Notes
Introduction. Good Judgment Seeks Balance
1. “Farewell Radio and Television Address to the American People, January 17, 1961,” in PPP, 1960–1961, 1035–40.
2. George Santayana, The Life of Reason, vol. 1, Reason in Common Sense (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1905), 284.
3. Arthur Schlesinger Sr., “Our Presidents: A Rating by 75 Historians,” NYT, July 29, 1962.
4. Siena College Research Institute, “Siena’s 6th Presidential Expert Poll 1982–2018,” February 13, 2019, https://scri.siena.edu/2019/02/13/sienas-6th-presidential-expert-poll-1982-2018/.
5. For a prominent example, see Marquis Childs, Eisenhower: Captive Hero. A Critical Study of the General and the President (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1958).
6. Fred Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (New York: Basic Books, 1982).
7. Among the most important is Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2, The President, 1952–1969 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984).
8. Chester J. Pach and Elmo Richardson, The Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991), xiii.
9. Richard Damms, “Leadership and Decision-Making,” in A Companion to Dwight D. Eisenhower, ed. Chester Pach (Malden, MA: John Wiley and Sons, 2017), 181.
10. Peter Lyon, Eisenhower: Portrait of the Hero (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1974), 851.
1. Brief Biography
1. Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 1, Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 73.
2. Ambrose, Eisenhower, 1:273.
3. “Eisenhower’s Letter Stating He Would Not Run,” NYT, January 24, 1948.
4. Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson and Postmaster General Arthur Summerfield both served eight years, as did press secretary James Hagerty. Secretary of defense and secretary of health, education, and welfare were the only cabinet positions to have more than two occupants during Eisenhower’s tenure as president.
5. DDE, “Radio and Television Address to the American People on the Achievements of the 83d Congress, August 23, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 746–56.
6. “Text of Eisenhower Talk in Salt Lake City,” NYT, October 11, 1952.
7. DDE, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956–1961 (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 652.
2. A Transcending Duty
1. DDE to James Duff, October 14, 1951, published in its entirety in William Bragg Ewald Jr., “Ike’s First Move,” New York Times Magazine, November 14, 1993.
2. Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 1, Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 489–90.
3. William B. Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run: Presidential Politics and Cold War Strategy (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), xiv–xvi.
4. DDE, Crusade in Europe (New York: Doubleday, 1948), 444.
5.Ike’s Letters to a Friend, 1941–1958, ed. Robert W. Griffith (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1984), 33–34.
6. The volume of Truman’s diary that includes this entry was not discovered at the Truman Presidential Library until 2003. National Archives, “Truman Library Discovers 1947 Truman Diary,” press release, July 10, 2003, https://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2003/nr03-54.html.
7.The Eisenhower Diaries, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 139.
8. “Eisenhower’s Letter Stating He Would Not Run,” NYT, January 24, 1948.
9. “Eisenhower’s Letter Stating He Would Not Run.”
10. Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run, 79–80.
11. “Text of Eisenhower’s Speech Pledging His Regime’s Support to Keep Our Basic Freedom,” NYT, October 13, 1948.
12. William I. Hitchcock, The Age of Eisenhower: America and the World in the 1950s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2018), 38–39.
13. Hitchcock, The Age of Eisenhower, 42.
14.Eisenhower Diaries, 153.
15.Eisenhower Diaries, 168–69.
16. Hitchcock, The Age of Eisenhower, 37.
17. DDE diary entry, December 13, 1948, in PDDE, 10:365–67.
18.Eisenhower Diaries, 178.
19.Ike’s Letters to a Friend, 82.
20. DDE, At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends (New York: Doubleday, 1967), 370–71.
21. DDE, At Ease, 371.
22. DDE, At Ease, 371–72.
23. Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run, 89–91.
24. Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run, 91.
25. In a footnote to DDE to Lucius Clay, May 30, 1951, in PDDE, 12:308.
26. DDE to Clay, May 30, 1951, in PDDE, 12:307.
27. DDE to Monroe Mark Sweetland, September 5, 1951, in PDDE, 12:522.
28. DDE, The White House Years: Mandate for Change, 1953–1956 (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 16–17.
29. DDE, Mandate for Change, 17.
30. DDE, Mandate for Change, 18.
31. Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run, 127.
32. Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run, 128.
33. Ewald, “Ike’s First Move.”
34. Ewald, “Ike’s First Move.”
35.Eisenhower Diaries, 203.
