dai 216shū, (March 2019): 19.
6. The Violence of Imperial Dissolution at the Periphery
1. Wang Lin, “Wo zai shangbai yu riben zhanfu yixitan,” Deqing wenshi ziliao, di erji, November 1988, 92–94.
2. Marc Gallichio, The Scramble for Asia: US Military Power in the Aftermath of the Pacific War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008), 75.
3. Shen Zhihua, Saigo no tenchō: Mō Takuto Kimu Iruson jidai no chūgoku to kitachōsen, vol. 1 (Iwanami shoten, 2016), 75–103. This was also the case of Chinese violence against the Japanese in a mass event known as the Tonghua Incident in February 1946. See “ ‘Tsūka jiken’ o happyō fukuinkyoku Yoshida rusu gyōmu buchō […],” Asahi shimbun, December 4, 1952, Tokyo morning edition; “Shūsengo no higeki wasurenai, kyūmanshū tsūka jiken kara nanjūnen, shimin gisei, shinsō motomeru,” Nihon keizai shimbun, February 3, 2016; Lu Minghui, Tonghua “er san” shijian (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2006).
4. Adam Cathcart, “Nationalism and Ethnic Identity in the Sino-Korean Border Region of Yanbian, 1945–1950,” Korean Studies 34 (2010): 25–26.
5. Cathcart, “Nationalism and Ethnic Identity,” 32.
6. Hirata Koji, “From the Ashes of Empire: The Reconstruction of Manchukuo’s Enterprises and the Making of China’s Northeastern Industrial Base, 1948–1952,” in Overcoming Empire in Post-imperial East Asia: Repatriation, Redress and Rebuilding, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Bloomsbury Publishers, 2020), 147–162.
7. Amy King, China-Japan Relations after World War II: Empire, Industry and War, 1949–1971 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 61.
8. Yamaguchi Mitsufumi, Boku wa hachirogun no shōnenhei datta, new edition (Sōshisha, 2006), 70–71.
9. Yamaguchi, Boku wa hachirogun no shōnenhei datta, 72–74.
10. Satō Takumi and Son An-Sok, eds., Higashi ajia no shūsen kinenbi: haiboku to shōri no aida (Chikuma shobō, 2007).
11. Lori Watt, “Embracing Defeat in Seoul: Rethinking Decolonization in Korea, 1945,” Journal of Asian Studies 74 (2015): 153–174; Mark Caprio, “The Politics of Collaboration in Post-liberation Southern Korea,” in In the Ruins of the Japanese Empire: Imperial Violence, State Destruction, and the Reordering of Modern East Asia, ed. Barak Kushner and Andrew Levidis (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2020), 27–49.
12. Liu Ximing, Weijun: qiangquan jingzhuxia de zuzi (1937–1949) (Taipei: Daoxiang chubanshe, 2002).
13. Liu, Weijun, 374.
14. Wang Qisheng, “China’s Response to Ichigo,” in Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945, ed. Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 416–417.
15. Liu, Weijun, 385–386.
16. Sebastian Conrad, “The Dialectics of Remembrance: Memories of Empire in Cold War Japan,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 56, no. 1 (2014): 6.
17. Hans van de Ven discusses this in China at War: Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China, 1937–1952 (Cambridge, MA: Profile Books, 2018).
18. Yoshimi Shunya, “1940 nendai haisen to sengo no aida de,” in Hitobito no seishinshi, vol. 1, Haisen to senryō—1940nendai, ed. Yoshimi Shunya and Kurihara Akira (Iwanami shoten, 2015), 1-15; Barak Kushner, “Introduction: The Search for Meaning in Defeat and Victory,” in Kushner and Levidis, Ruins, 1–24.
19. Awaya Kentarō, ed., Shiryō nihon gendaishi, 2: haisenchokugo no seiji to shakai 1 (Ōtsuki shoten, 1980), 42.
20. “Taiwan no genkyō,” Gaimushō kanrikyoku sōmubu nanpōka, Shōwa 21.2.10, bugaihi, Microfilm, K’0006, MOFAAJ.
21. Kan Lee, “The ‘China Lobby’ in Tokyo: The Struggle of China’s Mission in Japan for General Douglas MacArthur’s Military Assistance in the Chinese Civil War, 1946–1949,” Journal of Chinese Military History 8 (2019): 29–51.
22. Adam Cathcart, “Bullets of a Defeated Nation: The 1946 Shibuya Incident,” in Kushner and Levidis, Ruins, 111.
23. Cathcart, “Bullets of a Defeated Nation,” 99; Barak Kushner, Men to Devils, Devils to Men: Japanese War Crimes and Chinese Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 130–136.
24. Yang Zizhen, “Teikoku nihon no hōkai to kokumin seifu no taiwan sesshū: sengo shoki nittai kankei ni okeru datsu shokuminchika no daikō” (PhD diss. at Tsukuba daigaku [Kokusai seiji keizaigaku], 2012), 124–133.
25. Cathcart, “Bullets of a Defeated Nation,” 112–113; Yoshimi Yoshiaki, “Senryōka nihonjin no chūgokukan, 1945–1949,” in Nicchū kankeishi no shomondai, ed. Saito Michihiko (Hachiōji-shi: Chūō daigaku shuppanbu, 2009), 191–221.
26. Chen Tsui-lian, Chonggou ererba (Taipei: Weicheng chuban, 2017), 48.
27. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 54–56; Steve Tsang, “From Japanese Colony to Sacred Chinese Territory: Taiwan’s Geostrategic Significance to China,” Twentieth-Century China 45, no. 3 (October 2020): 351–368.
28. Victor Louzon, “From Japanese Soldiers to Chinese Rebels: Colonial Hegemony, War Experience, and Spontaneous Remobilization during the 1947 Taiwanese Rebellion,” Journal of Asian Studies 77, no. 1 (February 2018): 170.
29. Kamisago Shōshichi, Kenpei sanjūichinen (Tōkyō sensho, 1955), 18–19.
30. Kamisago, Kenpei sanjūichinen, 20.
31. Victor Louzon, “L’Incident du 28 février 1947, dernière bataille de la guerre sino-japonaise? Legs colonial, sortie de guerre et violence politique à Taiwan” (Programme doctoral histoire Centre d’histoire de Sciences Po, Doctorat en histoire, Institut d’études politiques de Paris, Ecole Doctorale De Sciences Po, France, December 2016).
32. “Taiwan kara no hōkoku, taiwan gunkanku sanbōchō, October 18–23, 1945,” in Shiryō nihon gendaishi, 3: haisen chokugo no seiji to shakai 2, ed. Awaya Kentarō (Ōtsuki, 1981), 281–282.
33. Peng Ming-min, A Taste of Freedom: Memoirs of a Formosan Independence Leader (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972), 48.
34. Peng, Taste of Freedom, 63–73.
35. Peng, Taste of Freedom, 161.
36. Wakabayashi Masahiro, Taiwan no seiji: chūkaminkoku taiwanka no sengoshi (Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 2008), 43–44.
37. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 162; Jin Yilin, Guomindang gaoceng de paixi zhengzhi, rev. ed. (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2016).
38. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 76.
39. Ka Gilin, Taiwan gendaishi:ni ni hachi jiken o meguru rekishi no saikioku (Heibonsha, 2014), 85–86.
40. The US government recorded the incident in United States Relations with China: With Special Reference to the Period 1944-1949 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1949), 926.
41. United States Relations with China, 927.
42. United States Relations with China, 931.
43. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 333–335.
44. United States Relations with China, 936.
45. George Kerr, Formosa Betrayed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 97.
46. Victor Louzon, “From Japanese Soldiers to Chinese Rebels: Colonial Hegemony, War Experience, and Spontaneous Remobilization during the 1947 Taiwanese Rebellion,” Journal of Asian Studies. 77, no. 1 (February 2018): 173.
47. Takashi Fujitani, Race for Empire: Koreans as Japanese and Japanese as Americans during World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).
48. Louzon, “From Japanese Soldiers to Chinese Rebels,” 175.
49. Jan Kiely, The Compelling Ideal: Thought Reform and the Prison in China, 1901–1956 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 257.
50. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 454–455.
51. Hsu Hsueh-chi, “Manzhouguo zhengfuzhong de taiji gongwu renyuan (1932–1945),” in Taiwan lishi de duoyuan chuancheng yu xiangqian, ed. Hsu Hsueh-chi (Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan taiwanshi yanjiusuo, 2014), 19.
52. R. Ashton, Gill Bennett, and Keith Hamilton, eds., Documents on British Policy Overseas, series 1, vol. 8, Britain and China, 1945–1950, Great Britain, Foreign and Commonwealth Office (London: Routledge, 2002), 94–95 (“Note by A.L. Scott on Formosa,” [F 6408/2443/10] 7 May 1947).
53. Julia Strauss, State Formation in China and Taiwan: Bureaucracy, Campaign, and Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 127–129; Stephan Feuchtwang, After the Event: The Transmission of Grievous Loss in Germany, China and Taiwan (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2011), 113–135; Fang-Long Shih, “Memory, Partial Truth and Reconciliation without Justice: The White Terror Luku Incident in Taiwan,” Taiwan in Comparative Perspective 3 (March 2011): 140–151.
54. Fang-Long, “Memory, Partial Truth and Reconciliation without Justice,” 143.
55. As quoted by L. K. Little in his interview of Sun in 1951, in Chihyun Chang, ed., The Chinese Journals of L. K. Little, 1943–1954: An Eyewitness Account of War and Revolution, vol. 3, The Financial Advisor, 1950–1954 (London: Routledge, 2018), 235.
56. Sayaka Chatani, Nation-Empire: Ideology and Rural Youth Mobilization in Japan and Its Colonies on Taiwan (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2018), 257–263 for Taiwan; 264–270 concerning Korean youths.
57. Hayashi Miki, Senpan ni torawareta shokuminchihei no sakebi (Miyazaki: Ono kōsoku insatsu kaisha, 1988), 45. See also Shi-chi Mike Lan, “ ‘Crime’ of Interpreting Taiwanese Interpreters as War Criminals of World War II,” in New Insights in the History of Interpreting, ed. Kayoko Takeda and Jesús Baigorri-Jalón (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2016), 193–223.
58. Barak Kushner, “Treacherous Allies: The Cold War in East Asia and American Postwar Anxiety,” Journal of Contemporary History 45, no. 4 (October 2010), 1–34.
59. Michael Hoare, “Taiwan’s Darker Past: Emerging Histories of the World-War II Prisoner of War Camps,” European Association for Taiwan Studies, Paris, March 31, 2006 (a conference paper). See the film about former POW Ben Wheeler made by his daughter in 1981, https://
www ..nfb .ca /film /war _story / 60. “Soldiering on to Seek War Crimes Justice,” South China Sunday Morning Post, February 19, 1989; Daniel Schumacher, “Strategies of World War II Commemoration in Hong Kong and Singapore” (Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen, Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie vorgelegt von, Konstanz University, 2013), 261.
61. Suzannah Linton, “Rediscovering the War Crimes Trials in Hong Kong, 1946–48,” Melbourne Journal of International Law 13, no. 1 (2012): 284–348; Renmin fayuanbaoshe, ed., Zhengyi de shenpan: jinian zhongguo renmin kangri zhanzheng shengli qishi zhounian (Beijing: Renmin fayuan chubanshe, 2016), 264.
62. Jack Edwards, Banzai You Bastards (Hong Kong: Souvenir Press, 1990), 259–261. See UK national archives (WO 235/1028, KGNA) for the full trial record where Edwards details the abuse, maltreatment, and deaths in Kinkaseki.
63. Sarah Kovner, Prisoners of the Empire: Inside Japanese POW Camps (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020), 132–133; Utsumi Aiko, Nihongun no horyo seisaku (Aoki shoten, 2005).
64. See John Pritchard’s critique on a POW website and critique of this view: https://
www (accessed June 15, 2020)..fepow -community .org .uk /monthly _revue /html /atrocities .htm 65. Li Zhanping, “Chushi shangzhanchang—beipoluozhou zhanfu Lian Amu,” Lishi yuekan, (246) (2008): 49–56.
66. Ts’ai Hui-yu and Wu Ling-ching, Zuoguo liangge shidai de ren—taiji ribenbing (Taipei: Institute of Taiwan History, Academia Sinica, 2008), 287–304, https://
www ..fepow -community .org .uk /monthly _revue /html /atrocities .htm 67. Linda Holmes, Unjust Enrichment: How Japan’s Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Using American POWs (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001) and David Bergamini, Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1971) are problematic in this regard. Charles D. Sheldon, “Japanese Aggression and the Emperor, 1931–1941, from Contemporary Diaries,” Modern Asian Studies 10, no. 1 (1976): 1–40.
68. “Jiaqiang duiriben xuanchuan,” 0200000014875A, Ministry of Foreign Affairs memo, AH.
69. Hei11-hōmu 4A-18-1831, “Daisan kokujin (kankoku, taiwan) senpansha shakuhōmondai, senpansha engo mondai kankei shorui,” written July 1953, NAJ.
70. Sugamo isho hensankaihen, Seiki no isho (Kōdansha, 1984), 587.
71. Sugamo isho hensankaihen, Seiki no isho, 32.
72. Sugamo isho hensankaihen, Seiki no isho, 545.
73. Sugamo isho hensankaihen, Seiki no isho, 437.
74. Barak Kushner, “Gōhōsei to teikoku—taiwan o jirei to shita nicchū kankei ni okeru ‘seigi’ o meguru tatakai,” Chūgoku 21 45 (February 2017): 81–105.
75. Kimu Shijon, Chōsen to nihon ni ikiru: chejutō kara ikaino e (Iwanami shoten, 2015).
76. Ja-hyun Chun, “Delayed Reconciliation and Transitional Justice in Korea: Three Levels of Conditions for National Reconciliation,” Asian Journal of Social Science 45 (2017): 295.
77. John Merrill, “The Cheju-do Rebellion,” Journal of Korean Studies 2 (1980): 139–197; Su-Kyoung Hwang, Korea’s Grievous War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).
78. Hun Joon Kim, The Massacres at Mt. Halla: Sixty Years of Truth Seeking in South Korea (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014), 14–15.
79. Hun, Massacres at Mt. Halla, 24.
80. Hun, Massacres at Mt. Halla, 29–36.
81. Hun, Massacres at Mt. Halla, 44.
82. Carter J. Eckert, Park Chung Hee and Modern Korea: The Roots of Militarism, 1866–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 87. Koreans who fought for empire and remained in Japan became postwar social outcasts. See Maureen Cheryn Turim, The Films of Oshima Nagisa: Images of a Japanese Iconoclast (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 219–222. Film director Ōshima Nagisa edited a documentary about their plight, Wasurerareta kōgun, which aired on Japanese television on August 16, 1963. Ōshima Nagisa, “People of the Forgotten Army,” in Cinema, Censorship, and the State: The Writings of Nagisa Oshima, 1956–1978, ed. and with an introduction by Annette Michelson, trans. Dawn Lawson (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), 71; “Wareware no hoshō darega, kokuseki naiga kōgun datta—zainichi kankokujin no sengo hoshō soshō,” Mainichi shimbun, July 16, 1994, Tokyo morning edition; “Ōshima Nagisa kantoku, maboroshi no 30ppun sakuhin wasurerareta kōgun, konya hanseiki buri hōsō,” Asahi shimbun, January 12, 2014, Tokyo morning edition.
83. See Su-kyoung Hwang, Korea’s Grievous War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).
84. Wada Haruki, The Korean War—an International History, trans. Frank Baldwin, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), xv; Wada Haruki, “Chōsen mondai to wareware no sekinin,” Gekkan shakaitō, (January 1985): 46–55.
85. Hirano Ryūji, “Chōsen sensō ni okeru tairitsu kōzō no kigen,” in Senryakushi toshite no ajia reisen, eds. Akagi Kanji and Konno Shigemitsu (Keiō gijuku daigaku shuppan, 2013), 108.
