1. The documentary was broadcast in China in September 2020, but it is also available on DVD: Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Asia Pacific War Crimes Trials), an eight-episode series, Shanghai jiaotong daxue dianzi yinxiang chubanshe, 2021. A book was later produced: Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021).

2. The Beituan massacre is detailed in Itō Toshiharu’s interview for NHK, NHK sensō ākaibuzu, sensō shōgen, produced November 4, 2011, https://www2.nhk.or.jp/archives/shogenarchives/shogen/movie.cgi?das_id=D0001100729_00000.

3. Li Qingxiang, interview, May 30, 2019, in Yatai zhanzheng shenpan, 180–181, 190–192.

4. Flora Sapio, Susan Trevaskes, Sarah Biddulph, and Elisa Nesossi, eds., Justice: The China Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017); Barrie Sander, Doing Justice to History: Confronting the Past in International Criminal Courts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 1–25.

5. Haiyan Lee, A Certain Justice: Toward an Ecology of the Chinese Legal Imagination (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2023).

6. Evelyn Goh, The Struggle for Order: Hegemony, Hierarchy, and Transition in Post-Cold War East Asia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 159–201. For more on processes of reconciliation, see the series: Asano Toyomi, ed., Wakaigaku no kokoromi: kioku, kanjō, kachi, vol. 1 (Akashi shoten, 2021). (Unless otherwise noted, all Japanese books are published in Tokyo).

1. Fujiwara Akira, Shōwa no rekishi, vol. 5, Nicchū zenmen sensō (Shōgakukan shuppansha, 1994 edition), 68–73.

2. Zheng Fulai, interview, May 29, 2019, in Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 150–151.

3. Masha Gessen, “What HBO’s ‘Chernobyl’ Got Right, and What It Got Terribly Wrong,” New Yorker, June 4, 2019, https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/what-hbos-chernobyl-got-right-and-what-it-got-terribly-wrong; Na Li, “History, Memory, and Identity: Oral History in China,” Oral History Review 47, no. 1 (2020): 26–51.

4. “China’s Best Ship Lost,” New York Times, November 23, 1894; Hans van de Ven, Breaking with the Past: The Maritime Customs Service and the Global Origins of Modernity in China (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), 111.

5. Yasuoka Akio, “Meiji 19nen nagasaki shinkoku suihei sōtō jiken,” Hōsei daigaku bungaku kiyō, dai 36gō, (1990): 50–51.

6. Asai Sachiko, “Shinkoku hokuyō kantai raikō to sono eikyō,” Aichi shukutoku daigaku gendai shakai kenkyū hōkoku 4 (2009): 58.

7. Weipin Tsai, “The First Casualty: Truth, Lies and Commercial Opportunism in Chinese Newspapers during the First Sino-Japanese War,” in Print, Profit, and Perception: Ideas, Information and Knowledge in Chinese Societies, 1895–1949, ed. Pei-yin Lin and Weipin Tsai (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 227–234.

8. “China’s Best Ship Lost,” The North-China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette (Shanghai), November 23, 1894; S. C. M. Paine, The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 229–230.

9. “Ueno kōen de kaisai suru daiichi shukushō taikai no junjo,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 8, 1894, morning edition.

10. Tsuchida Seijirō, Tōkyōshi shukushō taikai (Shūeisha, 1895).

11. Kinoshita Naoyuki, Sensō to iu misemono: nisshin sensō shukushō taikai sennyūki (Kyoto: Mineruva shobō, 2013), 1–18.

12. Tsuchida, Tōkyōshi shukushō taikai, 139.

13. The North—China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette (Shanghai), November 23, 1894.

14. “Shinkoku gunkan chinen ga nagasaki ni tōchaku,” Yomiuri shimbun, July 12, 1895, morning edition; The North—China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette (Shanghai), August 16, 1895.

15. Zhong Hanbo, Zhuwai wuguan de shiming—yiwei haijun junguan de huiyi (Taipei: Maitian chubanshe, 1998), 53–54.

16. “Panoramakan,” Fūzoku gahō, 123gō, (September 25, 1896): 26–28.

17. Asahi shimbun, February 10, 1895, Tokyo morning edition.

18. “Chinen no ikari kenpishiki,” Asahi shimbun, May 28, 1942, Tokyo evening edition.

19. Kari Shepherdson-Scott, “Entertaining War: Spectacle and the Great ‘Capture of Wuhan’ Battle Panorama of 1939,” Art Bulletin 100, no. 4 (2018): 81–105.

20. Zhong, Zhuwai wuguan de shiming, 3.

21. Letter from Major General of the Chinese Army Lee Li-Bai to SCAP, June 26, 1946, in “Yaoqiu riben guihuan guqiwu,” Waijiaobu, Guoshiguan, 020—1-119-0013, AH. I thank Professor Chang Li for sharing his archives on this historical episode with me.

22. Letter from Lee Li-Bai to SCAP, July 15, 1946, in “Yaoqiu riben guihuan guqiwu,” Waijiaobu, Guoshiguan, 020—1-119-0013, AH.

23. In February 1948, the Chinese Mission in Tokyo considered whether gifts that Wang Jingwei had sent to Emperor Hirohito could be returned to General Chiang Kai-shek and put on display at his residence in Nanjing as commemorative war victory items. See “Wang niri tianhuang yuwan kefou yunjing,” No. 002000000456A, in Jiangzhongzheng zongton wenwu, diancanghao: 002-020400-00052-124, AH.

24. Chang-tai Hung, Mao’s New World: Political Culture in the Early People’s Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 112.

25. Barak Kushner, “Anchors of History: The Long Shadow of Imperial Japanese Propaganda,” in Fanning the Flames: Propaganda in Modern Japan, ed. Kaoru Ueda (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2021), 29–41.

26. Florian Schneider, China’s Digital Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 141.

27. Tor Krever, “International Criminal Law: An Ideology Critique,” Leiden Journal of International Law 26, no. 3 (September 2013): 708.

28. Kerstin Bree Carlson, Model(ing) Justice: Perfecting the Promise of International Criminal Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 127.

29. Dan Gretton, I You We Them: Journeys beyond Evil: The Desk Killer in History and Today (London: Penguin Random House, 2019), 30–31.

30. Urs Matthias Zachmann, “Yokota Kisaburō—Defending International Criminal Justice in Interwar and Early Post-war Japan,” in The Dawn of a Discipline: International Criminal Justice and Its Early Exponents, ed. Frédéric Mégret and Immi Tallgren (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 335–357; Matthias Zachman, “Loser’s Justice: The Tokyo Trial from the Perspective of the Japanese Defense Counsels and the Legal Community,” in Transcultural Justice at the Tokyo Tribunal: The Allied Struggle for Justice, 1946–48, ed. Kerstin von Lingen (Leiden: Brill, 2018), 284–306.

31. Kim Christian Priemel, The Betrayal: The Nuremberg Trials and German Divergence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 6.

32. Yuma Totani, “International Military Tribunals at Tokyo, 1946–1949: Individual Responsibility for War Crimes,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 2, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Cheah Wui Ling, and Yi Ping (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014), 31–65.

33. Higurashi Yoshinobu, Tokyo saiban (Kōdansha, 2008), 27–28; Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The Pursuit of Justice in the Wake of World War II (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 20–23.

34. Hayashi Hirofumi, Sensō hanzai no kenkyū: senpan saiban seikaku no keisei kara tokyo saiban bishikyū saiban made (Bensei shuppan, 2010); Sandra Wilson, Robert Cribb, Beatrice Trefalt, and Dean Aszkielowicz, Japanese War Criminals: The Politics of Justice after the Second World War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 77–78, provides the most recent reliable figures and demonstrates where discrepancies originate.

35. Wang Guodong, Riben xijunzhan zhanfan boli shenpan shilu (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 2005); Grégory Dufaud, “Khabarovsk, 1949 L’autre procès des criminels de guerre japonais,” 20&21 Revue d’histoire, no. 148 (April 2020): 51–64; Valentina Polunina, “The Khabarovsk Trial: The Soviet Riposte to the Tokyo Tribunal,” in Trials for International Crimes in Asia, ed. Kirsten Sellars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 121–144.

36. Yun Xia, Down with Traitors: Justice and Nationalism in Wartime China (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017).

37. Aiyaz Husain, Mapping the End of Empire: American and British Strategic Visions in the Postwar World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 2.

38. Robert Gildea, Empires of the Mind: The Colonial Past and the Politics of the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 64.

39. Robert Cribb, “The Burma Trials of Japanese War Criminals, 1946–1947,” in War Crimes Trials in the Wake of Decolonization and Cold War in Asia, 1945–1956: Justice in Time of Turmoil, ed. Kerstin von Lingen (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 121. Cribb elucidates these goals specifically in reference to Burma, but I believe they hold true in general for the European colonial powers and other Allied aims.

40. Beatrice Trefalt, “The French Prosecution at the IMTFE: Robert Oneto, Indochina and the Rehabilitation of French Prestige,” in von Lingen, Wake of Decolonization, 51–67; Ann-Sophie Schoepfel, “Justice and Decolonization: War Crimes on Trial in Saigon, 1946–1950,” in von Lingen, Wake of Decolonization, 168.

41. See Rana Mitter, China’s Good War: How World War II Is Shaping a New Nationalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 2020.

42. Kamila Szczepanska, The Politics of War Memory in Japan: Progressive Civil Society Groups and Contestation over Memory of the Asia-Pacific War (London: Routledge, 2014).

43. Martti Koskenniemi, “Between Impunity and Show Trials,” in Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, vol. 6, ed. J. A. Frowein and R. Wolfrum (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 11; Neil Boister, “The Tokyo Military Tribunal: A Show Trial?,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 2, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Cheah Wui Ling, and YI Ping, (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014), 3–29. See also Otto Kirchheimer, Political Justice: The Use of Legal Procedure for Political Ends (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962).

44. Koskenniemi, “Show Trials,” 18.

45. Seumas Milne, “Hague Is Not the Place to Try Milosevic,” The Guardian, August 2, 2001, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2001/aug/02/warcrimes.serbia.

46. Koskenniemi, “Show Trials,” 30; Jacques Vergès, De La Stratégie Judiciaire (Paris: Les edition de minuit, 1968), 104; Filip Strandberg Hassellind, “The International Criminal Trial as a Site for Contesting Historical and Political Narratives: The Case of Dominic Ongwen,” Social & Legal Studies 20, no. 10 (2020): 1–20.

47. Koskenniemi, “Show Trials,” 33.

48. Viet Thanh Nguyen, Nothing Ever Dies: Vietnam and the Memory of War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 17; Woo Kyung Im, “Jiyizhizhan: quanqiuhua shidai minzu jiyi de liebian, fenghe ji qi xingbie,” Taiwan shehui yanjiu jikan 70 (June 2008): 245–271.

49. Masi Noor, Nurit Shnabel, Samer Halabi, and Arie Nadler, “When Suffering Begets Suffering: The Psychology of Competitive Victimhood between Adversarial Groups in Violent Conflicts,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 16, no. 4 (2012): 362.

50. Mariska Kappmeier and Aurélie Mercy, “The Long Road from Cold War to Warm Peace: Building Shared Collective Memory through Trust,” Journal of Social and Political Psychology 7, no. 1 (2019): 538.

51. Lord Sumption, “The Limits of the Law” (27th Sultan Azlan Shah Lecture, Kuala Lumpur, November 20, 2013), online publication of the speech. Listen to his lecture “Law’s Expanding Empire,” The Reith Lectures, BBC, https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m00057m8; Jonathan Sumption, Trials of the State: Law and the Decline of Politics (London: Profile Books, 2019).

52. Yukiko Koga, “Between the Law: The Unmaking of Empire and Law’s Imperial Amnesia,” Law and Social Inquiry 41, no. 2 (Spring 2016): 404.

53. Madoka Futamura, War Crimes Tribunals and Transitional Justice: The Tokyo Trial and the Nuremberg Legacy (Abingdon: Routledge, 2008), 65.

54. See Suping Lu’s book review in China Review International 21, no. 2 (2014): 149–179. While Lu’s criticism is in some ways valid, he misses the larger point that justice was not so easily pursued and became a pawn of larger forces.

55. Suzuki Chieko, “Maboroshi de wa nakatta hyakuningiri kyōsō,” Chūkiren, no. 27 (Winter 2003): 3–12.

56. Karl Gustafsson, “Memory Politics and Ontological Security in Sino-Japanese Relations,” Asian Studies Review 38, no. 1 (2014): 71–86; Shogo Suzuki, “Japanese Revisionists and the ‘Korea Threat’: Insights from Ontological Security,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 32, no. 3 (2019): 303–321.