36. DDE to Edward Robinson, October 31, 1951, in PDDE, 12:672.
37. DDE to Milton Stover Eisenhower, October 31, 1951, in PDDE, 12:674.
38. DDE to Arthur Hays Sulzberger, November 10, 1951, in PDDE, 12:701.
39. DDE to Clifford Roberts, November 8, 1951, in PDDE, 12:691.
40. DDE to Clifford Roberts, December 8, 1951, in PDDE, 12:763–64.
41. In footnote to DDE to Henry Cabot Lodge, December 12, 1951, in PDDE, 12:779.
42.Eisenhower Diaries, 206.
43. DDE to Lodge, December 12, 1951, in PDDE, 12:777.
44. In footnote to DDE to Lodge, December 29, 1951, in PDDE, 12:829.
45. DDE to Lodge, December 29, 1951, in PDDE, 12:829.
46. In footnote to DDE to Harry Truman, January 1, 1952, in PDDE, 12:830–31.
47. DDE to Truman, January 1, 1952, in PDDE, 12:830–31.
48. “Text of Lodge-Adams Letters, NYT, January 7, 1951.
49. Clayton Knowles, “Lodge to Enter Eisenhower in New Hampshire Primary; Sure General is Republican,” NYT, January 7, 1952.
50. “Text of Eisenhower Statement,” NYT, January 8, 1952.
51. DDE to Lucius Clay, January 8, 1952, in PDDE, 13:860–63.
52.Eisenhower Diaries, 209.
53. DDE to Edward Robinson, January 19, 1953, in PDDE, 12:890.
54. James Hagerty, “A ‘Serenade to Ike’ Is Theme at Rally of 15,000 in Garden,” NYT, February 9, 1952.
55. DDE to Philip Young, February 11, 1952, in PDDE, 13:970.
56.Eisenhower Diaries, 214.
57. DDE to Lucius Clay, February 12, 1952, in PDDE, 13:974.
58. DDE to Philip Dunham Reed, February 12, 1952, in PDDE, 13:983.
59. DDE to Edward Robinson, February 12, 1952, in PDDE, 13:984–91.
60. DDE to Lucius Clay, February 20, 1952, in PDDE, 13:998.
61. DDE to Clay, February 20, 1952, in PDDE, 13:999; Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, 21.
62. Pickett, Eisenhower Decides to Run, 178.
63. C. L. Sulzberger, “The General May Act,” NYT, March 21, 1952.
64. Herbert Brownell, Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), 99–100.
65. DDE to Clifford Roberts, March 19, 1952, in PDDE, 13:1091–92.
66. DDE to Lucius Clay, March 26, 1952, in PDDE, 13:1119–20.
67. DDE to Harry Truman, April 2, 1952, in PDDE, 13:1154–56.
68. “Text of Eisenhower’s Speech at Abilene, Opening His Political Campaign,” NYT, June 5, 1952.
69. “Eisenhower Outlines Campaign Issues,” NYT, June 6, 1952.
70. John Robert Greene, I Like Ike: The Presidential Election of 1952 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2017), 110.
3. Pursuing the Middle Way
1. DDE to Bradford G. Chynoweth, July 13, 1954, in PDDE, 15:1185–86.
2. Marquis Childs, Eisenhower: Captive Hero. A Critical Study of the General and the President (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1958), 228–29, 292.
3. Herbert Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades (New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1972), 574.
4. Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2, The President, 1952–1969 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984).
5. Exceptions include presidential nominations and budget reconciliation measures that have been excluded from the filibuster.
6. Eisenhower’s path to victory at the 1952 Republican National Convention was complicated; for a more complete explanation, see John Robert Greene, I Like Ike: The Presidential Election of 1952 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2017), 92–103.
7. DDE, The White House Years: Mandate for Change, 1953–1956 (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 44–45.
8. “Taft Gives Winner His Pledge of Aid,” NYT, July 12, 1952.
9. DDE, “Radio and Television Address to the American People on the Achievements of the 83d Congress, August 23, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 746–56.
10. “Text of Eisenhower Talk in Salt Lake City,” NYT, October 11, 1952.
11. For more on the Middle Way and its application in other areas of policy, see my book, Eisenhower Republicanism: Pursuing the Middle Way (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2006). I would like to thank Northern Illinois University Press for permission to use edited excerpts from that book.
12. Campaign speech in Wheeling, West Virginia, September 24, 1952, Excerpts 1952 Campaign Speeches, Box 1, Chronological Campaign Subseries, Campaign Series, DDE Papers as President, 1953–61, DDEL.
13. “Text of Eisenhower’s Speech on ‘Middle Way,’ ” NYT, August 21, 1952.