86. Wada, Korean War, xxvii.
87. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, “Prisoner Number 600,001: Rethinking Japan, China, and the Korean War 1950–1953,” Journal of Asian Studies 74, no. 2 (May 2015): 413.
88. David Cheng Chang, The Hijacked War: The Story of Chinese POWs in the Korean War (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020), 60.
89. Chou Hsiu-huan, ed., Zhanhou waijiao shiliao huibian: hanzhan yu fangong yishibian, vol. 1 (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2005), 14.
90. David Chang, Hijacked War, 14.
91. Huang Tiancai, Wo zai 38duxian de huiyi (Taipei: INK yinke wenxue chuban, 2010), 72–80; Shen Xingyi, Yiwansiqian ge zhengren: hanzhan shiqi ‘fangong yishi’ zhi yanjiu (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2013), 212.
92. Chou Hsiu-huan, ed., Zhanhou waijiao shiliao huibian: hanzhan yu fangong yishipian, vol. 2 (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2006), 303–304; Chou Hsiu-huan, “Jieyun hanzhan fangong yishi laitai zhi yanjiu, (1950–1954),” Guoshiguan guankan, 28qi, (June 2011): 124; Lan Shi-chi, “Cong ‘womende’ zhanzheng dao ‘beiyiwangde’ zhanzheng: Taiwan dui ‘hanzhan’ de lishi jiyi,” Dongyaguannianshi jikan, di7qi, (December 2014): 224.
93. “Meiguo de xinlizhan chedi shibai le,” Renmin ribao, January 25, 1954.
94. David Chang, Hijacked War, 6.
95. Pingchao Zhu, “ ‘Disgraced Soldiers’: The Ordeal of the Repatriated POWs of the Chinese Volunteer Army from the Korean War,” Journal of Chinese Military History 4 (2015): 163; Jin Daying, “Accounts of the Chinese People’s Volunteers Prisoners of War: A Translation” (master’s thesis, University of Montana, 1993).
96. Zhu, “ ‘Disgraced Soldiers,’ ” 192.
97. Bao Mingrong, “Zhongguo renmin zhiyuanjun zai kangmei yuanchao zhanzhengzhong de zhanfu zhengce,” Junshi lishi, di 6qi, 2001, 11.
98. Zhu, “ ‘Disgraced Soldiers,’ ” 168.
99. Zhu, “ ‘Disgraced Soldiers,’ ” 174.
100. He Ming, zhongcheng: zhiyuanjun zhanfu guilai renyuan de kanke jingli (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 1998), 128; Zhang Zeshi, Wo de chaoxian zhanzheng: yi ge zhiyuanjun zhanfu de liushinian huiyi (Beijing: Jincheng chubanshe, 2010), 207–215.
7. The Geography of Power
1. In its first two years of incarcerating counterrevolutionaries in the former Ward Road Gaol, the CCP executed more prisoners than had been executed by previous administrations since 1900. Frank Dikotter, Crime, Punishment and the Prison in Modern China (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 366.
2. West Australian, June 19, 1947.
3. As quoted in Kirsten Sellars, “Introduction,” in Trials for International Crimes in Asia, ed. Kirsten Sellars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 9.
4. William Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan: A Personal History of the Occupation (London: Cresset Press, 1967), 165.
5. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan, 173.
6. Hanayama Shinshō, Heiwa no hakken: sugamo no sei to shi no kiroku (Asahi shimbunsha, 1949), 309–310.
7. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan, 174.
8. Hanayama, Heiwa no hakken, 311.
9. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan, 174.
10. “Riben zhongyao zhanfan shijiuming mengzongjing quanbu shifang bing xuanbu zhanfan qingsuan gao jieshu,” Shenbao, December 25, 1948. The CCP’s main organ, Renmin ribao, criticized MacArthur’s decision more bluntly, “Riben zhongyao zhanfanren duo meidi jing weifa shifang,” on December 31, 1948.
11. Kiyose Ichirō, Hiroku tōkyō saiban (Chūō kōron shinsha, 2002), 177–178.
12. Senkō sanzenri (Mainichi wanzu, 2008; originally published in 1950); translated by Nigel Brailey, ed., Masanobu Tsuji’s ‘Underground Escape’ from Siam after the Japanese Surrender (Global Oriental, 2009).
13. Advertisement in Yomiuri shimbun, June 2, 1950.
14. “Reports on the Rearmament Activities of Tsuji Masanobu and Hattori Takushiro,” declassified CIA memo, May 3, 1951, https://
www ..cia .gov /readingroom /docs /TSUJI%2C%20MASANOBU%20%20%20VOL .%201 _0016 .pdf 15. RG 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency, Second Release of Name Files, Tschoudnowsky, Leonid to Tymewycz, Roman, vol. 2, box 130, Tsuji Masanobu folder, vol. 1, NARA.
16. RG 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency, Second release of name files under the Nazi War crimes and Japanese imperial government disclosure acts, 1936–2002 (reference set), Tschoudnowsky, Leonid to Tymewycz, Roman, box 130, Tsuji Masanobu folder, vol. 1, confidential Department of State memo, February 24, 1956, NARA.
17. Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 122–127; Donna-Lee Frieze, Totally Unofficial: The Autobiography of Raphael Lemkin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 89–97; Philippe Sands, East West Street (London: W&N Publishers, 2016).
18. Kerstin von Lingen, “Setting the Path for the UNWCC: The Representation of European Exile Governments of the London International Assembly and the Commission for Penal Reconstruction and Development, 1941–1944,” Criminal Law Forum 25 (2014): 48; Valentyna Polunina, “The Human Face of Soviet Justice? Aron Trainin and the Origins of the Soviet Doctrine of International Criminal Law,” in Stalin’s Soviet Justice: “Show” Trials, War Crimes Trials, and Nuremberg, ed. David M. Crowe (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019), 127–144.
19. Rebecca West, A Train of Powder (New York: Viking Press, 1955; originally published in 1946), 3.
20. “Aoyama saijō no kaikōshiki,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 24, 1948.
21. Hei11 hōmu 4A-021-00, “Shichi senpan kaikōshiki no omoide, Nagai Watarushidan kōbunsho,” NAJ. The interviewee, Naigai, was interviewed by Inoue Tadao about his experiences on December 22, 1962.
22. Professor Yan Haijian, interview by the author in Nanjing, May 27, 2019.
23. “Zhanzheng zuifan chuli weiyuanhui duiri zhanfan chuli zhengce huiyi jilu,” 020-010117-0039-0017a-0029a, part of the Zhanfan chuli zhengce (2) series, AH.
24. Bob Wakabayashi, “The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate: War Guilt amid Fabricated Illusions, 1971–75,” Journal of Japanese Studies 26, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 307–340.
25. Benjamin Uchiyama, Japan’s Carnival War: Mass Culture on the Home Front, 1937–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 47.
26. Li Donglang, “Guomindang zhengfu dui riben zhanfan de shenpan,” Bainianchao, di 6 qi, 2005, 27–35; Luo Junsheng, “Shi Meiyu yu zhanhou nanjing dui rijun zhanfan de shenpan,” Dangshi zonglan, di 1qi, 2006, 20–26.
27. Honda Katsuichi, Chūgoku no tabi (Asahi shimbunsha, 1972); Honda Katsuichi, The Nanjing Massacre, a Journalist Confronts Japan’s National Shame, trans. Karen Sandness (London: M.E. Sharpe, 1991), 125–135. See also Mukai Chieko, ‘ “Mujitsu da!’ Chichi no sakebi ga kikoeru,” Seiron, (March 2000): 60–71.
28. Kasahara Tokushi, Hyakuningiri kyōsō to nankin jiken: Shijitsu no kaimei kara rekishi taiwa e (Ōtsuki shoten, 2008), 201.
29. Wang Junyan, Riben zhanfan shenpan miwen (Beijing: Zhongguo huaqiao chubanshe, 1995), 298.
30. Shanghai hongkouqu danganbian, Dongjing shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe, 2007), foreword by Gao Wenbin, 3–4.
31. Zhang Linfeng, “Bu neng wanque de lishi—fang dongjing shenpan qinlizhe Gai Wenbin,” Lianhe shibao, February 28, 2014; “Koushu: Gao Wenbin, wo suo jingli de dongjing dashenpan,” Sanlian shenghuo zhoukan, August 15, 2014.
32. “Mengjun zaihua youguan zhanzui sheshi,” 020-010117-005-146a-147a, AH.
33. Greg Leck, Captives of Empire: The Japanese Internment of Allied Civilians in China, 1941–1945 (Bangor, PA: Shandy Press, 2006); Henry Pringle, Bridge House Survivor: Experiences of a Civilian Prisoner-of-War in Shanghai & Beijing, 1942–1945 (Hong Kong: Earnshaw Books, 2011).
34. “Mengjun zaihua youguan zhanzui sheshi,” 020-010117-005-149a-151a, AH.
35. Li Zhiqun, interview by the author, Shanghai, June 5, 2019.
36. “ ‘Jiangyin zhihu,’ ‘changshu zhilang’ zuori zhixing shizhong qiangjue,” Zhonghua ribao, June 18, 1947.
37. Li Yechu, “Sharen mowang shanghai fufa jishi,” Shanghaitan, no. 224 (2005): 16–20.
38. Li Yechu, “ ‘Changshulang’ yu ‘jiangyinhu’ de mori,” Shanghaitan, (February 1989): 27.
39. Li Liang, Guonanji (self-pub., 2012), 19. I thank Dai Chengxian for helping me procure a copy of this self-published memoir.
40. Dai Chengxian, interview for the documentary series. Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 153–156.
41. May 30, 2019, interview with Liu Linsheng, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province. The book is Liu Linsheng, Zhongguo de aosiweixin: rijun ‘taiyuan jizhongying’ jishi (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 2012).
42. The other one is the Shenyang WWII Allied Prisoners Camp Site Museum.
43. Tom Phillips, “China Rebuilds Its Forgotten ‘Auschwitz’ to Remember Japan’s Brutality,” The Guardian, September 1, 2015.
44. Li, “ ‘Changshulang’ yu ‘jiangyanghu’ de mori,” 29.
45. Zhongguo dier lishi danganguan, Shanghai jiaotong daxue dongjing shenpan yanjiu zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo duiri zhanfan shenpan dangan jicheng, vol. 1 (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxue chubanshe, 2019), 4. (There are 102 volumes in the entire series.)
46. The center changed its name to the Research Institute of War Trial and World Peace at Shanghai Jiaotong University.
47. Liu Tong, Dashenpan: guomindang zhenfu chuzhi riben zhanfan shilu (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 2021), see table on 876.
48. Liu, Dashenpan, 875–887; Yan Haijian, “Fanzui shudi yuanze yu zhengju zhongxin zhuyi: zhanhou beiping duiri shenpan de shitai yu tezhi,” Minguo dangan, (January 2018): 135. See also Yan Haijian, Guomin zhengfu shenpan riben zhanfan yanjiu, Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 2022.
49. Yan Haijian, “Kuanda yihuo kuanzong: zhanhou guomin zhengfu duiri zhanfan chuzhi lunxi,” Nanjing shehui kexue, di 7qi, (2014): 146.
50. Yan Haijian, “Tongxiang zhanhou shenpan zhilu: mengguo dui erzhan zhanzui chengchu niyi shulun,” Nanjing shehui kexue, di 2qi, (2016): 154.
8. Creating a Theater of Law in Mao’s China
1. Alexander Pantsov and Steven Levine, Mao: The Real Story (London: Simon and Schuster, 2012), 368.
2. “First Conversation between N.S. Khrushchev and Mao Zedong, Hall of Huaizhentan [Beijing],” July 31, 1958, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Archive of the President of the Russian Federation, APRF, fond 52, opis 1, delo 498, ll. 44–477; copy in Dmitry Volkogonov Collection, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, translated by Vladislav M. Zubok, http://
digitalarchive ..wilsoncenter .org /document /112080 3. Sandra Wilson, “The Sentence Is Only Half the Story: From Stern Justice to Clemency for Japanese War Criminals, 1945–1958,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 13, no. 4 (September 2015): 749.
4. “Faxue zhuanjia Mei Ruao fabiao tanhua […],” Renmin ribao, March 14, 1950.
5. Sherzod Muminov, Eleven Winters of Discontent: The Siberian Internment and the Making of a New Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2022); Amy King and Sherzod Muminov, “ ‘Japan Still Has Cadres Remaining’: Japanese in the USSR and Mainland China, 1945–1956,” Journal of Cold War Studies 24, no. 3 (2022): 200–230.
6. “Conversation between A. Vyshinsky and Mao Zedong, Moscow,” January 6, 1950, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, AVP RF, f. 0100, op. 43, d. 43, papka 302, ll. 1–5; provided by O. A. Westad; translation for CWIHP by Daniel Rozas, http://
digitalarchive . Xu Jingli, “Sulian zhaohui zhongguo zhengfu tiyi zu tebie guoji fating shenpan rihuang deng xijun zhanfan,” Guoji wenti yanjiu, di 6qi, (2005): 63–67..wilsoncenter .org /document /112676 7. Mao Zedong, “Lun renmin minzhu zhuanzheng,” Renmin ribao, July 1, 1949. See also Wen-Shun Chi, ed., Readings in Chinese Communist Documents: A Manual for Students of the Chinese Language (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), 8.
8. Alison Adcock Kaufman, “In Pursuit of Equality and Respect: China’s Diplomacy and the League of Nations,” Modern China 40, no. 6 (2014): 605–638.
9. Shao-chuan Leng, Justice in Communist China: A Survey of the Judicial System of the Chinese People’s Republic (New York: Oceana Publications, 1967), xi.
10. Fukushima Masao, Ubugata Naokichi, and Hasegawa Ryōichi., Chūgoku no saiban (Tokyo keizai shinpōsha, 1957), 63.
11. Shao-chuan, Justice in Communist China, xii.
12. Andrei Y. Vyshinsky, Law of the Soviet State (New York: Macmillan, 1948), 5.
13. “Lectures in the General Principals of Criminal Law in the People’s Republic of China,” series 1, box 75, folder 3, p. 18, SLRA. This is a US Department of Commerce translation in March 1962 of a 1957 Chinese textbook on law for Chinese political judicial cadres.
14. “Xinfaxue yanjiuyuan chengli, Shen Junru yuanzhang zhici […],” Renmin ribao, January 5, 1950. Dong’s longer speech, “Jiu sifa gongzuo renyuan de gaizao wenti,” January 4, 1950, is in Dong Biwu faxue wenji, ed. Dong Biwu faxue wenji (Beijing: Falu chubanshe, 2001), 26–37.
15. Henry Wei, Courts and Police in Communist China to 1952, series 1, no. 1, 1952, “Studies in Chinese Communism,” research done for Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, published by Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, Lackland Air Force Base Texas, December 1955, 8.
16. Mei Ruao, “Nihon no zento—nihon no kōfuku goshūnen o kinen shite kisu,” in Nicchū no hyakunijūnen no bungei hyōron sakuhinsen 4, ed. Chō Kyō and Murata Yūjirō (Iwanami shoten, 2016), 115–123. (The original article was in Chinese: Mei Ruao, “Riben de qiantu—wei jinian riben touxiang wuzhounian erzuo,” Shijie zhishi [May 16, 1950].)
17. Mei Ruao, “Quan yazhou remin duiyu riben renmin de qidai,” Shijie zhishi, di 39qi, (1952): 5.
18. Mei, “Quan yazhou remin duiyu riben renmin de qidai,” 7.
19. Mei Ruao’s commentary, “Bai Jokō-shi no nihon senpan shorihyō,” in RP shiryō kaisetsuban, Radio puresu tsūshinsha, (June 23, 1956).