57. Inada Tomomi, Hyakuningiri saiban kara nankin e (Bungei shunjū, 2007).

58. The Nippon Kaigi states its position toward the Tokyo Trial, borrowing heavily from Satō Kazuo, ed., Sekai ga sabaku tokyo saiban (Meiseisha, 2005). See: https://www.nipponkaigi.org/opinion/archives/865 (originally posted December 11, 2008, Nippon kaigi website, Opinion). Sugano Tamotsu, Nihon kaigi no kenkyū (Fusōsha, 2016); Daiki Shibuichi, “The Japan Conference (Nippon Kaigi): An Elusive Conglomerate,” East Asia 34 (2017): 179–196; Sachie Mizohata, “Nippon Kaigi: Empire, Contradiction, and Japan’s Future,” Asia-Pacific Journal 14, issue 21, no. 4 (November 1, 2016): 9.

59. Mary Fulbrook, Reckonings: Legacies of Nazi Persecution and the Quest for Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 353. See also Tony Judt, “The Past Is Another Country: Myth and Memory in Postwar Europe,” in The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and Its Aftermath, ed. István Deák, Jan T. Gross, and Tony Judt (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 305.

60. David Cohen and Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 256.

1. “Yuandong guoji fatingshang de guaiju,” Jiefang ribao, July 30, 1946.

2. Ju-Ao Mei, “China and the Rule of Law,” Pacific Affairs 5, no. 10 (October 1932): 863–872.

3. Xiaoqun Xu, Trial of Modernity: Judicial Reform in Early Twentieth-Century China, 1901–1937 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 91.

4. Fan Zhongxin, You Chenjun, and Gong Xianzhai, ed., Wei shenme yao chongjian zhongguo faxi: Ju Zheng fazheng wenxuan (Beijing: Zhongguo zhengfa daxue chubanshe, 2009), 24–26; Terada Hiroaki, “The Crowded Train Model: The Concept of Society and the Maintenance of Order in Ming and Qing Dynasty China,” in Law in a Changing World: Asian Alternatives, ed. Morigawa Yasumoto (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1998), 100–109.

5. Fan et al., Wei shenme, 26.

6. Fan et al., Wei shenme, 27–29.

7. Fan et al., Wei shenme, 47.

8. Yang Zhaolong, “Zhongguo falu jiaoyu zhi ruodian ji qi bujiu zhi fanglue,” in Yang Zhaolong faxue wenji, ed. Yang Zhaolong, Ai Yongming, and Lu Jinbi (Beijing: Falu chubanshe, 2005), 229–243.

9. Glenn Douglas Tiffert, “Judging Revolution: Beijing and the Birth of the PRC Judicial System (1906–1958)” (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2015).

10. Tahirih Lee, “Orienting Lawyers in China’s Tribunals before 1949,” Maryland Journal of International Law 27, no. 129 (2012): 182. See also Pasha L. Hsieh, “The Discipline of International Law in Republican China and Contemporary Taiwan,” Washington University Global Studies Law Review 14, no. 1 (2015): 87–129. Dongwu University was referred to in English as Soochow University, or Suzhou University in modern pinyin.

11. Li Xiuqing, “John C. H. Wu at the University of Michigan School of Law,” Journal of Legal Education 58, no. 4 (December 2008): 549; John C. H. Wu, Beyond East and West (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1951), 66–67; Sei Jeong Chin, “Autonomy through Social Networks: Law, Politics, and the News Media in Modern China, 1931–1957” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2008), 52.

12. I am grateful to Isaac Gagné for suggesting this idea. The language of thinking of justice as a commodity and a transaction is his.

13. Renmin fayuanbaoshe, ed., Zhengyi de shenpan: jinian zhongguo renmin kangri zhanzheng shengli qishi zhounian (Beijing: Renmin fayuanchubanshe, 2016), 422. See Review of the Records of Trials before United States of American Military Commissions, Shanghai, China, a review of its own record of trials that lists ten trials of Japanese and one trial of German nationals. Found at the ICC Legal Tools Database: https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/282e93/pdf/. Chaen Yoshio, ed., Bishikyū senpan beigun shanhai nado saiban shiryō (Fuji shuppansha, 1989), 132–135; Timothy Brook, “The Shanghai Trials, 1946: Conjuring Postwar Justice,” in Zhanhou bianju yu zhanzheng jiyi, ed. Lyu Fangshang (Taipei: Academia Historica, 2015), 127–155.

14. “Tilanqiao jianyu—jingnei shouci qiaoxiang shenpan riben zhanfan fachui,” September 3, 2015, in series Zhengyi de shenpan zhi meiguo shenpan shanghai, in the Renmin fayuanbao, tekan, from 2015 (available for download or online reading at the People’s Court Daily [Renmin fayuanbao] website, http://rmfyb.chinacourt.org/).

15. RG 153, Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), War Crimes Branch, China War Crimes File, 1945–1948, XIV-A thru XIV-F, box 12, War Crimes Files, Nanking, China, Master Index XIV-A Folder “War Crimes Summary,” NARA.

16. Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright, General Wainwright’s Story: The Account of Four Years of Humiliating Defeat, Surrender, and Captivity (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1970; originally published in 1945), 245–246; Prisoner of the Rising Sun: The Lost Diary of Brig. Gen. Lewis Beebe, ed. John M. Beebe (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006).

17. RG 153, Records of the Office of Judge Advocate General (Army), War Crimes Branch, Historian Background Files, box 2, Legal Section—SCAP, Shanghai, NARA.

18. Katō Tetsurō, Hōshoku shita akuma no sengo—731 butai to Futaki Hideo seikai jīpu (Kadensha, 2017), 23.

19. William S. Hamilton, Notes from Old Nanking, 1947–1949: The Great Transition (Canberra: Pandanus Books, 2004), 30.

20. WO 32/15509, Confidential Memo, subj: War Crimes against British Subjects in the Far East, June 14, 1946, KGNA.

21. Guillaume Mouralis, “The Invention of ‘Transitional Justice,’ in the 1990s,” in Dealing with Wars and Dictatorships, ed. Liora Israël and Guillaume Mouralis (The Hague: Asser Press, 2014), 83–100.

22. Tanaka Hiromi, Bishikyū senpan (Chikuma shobō, 2002), 21.

23. Jeanne Guillemin, Hidden Atrocities: Japanese Germ Warfare and American Obstruction of Justice at the Tokyo Trial (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 116.

24. See Amanda Weiss, “ ‘A Continuous Retrial’: Trans/national Memory in Chinese and Japanese Tribunal Films,” Arts 9, no. 1:2 (2020): 1–16.

25. Kaya Okinori, Senzen/sengo hachijūnen (Keizai ōraisha, 1976), 191.

26. Kaya, Senzen/sengo hachijūnen, 174.

27. Udagawa Kōta, “Senpan no sengo—senpan no sensō sekinin sensōkan sengo shakaikan,” Kikan sensō sekinin kenkyū 78 (2012): 22–23.

28. Harold R. Isaacs, No Peace for Asia, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967; originally published in 1947), 195.

29. Isaacs, No Peace for Asia, 197.

30. “Japanese Appeal to U.S.,” Manchester Guardian, September 15, 1945. See also Barak Kushner, “Imperial Loss and Japan’s Search for Postwar Legitimacy,” in The Dismantling of Japan’s Empire in East Asia: De-imperialization, Postwar Legitimation and Imperial Afterlife, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Routledge, 2017), 48–65.

31. Shōwa tennō jitsuroku, December 10, 1945, volume 34, Iwanami shoten, 176 (digital version). I thank Katō Yōko for sharing this resource.

32. John D. Pierson, Tokutomi Soho, 1863–1957: A Journalist for Modern Japan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 381–397; Tokutomi Sohō, Tokutomi Sohō ‘ganso yume monogatari’ (Kōdansha, 2015). Tokutomi also published a book in 1948, The School of Defeat (Haisen no gakkō), which examines the nature of the defeat for the Japanese public.

33. Nakasone Yasuhiro, Jiseiroku: rekishi hōtei no hikoku to shite (Shinchōsha, 2004), 33–34.

34. Nakasone, Jiseiroku, 32.

35. Hosaka Masayasu, Tennō ga jūkunin ita (Kadokawa bunko, 2001), 15.

36. John Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 243–244.

37. Ariyama Teruo, “Sengo nihon ni okeru rekishi kioku media,” Mediashi kenkyū 14 (April 2003): 7–9.

38. Narelle Morris, “Obscuring the Historical Origins of International Criminal Law in Australia: The Australian War Crimes Investigations and Prosecutions of Japanese, 1942–1951,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 2, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Wui Ling Cheah, and Ping Yi (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014), 388.

39. Andrew Levidis, “Politics in a Fallen Empire: Kishi Nobusuke and the Making of the Conservative Hegemony in Japan,” in In the Ruins of the Japanese Empire: Imperial Violence, State Destruction, and the Reordering of Modern East Asia, ed. Barak Kushner and Andrew Levidis (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2020), 161–184.

40. Ian Buruma, Year Zero: A History of 1945 (London: Atlantic Books, 2013), 239.

41. Akira Iriye, “Historicizing the Cold War,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, ed. Richard Immerman and Petra Goedde (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 16–17.

42. Tanaka Akihiko, Ajia no naka no nihon (NTT shuppan, 2007), 3–4.

43. Kent Calder and Min Ye, The Making of Northeast Asia (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), 227.

44. See Araragi Shinzō, Kawakita Atsuko, and Matsuura Yūsuke, Hikiage tsuihō zanryū: sengo kokusai minzoku idō no hikaku kenkyū (Nagoya: Nagoya daigaku shuppan, 2019); Araragi Shinzō, ed., Teikoku hōkai to hito no saiidō (Bensei shuppan, 2011).

45. Kawashima Shin, “ ‘De-imperialization’ in Early Postwar Japan: Adjusting and Transforming Institutions of Empire,” in Dismantling, 30–47.

1. Lyu Fangshang, “Cong riji ji danganzhong guancha Jiang Jieshi duiri waijiao celue 1930–1940s,” in 2003 niandu caituan faren jiaoliu xiehui ritai jiaoliu sentā lishi yanjiuzhe jiaoliu shiye baogaoshu, Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, March 2004.

2. Anja Bihler, “Late Republican China and the Development of International Criminal Law: China’s Role in the United Nations War Crimes Commission in London and Chungking,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law, vol. 1, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Wui Ling Cheah, and Ping Yi (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic Publisher, 2014), 507–540.

3. Odd Arne Westad, Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War: 1946–1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 69–70.

4. Shimomura Kainan, Shūsen hishi (Kōdansha, 1985), 301–304.

5. Diane Lary, China’s Civil War: A Social History, 1945–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 45.

6. For a critique of Pound, see Jedidiah J. Kroncke, “Roscoe Pound in China: A Lost Precedent for the Liabilities of American Legal Exceptionalism,” Brooklyn Journal of International Law 38, no. 1 (2012): 2–67; Wen-Wei Lai, “Forgiven and Forgotten: The Republic of China in the United Nations War Crimes Commission,” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 25, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 306–339.

7. The Roscoe Pound Papers, Part I: Correspondence, 1907–1964, reel 68 of 127, RPP.

8. The Roscoe Pound Papers, Part I: Correspondence, 1907–1964, reel 68 of 127, RPP.

9. Letter from November 7, 1946, The Roscoe Pound Papers, Part I: Correspondence, 1907–1964, reel 68 of 127, RPP.

10. Barak Kushner, Men to Devils, Devils to Men: Japanese War Crimes and Chinese Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 80–82.

11. Xiang Longwan and Marquise Lee Houle, “In Search of Justice for China: The Contributions of Judge Hsiang Che-chun to the Prosecution of Japanese War Criminals at the Tokyo Trial,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law, vol. 2, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Wui Ling Cheah, and Ping Yi (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic Publisher, 2014), 143–175. See also Qing Dechun, Qin Dechun huiyilu (Taipei: Zhuanji wenxue chubanshe, 1967).

12. Li Lingling, Fajie jubo, Ni Zhengyu zhuan (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 2008), 42–43.

13. Li, Fajie jubo, Ni Zhengyu zhuan, 44.

14. David Cohen and Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 213; Son Ansoku, “Shanghai no ‘ashū seiki’ga mita sengo nihon no seiji,” in Sengo nihon to chūgoku chōsen: Purange bunko o hitotsu no tegakari toshite, ed. Ōsaki Hiroaki (Kenbun shuppan, 2013), 218–220.

15. Li, Fajie jubo, Ni Zhengyu zhuan, 44; Kayoko Takeda, Interpreting the Tokyo War Crimes Trial: A Sociopolitical Analysis (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2010); Kayoko Takeda, “The Visibility of Collaborators: Snapshots of Wartime and Post-war Interpreters,” in Framing the Interpreter: Towards a Visual Perspective, ed. A. Fernández-Ocampo and M. Wolf (London: Routledge, 2014), 150–159.

16. Li, Fajie jubo, Ni Zhengyu zhuan, 45. These included Xiang’s brother-in-law, Zhou Yangqing, along with Gao Wenbin, Zheng Luda, Liu Jisheng, and interpreter Liu Zijian.

17. Huang Zijin, “Kangzhan jieshu qianhou Jiang Jieshi de duiri taidu: yide baoyuan zhenxiang de tantao,” Jindaishi yanjiusuo jikan, di 45qi, (2014): 143–194. For a fuller overview of Chinese Nationalist POW camps which housed Japanese solders see: Kishi Toshihiko, Ajia taiheiyō sensō to shūyōjo—jūkei seikenka no hishūyōsha no shōgen to kokusai kyūsai kikan no kiroku kara (Kokusai shoin, 2021).