20. Jin Weihua, “Li Fang: chuting gongsu riben zhanfan,” Jiancha fengyun, no. 19 (2009): 64–68. The top-secret training was coordinated by the Supreme People’s deputy procurator Tan Zhengwen. Tan worked with Li Fushan, Quan Weicai, Bai Buzhou, and Jing Zhuguo, among others. See also Edgar H. Schein, “Some Observations on Chinese Methods of Handling Prisoners of War,” Public Opinion Quarterly 20, no. 1 (Spring 1956): 321–327.
21. The originals were first published under a different title in 2006, then repackaged and sold as part of the Wenshi ziliao baibu jingdian wenku, a series of the Top 100 most important historical collections. See Huiyi gaizao zhanfan (vols. 1 and 2), ed. Quanguo zhengxie wenshi he xuexi weiyuanhuibian (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 2013); in Japanese see Arai Toshio shiryō hozonkai, ed., Chūgoku bujun senpan kanrijo shokuin no shōgen: shashinka Arai Toshio no nokoshita shigoto (Nashi no kasha, 2003).
22. Wang Shilin, interview in Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, May 30, 2019. See also Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 207–208.
23. “Dong Biwu zai diliuci quanguo gongan huiyi shang guanyu zhengzhi falu sixiang gongzuo fangmian jige wenti de baogao,” June 2, 1954, CMPD.
24. Jeffrey Kinkley, Chinese Justice, the Fiction: Law and Literature in Modern China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 18.
25. “Dong Biwu zai diliuci quanguo gongan huiyi shang guanyu zhengzhi falu sixiang gongzuo fangmian jige wenti de baogao,” June 2, 1954, CMPD.
26. Percy R. Luney Jr., “Traditions and Foreign Influences: Systems of Law in China and Japan,” Law and Contemporary Problems 52, no. 2 (1989): 135–136.
27. Tang Shichun, “Jianguo chuqi laihua sulian faxue zhuanjia de qunti kaochao,” Huanqiu falu pinglun, di5qi, (2010): 135.
28. Tang, “Jianguo chuqi laihua sulian faxue zhuanjia de qunti kaochao,” 140. The author here is quoting the work of Shen Zhihua. He Qinhua, “Guanyu xinzhongguo yizhi sulian sifa zhidu de fansi,” Zhongwai faxue, di3qi, August 2002, http://
h286851 ; Yu Min-ling, “Xuexi sulian: zhonggong xuanchuan yu minjian huiying,” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo jikan, di 40qi, (June 2003): 99–139..w276 .mc -test .com /Item /Show .asp ?m =1&d =544 29. Kinkley, Chinese Justice, the Fiction, 14.
30. Shi Liang, “Guanyu chedi gaizao he zhengdun geji renmin fayuan de baogao,” Renmin zhoubao, di 35qi, 1952, 22–23.
31. Sun Huei-min, “Minguo shiqi shanghai de nulushi, (1927–1949),” Jindai zhongguo funushi yanjiu, (14) (2006): 51–88.
32. Shi Liang, “Report on Reform and Reorganization of the People’s Courts (extract), August 13, 1952,” from http://
www ; Shi Liang, “Guanyu chedi gaizao he zhengdun geji renmin fayuan de baogao,” Renmin ribao, August 23, 1952..commonprogram .science /documents /Report%20on%20Reform%20and%20Reorganization%20of%20the%20People’s%20Courts .pdf 33. Liu Fengjing, “Sifa linian de chujiu yu buxin,” Zhongwai fashi yanjiu, di 1qi, (2009): 96–105.
34. Zhou Tiandu and Sun Caixia, Shi Liang: minmeng lishi renwu (Beijing: Qinyan Press, 2011), 301–302.
35. Tang Shichun, “1955nian zhongguo sifa gongzuo fangsu daibiaotuan yu sulian fazhi xingxiang de suzao,” Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan jindaishisuo qingnian xueshu luntan (2008): 475–490.
36. Shi Liang, “Dui sulian sifa gongzuo de jidian tihui,” Faxue yanjiu (June 1955) : 13–15.
37. Ceng Hanzhou, He Lanjie, and Lin Hengyuan, “Fangwen suweiai fayuan de jidian tihui,” Faxue yanjiu, (June 1955): 16–19.
38. Zhou and Sun, Shi Liang, 309.
39. Wang Huai’an, “Sulian sifa ganbu shi youxiu de, ganbu gongzuo de jingyan shi fengfu de,” Faxue yanjiu, (June 1955): 22–24.
40. Jennifer Altehenger, “Simplified Legal Knowledge in the Early PRC: Explaining and Publishing the Marriage Law,” in Chinese Law: Knowledge, Practice, and Transformation, 1530s to 1950s, ed. Madeleine Zelin and Li Chen (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 343.
41. Wang Ruqi, “Xinzhongguo lushi zhidu dianji,” Falu shuoshi lunpin (JM Review), di1qi, zongdi14qi, (2014): 6–7; He Bihui, “Wang Ruqi: Xinzhongguo diyibu ‘huninfa’ zhibiren,” Shiji, 1qi, (2012): 55–57. Wang Ruqi is also mentioned by Ōsawa Takeshi, “The People’s Republic of China’s ‘Lenient Treatment’ Policy towards Japanese War Criminals,” in Trials for International Crimes in Asia, ed. Kirsten Sellars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 160.
42. “Guanyu shifang riben zhanfan wenti de qingshijian, baogao, minglingdeng,” Danghao 105-00220-06(1), CMOFA.
43. “Dong Biwu, Shen Junru, Zhang Xiruo zai diyijie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui dierci huiyishang de fayan, July 23, 1955,” CMPD.
44. “Dong Biwu, Shen Junru, Zhang Xiruo zai diyijie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui dierci huiyishang de fayan, July 23, 1955,” CMPD.
45. George Ginsburgs, “Soviet Sources on the Law of the Chinese People’s Republic,” University of Toronto Law Journal 18, no. 2 (Spring 1968): 182.
46. The team was assisted by Shi Liang, Zhong Hanhua, Chen Shuliang, Li Fushan, Zhang Zhirang, Pan Zhenya, and Zhou Gengsheng.
47. Sui Shuying, “20shiji wushiniandai zhongguo dui riben zhanfan de shenpan yu shifang,” Yantai daxue xuebao (zhexue shehui kexueban), 19, no. 4 (October 2006): 461.
48. “The Secret Speech That Changed World History,” The Observer, February 26, 2006, https://
www ..theguardian .com /world /2006 /feb /26 /russia .theobserver 49. Sergey Radchenko, “The Sino–Russian Relationship in the Mirror of the Cold War,” China International Strategy Review 1 (2019): 273–274.
50. “From the Journal of Ambassador P. F. Yudin, Record of Conversation with Mao Zedong, 31 March 1956,” April 5, 1956, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, AVPRF, fond 0100, opis 49, papka 410, delo 9, listy 87–98; also Center for Storage of Contemporary Documentation (TsKhSD), fond 5, opis 30, delo 163, listy 88–99; see also Problemi Dalnego Vostok 5 (1994), 101–110. Translated by Mark Doctoroff, http://
digitalarchive ..wilsoncenter .org /document /116977 51. “Guanyu zhencha riben zhanfan de zhuyao qingkuang he chuli yijian de baogaodeng,” Danghao 105-00501-07(1), CMOFA.
52. Dangdai zhongguo congshu bianji weiyuanhui, ed., Dangdai zhongguo de gongan gongzuo (Beijing: Dangdai zhongguo chubanshe, 1992), 98–99. Zhang Xudong and Zhang Kun calculate 817 KMT war criminals imprisoned, though their sources are difficult to trace. Zhang Xudong and Zhang Kun, “Guomindang zhanfan gaizao shimo,” Bainianchao, di6qi, (2016): 53.
53. Arai Toshio shiryō hozonkai, ed., Chūgoku bujun senpan kanrijo shokuin no shōgen: shashinka Arai Toshio no nokoshita shigoto (Nashi no kasha, 2003), 407; Jin Weihua, “Li Fang: chuting gongsu riben zhanfan,” Jiancha fengyun, no. 19 (2009): 64–68.
54. Luo Ruiqing, “Guanyu zhanzheng zuifan wenti de fayan, March 1956,” CPMD.
55. Luo, “Guanyu zhanzheng zuifan wenti de fayan, March 1956,” CPMD. File FO 371/110212, “Arrests, Trials and Executions of Counter-revolutionaries in CPG: Conviction of Captured US airmen (Folder 4), 1954,” KGNA. Nicholas Dujmovic, “Two CIA Prisoners in China, 1952–73 Extraordinary Fidelity,” Studies in Intelligence 50, no. 4 (2006): 21–36. See also John Delury, Agents of Subversion: The Fate of John T. Downey and the CIA’s Covert War in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2022); John T. Downey, Thomas J. Christensen, and Jack Lee Downey Lost in the Cold War: The Story of Jack Downey, America’s Longest-Held POW (New York: Columbia University Press, 2022).
56. “Chen Jiakang 28/4, Chen buzhang zhuli shenpi Chen Shuliang, March 27, baogao” (Top secret), Danghao 105-00502-04, CMOFA.
57. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu zhengqiu duijiang, ri, wei zhanfan he qita fangeming zuifan de chuli yijian de tongzhi,” Zonghao (56) 049, April 11, 1956, CMPD.
58. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu zhengqiu duijiang, ri, wei zhanfan he qita fangeming zuifan de chuli yijian de tongzhi,” Zonghao (56) 049, April 11, 1956, CMPD. Wang Yaowu was the translator for KMT general He Yingqin and Japanese general Okumura Yasuji at the surrender ceremony in September 1945 Nanjing.
59. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu zhengqiu duijiang, ri, wei zhanfan he qita fangeming zuifan de chuli yijian de tongzhi,” Zonghao (56) 049, April 11, 1956, CMPD.
60. Leif Dahlberg, Spacing Law and Politics: The Constitution and Representation of the Juridical (Oxon: Routledge, 2016), 2–5 explains the visual aspect of being at court.
61. I explore the details of the trials in chapter 7, “Socialist Magnanimity: The CCP Trials,” in Men to Devils.
62. “Riben zhanfan cengzai zheli tongche huiguo,” September 3, 2015, Zhengyi de shenpan zhi xinzhongguo shenpan shenyang, Renmin fayuanbao, special edition.
63. “Riben zhanfan cengzai zheli tongche huiguo,” September 3, 2015.
64. “Guanyu zhenya fangeming douzheng wenti he chuli juya zai woguode riben zhanzhengfanzuifenzi wenti: zuigao renmin jianchayuan Zhang Dingcheng jianchazhang zai diyijie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui disanci huiyishang de fayan, June 22, 1956,” CARMD.
65. “Rang fachui qiaoxiang lishi de jingzhong,” Renmin fayuanbao, September 3, 2014. The Liaison Group is normally referred to as Chūkiren in Japanese. For more insight into the group’s postwar activities, see Ishida Ryūji and Chan Honbo (Zhang Hongbo in Chinese), Shinchūgoku no senpan saiban to kikokugo no heiwa jissen (Shakai hyōronsha, 2022).
66. Kinkley, Chinese Justice, the Fiction, 24.
67. “Riben zhanfan huiguo yihou de fanying, riben duiwo panchu shifang rizhanfan fanying, youguan shenpan zhanfan de cankao qingkuang gangyao,” Danghao: 105-00503-11(1), CMOFA.
68. “Riben zhanfan huiguo yihou de fanying, riben duiwo panchu shifang rizhanfan fanying, youguan shenpan zhanfan de cankao qingkuang gangyao,” Danghao: 105-00503-11(1), CMOFA.
69. “Shōkan yokuryū kakokusa ukabu kyūsoren tōroku kādo 252ninbun kaiji = tokushū,” Yomiuri shimbun, August 10, 2019, Osaka morning edition.
70. “Beishifang de riben zhanzheng fanzui fenzi huiguohou—zaibiaoshi fandui zhanzheng he ganxie zhongguo de kuanda,” Renmin ribao, September 11, 1956.
71. Wang Shilin, interview. See also Wang Shilin, “Canyu zhenxun riben zhanfan gongzuo de huigu,” in Huiyi gaizao zhanfan, shangce, ed. Quanguo zhengxie wenshi he xuexi weiyuanhui (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 2013), 170–178.
72. Liu Meiling, ed., Riben qinhua zhanfan bigong, 10 vols. (Beijing: Zhongguo dangan chubanshe, 2005).
73. Xiaoyang Hao, “What Is Criminal and What Is Not: Prosecuting Wartime Japanese Sex Crimes in the People’s Republic of China,” China Quarterly 242 (June 2020): 529–549.
74. Uesaka Masaru’s confession in Zhongyang danganguan, ed., Zhongyang danganguancang riben qinhua zhanfan bigong xuanbian, diyiji, vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2015), preface.
75. Uesaka Masaru’s confession in Zhongyang danganguan, Zhongyang danganguancang riben qinhua zhanfan bigong xuanbian, diyiji, vol. 1, 299.
76. Uesaka Masaru’s confession in Zhongyang danganguan, Zhongyang danganguancang riben qinhua zhanfan bigong xuanbian, diyiji, vol. 1, 385.
77. “Lushi: wenming shenpan bukehuoque de yihuan,” in Zhengyi de shenpan zhi xinzhongguo shenpan shenyang, series, special issue of Renmin fayuanbao tekan, September 3, 2015, online magazine, http://
rmfyb ..chinacourt .org / 78. “Lushi: wenming shenpan bukehuoque de yihuan.”
79. “Lushi: wenming shenpan bukehuoque de yihuan.”
80. Wang Zhanping, ed., Zhengyi de shenpan: zuigao renmin fayuan tebie junshi fating, shenpan riben zhanfan jishi (Beijing: Renmin fayuan chubanshe, 1990), 441.
81. Wang, Zhengyi de shenpan, 441.
82. Bōeichō bōeikenshūsho, senshishitsu, ed., Hokushi chiansen 2, vol. 50 of the Senshi sōsho series, Asagumo shimbunsha, 1971, 169.
83. Bōeichō bōeikenshūsho, senshishitsu, Hokushi chiansen 2, vol. 50, 170.
84. Ishikiriyama Hideaki, Nihongun dokugasu sakusen no mura (Kōbunken, 2003), 35; Aiko Otsuka, “Narratives of a Fallen Army: Japanese Veterans’ Concepts of Defeat and War Crimes Responsibility in World War Two” (PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 2019).
85. Ishikiriyama Hideaki, “Nihongun dokugasu sakusen no mura,” Shūkan kinyōbi, (June 23, 1995): 48–50.
86. Ishikiriyama, Nihongun dokugasu sakusen no mura, 44–45.
87. Ishikiriyama, Nihongun dokugasu sakusen no mura, 50–53.
88. Ishikiriyama, Nihongun dokugasu sakusen no mura, 58; Arai Toshio, “Kyōjutusho wa, kō shite kakareta,” Sekai, (May 1998): 68–136. This included the confessions of Suzuki Hiraku, Fujita Shigeru, Uesaka Masaru, Nagashima Tsutomu, and Sassa Shinnosuke.
89. See one unnamed Japanese researcher’s blog where he notes problems when trying to access these records, “Kōhyō o habakaru naiyō nanode kōhyō dekimasen,” on the blog Hachirogun kenkyū memo, November 17, 2010, https://
smtz8 ..hatenadiary .org /entry /20101117 /1290269562 90. Marcus K. Billson, “Inside Albert Speer: Secrets of Moral Evasion,” Antioch Review 37, no. 4 (Autumn 1979): 460–474; Gitta Sereny, Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth (New York: Knopf, 1995).