18. Matsumoto Masao and Furusawa Toshio, Geishunka: Chō Ikushō no chūgoku kakumei kaikoroku (Meitoku shuppansha, 1978), 220–221.

19. Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (New York: Harper Collins, 2000, 360.

20. Tanaka Hiroshi and Matsuzawa Tetsunari, eds., Chūgokujin kyōsei renkō shiryō: gaimushō hōkokusho zen gobunsatsu hoka (Gendai shokan, 1995); and NHK, Maboroshi no gaimushō hōkokusho: chūgokujin kyōsei renkō no kiroku (NHK Publishers, 1994); Yukiko Koga, “Inverted Compensation: Wartime Forced Labor and Post-imperial Reckoning,” in Overcoming Empire in Post-imperial East Asia: Repatriation, Redress and Rebuilding, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Bloomsbury Publishers, 2020), 183–197.

21. Barbara R. Ambros, Bones of Contention: Animals and Religion in Contemporary Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2012), 208; Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War Two, updated ed. (New York: Routledge, 2018).

22. Japan’s National Diet Library has digital copies of the main prewar and wartime cabinet decisions online (https://rnavi.ndl.go.jp/politics/entry/bib00428.php).

23. Hosaka Masayasu, “Sensō ni makeru to, ānaru Yamada Fūtarō to chūgokuhei horyo,” Sandei mainichi, July 25, 2010, 52–55; Yamada Fūtarō, Senchūha fusen nikki (Kōdansha, 2002), 306–309.

24. Gavan McCormack, The Emptiness of Japanese Influence, rev. ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015), 253–255; Higaki Takashi, Matsushiro daihon’ei no shinjitsu (Kōdansha gendaishinsho, 1994).

25. Yukiko Koga, “Accounting for Silence: Inheritance, Debt, and the Moral Economy of Legal Redress in China and Japan,” American Ethnologist 40, no. 3 (2013): 494–507; Yukiko Koga, “Between the Law: The Unmaking of Empire and Law’s Imperial Amnesia,” Law & Social Inquiry 41, no. 2 (Spring 2016): 402–434.

26. Tanaka and Matsuzawa, eds., Chūgokujin kyōsei renkō shiryō, 14–15.

27. Tanaka and Matsuzawa, Chūgokujin kyōsei renkō shiryō, 785.

28. NHK shuzaihan, NHK supesharu maboroshi no gaimushō hōkokusho chūgokujin kyōsei renkō no kiroku (Nihon hōsō shuppan kyōkai, 1994); William Brand Simpson, Special Agent in the Pacific, WWII: Counter-intelligence; Military, Political and Economic (New York: Rivercross Publishing, 1995).

29. Li Enmin, “Nicchūkan no rekishi wakai wa kanōka: chūgokujin kyōsei renkō no rekishi wakai o jirei ni,” Kyōkai kenkyū, no. 1 (October 2010): 97–112; Richard Minear and Franziska Seraphim, “Hanaoka Monogatari: The Massacre of Chinese Forced Laborers, Summer 1945,” Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 13, issue 26, no. 1 (2015): 1–46.

30. William Underwood, “NHK’s Finest Hour: Japan’s Official Record of Chinese Forced Labor,” Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 4, no. 8 (2006): 6.

31. Tanaka Hiroshi, “Kaisetsu,” in Chūgokujin kyōsei renkō shiryō: gaimushō hōkokusho, ed. Tanaka Hiroshi and Matsuzawa Tetsunari (Gendai shokan, 1995), 802.

32. Koga, “Between the Law,” 407.

33. Ishitobi Jin, Hanaoka jiken kajima kōshō no kiseki (Sairyūsha, 2010), 38–39. “Shōwa sanjūgonen shigatsu nijūshichinichi teishutsu, shitsumon daigogō, chūgokujin kyōsei renkō junnansha ni kansuru shitsumon shuisho,” April 27, 1958, available online at the House of Representatives, Japan website: http://www.shugiin.go.jp/internet/itdb_shitsumona.nsf/html/shitsumon/a034005.htm.

34. Ishitobi, Hanaoka jiken kajima kōshō no kiseki. The author’s actual name is Higuchi Jinichi.

35. Nozoe Kenji, ed., Hanaoka jiken o mita nijūnin no shōgen (Ochanomizu shobō, 1993), 140–141.

36. Nozoe, Hanaoka jiken o mita nijūnin no shōgen, 25–27.

37. Lu Junsheng and Zeng Xiaowen, eds., Nanyang yinglie: erzhan qijian babuyaniujineiya jingnei guojun jiangshi jilu (Taibei: Guofangbu shizheng bianyishi, 2009), 25.

38. G. J. Douds, “The Men Who Never Were: Indian POWs in the Second World War, South Asia,” Journal of South Asian Studies 27, no. 2 (2004): 183–216; Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 92–96.

39. Lu and Zeng, Nanyang yinglie, 36.

40. Lu and Zeng, Nanyang yinglie, 43. David Sissons incorrectly states that these Chinese brought to Rabaul were all from puppet Chinese militaries. D. C. S. Sissons, “The Australian War Crimes Trials and Investigations (1942–51),” p. 38, accessed July 15, 2020, https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~changmin/documents/Sissons%20Final%20War%20Crimes%20Text%2018-3-06.pdf. According to postwar Chinese oral history interviews, the Chinese dragooned into labor were from a variety of military and other backgrounds. See Tian Jitian, “Babai zhuangshi xingcunzhe de xuelei huiyi,” in Erzhan luri zhongguo laogong koushushi, vol. 5, Gangwan dangniuma, ed. He Tianyi (Jinan: Qilushushe, 2005), 387–392.

41. Lu and Zeng, Nanyang yinglie, 183.

42. Lu and Zeng, Nanyang yinglie, 154–157. See also Lan Shichi, “Beizhiminzhe de zaoyu, diguo bufu de zeren: erzhanhou zaihaiwai beijuliu qianfan de taiwanren,” in Zhanzheng de lishi yu jiyi, ed. Lyu Fangshang (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2015), 348–388.

43. Yuma Totani, “Crimes against Asians in Command Responsibility Trials,” in Australia’s War Crimes Trials 1945–51, ed. Georgina Fitzpatrick, Tim McCormack, and Narrelle Morris (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Nijhoff, 2016), 266–290. Woo’s name in English is spelled in a variety of ways: Woo Yin, Woo Yian, Woo Yien. See also “Treatment of Chinese Prisoners of War,” Series Number AWM54, 1010/4/153, AWM.

44. See Peter Cahill, “Chinese in Rabaul—1921 to 1942: Normal Practices, or Containing the Yellow Peril?,” Journal of Pacific History 31, no. 1 (June 1996): 72–91.

45. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—MATSUSHIMA Tozaburo (Sergeant),” NAA: A471, 80915, 60 of the digital archived trial record, NAA. The island of Taiwan was more commonly referred to as Formosa in earlier times.

46. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—MATSUSHIMA Tozaburo (Sergeant),” 21–34 of the digital archived trial record, NAA.

47. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—HIROTA Akira (Major-General),” NAA: A471, 81653 PART B, 4 of the digital archived trial record, NAA; Yuma Totani, Justice in Asia and the Pacific Region, 1945–1952: Allied War Crimes Prosecutions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 106–111.

48. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—HIROTA Akira (Major-General),” 7 of the digital archived trial record, NAA.

49. “War Crimes—Military Tribunal—IMAMURA Hitoshi (General),” NAA: A471, 81635 PART A, 109 of the digital archived record of the trial, NAA. There seems to be agreement with this from the Australian side as well. Emmi Okada, “The Australian Trials of Class B and C Japanese War Crime Suspects, 1945–51,” Australian International Law Journal 16 (2009): 65. On the issue of legal status of Chinese POWs, see pages 67–68.

50. Georgina Fitzpatrick, “War Crimes Trials, ‘Victor’s Justice’ and Australian Military Justice in the Aftermath of the Second World War,” in The Hidden Histories of War Crimes Trials, ed. Kevin Jon Heller and Gerry Simpson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 337. At the end of the war, Imamura was initially tried and found guilty in Rabaul in 1947, under Australian jurisdiction. He was then transferred to the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) in 1949 and put on trial a second time for war crimes of command responsibility. See Fred L. Borch, Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies, 1946–1949 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 188–194.

51. Banzuiin Chōbei was a Tokugawa-era character who “allegedly fought against injustice, helped the weak, and defeated the strong.” He supposedly opposed the shogun’s henchmen who “tormented and bullied the townspeople of Edo.” Eiko Maruko Siniawer, Ruffians, Yakuza, Nationalists: The Violent Politics of Modern Japan, 1860–1960 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008), 114.

52. Giorgio Fabio Colombo, “Sakura Sōgōro: Law and Justice in Tokugawa Japan through the Mirror of a Ghost Story,” Law & Literature 29, no. 2 (2017): 334–336. Sakura contravened proper Tokugawa legal procedure and went over the heads of local lords to petition the shogun directly. He was executed by crucifixion.

53. Aso guni no eiyakubun (0295). The official call number and title are “Tōnan—soromon bizumaruku—163, Imamura Hitoshi taishō shūsen hiroku,” MODA. I thank Aiko Otsuka for typing this out from the handwritten documents. It is unclear if this letter was ever dispatched to the troops.

54. Georgina Fitzpatrick, “The Trials in Rabaul,” in Australia’s War Crimes Trials 1945–51, ed. Georgina Fitzpatrick, Tim McCormack, and Narrelle Morris (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Nijhoff, 2016), 556.

55. Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin (London: Bodley Head, 2010).

56. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 28.

57. “Mamoranakereba naranu heiwa, jūgonenkan de shakaishugi shiage,” Asahi shimbun, December 7, 1955, Tokyo morning edition.

58. Uchiyama Kanzō, Kakōroku: nicchū yūkō no kakehashi (Heibonsha, 2011), 514–516.

59. Minji Jeong and Youseop Shin, “Post-war Korean Conservatism, Japanese Statism, and the Legacy of President Park Chung-hee in South Korea,” Korean Journal of International Studies 16, no. 1 (April 2018): 68.

60. Carter Eckert, Park Chung Hee and Modern Korea: The Roots of Militarism, 1866–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2016), 4; Miura Hideki, Goshiki no niji: manshū kenkoku daigaku sotsugyōseitachi no sengo (Shūeisha, 2015); Barak Kushner, “Introduction: The Search for Meaning in Defeat and Victory,” in In the Ruins of the Japanese Empire: Imperial Violence, State Destruction, and the Reordering of Modern East Asia, ed. Barak Kushner and Andrew Levidis (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2020), 1–24; Hamaguchi Yūko, Manshūkoku ryūnichi gakusei no nicchū kankeishi: manshū jihen nicchūsensō kara sengo minkan gaikō e (Keisei shobō, 2015).

61. Barak Kushner, “Ghosts of the Japanese Imperial Army: The ‘White Group’ (Baituan) and Early Post-war Sino-Japanese Relations,” in “Transnationalism and Contemporary Global History,” supplement, Past and Present 218, no. S8 (2013): 117–150.

62. Jiang Jieshi, “Junguan xunliantuan biye xueyuan de renwu,” June 27, 1950, speech in Zongtong Jianggong sixiang yanlun zongji, vol. 23, 312–313, http://www.ccfd.org.tw/ccef001/index.php. I would like to thank Professor Huang Zijin for allowing me to paraphrase from two of his at that time unpublished papers.

63. Jiang Zhongzheng, “Shijiu shiji yilai yazhou de xingshi he women fuguo jianguo de yaodao, (shang),” Zongtong Jianggong sixiang yanlun zongji, vol. 29, 96–99, http://www.ccfd.org.tw/ccef001/index.php. I would like to thank Professor Huang Zijin for allowing me to paraphrase from his then unpublished papers.

1. “Teki no hijindō, danko hōfuku shingata bakudan ni taisaku o kakuritsu,” Asahi shimbun, August 9, 1945, morning edition.

2. Shimokawa Masaharu, “Shūsenji no rikushō Anami Korechika: izoku ga kataru jiketsu nanjūnenme no shinjitsu,” Seiron, (November 2015): 312–325.

3. Georgina Fitzpatrick, “The Trials in Rabaul,” in Australia’s War Crimes Trials, 1945–51, ed. Georgina Fitzpatrick, Tim McCormack, and Narrelle Morris (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Nijhoff, 2016), 556–557; Fujiwara Akira, “ ‘Tennō no guntai’ no rekishi to honshitsu,” Kikan sensō sekinin kenkyu 11 (Spring 1996): 62.

4. Norimura Kaneko, Chiisa na chōsei—kodomo ga mita chūgoku no naisen (Shakai shisōsen, 1989), 14.

5. Shirōchi Asunobu and Fujigawa Hiroki, Chōsen hantō de mukaeta haisen: zairyū hōjin ga tadotta kunan no kiseki (Ōtsuki shoten, 2015), 41–42.

6. Marc Gallicchio, The Scramble for Asia: US Military Power in the Aftermath of the Pacific War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008), 29.

7. Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007), 12.

8. “Shengli shoujiang (1),” 002000002120A, in Jiangzhongzheng zongtong wenwu, diancanghao, 002-090105-00012-272, AH.

9. Stephen B. Connor, Mountbatten’s Samurai: Imperial Japanese Forces under British Control, 1945–1948 (Warrington: Seventh Citadel, 2015), 77–93.

10. Bayly and Harper, Forgotten Wars, 49.

11. Hayes report to UK Ambassador and Lt. General Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart, September 13, 1945, from Rupert Wingfield-Hayes, “Witnessing Japan’s surrender in China,” BBC News Magazine, September 2, 2015, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-34126445.

12. Akiko Hashimoto, The Long Defeat: Cultural Trauma, Memory, and Identity in Japan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 8.

13. Komatsu Shinichi, Ryojin nikki (Chikuma shobō, 1975), 213.

14. Asahi Shimbun Company, Media, Propaganda and Politics in 20th-Century Japan, trans. Barak Kushner (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 62–69, 71–81.

15. Carol Gluck, “Sekinin/Responsibility in Modern Japan,” in Words in Motion: Toward a Global Lexicon, ed. Carol Gluck and Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), 94–97.

16. Intermittent Diplomat: The Japan and Batavia Diaries of W. Macmahon Ball, edited and with an introduction by Alan Rix (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1988), 67, diary entry from June 6, 1946.

17. David Cohen and Yuma Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal: Law, History, and Jurisprudence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 144.

18. John Dower, Japan in War and Peace: Selected Essays (New York: New Press, 1993), 12.

19. Ishizaka Kimishige, “Shūsen zengo no tōdai to wareware ga uketa kyōiku,” in Nanbara Shigeru no kotoba: 8-gatsu 15-nichi, kenpō, gakumon no jiyū, ed. Tachibana Takashi (Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 2007), 31–32.

20. Nagai Hitoshi, Firipin to tainichi senpan saiban: 1945–1953 nen (Iwanami shoten, 2010), 62. See also Kerstin von Lingen, “Setting the Path for the UNWCC: The Representation of European Exile Governments on the London International Assembly and the Commission for Penal Reconstruction and Development, 1941–1944,” Criminal Law Forum 25, no. 1 (2014): 45–76; Dan Plesch and Shanti Sattler, “Before Nuremberg: Considering the Work of the United Nations War Crimes Commission of 1943–1948,” in Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 1, ed. Morten Bergsmo, Wui Ling Cheah, and Ping Yi. (Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, 2014), 437–473.

21. Dai 88kai teikokukaigi, shūgiin, honkaigi, dai2gō, September 5, 1945, JPR. See also Shindō Eiichi, ed., Ashida Hitoshi nikki, vol. 1 (Iwanami shoten, 1986), 213.

22. Dai 88kai teikokukaigi, shūgiin, honkaigi, dai2gō, September 5, 1945, JPR.

23. Dai 88kai teikokukaigi, shūgiin, honkaigi, dai2gō, September 5, 1945, JPR.

24. Higashikuni Naruhiko, Higashikuni nikki (Tokuma shoten, 1968), 204.

25. Tanaka Hiromi, ed., Bishikyū senpan kankei shiryōshū, vol. 3 (Ryokuin shobō, 2012), 33–35.

26. Nagai, Firipin to tainichi, 68.

27. “Senpan yōgisha no toriatsukai ni kansuru nihon seifu tōsho no sochi,” within Senpan jimu shiryō (shōwa 16–20 nen) sono 1, Honkan 4B-023-00, Hei 11 hōmu 06335100, NAJ.

28. “Senpan yōgisha no toriatsukai ni kansuru nihon seifu tōsho no sochi,” within Senpan jimu shiryō (shōwa 16–20 nen) sono 1, Honkan 4B-023-00, Hei 11 hōmu 06335100, NAJ. See also “Senpan mondai ni kansuru moto rikusō Shimomura Sadamu-shi no kōjutsu, Shōwa 42 nen 1 gatsu,” part of the Inoue Tadao archives in Yasukuni kaikō bunko, YSA, 393.4e; Nagai Hitoshi, “Sensō hanzainin ni kansuru seifu seimeian—Higashikuninomiya naikaku ni yoru kakugi kettei no myakuraku,” in “Teikoku” to shokuminchi—“dainipponteikoku” hōkai rokujūnen, ed. Nenpō nihon gendaishi henshū iinkai, Nenpō nihon gendaishi, vol. 10 (Gendaishiryō shuppan, 2005), 277–321; and Shibata Shin’ichi, “Nihongawa senpan jishu saiban kōsō no tenmatsu” (in Dainiji sekai taisen—3, shūsen: fukuin to senryō), Gunjishigaku 31, no. 1–2 (September 1995): 338–349.

29. “Senpan mondai ni kansuru moto rikusō Shimomura Sadamushi no kōjutsu.”

30. Higashikuni, Higashikuni nikki, 239–240.

31. Tanaka Hiromi, ed., Bishikyū senpan kankei shiryōshū, vol. 1 (Ryokuin shobō, 2011), 331.

32. Suzuki Tadakatsu kanshū, Shūsen kara kōwa made, in series Nihon gaikōshi, vol. 26, ed. Kajima kenkyūjo shuppankai (Kajima kenkyūjo shuppankai, 1973), 37. Suzuki Tadakatsu in Amakawa Akira, ed., Gendaishi o kataru, vol. 6, Suzuki Tadakatsu (Gendai shiryō shuppan, 2008), 187–213. Toyota Kumao says this cabinet decision was never officially released. Toyoda Kumao, Sensō saiban yoroku (Taiseisha, 1986), 51.

33. Tanaka, Bishikyū senpan kankei shiryōshū, vol. 1, 330.

34. “Senpan yōgisha no toriatsukai ni kansuru nihon seifu tōsho no sochi.” The Americans executed Homma in the Philippines in 1946.

35. Sugita Ichiji, “Sensō shūketsu ni tomonau kongo no taikan to teikoku ni tsuite,” September 15, 1945, Chūō—sengo shori—80, MODA.

36. Okino Matao, Ikeru shikabane no ki (Tōhō shobō, 1999; originally published in 1946), 204; Todaka Kazushige, Nihon kaigunshi (PHP kenkyūjo, 2009), 220–221.

37. Nakata Seiichi, Torēshii nihonhei horyo himitsu jinmonsho (Kōdansha, 2010), 182–205. It was more unusual for a Japanese POW to be interrogated at Fort Hunt compared with the other secret Camp Tracy.

38. Yamada Akira, “Nihon no haisen to daihonei meirei,” Sundai shigaku, 94 (March 1995): 147–148.

39. “Shinnihon kensetsu no michi,” Mainichi shimbun, August 28, 1945, Tokyo morning edition; C. Clinton Godart, “Nichirenism, Utopianism, and Modernity: Rethinking Ishiwara Kanji’s East Asia League,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 42, no. 2 (2015): 235–274.

40. Mark Gayn, Japan Diary (Rutland, VT: Tuttle Publishers, 1984; second printing), 68.

41. “Senpan jimu shiryō (shōwa 16–20 nen) sono 1,” Honkan 4B-023-00, Hei 11 hōmu 06335100, NAJ.

42. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 477.

43. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 480.

44. Inoue Tadao shiryō, “Sensō saiban ni taisuru nihon seifu no kihon taido narabi ni hōshin,” 61023, 393.4. This is written on “Daini fukuinkyoku zanmu shoribu” stationery, no pagination, YSA. See also Toyoda, Sensō saiban yoroku, 48–62; Higurashi Yoshinobu, Tōkyō saiban (Kōdansha, 2008), 147–150. Udagawa Kōta digs further into preparations and inside Japanese maneuvering concerning the trial in Tōkyō saiban kenkyū (Iwanami shoten, 2022).

45. “Haisen no genin oyobi jissō chōsa no ken,” October 30, 1945, Kakugiketsu (Cabinet Decision). Japan’s national library has a website that details all key cabinet decisions (https://rnavi.ndl.go.jp/politics/entry/bib00678.php).

46. Tomita Kei’ichirō, “Haisen chokugo no sensō chōsakai ni tsuite—seisaku o kenshō suru kokoromi to sono zasetsu,” Refarensu 63, no. 1 (January 2013): 92–93.

47. Yoshida Yutaka, Nihonjin no sensōkan: sengoshi no naka no henyō, rev. ed (Iwanami shoten, 2005), 31. Aoki remembers it as 24th in Shidehara’s memoirs. See Shidehara heiwa zaidanhen, ed., Shidehara Kijūrō (Shidehara heiwa zaidan, 1955), 590.

48. Shidehara heiwa zaidanhen, Shidehara Kijūrō, 589.

49. Shidehara heiwa zaidanhen, Shidehara Kijūrō, 592.

50. “Shōwa 20nen 12gatsu 2nichizuke kizokuin […] Matsumura Giichikun no shitsumon,” in volume 1 of the collection Sensō chōsakai kankei shiryō, shū1244, MJPHMR. Matsumura was later purged from public office.

51. Tomita, “Haisen chokugo no sensō chōsakai ni tsuite,” 85–108.

52. “Tensei jingo” column, Asahi shimbun, January 9, 1946, Tokyo morning edition. The translation is from GHQ/SCAP RG 331, box 3462, folder 576 (8), Nov 1945–Sept 1948, MJPHMR.

53. “Sensō chōsakai dai2kai sōkaigi, shōwa 21.4.4,” in volume 1 of the collection Sensō chōsakai kankei shiryō, shū1244, MJPHMR.

54. “Sensō chōsakai dai2kai sōkaigi, shōwa 21.4.4,” MJPHMR.

55. Inoue Toshikazu, Sensō chōsakai: maboroshi no seifu bunsho o yomitoku (Kōdansha, 2017). See also Hirose Yoshihiro, ed., Sensō chōsakai jimukyoku shorui, vol. 1 (Yumani shobō, 2015).

56. As quoted in Jongsoo James Lee, The Partition of Korea after World War II: A Global History (New York: Palgrave, 2006), 51.

57. Nisso shinzen kyōkaihen, ed., Soren wa nihon ni nani o nozomuka: tainichi rijikai ni okeru soren daihyō no hatsugen/ Terebuyanko Kisurenko kyōjutsu (Ōdosha, 1949), 45–46.

58. Nisso shinzen kyōkaihen, Soren wa nihon ni nani o nozomuka, 50.

59. Higurashi, Tokyo saiban, 149.

60. Higurashi, Tokyo saiban, 151–152.

61. Higurashi, Tokyo saiban, 153.

62. Higurashi, Tokyo saiban, 154–155; Barak Kushner, “Imperial Loss and Japan’s Search for Postwar Legitimacy,” in The Dismantling of Japan’s Empire in East Asia: De-imperialization, Postwar Legitimation and Imperial Afterlife, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Routledge, 2017), 48–65; Urs Matthias Zachmann, “Sublimating the Empire: How Japanese Experts of International Law Translated Greater East Asia into the Postwar Period,” in Dismantling, 167–181.

63. Komatsu, Ryojin nikki, 260–261.

64. Komatsu, Ryojin nikki, 262.

65. Yuki Tanaka, “Last Words of the Tiger of Malaya, General Yamashita Tomoyuki,” Asia-Pacific Journal 3, no. 9 (September 2005): 7. The original Japanese text can be found in Satō Yoshinori and Morita Shōgaku, Rosubaniosu keijō no ryūseigun: Yamashita Tomoyuki, Honma Masaharu no saigo (Fuyō shobō, 1981), 34–44, for the whole personal reflection, and 39 for the above specific quote. Morita was the Buddhist cleric who took down these thoughts forty minutes before Yamashita’s execution.

66. Duan Ruicong, “Zhanhou riben dui rizhan qijian waijiao junshi de fanxing shuping,” Kangri zhanzheng yanjiu, dierqi, (2020): 67.

1. Daizaburo Yui, “Democracy from the Ruins: The First Seven Weeks of the Occupation in Japan,” Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies 19, no. 1 (April 1987): 37–38.

2. “Sayoku no dōkō,” Naimushō keihokyoku hoanka, no date but estimated at late August, in Awaya Kentaro, ed., Shiryō nihon gendaishi 2, Haisen chokugo no seiji to shakai, vol 2. (Ōtsuki shoten, 1981), 170–171. (This is document 70 in the archival collection.)

3. “Sayoku no dōkō,” Naimushō keihokyoku hoanka, 171–172. (This is document 71 in the archival collection.)

4. Guillain recounts the whole episode and I have selected a few moments to quote from the larger Japanese language article in Robēru Giran, “Tokkyū o shakuhō saseta no wa, watashi da,” Bungei shunjū 33, no. 19 (October 1955): 110–116. See also Yoshida Kenji, “ ‘Shōgen,’ shūsen no wahei kōsaku to seijihan shakuhō no koro: Yamasaki Sōichishi ni kiku (1),” Ōhara shakai mondai kenkyūjo zasshi, no. 626 (December 2010): 51–64.