91. Matsuno Seiya, Nihongun no dokugasu heiki (Gaifūsha, 2005), 302–310.
92. David Cohen and Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 201–202; Jeanne Guillemin, Hidden Atrocities: Japanese Germ Warfare and American Obstruction of Justice at the Tokyo Trial (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 201–204; Boris Yudin, “Research on Humans at the Khabarovsk War Crimes Trial: A Historical and Ethical Examination,” in Japan’s Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics, ed. Jing Bao Nie, Nanyan Guo, Mark Selden, and Arthur Kleinman (London: Routledge, 2010), 61.
93. Zhongyang danganguan, ed., Zhongyang danganguancang riben qinhua zhanfan bigong xuanbian, diyiji, vol. 5, 469; Onishi Yasumitsu, “Tamura Taijirō kenkyū (2) sanseishō senpan no shuki kara,” Mita daigaku nihongogaku bungaku, (18), (June 2007): 75–85.
94. Shanxisheng renmin jianchayuan, ed., Zhenxun riben zhanfan jishi (taiyuan), 1952–1956 (Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe, 1995), 300.
95. Zhongyang danganguan, Zhongyang danganguancang riben qinhua zhanfan bigong xuanbian, diyiji, vol. 5, 470.
96. Zhongyang danganguan, Zhongyang danganguancang riben qinhua zhanfan bigong xuanbian, diyiji, vol. 5, 471.
97. Shanxisheng renmin jianchayuan, Zhenxun riben zhanfan jishi (taiyuan), 1952–1956, 301; Zhang Yaojie, “Huorenba Zhao Peixian—rikou jizhongying zhenshi gushi,” Yanhuang chunqiu, 7qi, (2005): 55–56. The original story of the use of POWs as human targets was published as “Jindi canhai fulu, rending ‘huoruo bazi’ gong qi cisha,” Jiefang ribao, August 31, 1942.
98. Shanxisheng renmin jianchayuan, Zhenxun riben zhanfan jishi (taiyuan), 1952–1956, 302.
99. Shanxisheng renmin jianchayuan, Zhenxun riben zhanfan jishi (taiyuan), 1952–1956, 303. See also Wang Zhengyi de shenpan, 625–627.
100. “Chūkyō yokuryū senpan zenbu no shakuhō o,” Asahi shimbun, June 23, 1956, Tokyo morning edition. A few months later the Asahi would suggest that the several hundred released war criminals from China repatriating to Japan had been “brainwashed” because they all criticized Japan in the same way. “Tensei jingo,” Asahi shimbun, August 1, 1956, Tokyo, morning edition; However, a letter to the editor on the same day, August 1, in the Asahi newspaper, “Jishuteki ni sennō shimashō,” suggested many Japanese leaned toward the type of personal reflection the former war criminals from China exhibited, in contrast to the released Class A war criminals who only criticized their incarceration and learned nothing from it. Petra Buchholz, “Confessions of Japanese POWs after Re-education in China,” in Broken Narratives Post-Cold War History and Identity in Europe and East Asia, ed. Susanne Weigelin-Schwiedrzik (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 229.
101. Released in several issues of Sekai magazine starting in May 1998, 88–101. Arai Toshio and Fujiwara Akira, eds., Shinryaku no shōgen: chūgoku ni okeru nihonjin senpan jihitsu kyōjutusho (Iwanami shoten, 1999); Okabe Makio, Ogino Fujio, and Yoshida Yutaka, eds., Chūgoku shinryaku no shōgenshatachi: “ninzai” no kiroku o yomu (Iwanami shoten, 2010).
102. “Yūzai 45nin no kyōjutsusho, hōdō shashinka ga nyūshu 56nen chūgoku de no senpan saiban,” Asahi shimbun, April 5, 1998, morning edition.
103. “Sensō no sugata, tantan to saibanmaeni ‘kandai na shobun’ chūgoku no nihonjin senpan kyōjutsusho,” Asahi shimbun, April 5, 1998, Tokyo, morning edition.
104. Tanabe Toshio, “Chūgoku senpan Suzuki Hiraku chūjō no yūryo—Suzuki chūjō ga kakinokoshita chōbun no ‘shuki’ nihen wa kōkinka no ‘kyōjutsusho’ no shinraisei o hitei suru,” Seiron, (October 1999): 274.
105. Tanabe, “Chūgoku senpan Suzuki Hiraku chūjō no yūryo,” 274–287. His whole article tries to assert that point.
106. Suzuki Hiraku confession in Arai and Fujiwara, Shinryaku no shōgen, 18–19. See the original confession mention of poison gas in Zhongyang danganguan, ed., Zhongyang danganguancang riben qinhua zhanfan bigong xuanbian, diyiji, vol. 1, 57.
107. Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Dokugasusen to nihongun (Iwanami shoten, 2004), 272.
108. Ishida Ryūji, “Kandaisa e no ōtō kara sensō sekinin e: aru moto heishi no owarinaki ninzai o megutte,” PRIME, 31gō, (March 2010): 59–72.
109. Chūgoku kikansha renrakukai, ed., Kaette kita senpantachi no kōhansei (Osaka: Shinpū shobō, 1996), 31–34.
110. Chūgoku kikansha renrakukai, Kaette kita senpantachi no kōhansei, 36–37.
111. Chūgoku kikansha renrakukai, Kaette kita senpantachi no kōhansei, 589–590. The show was Senpantachi no kokuhaku bujun, taigen senpan kanrijo 1062nin no shuki.
112. Ishida Ryūji, “Chūgoku no senpan shogū hōshin ni miru ‘kandaisa’ to ‘genkakusa’: shoki no senpan kyōiku o chūshin ni,” PRIME, (32) (October 2010): 68.
113. Ishida, “Chūgoku no senpan shogū hōshin ni miru ‘kandaisa’ to ‘genkakusa,’ ” 69.
114. Frederick C. Teiwes, Politics and Purges in China (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1979), 275–329.
115. Kinkley, Chinese Justice, the Fiction, 24. For an exegesis on the anti-Rightist movement and legal excesses, see Sebastian Veg, “Testimony, History and Ethics: From the Memory of Jiabiangou Prison Camp to a Reappraisal of the Anti-Rightist Movement in Present-Day China,” China Quarterly 218 (June 2014): 514–539.
9. The Pathology of Justice in Post-Occupation Japan
1. Toyota’s plan related, in part, to BC class war crimes trials in Yokohama. See Kiyonaga Satoshi, Senpan o sukue: bishikyū yokohama saiban hiroku (Shinchōsha, 2015), 125–137. For global consideration of problems connected to the treaty, see Kawashima Shin and Hosoya Yūichi, eds., San furanshisuko kōwa to higashi ajia (Tōkyō daigaku shuppankai, 2022).
2. Hei 11nen hōmu 4B, 23, 6290, “Sensō saiban kiroku shiryō (sensō saiban no kiroku mokuji (an) shōwa 27nendo gyōmushi, nijūnana. ni. Nijūnana sensō saiban no kiroku henshū no hōshin (an), shōwa nijūhachi nendo gyōmu uchiawase hoka), by Toyota Kumao,” January 1952, NAJ.
3. Hei 11nen hōmu 4B, 23, 6290, “Sensō saiban kiroku shiryō (sensō saiban no kiroku mokuji (an) shōwa 27nendo gyōmushi, nijūnana. ni. Nijūnana sensō saiban no kiroku henshū no hōshin (an), shōwa nijūhachi nendo gyōmu uchiawase hoka), by Toyota Kumao,” January 1952, NAJ.
4. Hei 11nen hōmu 4B, 23, 6290, “Sensō saiban kiroku shiryō (sensō saiban no kiroku mokuji (an) shōwa 27nendo gyōmushi, nijūnana. ni. Nijūnana sensō saiban no kiroku henshū no hōshin (an), shōwa nijūhachi nendo gyōmu uchiawase hoka), by Toyota Kumao,” January 1952, NAJ.
5. Heisei 11nen 4A-21-6340, “Sensō saiban kankei jimu shiryō bassui,” shōwa 16–20, NAJ.
6. Nariaki Nakazato, Neonationalist Mythology in Postwar Japan: Pal’s Dissenting Judgment at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016), 144–145.
7. “Bishikyū senpan no shamen, Kimura hōmu sōsai genmei saiban kakoku ni shinsei, sensōhanzai,” Asahi shimbun, April 30, 1952, Tokyo evening edition.
8. “ ‘Senpan’ ni taisuru ninshiki to naikaku sōri daijin no yasukuni jinja sanpai ni kansuru shitsumon shuisho,” (teishutsusha Noda Yoshihiko, shitsumon dainijūichigō, heisei17nen 10gatsu 17nichi teishutsu), The House of Representatives, Japan, (shūgiin), 163rd Parliamentary Session, November 17, 2005, 21st question session, JPR; Utsumi Aiko and Udagawa Kōta, “Sensō to sabaki: ōsutoraria saiban to hikokunin,” Ōsaka keizai hōka daigaku ajia taiheiyō kenkyū sentā nenpō (2016): 2–8, claim it was Attorney General Ōhashi Takeo who issued the directive. Sheila A. Smith, Intimate Rivals: Japanese Domestic Politics and a Rising China (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015), 99, 295.
9. “Senpan shakuhō ikensho nihon bengoshiren ga shukō,” Yomirui shimbun, June 22, 1952, morning edition; Sandra Wilson, Dean Aszkielowicz, Beatrice Trefalt, and Robert Cribb., Japanese War Criminals: The Politics of Justice after the Second World War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 164–195.
10. Eiko Maruko Siniawer, Ruffians, Yakuza, Nationalists: The Violent Politics of Modern Japan, 1860–1960 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008), 159.
11. “Ōhaba na onsha kōryo kōwa no hakkōshi ni Ōhashi sōsai tōben kakuiinkai,” Asahi shimbun, November 13, 1951, Tokyo evening edition.
12. 12shū-hōmu iinkai, 12gō, November 14, 1951, JPR.
13. Tanaka Masaaki, Pāru hanji no nihon muzairon (Shōgakukan, 2001); Yoshimatsu Masakatsu, ed., Senshi o yaburu: nihon wa muzai nari (Nihon shoseki insatsu tōkyō shisha, 1952); Suzuki Chieko, “Maboroshi de wa nakatta ‘hyakuningiri kyōsō,’ ” Chūkiren, no. 27 (Winter 2003): 6.
14. Kei Ushimura, “Pal’s ‘Dissentient Judgment’ Reconsidered: Some Notes on Postwar Japan’s Responses to the Opinion,” Japan Review, no. 19 (2007): 218.
15. Hiro Saito, The History Problem: The Politics of War Commemoration in East Asia (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2017), 27.
16. Sebastian Conrad, The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 245.
17. Wang Weibin, “Zai chūgoku nihonjin no hikiage ni kansuru ichikōsatsu,” Shūdō hōgaku, 27kan, 2gō, (2005): 159.
18. Casper Wits, “Foreign Correspondents in the East Asian Cold War: The Sino-Japanese Journalist Exchange of 1964,” Modern Asian Studies 54, no. 5 (2020): 1–37.
19. Li Feng, “1950nendai no nicchū bōeki kankei—nicchū bōeki sokushin dantai no katsudō o chūshin ni” (PhD diss., Kobe University, 2014).
20. Besshi Yukio, “Sengo nicchū kankei to hiseishiki sesshokusha,” Kokusai seiji, dai75gō, (October 1983): 99.
21. Sun Pinghua (Son Heika in Japanese), Chūgoku to nihon ni hashi o kaketa otoko (Nihon kezai shinbunsha, 1998), 77.
22. Ishikawa Tadao, Nakajima Mineo, and Ikei Masaru, eds., Sengo shiryō nicchū kankei (Nihon hyōronsha, 1970), 23–24; Mayumi Itoh, The Making of China’s Peace with Japan: What Xi Jinping Should Learn from Zhou Enlai (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2017), 14–21.
23. Okazaki Yūji, “Ikeda Masanosuke to sengo shoki nicchū bōeki (ge)—minkan bōeki kyōtei ni honsō—shōnai shusshin seijika no sokuseki,” Tōhoku kōeki bunka daigaku sōgō kenkyū ronshū, forum 21 4, (2002): 117–138; Amy King, China-Japan Relations after World War II: Empire, Industry and War, 1949–1971 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 83–86.
24. Kōra Tomi, Hisen o ikiru—Kōra Tomi jiden (Domesu, 1983), 171; “Kokkō kaifuku seba sōkan, soren no senpan e no taido,” Asahi shimbun, June 30, 1952, Tokyo morning edition.
25. “Demotai ni keikan happō nagoyade 20yomei fushō 90mei kenkyo […],” Yomiuri shimbun, July 8, 1952, morning edition.
26. “ ‘Shinu mae ni kaeritai,’ soren de senpan wa uttau,” Asahi shimbun, July 16, 1952, Tokyo morning edition.
27. “Zanryūsha niman gosen?,” Asahi shimbun, June 29, 1952, Tokyo morning edition.
28. “Kurushikatta chūkyō no seikatsu kikoku kangofura kataru, ‘Hoashira no hōkoku wa ayamari,’ ” Yomiuri shimbun, August 19, 1952, Tokyo evening edition.
29. Besshi Yukio, “Sengo nicchū kankei to chūgoku gaikōkan (sono 1),” Hokutō ajia kenkyū, dai2gō, (October 2001): 180. See also Besshi Yukio, “Sengo nicchū kankei to hiseishiki sesshokusha—nihon gaikō no hiseishiki channeru,” Kokusai seiji, (dai75gō), (October 1983): 98–113. Rachel Leow calls this “conference hopping” in “A Missing Peace: The Asia-Pacific Peace Conference in Beijing, 1952 and the Emotional Making of Third World Internationalism,” Journal of World History 30, nos. 1–2 (June 2019): 33.
30. Zhao Xinli (Chō Shinri in Japanese), “Nicchū sensōki ni okeru chūgoku kyōsantō no tainichi puropaganda senjutsu senryaku” (PhD diss., Waseda University, published by Waseda daigaku shuppanbu in 2011); Mōri Kazuko, Nicchū kankei: sengo kara shinjidai e (Iwanami shinsho, 2006), 22.
31. Itoh, Making of China’s Peace with Japan, 18; Kōra, Hisen o ikiru, 175–176.
32. Besshi, “Sengo nicchū kankei to chūgoku gaikōkan (sono 1),” 180. Meetings included those with Zhao Anbo, Xiao Xiangqian, Yang Zhenya, Wu Xuewen, and Wang Xiaoxian, among others.
33. Saburō Ienaga, Japan’s Last War: World War II and the Japanese, 1931–1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979), 252; Dai15kai kokkai, shūgiin, yosan iinkai, dai 19gō, February 9, 1953, JPR. The quote from the translation is not quite the same as Okano’s original comments in the Diet. Sebastian Conrad, The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 112–119.
34. Lori Watt, When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University East Asia Center, 2009), 9–10.
35. “Cong shanghai huiguo riqiao de zhuyao sixiang qingkuang,” March 28, 1953, IRRC.
36. “Cong shanghai huiguo riqiao de zhuyao sixiang qingkuang,” March 28, 1953, IRRC.
37. Rodger Swearingen and Paul Langer, Red Flag in Japan: International Communism in Action, 1919–1951 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), 104.
38. Swearingen and Langer, Red Flag in Japan, 94–95.
39. The Japanese Communist Party, 1955–1963, declassified CIA report, March 1964, 10.
40. Zhao Xinli, “Nicchū sensōki ni okeru chūgoku kyōsantōnai no ‘chinichiha’ to tekigun kōsaku,” Wasedaseiji kōhō kenkyū, 95gō, (2010): 1–15.