5. “Japan Wants to Swap Silk, Rayon for Food: Will Ask for Barter to Avert,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 4, 1945.

6. Tokuda Kyūichi and Shiga Yoshio, Gokuchū jūhachinen (Kōdansha, 2017), 15–17. (The book was originally published in 1947.)

7. Rodger Swearingen and Paul Langer, Red Flag in Japan: International Communism in Action, 1919–1951 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), 107.

8. Swearingen and Langer, Red Flag in Japan, 108.

9. Tokuda Kyūichi, Tokuda Kyūichi zenshū, vol. 5 (Gogatsu shobō, 1986), 386.

10. Tokuda and Shiga, Gokuchū jūhachinen, 74. See also Hyōmoto Tatsukichi, Nihon kyōsantō no sengo hishi (Shinchōsha, 2005), 26–30.

11. Tokuda and Shiga, Gokuchū jūhachinen, 74.

12. Mark Gayn, Japan Diary (Rutland, VT: Tuttle Publishers, 1984; second printing), 10.

13. John K. Emmerson, The Japanese Thread: A Life in the U.S. Foreign Service (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1978), 257; J.K. Emāsonshi danwa sokkiroku (Naiseishi kenkyū shiryō dai170shū) (Naiseishi kenkyūkai, 1973).

14. Swearingen and Langer, Red Flag in Japan, 111.

15. Emmerson, Japanese Thread, 258; Takemae Eiji, Inside GHQ: The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy, trans. Sebastian Swann and Robert Ricketts (New York: Continuum, 2001), 239–240.

16. Emmerson, Japanese Thread, 259.

17. Yui, “Democracy from the Ruins,” 41.

18. Inoue Manabu, “1945nen 10gatsu tōka, ‘seijihan shakuhō,’ ” Mita gakkai zasshi 105, no. 4 (January 2013): 761–776.

19. Robert Scalapino, The Japanese Communist Movement, 1920–1966 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 45, 72; Central Committee Japanese Communist Party, ed., Sixty-Year History of Japanese Communist Party, 1922–1982 (Tokyo: Japan Press Service, 1984), 120–145; Kurokawa Iori, Sensō kakumei no higashi ajia to nihon no komyunisuto, 1920–1970 (Yūshisha, 2020).

20. “Shutsugokusha kangeikai, kyōsanha no kisei,” Asahi shimbun, October 11, 1945, Tokyo morning edition.

21. Fuse Tatsuji, Tennōsei no hihan: datō? shiji? kenpōkaisei (shian) (Shinseikatsu undōsha, 1946).

22. Kamo Michiko, Woa giruto puroguramu: GHQ jōhō kyōiku seisaku no jitsuzō (Hōsei daigaku shuppan, 2018), 126.

23. “Tennōsei shiji wa kokumin no ippan kanjō,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 9, 1945, morning edition.

24. Young-hwan Chong, “The Tokyo Trial and the Question of Colonial Responsibility: Zainichi Korean Reactions to Allied Justice in Occupied Japan,” International Journal of Korean History 22, no. 1 (February 2017): 77–105.

25. T’ae-gi Kim, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai: SCAP no tai zainichi chōsenjin seisaku, 1945–1952nen (Keisō shobō, 1997), 164.

26. Apichai W. Shipper, “Nationalisms of and against Zainichi Koreans in Japan,” Asian Politics & Policy 2, no. 1 (January 2010): 55–75; Deokhyo Choi, “The Empire Strikes Back from Within: Colonial Liberation and the Korean Minority Question at the Birth of Postwar Japan, 1945–47,” American Historical Review, (June 2021): 1–30.

27. Kim Chanjun, Chōsen sōren (Shinchō shinsho, 2004), 27–28.

28. Deokhyo Choi, “Defining Colonial ‘War Crimes’: Korean Debates on Collaboration, War Reparations, and the International Military Tribunal for the Far East,” in Debating Collaboration and Complicity in War Crimes Trials in Asia, 1945–1956, ed. Kerstin von Lingen (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 46.

29. John Lie, Zainichi (Koreans in Japan): Diasporic Nationalism and Postcolonial Identity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 39–41.

30. Mark E. Caprio and Yu Jia, “Occupations of Korea and Japan and the Origins of the Korean Diaspora in Japan,” in Diaspora without Homeland: Being Korean in Japan, ed. Sonia Ryang and John Lie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 31–32.

31. “Dokuritsu teishin chikau Boku Retsushi no kangeikai,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 8, 1945, morning edition; T’ae-gi, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai, 209; “Chōsen dokuritsu no ippeisotsu ni shakuhō sareta Boku Retsu […]” Mainichi shimbun, December 8, 1945, Tokyo morning edition.

32. “Dokuritu teishin chikau Boku Retsushi no kangeikai,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 8, 1945, morning edition; T’ae-gi, Sengo nihon seiji to zainichi chōsenjin mondai, 210–211.

33. Lie, Zainichi (Koreans in Japan), 42.

34. “Sensō sekinin ni kansuru kettei, Shidehara naikaku giketsutei,” November 5, 1945, in Awaya Kentarō, ed., Shiryō to nihon gendaishi 2—haisen chokugo no seiji to shakai (1) (Ōtsuki shoten, 1980), 341–343; Akazawa Shirō, “Sengo nihon no sensō sekininron no dōkō,” Ritsumeikan hōgaku, June 2000, 2607–2633.

35. Yoshida Kenji, “ ‘Minshū shinbun’ no shuhitsu toshite (jō): Sunama Ichirōshi ni kiku,” Hōsei daigaku Ōhara shakai mondai kenkyūjo zasshi, December 2008, 59.

36. Yoshida, “ ‘Minshū shinbun’ no shuhitsu toshite (ge): Sunama Ichirōshi ni kiku,” Hōsei daigaku Ōhara shakai mondai kenkyūjo zasshi, January 2009, 48–60.

37. The event was called the “Kaihō undō shutsugoku dōshi kangei taikai.” Yoshida, “ ‘Minshū shinbun’ no shuhitsu toshite (ge),” 50.

38. “Sensō sekinin tsuikyū jinmin taikai,” Asahi shimbun, December 7, 1945.

39. Gayn, Japan Diary, 9.

40. Gayn, Japan Diary, 11.

41. Gayn, Japan Diary, 12.

42. Nihon rōdō nenkan, sengo tokushū, vol. 22, which is reproduced online for the Ōhara Institute for Social Research at Hōsei University (https://oisr-org.ws.hosei.ac.jp/images/research/dglb/rn/rn_list/rn1949-387.pdf).

43. “Kyōsantō senpan meibo shukō,” Asahi shimbun, December 12, 1945, Tokyo morning edition. According to some sources, the JCP’s list included the names of some pro-Japanese Korean traitors.

44. “Sanshū no taishū yaku sanman—Nosaka Sanzōshi kikoku,” Asahi shimbun, January 27, 1946, Tokyo morning edition.

45. Nihon kyōsantō shuppanbu, ed., Jinmin no te de sensō hanzainin o (Jinminsha, 1946), 3. The first postwar issue of the JCP’s Red Flag newspaper (Akahata), produced on October 20, 1945, had also called for toppling the imperial system and establishing democracy, digital archive version on Japan’s National Diet Library portal, https://www.ndl.go.jp/modern/img_r/100/100-001r.html.

46. Nihon kyōsantō shuppanbu, Jinmin no te de sensō hanzainin o, 23.

47. Nihon kyōsantō shuppanbu, Jinmin no te de sensō hanzainin o, 24.

48. “Sekai ni kasu rekishi meidai,” Asahi shimbun, May 2, 1946, Tokyo morning edition.

49. David Wolff, “Japan and Stalin’s Policy toward Northeast Asia after World War II,” Journal of Cold War Studies 15, no. 2 (Spring 2013): 4–29.

50. J. P. Napier, A Survey of the Japanese Communist Party (Tokyo: Nippon Times, 1952), 12.

51. Rodger Swearingen, “Japanese Communism and the Moscow-Peking Axis,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 308 (November 1956): 64.

52. Napier, Survey of the Japanese Communist Party, 40–41.

53. Napier, Survey of the Japanese Communist Party, 45.

54. Charles Willoughby, Shanghai Conspiracy: The Sorge Spy Ring (New York: EP Dutton, 1952), preface, p. 5.

55. Chelsea Szendi Schieder, “The Only Woman in the Room: Beate Sirota Gordon, 1923–2012,” Dissent, January 15, 2013, https://www.dissentmagazine.org/blog/the-only-woman-in-the-room-beate-sirota-gordon-1923-2012.

56. Chalmers Johnson, An Instance of Treason: Ozaki Hotsumi and the Sorge Spy Ring, expanded ed. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), 200–201.

57. Johnson, Instance of Treason, 208.

58. JCP chairman Miyamoto Kenji was quoted as saying as much. “Jidai sakugo no hitotsu,” Asahi shimbun, December 31, 1980, Tokyo morning edition.

59. Erik Esselstrom, “From Wartime Friend to Cold War Fiend: The Abduction of Kaji Wataru and U.S.-Japan Relations at Occupation’s End,” Journal of Cold War Studies 17, no. 3 (Summer 2015): 177.

60. Willoughby, Shanghai Conspiracy, 274 (italics are mine).

61. Willoughby, Shanghai Conspiracy, 314–315.

62. Institute of Pacific Relations, Hearings before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Eighty-second Congress, first[-second] session by United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary, 1951–1952, 748, https://archive.org/stream/instituteofpacif03unit#page/748/mode/2up.

63. Reto Hoffman, “What’s Left of the Right: Nabeyama Sadachika and Anti-communism in Transwar Japan, 1930–1960,” Journal of Asian Studies 79, no. 2 (2020): 3.

64. Brian Tsui, China’s Conservative Revolution: The Quest for a New Order, 1927–1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018); Hao Chen, “Resisting Bandung? Taiwan’s Struggle for ‘Representational Legitimacy’ in the Rise of the Asian Peoples’ Anti-Communist League, 1954–57,” International History Review, (May 2020): 1–21.

65. Chen Guting, Zhanhou riben gongchandang de toushi (Taipei: Zhongri wenhua jingji xiehui yanjiusuo, 1954), 69.

66. See “Schemes for Survival of the Imperial,” in Hata Ikuhiko, Hirohito: The Showa Emperor in War and Peace, ed. Marius B. Jansen (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 88–159.

67. See Fujiwara Akira, Yoshida Yutaka, and Awaya Kentarō, eds., Tettei kenshō shōwa tennō “dokuhakuroku” (Ōtsuki shoten, 1991).

68. Chokurei dai 511 gō, in Ōkurashō insatsukyoku, ed., Kanpō, gōgai, November 3, 1946, the National Diet Library Digital Collections, http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/2962456?tocOpened=1.

69. Chokurei dai 511 gō.

70. “Sanjūsanmannin ni onsharei taishatō nana shurui no kōhan’i ni wataru,” Yomiuri shimbun, November 3, 1946, morning edition.

71. Katō Kyōko, Shōwa tennō shazai shōchoku sōkō no hakken (Bungei shunjū, 2003); Peter Mauch, “Emperor Hirohito’s Post-surrender Reflections,” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 29, no. 2 (2022): 221–228.

72. Ōe Hiroyo and Kaneda Toshimasa, “Kokuritsu kōbunshokan shozō ‘sensō hanzai saiban kankei shiryō’ no keisei katei to bishikyū sensō saiban kenkyū no kanōsei,” Rekishigaku kenkyū, no. 930 (April 2015): 22.

73. Chūō—shūsen shori—546, “Dai 23 gunshireikan rikugun chūjō (rikushi nijūni-ki) Tanaka Hisakazu-shi ni kansuru chūgoku saiban kiroku, sono 4,” MODA.

74. Alessio Patalano, Post-war Japan as a Sea Power: Imperial Legacy, Wartime Experience and the Making of a Navy (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015).

75. Fujiwara Akira, “ ‘Tenno no guntai’ no rekishi to honshitsu,” Kikan sensō sekinin kenkyū 11 (Spring 1996): 61; Fujiwara Akira, “ ‘Eirei’ wa nan no tame ni shinda no ka—inujini o megutte,” Chūkiren, 11gō, (December 1999): 2–15; Tanaka Hiromi, Kesareta Makkāsā no tatakai—nihonjin ni surikomareta taiheiyō sensōshi (Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 2014), 38–39.

76. “Sensō sekinin o toinaosu natsu,” Nihon keizai shimbun, August 1, 1994, evening edition; Fujiwara, “ ‘Tennō no guntai’ no rekishi to honshitsu,” 67.

77. Fujiwara, “Eirei wa nan no tame ni shinda no ka,” 2–15.

78. Oda Makoto, Nanshi no shisō (Iwanami shoten, 2008), 5–6; Yoshida Yutaka, Heishitachi no sengoshi: sengo nihon shakai o sasaeta hitobito (Iwanami shoten, 2020).

79. Hirai Kazuomi, “Saikō Oda Makoto to beheiren: beheiren e no sanka to nanshi no shisō kagai no ronri,” Kokuritsu rekishi minzoku hakubutsukan kenkyū hōkoku, dai 216shū, (March 2019): 19.

1. Wang Lin, “Wo zai shangbai yu riben zhanfu yixitan,” Deqing wenshi ziliao, di erji, November 1988, 92–94.

2. Marc Gallichio, The Scramble for Asia: US Military Power in the Aftermath of the Pacific War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008), 75.

3. Shen Zhihua, Saigo no tenchō: Mō Takuto Kimu Iruson jidai no chūgoku to kitachōsen, vol. 1 (Iwanami shoten, 2016), 75–103. This was also the case of Chinese violence against the Japanese in a mass event known as the Tonghua Incident in February 1946. See “ ‘Tsūka jiken’ o happyō fukuinkyoku Yoshida rusu gyōmu buchō […],” Asahi shimbun, December 4, 1952, Tokyo morning edition; “Shūsengo no higeki wasurenai, kyūmanshū tsūka jiken kara nanjūnen, shimin gisei, shinsō motomeru,” Nihon keizai shimbun, February 3, 2016; Lu Minghui, Tonghua “er san” shijian (Beijing: Shijie zhishi chubanshe, 2006).

4. Adam Cathcart, “Nationalism and Ethnic Identity in the Sino-Korean Border Region of Yanbian, 1945–1950,” Korean Studies 34 (2010): 25–26.

5. Cathcart, “Nationalism and Ethnic Identity,” 32.

6. Hirata Koji, “From the Ashes of Empire: The Reconstruction of Manchukuo’s Enterprises and the Making of China’s Northeastern Industrial Base, 1948–1952,” in Overcoming Empire in Post-imperial East Asia: Repatriation, Redress and Rebuilding, ed. Barak Kushner and Sherzod Muminov (London: Bloomsbury Publishers, 2020), 147–162.

7. Amy King, China-Japan Relations after World War II: Empire, Industry and War, 1949–1971 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 61.

8. Yamaguchi Mitsufumi, Boku wa hachirogun no shōnenhei datta, new edition (Sōshisha, 2006), 70–71.

9. Yamaguchi, Boku wa hachirogun no shōnenhei datta, 72–74.

10. Satō Takumi and Son An-Sok, eds., Higashi ajia no shūsen kinenbi: haiboku to shōri no aida (Chikuma shobō, 2007).

11. Lori Watt, “Embracing Defeat in Seoul: Rethinking Decolonization in Korea, 1945,” Journal of Asian Studies 74 (2015): 153–174; Mark Caprio, “The Politics of Collaboration in Post-liberation Southern Korea,” in In the Ruins of the Japanese Empire: Imperial Violence, State Destruction, and the Reordering of Modern East Asia, ed. Barak Kushner and Andrew Levidis (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2020), 27–49.

12. Liu Ximing, Weijun: qiangquan jingzhuxia de zuzi (1937–1949) (Taipei: Daoxiang chubanshe, 2002).

13. Liu, Weijun, 374.

14. Wang Qisheng, “China’s Response to Ichigo,” in Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945, ed. Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 416–417.

15. Liu, Weijun, 385–386.

16. Sebastian Conrad, “The Dialectics of Remembrance: Memories of Empire in Cold War Japan,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 56, no. 1 (2014): 6.

17. Hans van de Ven discusses this in China at War: Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China, 1937–1952 (Cambridge, MA: Profile Books, 2018).

18. Yoshimi Shunya, “1940 nendai haisen to sengo no aida de,” in Hitobito no seishinshi, vol. 1, Haisen to senryō—1940nendai, ed. Yoshimi Shunya and Kurihara Akira (Iwanami shoten, 2015), 1-15; Barak Kushner, “Introduction: The Search for Meaning in Defeat and Victory,” in Kushner and Levidis, Ruins, 1–24.

19. Awaya Kentarō, ed., Shiryō nihon gendaishi, 2: haisenchokugo no seiji to shakai 1 (Ōtsuki shoten, 1980), 42.

20. “Taiwan no genkyō,” Gaimushō kanrikyoku sōmubu nanpōka, Shōwa 21.2.10, bugaihi, Microfilm, K’0006, MOFAAJ.

21. Kan Lee, “The ‘China Lobby’ in Tokyo: The Struggle of China’s Mission in Japan for General Douglas MacArthur’s Military Assistance in the Chinese Civil War, 1946–1949,” Journal of Chinese Military History 8 (2019): 29–51.

22. Adam Cathcart, “Bullets of a Defeated Nation: The 1946 Shibuya Incident,” in Kushner and Levidis, Ruins, 111.

23. Cathcart, “Bullets of a Defeated Nation,” 99; Barak Kushner, Men to Devils, Devils to Men: Japanese War Crimes and Chinese Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 130–136.

24. Yang Zizhen, “Teikoku nihon no hōkai to kokumin seifu no taiwan sesshū: sengo shoki nittai kankei ni okeru datsu shokuminchika no daikō” (PhD diss. at Tsukuba daigaku [Kokusai seiji keizaigaku], 2012), 124–133.

25. Cathcart, “Bullets of a Defeated Nation,” 112–113; Yoshimi Yoshiaki, “Senryōka nihonjin no chūgokukan, 1945–1949,” in Nicchū kankeishi no shomondai, ed. Saito Michihiko (Hachiōji-shi: Chūō daigaku shuppanbu, 2009), 191–221.

26. Chen Tsui-lian, Chonggou ererba (Taipei: Weicheng chuban, 2017), 48.

27. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 54–56; Steve Tsang, “From Japanese Colony to Sacred Chinese Territory: Taiwan’s Geostrategic Significance to China,” Twentieth-Century China 45, no. 3 (October 2020): 351–368.

28. Victor Louzon, “From Japanese Soldiers to Chinese Rebels: Colonial Hegemony, War Experience, and Spontaneous Remobilization during the 1947 Taiwanese Rebellion,” Journal of Asian Studies 77, no. 1 (February 2018): 170.

29. Kamisago Shōshichi, Kenpei sanjūichinen (Tōkyō sensho, 1955), 18–19.

30. Kamisago, Kenpei sanjūichinen, 20.

31. Victor Louzon, “L’Incident du 28 février 1947, dernière bataille de la guerre sino-japonaise? Legs colonial, sortie de guerre et violence politique à Taiwan” (Programme doctoral histoire Centre d’histoire de Sciences Po, Doctorat en histoire, Institut d’études politiques de Paris, Ecole Doctorale De Sciences Po, France, December 2016).

32. “Taiwan kara no hōkoku, taiwan gunkanku sanbōchō, October 18–23, 1945,” in Shiryō nihon gendaishi, 3: haisen chokugo no seiji to shakai 2, ed. Awaya Kentarō (Ōtsuki, 1981), 281–282.

33. Peng Ming-min, A Taste of Freedom: Memoirs of a Formosan Independence Leader (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972), 48.

34. Peng, Taste of Freedom, 63–73.

35. Peng, Taste of Freedom, 161.

36. Wakabayashi Masahiro, Taiwan no seiji: chūkaminkoku taiwanka no sengoshi (Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 2008), 43–44.

37. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 162; Jin Yilin, Guomindang gaoceng de paixi zhengzhi, rev. ed. (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2016).

38. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 76.

39. Ka Gilin, Taiwan gendaishi:ni ni hachi jiken o meguru rekishi no saikioku (Heibonsha, 2014), 85–86.

40. The US government recorded the incident in United States Relations with China: With Special Reference to the Period 1944-1949 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1949), 926.

41. United States Relations with China, 927.

42. United States Relations with China, 931.

43. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 333–335.

44. United States Relations with China, 936.

45. George Kerr, Formosa Betrayed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 97.

46. Victor Louzon, “From Japanese Soldiers to Chinese Rebels: Colonial Hegemony, War Experience, and Spontaneous Remobilization during the 1947 Taiwanese Rebellion,” Journal of Asian Studies. 77, no. 1 (February 2018): 173.

47. Takashi Fujitani, Race for Empire: Koreans as Japanese and Japanese as Americans during World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).

48. Louzon, “From Japanese Soldiers to Chinese Rebels,” 175.

49. Jan Kiely, The Compelling Ideal: Thought Reform and the Prison in China, 1901–1956 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 257.

50. Chen, Chonggou ererba, 454–455.

51. Hsu Hsueh-chi, “Manzhouguo zhengfuzhong de taiji gongwu renyuan (1932–1945),” in Taiwan lishi de duoyuan chuancheng yu xiangqian, ed. Hsu Hsueh-chi (Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan taiwanshi yanjiusuo, 2014), 19.

52. R. Ashton, Gill Bennett, and Keith Hamilton, eds., Documents on British Policy Overseas, series 1, vol. 8, Britain and China, 1945–1950, Great Britain, Foreign and Commonwealth Office (London: Routledge, 2002), 94–95 (“Note by A.L. Scott on Formosa,” [F 6408/2443/10] 7 May 1947).

53. Julia Strauss, State Formation in China and Taiwan: Bureaucracy, Campaign, and Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 127–129; Stephan Feuchtwang, After the Event: The Transmission of Grievous Loss in Germany, China and Taiwan (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2011), 113–135; Fang-Long Shih, “Memory, Partial Truth and Reconciliation without Justice: The White Terror Luku Incident in Taiwan,” Taiwan in Comparative Perspective 3 (March 2011): 140–151.

54. Fang-Long, “Memory, Partial Truth and Reconciliation without Justice,” 143.

55. As quoted by L. K. Little in his interview of Sun in 1951, in Chihyun Chang, ed., The Chinese Journals of L. K. Little, 1943–1954: An Eyewitness Account of War and Revolution, vol. 3, The Financial Advisor, 1950–1954 (London: Routledge, 2018), 235.

56. Sayaka Chatani, Nation-Empire: Ideology and Rural Youth Mobilization in Japan and Its Colonies on Taiwan (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2018), 257–263 for Taiwan; 264–270 concerning Korean youths.

57. Hayashi Miki, Senpan ni torawareta shokuminchihei no sakebi (Miyazaki: Ono kōsoku insatsu kaisha, 1988), 45. See also Shi-chi Mike Lan, “ ‘Crime’ of Interpreting Taiwanese Interpreters as War Criminals of World War II,” in New Insights in the History of Interpreting, ed. Kayoko Takeda and Jesús Baigorri-Jalón (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2016), 193–223.

58. Barak Kushner, “Treacherous Allies: The Cold War in East Asia and American Postwar Anxiety,” Journal of Contemporary History 45, no. 4 (October 2010), 1–34.

59. Michael Hoare, “Taiwan’s Darker Past: Emerging Histories of the World-War II Prisoner of War Camps,” European Association for Taiwan Studies, Paris, March 31, 2006 (a conference paper). See the film about former POW Ben Wheeler made by his daughter in 1981, https://www.nfb.ca/film/war_story/.

60. “Soldiering on to Seek War Crimes Justice,” South China Sunday Morning Post, February 19, 1989; Daniel Schumacher, “Strategies of World War II Commemoration in Hong Kong and Singapore” (Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen, Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie vorgelegt von, Konstanz University, 2013), 261.

61. Suzannah Linton, “Rediscovering the War Crimes Trials in Hong Kong, 1946–48,” Melbourne Journal of International Law 13, no. 1 (2012): 284–348; Renmin fayuanbaoshe, ed., Zhengyi de shenpan: jinian zhongguo renmin kangri zhanzheng shengli qishi zhounian (Beijing: Renmin fayuan chubanshe, 2016), 264.

62. Jack Edwards, Banzai You Bastards (Hong Kong: Souvenir Press, 1990), 259–261. See UK national archives (WO 235/1028, KGNA) for the full trial record where Edwards details the abuse, maltreatment, and deaths in Kinkaseki.

63. Sarah Kovner, Prisoners of the Empire: Inside Japanese POW Camps (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020), 132–133; Utsumi Aiko, Nihongun no horyo seisaku (Aoki shoten, 2005).

64. See John Pritchard’s critique on a POW website and critique of this view: https://www.fepow-community.org.uk/monthly_revue/html/atrocities.htm (accessed June 15, 2020).

65. Li Zhanping, “Chushi shangzhanchang—beipoluozhou zhanfu Lian Amu,” Lishi yuekan, (246) (2008): 49–56.

66. Ts’ai Hui-yu and Wu Ling-ching, Zuoguo liangge shidai de ren—taiji ribenbing (Taipei: Institute of Taiwan History, Academia Sinica, 2008), 287–304, https://www.fepow-community.org.uk/monthly_revue/html/atrocities.htm.

67. Linda Holmes, Unjust Enrichment: How Japan’s Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Using American POWs (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001) and David Bergamini, Japan’s Imperial Conspiracy (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1971) are problematic in this regard. Charles D. Sheldon, “Japanese Aggression and the Emperor, 1931–1941, from Contemporary Diaries,” Modern Asian Studies 10, no. 1 (1976): 1–40.

68. “Jiaqiang duiriben xuanchuan,” 0200000014875A, Ministry of Foreign Affairs memo, AH.