41. Wada Haruki, Rekishi to shite no Nosaka Sanzō (Heibonsha, 1996), 251–255.
42. Itō Ritsu, Itō Ritsu kaisōroku—pekin yūhei nijūshichinen (Bungei shunjū, 1993), 15–18.
43. Yang Mingwei and Chen Yangyong, Zhou Enlai waijiao fengyun (Beijing: Jiefangjun wenyi chubanshe, 1995), 237. A memo of the meeting can be found at: The World and Japan website, managed by Professor Tanaka Akihiko, National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (GRIPS), (https://
worldjpn ), “Nicchū kankei ni kansuru Zhou Enlai chūgoku shushō no Ōyama Ikuo kyōju ni taisuru danwa,” September 28, 1953..net /indexPC -ENG .html 44. Besshi, “Sengo nicchū kankei to hiseishiki sesshokusha—nihon gaikō no hiseishiki chyanneru,” 102; Suga Eiichi et al., eds., Nicchū mondai—gendai chūgoku to kōryū no shikaku (Sanseidō, 1971), 15–16.
45. “Shamen motogunjin no kansō, pekin hōsō no zadankai kara chūkyō hikiage,” Asahi shimbun, September 5, 1954, Tokyo evening edition.
46. “Riben guohui yiyuan Tianzhong Rennan huiguo,” Renmin ribao, October 23, 1954.
47. These included Kameda Tōgo, Bōkyō—pekin ni arite: nihonjin no omoeru (Kōbunsha, 1956).
48. “Huode kuanshe qian riben junren yu riben zuopai shehuidang yiyuandeng jianmian de qingkuang,” September 28, 1954, IRRC.
49. “Huode kuanshe qian riben junren yu riben zuopai shehuidang yiyuandeng jianmian de qingkuang,” September 28, 1954, IRRC.
50. “ ‘Zenjinza jiken (hokkaidō akabira jiken)’ o kangeru,” interview at the home of Minotsu Tatsumi, Shiga Village in Shiga Prefecture, produced on December 7, 2002, http://
www ; Samuel L. Leiter, Kabuki at the Crossroads: Years of Crisis, 1952–1965, (Leiden, Netherlands: Global Oriental, 2013), 140–141..miike -coalmine .org /data /koe /zenshinza .html 51. “Shū Onrai no nihon kokkai giin hōchū daihyōdan gakujutsu shisatsudan to no kaiken ni okeru hatsugen ‘nihon yūkō no kiso ni tsuite,’ ” in Sengo shiryō nicchū kankei, ed. Ishikawa Tadao, Nakajima Mineo, and Ikei Masaru (Nihon hyōronsha, 1970), 27–32.
52. “Shū Onrai no nihon kokkai giin hōchū daihyōdan gakujutsu shisatsudan to no kaiken ni okeru hatsugen ‘nihon yūkō no kiso ni tsuite,’ ” 32; “Record of Conversation from Premier Zhou’s Reception of the Japanese Parliamentary Delegation in China and the Japanese Academic and Cultural Delegation in China,” October 20, 1955, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, PRC FMA 105-00158-02, 6–27; obtained by Amy King and translated by Stephen Mercado, http://
digitalarchive ..wilsoncenter .org /document /165370 53. “Chūso tainichi kyōdō sengen (chūka jinmin kyōwakoku seifu oyobi souieto shakaishugi kyōwakoku renpō seifu no nihon ni taisuru kankei ni tsuite no kyōdō sengen),” collated on The World and Japan website, managed by Professor Tanaka Akihiko, National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (GRIPS), (https://
worldjpn ); Park Jung Jin, “North Korean Nation Building and Japanese Imperialism,” in The Dismantling of Japan’s Empire in East Asia: De-imperialization, Postwar Legitimation and Imperial Afterlife, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Routledge, 2017), 208..net /indexPC -ENG .html 54. Lian Shu, “1950nendai ni okeru chūso kankei to chūgoku no tainichi seisaku,” Ronsō gendaigo gendaibunka, 20kan, (February 2019): 14.
55. “Riben zhongyiyuan yiyuan Tianzhong Rennan fabiao tanhua huanying zhongsu liangguo […],” Renmin ribao, October 24, 1954.
56. “Ri Tokuzen joshira sakuyū nyūkyo,” Asahi shimbun, October 31, 1954, Tokyo morning edition.
57. “Tensei jingo,” Asahi shimbun, October 31, 1954, Tokyo, morning edition; Cheng Ma and Lin Zhenjiang, Riben nanwang Li Dequan (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2017), 47.
58. Erik Esselstrom, That Distant Country Next Door: Popular Japanese Perceptions of Mao’s China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2019), 22.
59. “Shū Onrai no nihon kokkai giin hōchū daihyōdan gakujutsu shisatsudan to no kaiken ni okeru hatsugen ‘nihon yūkō no kiso ni tsuite,’ ” 33.
60. “Shū Onrai no nihon kokkai giin hōchū daihyōdan gakujutsu shisatsudan to no kaiken ni okeru hatsugen ‘nihon yūkō no kiso ni tsuite,’ ” 34.
61. “Riben jizhe laijin tanfang huiguo riqiao qingkuang,” December 4, 1954, IRRC.
62. Fukuda Kumajirō, “Watashi no mita mama no chūkyō,” Tairiku mondai 3, no. 11 (November 1954): 28–45.
63. “Riqiao Futian Xiongcilang huiguohou dui woguo qingkuang jinxing waiqu xuanchuan,” December 15, 1954, IRRC.
64. “Interview with Chou En-lai, Shozo Murata Talks about His Trip,” translated in “Political Relations between China and Japan (1955),” FO 371-115005, published, KGNA.
10. Behind the Curtain
1. “Riben duiwo taidu,” Waijiaobu zhongri xuanan, anjuan diyice, zhonghua minguo 44nian 11yueqi, (11-EAP-02382), MOFAT.
2. Itō Ritsu, Itō Ritsu kaisōroku—pekin yūhei nijūshichinen (Bungei shunjū, 1993), 84.
3. Itō, Itō Ritsu kaisōroku, 93–94.
4. Mizutani Naoko, Hannichi izen: chūgoku tainichi kōsakushatachi no kaisō (Bungei shunjū, 2006), 101.
5. “Chō Anpaku hatsugen to rekishi no shinjitsu,” Zenei, (April 1998): 98–108; Mizutani, Hannichi izen, 68. The truncated article was published as Chō Anpaku, Himeda Mitsuyoshi, and Mizutani Naoko, “Chō Anpaku kaisōroku—nicchū kankeishi no ichi danmen,” Sekai, (October 1998): 280–294.
6. Mizutani, Hannichi izen, 98.
7. Mizutani, Hannichi izen, 99–100.
8. Masuda Chikako, “Hino Ashihei ‘Akai kuni no tabibito’ no seiritsu to shin chūgoku ninshiki: ‘chūgokutabi nikki’ tono hikaku oyobi shoshutsu zasshi sakujo mondai o chūshin to shite,” Kansai daigaku tōzai gakujutsu kenkyū kiyō, 44kan, (April 2011): 29–47.
9. Hino Ashihei, “Bujun purizon no senpantachi,” in Akai kuni no tabibito (Asahi shimbunsha, 1955), 300–308.
10. Memo from Peking to Foreign Office, September 15, 1955, “Sino-Japanese Relations,” in “Political relations between China and Japan (1955),” FO 371-115005, published, KGNA. The article “Zhongri liangguojian qiaomin wenti de zhenxiang” was from September 14, 1955, in the People’s Daily.
11. Ran Zwigenberg, Hiroshima: The Origins of Global Memory Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 103.
12. “Shū Onrai sōri: nihon shimbun hōsō kankei chūgoku hōmon daihyōdan to kaiken,” in Sengo shiryō nicchū kankei, ed. Ishikawa Tadao, Nakajima Mineo, and Ikei Masaru (Nihon hyōronsha, 1970), 52–54.
13. Endō Saburō, Nicchū jūgonen sensō to watakushi: kokuzoku aka no shōgun to hito wa iu (Nicchū shorin, 1974), 328.
14. Endō, Nicchū jūgonen sensō to watakushi, 343.
15. Endō Saburō et al., eds., Moto gunjin no mita chūkyō: shinchūgoku no seiji keizai bunka shisō no jittai (Bunri shoin, 1956), 22–23.
16. Endō et al., Moto gunjin no mita chūkyō, 24.
17. Kobayashi Kazuhiro, Shinatsū ichi gunjin no hikari to kage: Isogai Rensuke chūjōden (Kashiwa shobō, 2000), 238; Yang Daqing, “1950nendai ni okeru sensō kioku to asai wakai—moto nihon gunjin hōchūdan o chūshin ni,” in Tairitsu to kyōzon no rekishi ninshiki, nicchū kankei 150nen, ed. Liu Jie and Kawashima Shin (Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 2013), 191–222.
18. Miyatake Gō, Shōgun no igon: Endō Saburō nikki (Mainichi shimbunsha, 1986), 216.
19. Kobayashi, Shinatsū ichi gunjin no hikari to kage, 239.
20. Endō et al., Moto gunjin no mita chūkyō, 17.
21. “1955.10.03, Zhou Enlai zongli jiejian riben zuopai shehuidang Ye Gousheng tanhua jiyao,” Danghao: 105-00210-07, CMOFA.
22. Ishikawa Tadao, Nakajima Mineo, and Ikei Masaru, eds., Sengo shiryō nicchū kankei (Nihon hyōronsha, 1970), 56–57. Mao and Zhou Enlai met with Kanbayashiyama’s group on October 15, 1955. “Mao Zedong zhuxi jiejian riben yiyuan fanghuatuan tanhua jilu,” Danghao: 105-00210-01, CMOFA.
23. Manshūkokushi hensan kankōkai, Manshūkokushi (Sōron manmō dōhō engokai, 1970), unpaginated section.
24. Endō et al., Moto gunjin no mita chūkyō, 48.
25. According to one Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs source, for which the date of October 28, 1955, must be a mistake, Endō compared his time in Sugamo Prison in Tokyo with the experiences of Japanese war criminals in Fushun, where they were treated with “great benevolence.” “Mao Zedong zhuxi jiejian riben yonghu xianfa lianghehui fanghuatuan tanhua jiyao,” Danghao: 105-00210-02 (1), CMOFA.
26. Shiroyama Hidemi, “ ‘Moto gunjin hōchūdan’ to Mō Takutō gaikō no senryakusei—chūgoku gaikō tōan kara miru gunkokushugi no seisan,” Soshio saiensu 19 (March 2013): 78; Endō, Nicchū jūgonen sensō to watakushi, 482. Sun Pinghua (Son Heika in Japanese), Chūgoku to nihon ni hashi o kaketa otoko (Nihon kezai shinbunsha, 1998), 92–95.
27. In December 1955, Zhou Enlai met with a Japanese civilian group, led by Takenaka Katsuo, who were repatriating the remains of Chinese “heroes.” “Zhou Enlai zongli jiejian zhongguo kangri lieshi yigu husongtuan tanhua jilu,” Danghao: 105-00210-10 (1), CMOFA. See also Wang Hongyan, “Chūgokujin ikotsu sōkan undō to sengo chūnichi kankei,” Hitotsubashi ronsō 119, no. 2 (February 1998): 267–283.
28. (Confidential) “Minutes of the Talk between Japanese and Chinese Red Cross Societies,” Peking, March 3, 1956, “Criminel de guerre japonais en Chine. Rapatriement, 08/10/1954-11/07/1958, B AG 219 048-001, IRCA.
29. Confidential British dispatch from the embassy in Tokyo on April 13, 1956, from Esler Denning, in “Political relations between China and Japan (1956),” FO 371-120888, published, KGNA.
30. “Zhou Enlai zongli jijian riben heping daibiaotuan Gongqi Longjie dengren tanhua jilu,” Danghao: 105-00500-02, CMOFA.
31. “Taiyuan zaiya riben zhanfan de sixiang dongtai,” May 11, 1956, IRRC.
32. Shiroyama, “ ‘Moto gunjin hōchūdan’ to Mō Takutō gaikō no senryakusei,” 79.
33. On September 4, 1956, Liao Chengzhi wrote Mao a letter lauding the efforts of the Fushun Prison reform of Japanese war criminals and how that re-education, and the trips to key sites around China, had a positive influence on the visit of former Japanese military officers. Liao advised Mao that meeting with such groups would be “immense” in helping to further solidify their changing opinions of new China. See Liao Chengzhi wenji bianji bangongshi, ed., Liao Chengzhi wenji (xia) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1990), 808–809.
34. Shiroyama, “ ‘Moto gunjin hōchūdan’ to Mō Takutō gaikō no senryakusei,” 80; Miyatake, Shōgun no igon, 218; Shiroyama Hidemi, Chūgoku kyōsantō ‘tennō kōsaku’ hiroku (Bungei shunjū, 2009), 12–13.
35. “August 27, 1956, British embassy Tokyo dispatch, from RW Selby,” in “Political relations between China and Japan (1956),” FO 371-120888, KGNA.
36. Chō Kōhō, Ima yomigaeru Endō Saburō no hito to shisō: rikugun kōkyū erīto kara hansen heiwashugisha (Ōbirin daigaku hokutō ajia sōgō kenkyūjo, 2016), 347.
37. Wang Zhendong (Ō Shintō in Japanese), “Taigen senpan kanrishochō to shite,” Chūkiren, 19gō (Winter 2001): 48.
38. The text of the announcement is available at grips site: The World and Japan website, managed by Professor Tanaka Akihiko, National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (GRIPS), (https://
worldjpn ), “Shakaitō hōchūdan to chūgoku jinmim gaikō gakkai no kyōdō komyunike,” April 22, 1957..net /indexPC -ENG .html 39. “Confidential British embassy in Peking dispatch, May 9, 1957,” in FO 371-127285 “Political relations between China and Japan (1957),” published United Kingdom archives.
40. Kōanchōsachō, Shisō kaizō to sensō hanzai: chūkyō yokuryūki, softbound report produced by the Japanese government, May 1957, no. 3419, TBA.
41. Dai 28kai kokkai, shūgiin, gaimuiinkai, dai 20gō, April 9, 1958, JPR; Matsuoka Hajime, Nicchū rekishi wakai e no michi (Kōbunken, 2014), 183–185.
42. Nick Kapur, Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 7–8.
43. Hei 11nen 4A-21-6654, “Sensō hanzaihōteki kenkyū kankeitsuzuri,” the Toyota proposal from March 19, 1964, NAJ.
44. Taiheiyō sensō e no michi, 8 volumes, Nihon kokusai seiji gakkai taiheiyō sensō genin kenkyūbu ed (Asahi shinbunsha, 1962-62).
45. Sakano’s son-in-law offered a personal glimpse into his father-in-law on his personal blog: “Tōkyō saiban ni tuite, ‘jibunshi’ kara no bassui,” produced November 15, 2005, https://
mikasa ..exblog .jp /2198881 / 46. Inoki Takenori, Keizai seichō no kajitsu, 1955–1972 (Chūō kōron shinsha, 2000), 129–131.
47. Helen Hardacre, Shinto: A History (Oxford University Press, 2016), 461; Franziska Seraphim, War Memory and Social Politics in Japan, 1945–2005 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2006).
48. Tokyo saiban kenkyūkai, ed., Pāru hanketsusho: taiheiyō sensō no kangaekata kyōdō kenkyū, 2 vols. (Tokyo saiban kankōkai, 1966).
49. Hei 11nen 4A-21-6654, “Sensō hanzaihōteki kenkyū kankeitsuzuri,” the Toyota proposal from March 19, 1964, NAJ.
50. Emeritus professor Yamamoto Taketoshi gave the first lecture of a twenty-first-century university study group, which follows similar lines. “Tokyo saiban to kenetsu taisei,” in the Kyokutō kokusai gunji saiban kenkyū purojekkuto, Hikaku hōsei kenkyū (Kokushikan daigaku), dai 38gō, (2015): 87–100.
51. Fukuma Yoshiaki, Sensō taiken no sengoshi (Chūkō shinsho, 2009), 3–5.
52. There is a museum in Tokyo dedicated to this, Wadatsumi no koe kinenkan, http://
www (accessed July 30, 2022)..wadatsuminokoe .org 53. Hosaka Masayasu, ‘Kike wadatsumi no koe’ no sengoshi (Bunshun bunko, 2002).