69. Hei11-hōmu 4A-18-1831, “Daisan kokujin (kankoku, taiwan) senpansha shakuhōmondai, senpansha engo mondai kankei shorui,” written July 1953, NAJ.

70. Sugamo isho hensankaihen, Seiki no isho (Kōdansha, 1984), 587.

71. Sugamo isho hensankaihen, Seiki no isho, 32.

72. Sugamo isho hensankaihen, Seiki no isho, 545.

73. Sugamo isho hensankaihen, Seiki no isho, 437.

74. Barak Kushner, “Gōhōsei to teikoku—taiwan o jirei to shita nicchū kankei ni okeru ‘seigi’ o meguru tatakai,” Chūgoku 21 45 (February 2017): 81–105.

75. Kimu Shijon, Chōsen to nihon ni ikiru: chejutō kara ikaino e (Iwanami shoten, 2015).

76. Ja-hyun Chun, “Delayed Reconciliation and Transitional Justice in Korea: Three Levels of Conditions for National Reconciliation,” Asian Journal of Social Science 45 (2017): 295.

77. John Merrill, “The Cheju-do Rebellion,” Journal of Korean Studies 2 (1980): 139–197; Su-Kyoung Hwang, Korea’s Grievous War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).

78. Hun Joon Kim, The Massacres at Mt. Halla: Sixty Years of Truth Seeking in South Korea (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014), 14–15.

79. Hun, Massacres at Mt. Halla, 24.

80. Hun, Massacres at Mt. Halla, 29–36.

81. Hun, Massacres at Mt. Halla, 44.

82. Carter J. Eckert, Park Chung Hee and Modern Korea: The Roots of Militarism, 1866–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 87. Koreans who fought for empire and remained in Japan became postwar social outcasts. See Maureen Cheryn Turim, The Films of Oshima Nagisa: Images of a Japanese Iconoclast (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 219–222. Film director Ōshima Nagisa edited a documentary about their plight, Wasurerareta kōgun, which aired on Japanese television on August 16, 1963. Ōshima Nagisa, “People of the Forgotten Army,” in Cinema, Censorship, and the State: The Writings of Nagisa Oshima, 1956–1978, ed. and with an introduction by Annette Michelson, trans. Dawn Lawson (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), 71; “Wareware no hoshō darega, kokuseki naiga kōgun datta—zainichi kankokujin no sengo hoshō soshō,” Mainichi shimbun, July 16, 1994, Tokyo morning edition; “Ōshima Nagisa kantoku, maboroshi no 30ppun sakuhin wasurerareta kōgun, konya hanseiki buri hōsō,” Asahi shimbun, January 12, 2014, Tokyo morning edition.

83. See Su-kyoung Hwang, Korea’s Grievous War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).

84. Wada Haruki, The Korean War—an International History, trans. Frank Baldwin, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), xv; Wada Haruki, “Chōsen mondai to wareware no sekinin,” Gekkan shakaitō, (January 1985): 46–55.

85. Hirano Ryūji, “Chōsen sensō ni okeru tairitsu kōzō no kigen,” in Senryakushi toshite no ajia reisen, eds. Akagi Kanji and Konno Shigemitsu (Keiō gijuku daigaku shuppan, 2013), 108.

86. Wada, Korean War, xxvii.

87. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, “Prisoner Number 600,001: Rethinking Japan, China, and the Korean War 1950–1953,” Journal of Asian Studies 74, no. 2 (May 2015): 413.

88. David Cheng Chang, The Hijacked War: The Story of Chinese POWs in the Korean War (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020), 60.

89. Chou Hsiu-huan, ed., Zhanhou waijiao shiliao huibian: hanzhan yu fangong yishibian, vol. 1 (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2005), 14.

90. David Chang, Hijacked War, 14.

91. Huang Tiancai, Wo zai 38duxian de huiyi (Taipei: INK yinke wenxue chuban, 2010), 72–80; Shen Xingyi, Yiwansiqian ge zhengren: hanzhan shiqi ‘fangong yishi’ zhi yanjiu (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2013), 212.

92. Chou Hsiu-huan, ed., Zhanhou waijiao shiliao huibian: hanzhan yu fangong yishipian, vol. 2 (Taipei: Guoshiguan, 2006), 303–304; Chou Hsiu-huan, “Jieyun hanzhan fangong yishi laitai zhi yanjiu, (1950–1954),” Guoshiguan guankan, 28qi, (June 2011): 124; Lan Shi-chi, “Cong ‘womende’ zhanzheng dao ‘beiyiwangde’ zhanzheng: Taiwan dui ‘hanzhan’ de lishi jiyi,” Dongyaguannianshi jikan, di7qi, (December 2014): 224.

93. “Meiguo de xinlizhan chedi shibai le,” Renmin ribao, January 25, 1954.

94. David Chang, Hijacked War, 6.

95. Pingchao Zhu, “ ‘Disgraced Soldiers’: The Ordeal of the Repatriated POWs of the Chinese Volunteer Army from the Korean War,” Journal of Chinese Military History 4 (2015): 163; Jin Daying, “Accounts of the Chinese People’s Volunteers Prisoners of War: A Translation” (master’s thesis, University of Montana, 1993).

96. Zhu, “ ‘Disgraced Soldiers,’ ” 192.

97. Bao Mingrong, “Zhongguo renmin zhiyuanjun zai kangmei yuanchao zhanzhengzhong de zhanfu zhengce,” Junshi lishi, di 6qi, 2001, 11.

98. Zhu, “ ‘Disgraced Soldiers,’ ” 168.

99. Zhu, “ ‘Disgraced Soldiers,’ ” 174.

100. He Ming, zhongcheng: zhiyuanjun zhanfu guilai renyuan de kanke jingli (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 1998), 128; Zhang Zeshi, Wo de chaoxian zhanzheng: yi ge zhiyuanjun zhanfu de liushinian huiyi (Beijing: Jincheng chubanshe, 2010), 207–215.

1. In its first two years of incarcerating counterrevolutionaries in the former Ward Road Gaol, the CCP executed more prisoners than had been executed by previous administrations since 1900. Frank Dikotter, Crime, Punishment and the Prison in Modern China (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 366.

2. West Australian, June 19, 1947.

3. As quoted in Kirsten Sellars, “Introduction,” in Trials for International Crimes in Asia, ed. Kirsten Sellars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 9.

4. William Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan: A Personal History of the Occupation (London: Cresset Press, 1967), 165.

5. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan, 173.

6. Hanayama Shinshō, Heiwa no hakken: sugamo no sei to shi no kiroku (Asahi shimbunsha, 1949), 309–310.

7. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan, 174.

8. Hanayama, Heiwa no hakken, 311.

9. Sebald, With MacArthur in Japan, 174.

10. “Riben zhongyao zhanfan shijiuming mengzongjing quanbu shifang bing xuanbu zhanfan qingsuan gao jieshu,” Shenbao, December 25, 1948. The CCP’s main organ, Renmin ribao, criticized MacArthur’s decision more bluntly, “Riben zhongyao zhanfanren duo meidi jing weifa shifang,” on December 31, 1948.

11. Kiyose Ichirō, Hiroku tōkyō saiban (Chūō kōron shinsha, 2002), 177–178.

12. Senkō sanzenri (Mainichi wanzu, 2008; originally published in 1950); translated by Nigel Brailey, ed., Masanobu Tsuji’s ‘Underground Escape’ from Siam after the Japanese Surrender (Global Oriental, 2009).

13. Advertisement in Yomiuri shimbun, June 2, 1950.

14. “Reports on the Rearmament Activities of Tsuji Masanobu and Hattori Takushiro,” declassified CIA memo, May 3, 1951, https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/TSUJI%2C%20MASANOBU%20%20%20VOL.%201_0016.pdf.

15. RG 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency, Second Release of Name Files, Tschoudnowsky, Leonid to Tymewycz, Roman, vol. 2, box 130, Tsuji Masanobu folder, vol. 1, NARA.

16. RG 263, Records of the Central Intelligence Agency, Second release of name files under the Nazi War crimes and Japanese imperial government disclosure acts, 1936–2002 (reference set), Tschoudnowsky, Leonid to Tymewycz, Roman, box 130, Tsuji Masanobu folder, vol. 1, confidential Department of State memo, February 24, 1956, NARA.

17. Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 122–127; Donna-Lee Frieze, Totally Unofficial: The Autobiography of Raphael Lemkin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 89–97; Philippe Sands, East West Street (London: W&N Publishers, 2016).

18. Kerstin von Lingen, “Setting the Path for the UNWCC: The Representation of European Exile Governments of the London International Assembly and the Commission for Penal Reconstruction and Development, 1941–1944,” Criminal Law Forum 25 (2014): 48; Valentyna Polunina, “The Human Face of Soviet Justice? Aron Trainin and the Origins of the Soviet Doctrine of International Criminal Law,” in Stalin’s Soviet Justice: “Show” Trials, War Crimes Trials, and Nuremberg, ed. David M. Crowe (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019), 127–144.

19. Rebecca West, A Train of Powder (New York: Viking Press, 1955; originally published in 1946), 3.

20. “Aoyama saijō no kaikōshiki,” Yomiuri shimbun, December 24, 1948.

21. Hei11 hōmu 4A-021-00, “Shichi senpan kaikōshiki no omoide, Nagai Watarushidan kōbunsho,” NAJ. The interviewee, Naigai, was interviewed by Inoue Tadao about his experiences on December 22, 1962.

22. Professor Yan Haijian, interview by the author in Nanjing, May 27, 2019.

23. “Zhanzheng zuifan chuli weiyuanhui duiri zhanfan chuli zhengce huiyi jilu,” 020-010117-0039-0017a-0029a, part of the Zhanfan chuli zhengce (2) series, AH.

24. Bob Wakabayashi, “The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate: War Guilt amid Fabricated Illusions, 1971–75,” Journal of Japanese Studies 26, no. 2 (Summer 2000): 307–340.

25. Benjamin Uchiyama, Japan’s Carnival War: Mass Culture on the Home Front, 1937–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 47.

26. Li Donglang, “Guomindang zhengfu dui riben zhanfan de shenpan,” Bainianchao, di 6 qi, 2005, 27–35; Luo Junsheng, “Shi Meiyu yu zhanhou nanjing dui rijun zhanfan de shenpan,” Dangshi zonglan, di 1qi, 2006, 20–26.

27. Honda Katsuichi, Chūgoku no tabi (Asahi shimbunsha, 1972); Honda Katsuichi, The Nanjing Massacre, a Journalist Confronts Japan’s National Shame, trans. Karen Sandness (London: M.E. Sharpe, 1991), 125–135. See also Mukai Chieko, ‘ “Mujitsu da!’ Chichi no sakebi ga kikoeru,” Seiron, (March 2000): 60–71.

28. Kasahara Tokushi, Hyakuningiri kyōsō to nankin jiken: Shijitsu no kaimei kara rekishi taiwa e (Ōtsuki shoten, 2008), 201.

29. Wang Junyan, Riben zhanfan shenpan miwen (Beijing: Zhongguo huaqiao chubanshe, 1995), 298.

30. Shanghai hongkouqu danganbian, Dongjing shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe, 2007), foreword by Gao Wenbin, 3–4.

31. Zhang Linfeng, “Bu neng wanque de lishi—fang dongjing shenpan qinlizhe Gai Wenbin,” Lianhe shibao, February 28, 2014; “Koushu: Gao Wenbin, wo suo jingli de dongjing dashenpan,” Sanlian shenghuo zhoukan, August 15, 2014.

32. “Mengjun zaihua youguan zhanzui sheshi,” 020-010117-005-146a-147a, AH.

33. Greg Leck, Captives of Empire: The Japanese Internment of Allied Civilians in China, 1941–1945 (Bangor, PA: Shandy Press, 2006); Henry Pringle, Bridge House Survivor: Experiences of a Civilian Prisoner-of-War in Shanghai & Beijing, 1942–1945 (Hong Kong: Earnshaw Books, 2011).

34. “Mengjun zaihua youguan zhanzui sheshi,” 020-010117-005-149a-151a, AH.

35. Li Zhiqun, interview by the author, Shanghai, June 5, 2019.

36. “ ‘Jiangyin zhihu,’ ‘changshu zhilang’ zuori zhixing shizhong qiangjue,” Zhonghua ribao, June 18, 1947.

37. Li Yechu, “Sharen mowang shanghai fufa jishi,” Shanghaitan, no. 224 (2005): 16–20.

38. Li Yechu, “ ‘Changshulang’ yu ‘jiangyinhu’ de mori,” Shanghaitan, (February 1989): 27.

39. Li Liang, Guonanji (self-pub., 2012), 19. I thank Dai Chengxian for helping me procure a copy of this self-published memoir.

40. Dai Chengxian, interview for the documentary series. Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 153–156.

41. May 30, 2019, interview with Liu Linsheng, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province. The book is Liu Linsheng, Zhongguo de aosiweixin: rijun ‘taiyuan jizhongying’ jishi (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 2012).