54. “Senbotsu gakusei ni koe araba shasetsu,” Asahi shimbun, May 21, 1969, Tokyo morning edition.
55. Julia Strauss, State Formation in China and Taiwan Bureaucracy, Campaign, and Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 98–99.
56. Brad R. Roth, “Human Rights and Transitional Justice: Taiwan’s Adoption of the ICCPR and the Redress of 2/28 and Martial-Law-Era Injustices,” in Taiwan and International Human Rights: A Story of Transformation, ed. Jerome A. Cohen, William P. Alford, and Chang-fa Lo (Singapore: Springer, 2019), 54.
57. Chihyun Chang, ed., The Chinese Journals of L. L. Little, 1943–1954: An Eyewitness Account of War and Revolution, vol. 3, The Financial Advisor, 1950–1954 (London: Routledge, 2018), 237. In 2001, the Taiwanese government found that the charges against Sun Li-jen were unjustified.
58. Jerome Cohen, “Taiwan’s Political-Legal Progress: Memories of the K Dictatorship,” in Taiwan and International Human Rights: A Story of Transformation, ed. Jerome A. Cohen, William P. Alford, and Chang-fa Lo (Singapore: Springer, 2019), 20.
59. Chen Tsui-lian, “Lishi zhengyi de kunjing: zuqun yiti yu ererba lunshu,” Guoshiguan xueshu jikan, (16) (June 2008): 195.
60. Ka Girin (He Yilin in Chinese), Taiwan gendaishi: ni ni hachi jiken o meguru rekishi no saikioku (Heibonsha, 2014), 218–220; Wu Chun-Ying, “ ‘Fuchen zhuanan’ yu guomindang danju dui ererba shijian quanshi de xueshu zhuanxiang,” Taiwanshi yanjiu, di 29juan di 4qi, (December 2022): 173–230.
61. Su Seng and Guo Jiancheng, Fuqu lishi mingjingzhong de chenai (Alhambra, CA: Meiguo nanhua wenkhua shiye goingsi, 1986); Chen, “Lishi zhengyi de kunjing,” 196; Chen Tsui-lian, Chonggou ererba: zhanhou meizhong tizhi, zhongguo tongzhi moshi yu Taiwan (Xinbeishi, Taiwan: Weicheng chuban, 2017), 13.
62. Michael Berry, A History of Pain: Trauma in Modern Chinese Literature and Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 218.
63. Chun-Hung Chen and Hung-Ling Yeh, “The Battlefield of Transitional Justice in Taiwan: A Relational View,” in Taiwan and International Human Rights: A Story of Transformation, ed. Jerome A. Cohen, William P. Alford, and Chang-fa Lo (Singapore: Springer, 2019), 71; Thomas J. Shattuck, “Transitional Justice in Taiwan: A Belated Reckoning with the White Terror,” Foreign Policy Research Institute, 2019, https://
www ..fpri .org /article /2019 /11 /transitional -justice -in -taiwan -a -belated -reckoning -with -the -white -terror /
11. Evaporating Legal Memory and KMT War Criminals
1. “Shanghai sifajie renshi zhankai fanyoupai douzheng, yaoqiu faxuehui lishihui biaoming taidu, zhichu Wang Zaoshi Yang Zhaolong wenti yanzhong bixu renzhen gaoqing,” June 26, 1957, CARMD.
2. “Wufa keyi shi huairen gandao wusuo guji, haoren gandao quefa baozhang,” original was from May 7, 1957), Xinwen ribao and titled “Yang Zhaolong ‘Woguo zhongyao fadian heyi chichi bubanbu’ ”; it was included in proceedings against Yang as “Youpai fenzi Yang Zhaolong de yanlun fudan daxue Yang Zhaolong fudan daxue xiaokan bianjishi, August 1957,” CARMD.
3. “Quanti sifa ganbu tuanjie zaidang de zhouwei chedi dakua youpai fenzi de changkuang jingong: Shi Liang zai diyijie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui disici huiyishang de fayan,” Shi Liang, July 12, 1957, CARMD.
4. Shen Guansheng, “Rang fachui qiaoxiang lishi de jingzhong,” Renmin fayuanbao, September 3, 2014.
5. “Zhonggong zuigao renmin fayuan xingting zhibu guanyu kaichu youpai fenzi Jia Qian dangji de jueding (Jia Qian),” February 15, 1958, CARMD.
6. “Zhonggong zuigao renmin fayuan xingting zhibu guanyu kaichu youpai fenzi Zhu Yaotang dangji de jueding,” February 15, 1958, CARMD.
7. “Zhonggong zuigao renmin fayuan xingting zhibu guanyu kaichu youpai fenzi Yang Xianzhi dangji de jueding (Yang Xianzhi),” February 15, 1958, CARMD.
8. “(Hao Shaoan) zhonggong zuigao renmin fayuan xingting zhibu guanyu kaichu youpai fenzi Hao Shaoan dangji de jueding,” February 15, 1958, CARMD.
9. Yuan Guang, Cong hongjun zhanshi dao junfa jiangjun (Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1998), 149–170.
10. “Zhonggong zuigao renmin fayuan xingting zhibu guanyu kaichu youpai fenzi Zhang Xiangqian dangji de jueding (Zhang Xiangqian),” April 24, 1958, CARMD.
11. Dangdai zhongguo congshu bianji weiyuanhui, ed., Dangdai zhongguo de gongan gongzuo (Beijing: Dangdai zhongguo chubanshe, 1992), 126. For more on the fate of Chinese “war criminals” the CCP pursued postwar, see Barak Kushner, “The Real Manchurian Candidates: Chinese War Criminals in the Postwar, Prisoners of History,” International Journal of Asian Studies 20, no. 1 (January 2023): 19–37.
12. Quanguo zhengxie wenshi he xuexi weiyuanhui, ed., Huiyi gaizao zhanfan, 2 vols. (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 2013). See also Dangdai zhongguo congshu bianji weiyuanhui, ed., Dangdai zhongguo de gongan gongzuo, 126–128.
13. Xia Jicheng, “Guomindang tewu touzi Kang Ze cong beifu dao teshe,” Yanhuang chunqiu, originally published June 2018 (see online article: http://
www )..yhcqw .com /30 /12657 .html 14. Lei Hao, “Jinjing qianhou canyu guanjiao guomindang zhanfan jishi,” in Huiyi gaizao zhanfan, xiace, ed. Quanguo zhengxie wenshi he xuexi weiyuanhui (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 2013), 417.
15. Mao Zedong, “Lun shida guanxi,” April 25, 1956. The full Chinese text is available on the Chinese communist material storehouse, the Zhongwen Makesizhuyi wenku at: https://
www ..marxists .org /chinese /maozedong /marxist .org -chinese -mao -19560425 .htm 16. This is the name of the region that encompasses Shanxi, Hebei, and Chahar Provinces. In 1948, Chahar was combined with other areas to form the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.
17. Lei, “Jinjing qianhou canyu guanjiao guomindang zhanfan jishi,” 409.
18. “Shokei hōshin, moto Shū Onrai shushō ga tekkai meirei kyū nihongun senpan kanrijo moto kanbu ga kataru,” Asahi shimbun, April 10, 1998, evening edition.
19. Liu Jiachang and Liu Renyuan, Zuihou de xuanze guomindang mingjiang Huang Wei teshe qianhou (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1999), 205.
20. Jin Luxian, The Memoirs of Jin Luxian, vol. 1, Learning and Relearning, 1916–1982, trans. Willam Hanbury-Tenison (Hong Kong University Press, 2012), 245.
21. Jin Yuan, “You yici weida de lishi shijian,” in Huiyi gaizao zhanfan, xiace, ed. Quanguo zhengxie wenshi he xuexi weiyuanhui (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 2013), 448.
22. J. A. Fyfield, Re-educating Chinese Anti-Communists (London: St. Martin’s Press, 1982), 54.
23. Duan Kewen, Zhanfan zishu, vol. 1 (Taipei: Shijie ribaoshe, 1978), 4.
24. Duan, Zhanfan zishu, vol. 1, 19.
25. Fyfield, Re-educating Chinese Anti-Communists, 52; Duan, Zhanfan zishu, vol. 1, 26.
26. Jin, “You yici weida de lishi shijian,” 448.
27. Jin, “You yici weida de lishi shijian,” 449.
28. Liu and Liu, Zuihou de xuanze guomindang mingjiang Huang Wei teshe qianhou, 57.
29. “The Ambassador in China (Stuart) to the Department of State,” Nanking, December 30, 1948, FRUS, 1948, The Far East: China, Volume VII, Document 591.
30. Ryan Grauer, Commanding Military Power: Organizing for Victory and Defeat on the Battlefield (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 107.
31. Huang Wei, “Wo zai gongdelin de gaizao shenghuo,” Wenshi jinghua, 2qi, (1995): 5. Huang’s longer original memoir of this era, “Gongdelin gaizao shenghuo jishi,” was first published in a collection of KMT former war criminal recollections in Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshanghuiyi quanguo weiyuanhui wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui ‘cong zhanfan dao gongmin’ bianji, ed., Cong zhanfan dao gongmin: yuan guomindang jiangling gaizao shenghuo de huiyi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 1987), 113–136.
32. Liu and Liu, Zuihou de xuanze guomindang mingjiang Huang Wei teshe qianhou, 65–66.
33. Huang, “Wo zai gongdelin de gaizao shenghuo,” 8.
34. Lei, “Jinjing qianhou canyu guanjiao guomindang zhanfan jishi,” 415–416.
35. Liu and Liu, Zuihou de xuanze guomindang mingjiang Huang Wei teshe qianhou, 131.
36. Liu and Liu, Zuihou de xuanze guomindang mingjiang Huang Wei teshe qianhou, 189–190.
37. Lei, “Jinjing qianhou canyu guanjiao guomindang zhanfan jishi,” 416.
38. Fyfield, Re-educating Chinese Anti-Communists, 33. See also Huang’s daughter’s interview: Huang Huinan and Zhou Haibing, “Yige guomindang zhongjiang de gaizao lichen,” Jianghuai wenshi, (September 2014): 75–87.
39. “Gai’e congshan qiantu guangming,” Renmin ribao, September 18, 1959.
40. Ji Min, “1959: Gongheguo zhuxifachu tesheling,” Zongheng, 10qi, (1998): 39.
41. Huang, “Gongdelin gaizao shenghuo jishi,” 131.
42. Frederick Wakeman, Spymaster Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 4.
43. Fyfield, Re-educating Chinese Anti-Communists, 11.
44. Shen Zui, Zhanfan gaizao suojianwen (shang) (Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 1990), 39–40; Philip F. Williams and Yenna Wu, The Great Wall of Confinement: The Chinese Prison Camp through Contemporary Fiction and Reportage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 161.
45. Fyfield, Re-educating Chinese Anti-Communists, 31–33. See also Julia Lovell, “The Uses of Foreigners in Mao-Era China: ‘Techniques of Hospitality’ and International Image-Building in the People’s Republic, 1949–1976,” Transactions of the RHS 25 (2015): 135–158.
46. Tom Buchanan, East Wind: China and the British Left, 1925–1976 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 164.
47. R. K. S. Ghandhi, “Mao Tse-Tung: His Military Writings and Philosophy,” Naval War College Review 17, no. 7 (March 1965): 19.
48. Felix Greene, China: The Country Americans Are Not Allowed to Know (New York: Ballantine Books, 1961). See also “[Mao Zedong’s] Conversation with [Bernard] Montgomery, [British Viscount of Alamein],” May 27, 1960, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Gang er si Wuhan daxue zongbu et al., eds., Mao Zedong sixiang wansui [Long live Mao Zedong thought], vol. 4 (1958–1960) (Wuhan, internal circulation, May 1968): 281–291, https://
digitalarchive .wilsoncenter .org /document /230144 49. Buchanan, East Wind, 164.
50. Dangdai zhongguo congshu bianji weiyuanhui, Dangdai zhongguo de gongan gongzuo, 115–126.
51. Zhang Jicheng, ed., Fushun zhanfan guanlisuo jiuzhi chenlieguan gushi (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 2014), 143–146.
52. Fyfield, Re-educating Chinese Anti-Communists, 31.
53. Ning Wang, Banished to the Great Northern Wilderness: Political Exile and Re-education in Mao’s China (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2017), 82–83.
54. Liu Binyan, “Murder at Nenjiang Camp,” in Seeds of Fire: Chinese Voices of Conscience, ed. Geremie Barmé and John Minford (New York: Noonday Press, 1989), 65–67.
55. Fyfield, Re-educating Chinese Anti-Communists, 75.
56. Robert Jay Lifton, Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of Brainwashing in China (New York: W. W. Norton, 1963); Monica Kim, The Interrogation Rooms of the Korean War: The Untold History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019).
57. Christian Sorace, “Extracting Affect: Televised Cadre Confessions in China,” Public Culture 31, no. 1 (January 2019): 147–148.
58. Ji Min, “Teshe zhanfan shenqing qu taiwan shouzu neimu,” in Shengsi lunhui: gaizao zhanfan midang quan gongkai, ed. Ji Min (Beijing: Zhongguowenshi chubanshe, 2011), 56–57.
59. Dangdai zhongguo congshu bianji weiyuanhui, Dangdai zhongguo de gongan gongzuo, 132. Other sources cite this amnesty as the work of Deng Xiaoping.
60. Ji Min, “Zhou Enlai linzhong dui taiwan wenti de pishi,” Yanhuang chunqiu, (June 2002): 7–14; Li Haiwen, “1975nian Mao Zedong juece shifang guomindang zhanfan de neiqing,” Wanxia, (24), (2011): 42–46.
61. Sugano Atsushi, Taiwan no kokka to bunka: datsu nihonka chūgokuka hondoka (Keisōsha, 2011), 289–292.
62. Jay Taylor, The Generalissimo: Chiang Ching-kuo and the Revolutions in China and Taiwan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 320.
63. Denny Roy, Taiwan: A Political History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 147; Li Zhanheng, Teshe huitaibei: cong zhanfan dao zuojia (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1999).
64. “Moto kokumintō senpan ni taiwan tōku,” Asahi shimbun, September 3, 1975, Tokyo morning edition.
65. Ren Haisheng, Bubi shashen chengren: guomindang zhongyao jiangling gaizao jishi (Beijing: Jiefangjun chubanshe, 1999), 317–345.
66. Andrew Morris, “ ‘Praising Righteous Fan’: PLA Air Force Commander Fan Yuanyan’s 1977 Defection to Taiwan,” International Journal of Taiwan Studies 2 (2019): 57–84; Andrew Morris, Defectors from the PRC to Taiwan, 1960–1989: The Anti-communist Righteous Warriors (London: Routledge, 2022).
67. Morris, “ ‘Praising Righteous Fan,’ ” 59; “Chinese Mig-19 Pilot Defects: Almost Draws Taiwan into Dogfight,” Washington Post, July 8, 1977.
68. Mark Bowden, “The Dark Art of Interrogation,” Atlantic Monthly, (October 2003): 56.
69. As quoted from the 1946 US Strategic Bombing Survey in Jeremy A. Yellen, “The Specter of Revolution: Reconsidering Japan’s Decision to Surrender,” International History Review 35, no. 1 (February 2013): 206.
70. Ali Soufan, The Black Banners, Declassified, How Torture Derailed the War on Terror after 9/11 (New York: Norton, 2020), 424.
71. The New York Times maintains an updated interactive website that follows the situation with prisoners detained at Guantanamo in “The Guantanamo Docket.” As of the end of 2021 its website tabulated these statistics. See: https://
www ..nytimes .com /interactive /2021 /us /guantanamo -bay -detainees .html
12. Owning the War
1. UN General Assembly Resolution No. 2758.
2. Asahi Shimbun Company, Media, Propaganda and Politics in 20th-Century Japan, trans. and abridged by Barak Kushner (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 235–236.
3. “Shū shushō, nijikan amari no netsuben Gotō henshūkyokuchō to no kaiken,” Asahi shimbun, November 6, 1971, morning edition.
4. Kissinger’s secret memo to the White House, November 1971, https://
www ..cia .gov /library /readingroom /docs /LOC -HAK -460 -9 -16 -4 .pdf 5. Samuel S. Kim, “The People’s Republic of China in the United Nations: A Preliminary Analysis,” World Politics 26, no. 3 (April 1974): 307; Samuel S. Kim, China, the United Nations and World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), 106–107.
6. Margaret Macmillan, Seize the Hour: When Nixon Met Mao (London: John Murray Publishers, 2007), 146.
7. “Preface, and “Introduction,” in Alexander C. Cook, ed., Mao’s Little Red Book: A Global History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), xiii, 1. The official title of the book was Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong.
8. Geremie Barmé, Shades of Mao: The Posthumous Cult of the Great Leader (London: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), 5–7.
9. Antony Best, “Japan and the Cold War: An Overview,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, ed. Richard H. Immerman and Petra Goedde (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 293.
10. Takashi Shiraishi and Caroline Sy Hau, “Only Yesterday: China, Japan, and the Transformation of East Asia,” in The Cold War in Asia: The Battle for Hearts and Minds, ed. Yangwen Zheng, Hong Liu, and Michael Szonyi (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 29.
11. “Dai 1kai Takeiru Yoshikatsu Shū Onrai kaidan kiroku,” July 27, 1972, accessed from The World and Japan website, managed by Professor Tanaka Akihiko, National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (GRIPS), https://
worldjpn . See also: Nakasone Yasuhiro, Jiseiroku: rekishi-hōtei no hikoku toshite (Shinchōsha, 2004), 99–100..net /indexPC -ENG .html 12. H. H. King, “The Boxer Indemnity: ‘Nothing but Bad,’ ” Modern Asian Studies 40, no. 3 (July 2006): 663–689.
13. “Record of the First Meeting between Takeiri Yoshikatsu and Zhou Enlai,” July 27, 1972, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, 2001–298, Act on Access to Information Held by Administrative Organs. Also available at the Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Obtained by Yutaka Kanda and translated by Ryo C. Kato. http://
digitalarchive ..wilsoncenter .org /document /118833 14. “Record of the Second Meeting between Takeiri Yoshikatsu and Zhou Enlai,” July 28, 1972, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, 2001–298, Act on Access to Information Held by Administrative Organs. Also available at the Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Obtained by Yutaka Kanda and translated by Ryo C. Kato. http://
digitalarchive ; Zhai Xin, “Zhou Enlai he Songcun Qiansan de wuci fanghua,” Zhonggong dangshi yanjiu, di 11qi, (2015): 89–98..wilsoncenter .org /document /118834 15. Rana Mitter, “China and the Cold War,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, ed. Richard Immerman and Petra Goedde (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 136.
16. Inoue Masaya, “Kokkō seijōka, 1972,” in Nicchū kankeishi, 1972–2012, vol. 1, seiji, ed. Takahara Akio and Hattori Ryūji (Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 2012), 41.
17. NHK shuzaihan, Shū Onrai no ketsudan: nicchū kokkō seijōka wa kōshite jitugen shita (Nihon hōsō shuppan kyōkai, 1993), 128–136; Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao, vol. 13 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 316.
18. Gao Wenqian, Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary (New York: Public Affairs, 2007), 235–236.
19. Ezra Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 184; Robert Weatherley, Mao’s Forgotten Successor: The Political Career of Hua Guofeng (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
20. Robert Suettinger, Negotiating History: The Chinese Communist Party’s 1981 (Project 2049 Institute, July 2017), available as a PDF paper at the institute’s website (https://
project2049 )..net 21. Suettinger, Negotiating History, 7. See also Dai Huang, Hu Yaobang yu pingfan yuanjia cuoan (Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe, 1998); Xu Lizhi, “Beyond ‘Destruction’ and ‘Lawlessness’: The Legal System during the Cultural Revolution,” in Victims, Perpetrators, and the Role of Law in Maoist China, ed. Daniel Leese and Puck Engman (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2018), 25–51.
22. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 189.
23. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 2.
24. Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping, updated ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 76.
25. “Yanzheng de shenpan—beijingshi zhongji renmin fayuan shenpan Wei Jingsheng fangemingan pangtingji,” Renmin ribao, October 17, 1979.
26. Excerpts from “Qincheng: A Twentieth Century Bastille,” published in Exploration (March 1979), on the Wei Jingsheng Foundation website (http://
www )..weijingsheng .org /doc /en /Excerpts%20from%20Qincheng .htm 27. Mu Xin, Ban guangming ribao, shinian zishu, 1957-1967 (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe, 1994), 373; Roderick MacFarquhar and Michael Schoenhals, Mao’s Last Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), 342.
28. Itō Ritsu, Itō Ritsu kaisōroku: pekin yūhei nijūshichinen, 269–270.
29. Itō, Itō Ritsu kaisōroku, 303.
30. This correspondence was conducted through the Chinese embassy in Tokyo and coordinated by Miyoshi Hajime, deputy head of the Japan-China Friendship Association. “Shinu mae ni shōgen ketsudan, Itō Ritsushi,” Asahi shimbun, December 21, 1980, Tokyo morning edition.
31. Itō, Itō Ritsu kaisōroku, 326.
32. Dai 93kai kokkai, hōmuiinkai, dai7gō, November 26, 1980, JPR. See also the story of a Japanese spy who was detained longer than Itō: Fukatani Toshio, Nihonkoku saigo no kikanhei, Fukatani Yoshiharu to sono kazoku (Shūeisha, 2014).
33. “Renda changweihui zhuoshou yanjiu jianquan fazhi,” Renmin ribao, February 15, 1979.
34. Huang Jiayang, “Deng Xiaoping, ‘Lishi jueyi’ qicao shou shiju suoxian,” accessed September 13, 2019, http://
www (online site: Hu Yaobang shiliao xinxiwang)..hybsl .cn /beijingcankao /beijingfenxi /2012 -03 -15 /28976 .html 35. Guoguang Wu, The Anatomy of Political Power in China (EAI, National University of Singapore, Marshall Cavendish Academic Press, 2005), 116–118.
36. Roderick MacFarquhar, “The Succession to Mao and the End of Maoism, 1969–1982,” in The Politics of China: Sixty Years of the People’s Republic of China, 3rd ed., ed. Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 330. See also Richard Baum, “Modernization and Legal Reform in Post-Mao China: The Rebirth of Socialist Legality,” Studies in Comparative Communism 19, no. 2 (Summer 1986): 69–103.
37. Guoguang, Anatomy of Political Power in China, 147.
38. Xiao Donglian, Lishi de zhuangui: cong boluanfanzheng dao gaigekaifang, 1979–1981, vol. 10 of series Zhonghua remin gongheguoshi (Hong Kong: Xianggang zhongwen daxue dangdai zhongguo wenhua yanjiu zhongxin, 2008), 127; “Shishi qiushi de jiejuehao silei fenzi zhaimao wenti, gonganbu buzhang Zhao Cangbi tongzhi da benbao jizhewen,” Renmin ribao, January 30, 1979.
39. Xiao, Lishi de zhuangui, vol. 10, 89.
40. Xiao, Lishi de zhuangui, vol. 10, 104.
41. Alexander C. Cook, The Cultural Revolution on Trial: Mao and the Gang of Four (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 2.
42. “Zhengyi de panjue,” Renmin ribao, January 26, 1981.
43. Cook, Cultural Revolution on Trial, 25.
44. Fei Xiaotong, “Yige shenpanyuan de ganshou,” Renmin ribao, January 30, 1981.
45. A Great Trial in Chinese History: The Trial of Lin Biao and Jiang Qiang Counter-Revolutionary Cliques, Nov. 1980–Jan. 1981 (Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2004; reprint of the 1981 version), 3.
46. Great Trial in Chinese History, 7.
47. Alexander Cook, “ ‘Settling Accounts’: Law as History in the Trial of the Gang of Four,” in Andrew Lewis and Michael Lobban, eds., Law and History: Current Legal Issues 6 (2003): 413.
48. Cook, Cultural Revolution on Trial, 8.
49. Cook, Cultural Revolution on Trial, 28.
50. Cook, Cultural Revolution on Trial, 113.
51. You Chenjun, Fan Zhongxin, and Gong Xiangzhai, Weishenme yao chongjian zhongguo faxi: Ju Zheng fazheng wenxuan (Beijingshi: Zhongguo zhengfa daxue chubanshe, 2009), 24–47.
52. Gu Nianzu, ed., Dongwu chunqiu: dongwu daxue jianxiao baishi zhounian jinian (Suzhou: Suzhou daxue chubanshe, 2010), 141–142.
53. Cook, Cultural Revolution on Trial, 68–69; Ma Lingguo, “Tebie fating de falu guwen Qiu Shaoheng,” Shiji, 5qi, (1995): 18–21.
54. Ma, “Tebie fating de falu guwen Qiu Shaoheng,” 20.
55. Zheng Shanlong, “Qiu Shaoheng: cong dongjing shenpan dao shenpan sirenbang,” Shiji, 3qi, (2007): 56.
56. Great Trial in Chinese History, 147.
57. “Qiu Shaoheng: rushan tiezheng jianzhi rijun baoxing,” September 3, 2015, in Zhengyi de shenpan zhi xinzhongguo shenpan shenyang (Beijing: Renmin fayuanbao tekan, 2015).
58. Guoguang, Anatomy of Political Power in China, 101.
59. Guoguang, Anatomy of Political Power in China, 102.
60. Xiao, Lishi de zhuangui, vol. 10, 267–270.
61. “Guanyu jianguo yilai dangde ruogan lishi wenti de jueyi (June 27, 1981, passed unanimously at the sixth session of the CCP’s 11th Central Committee Meeting).” The original was reposted on a Xinhua news site, which is currently no longer available, but it was archived on the Internet Archive Wayback Machine: https://
web . A full text of the English version can be found at https://.archive .org /web /20151123222207 /http: / /news .xinhuanet .com /ziliao /2002 -03 /04 /content _2543544 .htm www . The first historical resolution was in the 1945 CCP’s “Resolution on Certain Historical Questions” (Guanyu ruogan lishi wenti de jueyi). The full Chinese text of the 1945 proclamation on history is found on the party education website, https://.marxists .org /subject /china /documents /cpc /history /01 .htm xcb ..cdtc .edu .cn /info /1089 /2011 .htm 62. Xiao, Lishi de zhuangui, vol. 10, 272–275.
63. “Xi Jinping tan fandui lishi xuwuzhuyi,” on the Shanghai CCP party history website, http://
www (accessed October 6, 2019)..ccphistory .org .cn /node2 /shds /n218 /n514 /u1ai14999 .html 64. Ji Zhengju, “Cong lishi xuwuzhuyi de weihai kan sugong kuatai de jiaoxun,” http://
www ; and an English version by Peter Moody at his website: https://.dswxyjy .org .cn /n1 /2017 /1219 /c398751 -29716651 .html sites . See also Christopher Vassallo, “China Eyes the Soviet Demise: CCP Perspectives on the Collapse of the Soviet Union, 1989–2021” (master’s dissertation at Schwarzman College, Tsinghua University, August 2021); and Jude Blanchette, China’s New Red Guards: The Return of Radicalism and the Rebirth of Mao Zedong (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 127–147..nd .edu /peter -moody /2019 /06 /21 /historical -nihilism / 65. Gotelind Mueller, Documentary, World History, and National Power in the PRC: Global Rise in Chinese Eyes (London: Routledge, 2013), 133–165.
66. Zhonggong zhongyang bangongting, guowuyuan bangongting, zhongyang junwei bangongting yinfa, “Guanyu jinyibu jiaqiang lieshi jinian gongzuo de yijian,” on website of The Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, published July 3, 2013, http://
www ..gov .cn /jrzg /2013 -07 /03 /content _2439984 .htm 67. The full text, at least as of October 2019, was viewable at the PKU Law site: http://
www ..pkulaw .cn /fulltext _form .aspx ?Db =chl&Gid =313960# 68. Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Heroes and Martyrs, on the PKU law website, produced May 1, 2018, “Disantiao, yingxiong lieshi shiji he jingshen shi zhonghua minzu de gongtong lishi jiyi he shehuizhuyi hexin jiazhiguan de zhongyao tixian,” “Diwutiao, meinian 9yue 30ri wei lishi jinianri, guojia zai shoudu beijing tiananmen guangchang renmin yingxiong jinianbei qian juxing jinianyishi, mianhuai yingxiong lieshi.” See http://
www ..pkulaw .cn /fulltext _form .aspx ?Db =chl&Gid =313960# 69. Sebastian Veg, “The ‘Restructuring’ of Hong Kong and the Rise of Neostatism,” June 2020, https://
tocqueville21 ..com /le -club /the -restructuring -of -hong -kong -and -the -rise -of -neostatism / 70. Sebastian Veg, “The Rise of China’s Statist Intellectuals: Law, Sovereignty, and ‘Repoliticization,’ ” China Journal 82 (July 2019): 33–37.
71. Veg, “Rise of China’s Statist Intellectuals,” 37.
72. “Iperitto nado no dokugasu, nihongun ga tsukatte ita chūgoku sensen de tairyō ni 56reizu iri de kijutsu beikōbunshokan ni hozon,” Asahi shimbun, June 14, 1984, Tokyo morning edition.
73. 101-shū-gaimuiinkai-16gō, June 20, 1984, JPR. Abe Shintarō was the father of Japan’s longest-serving prime minister, Abe Shinzō.
74. Matsuno Seiya, Nihongun no dokugasu heiki (Gaifūsha, 2005), 311; Dai134kai kokkai, sangiin, gaimuiinkai, dai 9gō, November 30, 1995, JPR; Yoshiko Nozaki, War Memory, Nationalism and Education in Postwar Japan, 1945–2007 (London: Routledge, 2008), 94–105.
75. Michael J. Green and Igata Akira, “The Gulf War and Japan’s National Security Identity,” in Examining Japan’s Lost Decades, ed. Funabashi Yoichi and Barak Kushner (London: Routledge, 2015), 158–175.
76. Nakasone Yasuhiro, Jiseiroku: rekishi hōtei no hikoku to shite (Shinchōsha, 2004), 32.
77. “Nakasone Yasuhiro, Miyazawa Kiichishi (tokubetsu taidan kenpō 50nen:1),” Asahi shimbun, April 22, 1997.
78. Fifth installment of this Miyazawa-Nakasone conversation, Asahi shimbun, April 26, 1997.
13. Afterlives of the Damned
1. Fushunshi zhengxie wenshi weiyuanhui, ed., Weiman huangdi Pu Yi ji riben zhanfan gaizao jishi (Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 1990), 196.
2. Fushunshi zhengxie wenshi weiyuanhui, Weiman huangdi Pu Yi ji riben zhanfan gaizao jishi, 199.
3. Zhao Yuying, “Senpan mo kawari, watashitachi mo kawatta,” in Chūgoku bujun senpan kanrijo shokuin no shōgen, ed. Arai Toshio shiryō hozonkai (Nashi no kisha, 2003), 334–347; Zhao Yuying, “Gaizao riben zhanfan zhong de yihu gongzuo,” in Huiyi gaizao zhanfan, shangce (vol. 1), ed. Quanguo zhengxie wenshi he xuexi weiyuanhui (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 2013), 122–134; Zhao Yuyin, interview in Fushun, China, June 2, 2019, in Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 223–225.
4. Hou Jiahua, interview, Fushun, China, June 2, 2019.
5. “Wuwang zhanzheng zhi tong, heping yongzai renxin,” Renmin gonganbao, October 19, 2015.