42. The other one is the Shenyang WWII Allied Prisoners Camp Site Museum.

43. Tom Phillips, “China Rebuilds Its Forgotten ‘Auschwitz’ to Remember Japan’s Brutality,” The Guardian, September 1, 2015.

44. Li, “ ‘Changshulang’ yu ‘jiangyanghu’ de mori,” 29.

45. Zhongguo dier lishi danganguan, Shanghai jiaotong daxue dongjing shenpan yanjiu zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo duiri zhanfan shenpan dangan jicheng, vol. 1 (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxue chubanshe, 2019), 4. (There are 102 volumes in the entire series.)

46. The center changed its name to the Research Institute of War Trial and World Peace at Shanghai Jiaotong University.

47. Liu Tong, Dashenpan: guomindang zhenfu chuzhi riben zhanfan shilu (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 2021), see table on 876.

48. Liu, Dashenpan, 875–887; Yan Haijian, “Fanzui shudi yuanze yu zhengju zhongxin zhuyi: zhanhou beiping duiri shenpan de shitai yu tezhi,” Minguo dangan, (January 2018): 135. See also Yan Haijian, Guomin zhengfu shenpan riben zhanfan yanjiu, Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 2022.

49. Yan Haijian, “Kuanda yihuo kuanzong: zhanhou guomin zhengfu duiri zhanfan chuzhi lunxi,” Nanjing shehui kexue, di 7qi, (2014): 146.

50. Yan Haijian, “Tongxiang zhanhou shenpan zhilu: mengguo dui erzhan zhanzui chengchu niyi shulun,” Nanjing shehui kexue, di 2qi, (2016): 154.

1. Alexander Pantsov and Steven Levine, Mao: The Real Story (London: Simon and Schuster, 2012), 368.

2. “First Conversation between N.S. Khrushchev and Mao Zedong, Hall of Huaizhentan [Beijing],” July 31, 1958, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Archive of the President of the Russian Federation, APRF, fond 52, opis 1, delo 498, ll. 44–477; copy in Dmitry Volkogonov Collection, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, translated by Vladislav M. Zubok, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112080.

3. Sandra Wilson, “The Sentence Is Only Half the Story: From Stern Justice to Clemency for Japanese War Criminals, 1945–1958,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 13, no. 4 (September 2015): 749.

4. “Faxue zhuanjia Mei Ruao fabiao tanhua […],” Renmin ribao, March 14, 1950.

5. Sherzod Muminov, Eleven Winters of Discontent: The Siberian Internment and the Making of a New Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2022); Amy King and Sherzod Muminov, “ ‘Japan Still Has Cadres Remaining’: Japanese in the USSR and Mainland China, 1945–1956,” Journal of Cold War Studies 24, no. 3 (2022): 200–230.

6. “Conversation between A. Vyshinsky and Mao Zedong, Moscow,” January 6, 1950, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, AVP RF, f. 0100, op. 43, d. 43, papka 302, ll. 1–5; provided by O. A. Westad; translation for CWIHP by Daniel Rozas, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/112676. Xu Jingli, “Sulian zhaohui zhongguo zhengfu tiyi zu tebie guoji fating shenpan rihuang deng xijun zhanfan,” Guoji wenti yanjiu, di 6qi, (2005): 63–67.

7. Mao Zedong, “Lun renmin minzhu zhuanzheng,” Renmin ribao, July 1, 1949. See also Wen-Shun Chi, ed., Readings in Chinese Communist Documents: A Manual for Students of the Chinese Language (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), 8.

8. Alison Adcock Kaufman, “In Pursuit of Equality and Respect: China’s Diplomacy and the League of Nations,” Modern China 40, no. 6 (2014): 605–638.

9. Shao-chuan Leng, Justice in Communist China: A Survey of the Judicial System of the Chinese People’s Republic (New York: Oceana Publications, 1967), xi.

10. Fukushima Masao, Ubugata Naokichi, and Hasegawa Ryōichi., Chūgoku no saiban (Tokyo keizai shinpōsha, 1957), 63.

11. Shao-chuan, Justice in Communist China, xii.

12. Andrei Y. Vyshinsky, Law of the Soviet State (New York: Macmillan, 1948), 5.

13. “Lectures in the General Principals of Criminal Law in the People’s Republic of China,” series 1, box 75, folder 3, p. 18, SLRA. This is a US Department of Commerce translation in March 1962 of a 1957 Chinese textbook on law for Chinese political judicial cadres.

14. “Xinfaxue yanjiuyuan chengli, Shen Junru yuanzhang zhici […],” Renmin ribao, January 5, 1950. Dong’s longer speech, “Jiu sifa gongzuo renyuan de gaizao wenti,” January 4, 1950, is in Dong Biwu faxue wenji, ed. Dong Biwu faxue wenji (Beijing: Falu chubanshe, 2001), 26–37.

15. Henry Wei, Courts and Police in Communist China to 1952, series 1, no. 1, 1952, “Studies in Chinese Communism,” research done for Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, published by Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, Lackland Air Force Base Texas, December 1955, 8.

16. Mei Ruao, “Nihon no zento—nihon no kōfuku goshūnen o kinen shite kisu,” in Nicchū no hyakunijūnen no bungei hyōron sakuhinsen 4, ed. Chō Kyō and Murata Yūjirō (Iwanami shoten, 2016), 115–123. (The original article was in Chinese: Mei Ruao, “Riben de qiantu—wei jinian riben touxiang wuzhounian erzuo,” Shijie zhishi [May 16, 1950].)

17. Mei Ruao, “Quan yazhou remin duiyu riben renmin de qidai,” Shijie zhishi, di 39qi, (1952): 5.

18. Mei, “Quan yazhou remin duiyu riben renmin de qidai,” 7.

19. Mei Ruao’s commentary, “Bai Jokō-shi no nihon senpan shorihyō,” in RP shiryō kaisetsuban, Radio puresu tsūshinsha, (June 23, 1956).

20. Jin Weihua, “Li Fang: chuting gongsu riben zhanfan,” Jiancha fengyun, no. 19 (2009): 64–68. The top-secret training was coordinated by the Supreme People’s deputy procurator Tan Zhengwen. Tan worked with Li Fushan, Quan Weicai, Bai Buzhou, and Jing Zhuguo, among others. See also Edgar H. Schein, “Some Observations on Chinese Methods of Handling Prisoners of War,” Public Opinion Quarterly 20, no. 1 (Spring 1956): 321–327.

21. The originals were first published under a different title in 2006, then repackaged and sold as part of the Wenshi ziliao baibu jingdian wenku, a series of the Top 100 most important historical collections. See Huiyi gaizao zhanfan (vols. 1 and 2), ed. Quanguo zhengxie wenshi he xuexi weiyuanhuibian (Beijing: Zhongguo wenshi chubanshe, 2013); in Japanese see Arai Toshio shiryō hozonkai, ed., Chūgoku bujun senpan kanrijo shokuin no shōgen: shashinka Arai Toshio no nokoshita shigoto (Nashi no kasha, 2003).

22. Wang Shilin, interview in Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, May 30, 2019. See also Shanghai guangbo dianshitai jilupian zhongxin Chen Yinan gongzuoshi, ed., Yatai zhanzheng shenpan (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaotong daxuechubanshe, 2021), 207–208.

23. “Dong Biwu zai diliuci quanguo gongan huiyi shang guanyu zhengzhi falu sixiang gongzuo fangmian jige wenti de baogao,” June 2, 1954, CMPD.

24. Jeffrey Kinkley, Chinese Justice, the Fiction: Law and Literature in Modern China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 18.

25. “Dong Biwu zai diliuci quanguo gongan huiyi shang guanyu zhengzhi falu sixiang gongzuo fangmian jige wenti de baogao,” June 2, 1954, CMPD.

26. Percy R. Luney Jr., “Traditions and Foreign Influences: Systems of Law in China and Japan,” Law and Contemporary Problems 52, no. 2 (1989): 135–136.

27. Tang Shichun, “Jianguo chuqi laihua sulian faxue zhuanjia de qunti kaochao,” Huanqiu falu pinglun, di5qi, (2010): 135.

28. Tang, “Jianguo chuqi laihua sulian faxue zhuanjia de qunti kaochao,” 140. The author here is quoting the work of Shen Zhihua. He Qinhua, “Guanyu xinzhongguo yizhi sulian sifa zhidu de fansi,” Zhongwai faxue, di3qi, August 2002, http://h286851.w276.mc-test.com/Item/Show.asp?m=1&d=544; Yu Min-ling, “Xuexi sulian: zhonggong xuanchuan yu minjian huiying,” Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo jikan, di 40qi, (June 2003): 99–139.

29. Kinkley, Chinese Justice, the Fiction, 14.

30. Shi Liang, “Guanyu chedi gaizao he zhengdun geji renmin fayuan de baogao,” Renmin zhoubao, di 35qi, 1952, 22–23.

31. Sun Huei-min, “Minguo shiqi shanghai de nulushi, (1927–1949),” Jindai zhongguo funushi yanjiu, (14) (2006): 51–88.

32. Shi Liang, “Report on Reform and Reorganization of the People’s Courts (extract), August 13, 1952,” from http://www.commonprogram.science/documents/Report%20on%20Reform%20and%20Reorganization%20of%20the%20People’s%20Courts.pdf; Shi Liang, “Guanyu chedi gaizao he zhengdun geji renmin fayuan de baogao,” Renmin ribao, August 23, 1952.

33. Liu Fengjing, “Sifa linian de chujiu yu buxin,” Zhongwai fashi yanjiu, di 1qi, (2009): 96–105.

34. Zhou Tiandu and Sun Caixia, Shi Liang: minmeng lishi renwu (Beijing: Qinyan Press, 2011), 301–302.

35. Tang Shichun, “1955nian zhongguo sifa gongzuo fangsu daibiaotuan yu sulian fazhi xingxiang de suzao,” Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan jindaishisuo qingnian xueshu luntan (2008): 475–490.

36. Shi Liang, “Dui sulian sifa gongzuo de jidian tihui,” Faxue yanjiu (June 1955) : 13–15.

37. Ceng Hanzhou, He Lanjie, and Lin Hengyuan, “Fangwen suweiai fayuan de jidian tihui,” Faxue yanjiu, (June 1955): 16–19.

38. Zhou and Sun, Shi Liang, 309.

39. Wang Huai’an, “Sulian sifa ganbu shi youxiu de, ganbu gongzuo de jingyan shi fengfu de,” Faxue yanjiu, (June 1955): 22–24.

40. Jennifer Altehenger, “Simplified Legal Knowledge in the Early PRC: Explaining and Publishing the Marriage Law,” in Chinese Law: Knowledge, Practice, and Transformation, 1530s to 1950s, ed. Madeleine Zelin and Li Chen (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 343.

41. Wang Ruqi, “Xinzhongguo lushi zhidu dianji,” Falu shuoshi lunpin (JM Review), di1qi, zongdi14qi, (2014): 6–7; He Bihui, “Wang Ruqi: Xinzhongguo diyibu ‘huninfa’ zhibiren,” Shiji, 1qi, (2012): 55–57. Wang Ruqi is also mentioned by Ōsawa Takeshi, “The People’s Republic of China’s ‘Lenient Treatment’ Policy towards Japanese War Criminals,” in Trials for International Crimes in Asia, ed. Kirsten Sellars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 160.

42. “Guanyu shifang riben zhanfan wenti de qingshijian, baogao, minglingdeng,” Danghao 105-00220-06(1), CMOFA.

43. “Dong Biwu, Shen Junru, Zhang Xiruo zai diyijie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui dierci huiyishang de fayan, July 23, 1955,” CMPD.

44. “Dong Biwu, Shen Junru, Zhang Xiruo zai diyijie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui dierci huiyishang de fayan, July 23, 1955,” CMPD.

45. George Ginsburgs, “Soviet Sources on the Law of the Chinese People’s Republic,” University of Toronto Law Journal 18, no. 2 (Spring 1968): 182.

46. The team was assisted by Shi Liang, Zhong Hanhua, Chen Shuliang, Li Fushan, Zhang Zhirang, Pan Zhenya, and Zhou Gengsheng.

47. Sui Shuying, “20shiji wushiniandai zhongguo dui riben zhanfan de shenpan yu shifang,” Yantai daxue xuebao (zhexue shehui kexueban), 19, no. 4 (October 2006): 461.

48. “The Secret Speech That Changed World History,” The Observer, February 26, 2006, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/feb/26/russia.theobserver.

49. Sergey Radchenko, “The Sino–Russian Relationship in the Mirror of the Cold War,” China International Strategy Review 1 (2019): 273–274.

50. “From the Journal of Ambassador P. F. Yudin, Record of Conversation with Mao Zedong, 31 March 1956,” April 5, 1956, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, AVPRF, fond 0100, opis 49, papka 410, delo 9, listy 87–98; also Center for Storage of Contemporary Documentation (TsKhSD), fond 5, opis 30, delo 163, listy 88–99; see also Problemi Dalnego Vostok 5 (1994), 101–110. Translated by Mark Doctoroff, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/116977.