6. Yoshihisa Amae, “Pro-colonial or Postcolonial? Appropriation of Japanese Colonial Heritage in Present-Day Taiwan,” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 40, no. 1 (2011): 19–62.
7. Tsai Chin-Tang, “Taiwan de zhonglieci yu riben huguo shenshe, jingguo shenshe zhi bijiao yanjiu,” Shida taiwanshi xuebao, (3) (2010): 7. See also Dong Nian, “Taoyuanxian zhonglieci—zhongguo wenhua yuantouxia de riben shenshe jianzhu he sixiang,” Lishi yuekan, (219), (2006): 10–14; Lu Pan, Image, Imagination and Imaginarium: Remapping World War II Monuments in Greater China (Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), 190–201.
8. Paul Williams, Memorial Museums: The Global Rush to Commemorate Atrocities (New York: Berg Publishers, 2007), 5.
9. This idea is originally from David Lowenthal but persuasively argued in Shu-Mei Huang and Hyun Kyung Lee, Heritage, Memory, and Punishment: Remembering Colonial Prisons in East Asia (London: Routledge, 2020), xiii.
10. Williams, Memorial Museums, 4.
11. This event took place under Taiwan president Ma Ying-jeou, a KMT loyalist who still identified with the ROC. The current government under Tsai Ing-wen and the DPP takes a different stand.
12. Lu Junsheng and Zeng Xiaowen, eds., Nanyang yinglie: erzhan qijian babuyaniujineiya jingnei guojun jiangshi jilu (Taibei: Guofangbu shizheng bianyishi, 2009), 144–146.
13. Williams, Memorial Museums, 177.
14. Linh D. Vu, “Bones of Contention: China’s World War II Military Graves in India, Burma, and Papua New Guinea,” Journal of Chinese Military History 8 (2019): 96.
15. Joseph R. Allen, Taipei: City of Displacements (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2012), 152.
16. Julia Ross, “Taiwan’s Statue Wars,” Time, May 24, 2007; Jeremy E. Taylor, “Qujianghua: Disposing of and Re-appraising the Remnants of Chiang Kai-shek’s Reign on Taiwan,” Journal of Contemporary History 45, no. 1 (2010): 181–196. See also Kirk A. Denton, The Landscape of Historical Memory: The Politics of Museums and Memorial Culture in Post-martial Law Taiwan (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2021), 153–161.
17. One of the official websites of the 228 Foundation websites, https://
www (accessed December 1, 2022)..228 .org .tw 18. Eric N. Danielson, “Revisiting Chongqing: China’s Second World War Temporary National Capital,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch 45 (2005): 177; Lu, Image, Imagination and Imaginarium, 358–367; Kevin Paul Landdeck, “Under the Gun: Nationalist Military Service and Society in Wartime Sichuan, 1938–1945” (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2011), 431–432; Kirk A. Denton, Exhibiting the Past: Historical Memory and the Politics of Museums in Postsocialist China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2013).
19. Tony Brooks, “Angry States: Chinese Views of Japan as Seen through the Unit 731 War Museum since 1949,” in Remembering Asia’s World War Two, ed. Mark R. Frost, Daniel Schumacher, and Edward Vickers (New York: Routledge, 2019), 27.
20. Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2011/02/24: CIA-RDP91B00135R000500980010-0.
21. Robert Weatherley and Qiang Zhang, History and Nationalist Legitimacy in Contemporary China (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 127–128; Lu, Image, Imagination and Imaginarium, 35–37.
22. Weatherley and Qiang, History and Nationalist Legitimacy in Contemporary China, 141.
23. https://
www ..theguardian .com /world /2019 /jun /27 /chinese -war -film -the -eight -hundred -premiere -cancelled -in -apparent -censorship 24. “Rana Mitter Reviews a Revisionist New Book and TV Series on China’s WWII,” November 4, 2020, https://
chinachannel ); Patrick Frater, “ ‘The Eight Hundred’ Controversial War Film Finally Given China Release Date,” Variety, https://.org /author /rana -mitter / variety ..com /2020 /film /asia /eight -hundred -film -finally -given -china -release -date -1234723185 / 25. The park’s website is http://
ki43 ..on .coocan .jp 26. Kannon no iware, http://
www . These recollections are from the head priest of Rising Asia Kannon Temple, Inami Ninrei, 8–10..koakannon .org /page03 .html 27. Takazawa Hiroaki, “Amerika kokuritus kōbunshokan ga shozō suru tōkyō saiban hishikeisha no itai shogū kankei shiryō,” Nihon daigaku seisangakubu kenkyū hōkoku B, 6gatsu, 55kan, (2022): 11.
28. “Gokuhi de okonowareta A kyū senpan no ikotsu dakkan sakusen! sono zenbō o chōsa shita,” vol. 2, Yokohama no Kuboyama hōmon, https://
chinobouken ..com /atypebone2 / 29. Renmin fayuanbaoshe, ed., Zhengyi de shenpan: jinian zhongguo renmin kangri zhanzheng shengli qishi zhounian (Renmin fayuanchubanshe, 2016), 404.
30. “Tanaka Masaaki kōa kannon o mamorukai kaichō kōa kannon o kataru,” Kōa kannon no kaihō, inaugural issue, autumn 1994. The web page for the Buddhist Temple has a digital backlist of all of its internal pamphlets. See http://
www . Itami Ninrei, “Kōa kannon no iware,” http://.history .gr .jp /koa _kan _non /backnumber .html www . See also Sendai dōmori Itami Ninrei (jutsu), “Junkoku shichishi no hi kōa kannon ni sono haka no aru wake,” dai16gō, October 18, 2002; this is an explanatory essay written by the head cleric, http://.koakannon .org /box4 /a01 .pdf www ..koakannon .org /box4 /a01 .pdf 31. “Kōa kannon kaiki rokujūnen, kōa kannon o mamorukai sōritsu roku shūnen no atatte,” Kōa kannon, dai 12gō, October 18, 2000; Michael Lucken, The Japanese and the War: From Expectation to Memory, trans. Karen Grimwade (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 251–256.
32. Tokutomi Tasaburō, “Kōa kannon o kangaeru kōa kannon o mamorukai riji,” Kōa kannon no kaihō, inaugural issue, Autumn 1994.
33. Sejima Ryūzō, “Watakushidomo no tsutome,” Kōa kannon, dai 3gō, April 18, 1996.
34. Webpage of the Rising Asia Kannon Temple, http://
www (accessed July 30, 2022)..asahi -net .or .jp /~un3k -mn /0815 -3izuyama .htm 35. Webpage of the Rising Asia Kannon Temple, http://
www (accessed July 30, 2022). Michael Lucken, “Autour de quelques os: La mémorialisation des criminels de guerre de catégorie A,” Cipango 15 (2008): 1–17, http://.asahi -net .or .jp /~un3k -mn /0815 -3izuyama .htm ki43 ..on .coocan .jp /junkoku /7 .03 .html 36. “Watashi to gikyoku ‘kami to hito no aida’ bōkyaku ni tsuit,” Asahi shimbun, October 12, 1970, Tokyo morning edition; Lucken, Japanese and the War, 219–228.
37. Eric J. Gangloff, introduction to Between God and Man, by Kinoshita Junji (London: University of Tokyo Press, 1979), 12.
38. 91-san-kensetsuiinkai-3gō, February 21, 1980, JPR; Kaya Okinori, Senzen/sengo hachijūnen (Keizai ōraisha, 1976), 194. See also Barak Kushner, “Heroes, Victims, and the Quest for Peace: War Monuments and the Contradictions of Japan’s Post-imperial Commemoration,” in Sites of Imperial Memory: Commemorating Colonial Rule in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Dominik Geppert and Frank Mueller (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015), 70–91.
39. The Kōmyō Temple website, special page for the war martyrs, http://
tokyowanyosai (accessed August 23, 2021)..com /sub /ibutu /sekihi /irei -232 .html 40. Odamura Shirō, “Sensō no koshō o tadasō,” Kōa kannon no kaihō, Daiyongō, October 18, 1996.
41. Wanglai Gao, “Unearthing Poison: Disposal of Abandoned Chemical Weapons in China,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 73, no. 6 (2017): 404–410.
42. “Japan, China at Odds over Compensation Payments for Mustard Gas Incident,” BBC Monitoring Asia Pacific, September 14, 2003; Yoshimi Yoshiaki, Dokugasusen to nihongun (Iwanami shoten, 2004), 284–290.
43. Yoshimi, Dokugasusen to nihongun, 280.
44. Funabashi Yōichi, Genpatsu haisen: kiki no rīdāshippu to wa (Bungei shunjū, 2014), 255.
45. “Abe shushō, Akyū senpanra hōyō ni sokoku no ishizue, shigatsu jimin sōsaimei de aitō messēji,” Asahi shimbun, August 27, 2014, Tokyo morning edition. However, we must also be cautious in overextending too conservative of a label on Abe, as Hosoya Yūichi noted in an article after Abe’s assassination. See Hosoya Yūichi, “Saishō Abe Shinzōron,” Chūō kōron (September 2022): 48–55.
46. Fuji Seiji, Riron kingendai shigaku: hontō no nihon no rekishi, expanded ed. (Fusōsha, 2017).
47. Park Yu-ha, Teikoku no ianfu: shokuminchi shihai to kioku no tatakai (Asahi shimbusha, 2015); Tomomi Yamaguchi, “Revisionism, Ultranationalism, Sexism: Relations between the Far Right and the Establishment over the ‘Comfort Women’ Issue,” Social Science Japan Journal 21, no. 2 (2018): 193–212.
48. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan website, “Announcement by Foreign Ministers of Japan and the Republic of Korea at the Joint Press Occasion,” December 28, 2015, https://
www ..mofa .go .jp /a _o /na /kr /page4e _000364 .html 49. Todd Hall, “German Lessons for Sino-Japanese Relations?” (talk at East Asian Seminar Series, University of Cambridge, February 23, 2015).
50. Yi Yong-hun, ed., Hannichi shuzoku shugi—nikkan kiki no kongen (Bungei shunjū, 2019).
51. Lon L. Fuller and Kenneth I. Winston, “The Forms and Limits of Adjudication,” Harvard Law Review 92, no. 2 (December 1978): 366.
52. Martti Koskenniemi, “Between Impunity and Show Trials,” in Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, vol. 6, ed. J. A. Frowein and R. Wolfrum (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 34.
Conclusion
1. Jelena Subotic, Hijacked Justice: Dealing with the Past in the Balkans (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), 5.
2. Philip Gourevitc, We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families: Stories from Rwanda (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998).
3. “75th anniversary of the end of the 2nd World War, May 8, 2020, Federal Germany presidential webpage: www
.bundespraesident ..de /SharedDocs /Reden /EN /Frank -Walter -Steinmeier /Reden /2020 /05 /200508 -75th -anniversary -World -War -II .html 4. “Statement by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe,” August 14, 2015, on the Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet website, https://
japan . I am indebted to Cavin Yeo for pointing out the discrepancy between these two statements. Lily Gardner Feldman, “Commemoration in Comparison Germany’s Comprehensive and Complex Culture of Remembrance,” in Memory, Identity, and Commemorations of World War II: Anniversary Politics in Asia Pacific, ed. Daqing Yang and Mike M. Mochizuki (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018), 141–155..kantei .go .jp /97 _abe /statement /201508 /0814statement .html 5. Her poem was put up in full on the CNN website after the event. See: “READ: Youth Poet Laureate Amanda Gorman’s Inaugural Poem,” January 20, 2021, https://
edition ..cnn .com /2021 /01 /20 /politics /amanda -gorman -inaugural -poem -transcript /index .html 6. Lionel Babicz, “Japan–Korea, France–Algeria: Colonialism and Post-colonialism,” Japanese Studies 33, no. 2, (2013): 202.
7. Benjamin Stora, Les Passions Douloureuses (Paris: Albin Michel, 2021).
8. The full text of the original Chinese article was republished online for the East South West North website, in December 2006, Yuan Weishi, “Xiandaihua yu lishi jiaokeshu,” http://
www . Yuan Weishi, Chūgoku no rekishi kyōkasho mondai—hyōten jiken no kiroku to hansei (Nihon kyōhōsha, 2006); Li Datong, Hyōten teikan no butaiura (Nihon kyōhōsha, 2006)..zonaeuropa .com /20060126 _2 .htm 9. Barak Kushner, “Nationality and Nostalgia: The Manipulation of Memory in Japan, Taiwan, and China since 1990,” International History Review 29, no. 4 (December 2007): 793–820.
10. Liu Jie, Chūgoku no kyōkoku kōsō: nisshin sensō kara gendai made (Chikuma shobō, 2013), 41–42; Liu Jie and Nakamura Motoya, eds., Chōtaikoku chūgoku no yukue, vol. 1, bunmeikan to rekishininshiki (Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 2022).
11. Wang Yi, “Bringing the East and West Together in Shared Commitment to Multilateralism” (speech, 56th Munich Security Conference, February 15, 2020), https://
www ..fmprc .gov .cn /mfa _eng /wjdt _665385 /zyjh _665391 /t1745384 .shtml 12. Rana Mitter, “The World China Wants,” Foreign Affairs, published online on December 8, 2020, https://
www ..foreignaffairs .com /articles /china /2020 -12 -08 /world -china -wants ?utm _medium =social&fbclid =IwAR3WCzHJw _2UWrJOStbscWWH38GH04TZ6WRDJLy49 _zH74TGeMFGo9Cfst0 13. Martti Koskenniemi, The Politics of International Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2011), 242.
14. Koskenniemi, Politics of International Law, 243.
15. Cheng Zhaoqi, Dongjing shenpan weile shijie heping (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxue chubanshe, 2017).
16. A. T. Williams, A Passing Fury: Searching for Justice at the End of World War II (London: Penguin, 2016), 432.
17. Karina Korostelina, “Understanding Values of Cultural Heritage within the Framework of Social Identity Conflicts,” in Values in Heritage Management: Emerging Approaches and Research Directions, ed. Erica Avrami, Susan Macdonald, Randall Mason, and David Myers, online publication of the Getty Foundation, 2019, https://
www ..getty .edu /publications /heritagemanagement / 18. Renée Diresta, Carly Miller, Vanessa Molter, John Pomfret, and Glenn Tiffert, Telling China’s Story: The Chinese Communist Party’s Campaign to Shape Global Narratives (Hoover Institution: Stanford Internet Observatory, 2020), 9–11.
19. The group’s name in Japanese is: Nihon no zento to rekishi kyōiku o kangaeru wakate giin no kai. “Seiji no genba, anteishugi, 5, monkashō to ichiji no kyōchō,” Yomiuri shimbun, October 26, 2006, Tokyo morning edition.
20. This blog post is no longer on his site, but it was archived on the Internet Archive Wayback Machine. Nihon no zento to rekishi kyōiku o kangaeru wakate giin no kai, ed., Rekishi kyōkasho e no gimon—wakate kokkai giin ni yoru rekishi kyōkasho mondai no sōkatsu (Nihon no zento to rekishi kyōiku o kangaeru wakate giin no kai publishers, 2008).
21. The original report was a thirty-page investigation with the title “Nankin mondai shōiinkai no chōsa kenshō no sōkatsu” that was used in media events beginning June 19, 2007. This was then published as a book: Nihon no zento to rekishi kyōiku o kangaeru giin no kai, ed., Nankin no jissō: kokusai renmei wa ‘nanking 2mannin gyakusatsu’ sura mitomenakatta (Nisshin hōdō, 2008).
22. James Baldwin’s speech is available in full on the internet: https://
www ..youtube .com /watch ?v =7 _1ZEYgtijk
We use cookies to analyze our traffic. Please decide if you are willing to accept cookies from our website. You can change this setting anytime in Privacy Settings.