14. “Summary of Policy Statements Made by General Eisenhower; As Excerpted from Major Speeches Carried by the NYT and Other Papers from June until November 4th [1952],” Volume 5, HEW, Washington, DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
15. PACGO, Volume 67, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
16. SCGO to DDE, March 5, 1953, Folder 439, Box 49, Reorganization Advisory Committee, Washington, DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
17. “Special Message to the Congress Transmitting Reorganization Plan I of 1953 Creating the Department of HEW, March 12, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 94.
18. Cary Reich, The Life of Nelson A. Rockefeller (New York: Doubleday, 1996), 526.
19. “Texts of Addresses by Eisenhower at Bridgeport and Worcester,” NYT, October 21, 1952.
20. Yonkers, New York, October 29, 1952, “Summary of Policy Statements Made by General Eisenhower,” Volume 5, HEW, Washington, DC files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC; see also “Aims of the Eisenhower Administration, 1952,” Volume 5, HEW, Washington, DC files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
21. “Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, February 2, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 12–34.
22. Donald Bruce Johnson and Kirk H. Porter, eds., National Party Platforms, 1840–1972 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 503.
23. Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation, 1945–1964: A Review of Government and Politics in the Postwar Years (Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly Service, 1965), 1238, 1247.
24. Minutes of Cabinet meeting, November 20, 1953, Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings of President Eisenhower (1953–1961), 10 reels (Washington, DC: University Publications of America, 1980), reel 1.
25. Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation, 1246.
26. DDE to Edward Hutton, October 7, 1953, in PDDE, 14:562.
27. “Special Message to the Congress on Old Age and Survivors Insurance and on Federal Grants-in-Aid for Public Assistance Programs, January 14, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 62–68; “Annual Budget Message to the Congress, Fiscal Year 1955, January 21, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 79–192.
28. New York City Speech, February 2, 1954, Volume 2, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
29. “General Summary of Provisions of Old-Age and Survivors Insurance Bill,” Volume 39, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC; Legislation, Box 25, Oveta Culp Hobby Papers, DDEL.
30. “President Signs Law Extending Social Security to 10,000,000,” NYT, September 2, 1954.
31. “Aims of the Eisenhower Administration,” 1952, Volume 5, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
32. Johnson and Porter, National Party Platforms, 503–4.
33. Los Angeles campaign speech, October 10, 1952, “Aims of the Eisenhower Administration,” Volume 5, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
34. “Limited Federal Reinsurance Service: Fact Sheet Issued in Connection with Legislative Proposals of 1954,” March 1954, Volume 59, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
35. Press Conference, Secretary Hobby, March 11, 1954, March 1954, Volume 59, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
36. Health, Box 7, Campaign Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
37. “Principal Features of Proposed Legislation on Health Service Prepayment Plans,” March 10, 1954, Volume 39, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
38. Minutes of Cabinet meeting, December 10, 1954, Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings, reel 2.
39. “Special Message to the Congress on the Health Needs of the American People, January 18, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 69–77; and New York City Speech, February 2, 1954, Volume 2, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC.
40. Minutes of Cabinet meetings, February 16 and 26, 1954, Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings, reel 2.
41. “Reinsurance Bill Fought by A.M.A.,” NYT, April 6, 1954, 31.
42. Memorandum from Secretary Hobby to DDE, “Luncheon with Insurance Company Executives,” May 14, 1954, Hobby (4), Box 19, Administration Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
43. Transcript of television speech, Folder 493 (Health 54–55), Box 57, HEW, Washington DC Files, RG 4, NAR Personal, RAC; and Meeting with AMA officials regarding reinsurance bill, July 7, 1954, Reinsurance, Box 17, Oveta Culp Hobby Papers, DDEL.
44. Roswell B. Perkins to Secretary Hobby, “AMA Attacks on Reinsurance Bill,” July 2, 1954, Reinsurance, Box 17, Oveta Culp Hobby Papers, DDEL.
45. Meeting with AMA officials regarding reinsurance bill, July 7, 1954, Reinsurance, Box 17, Oveta Culp Hobby Papers, DDEL.
46. Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation, 1153.
47.The Diary of James C. Hagerty: Eisenhower in Mid-Course, 1954–1955, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), 89.
48. “President’s News Conference, July 14, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 633.
49.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 94.
50. “President’s News Conference, July 14, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 633; and “Special Message to the Congress Recommending a Health Program, January 31, 1955,” in PPP, 1955, 216–23.
51. Minutes of Cabinet meeting, April 22, 1955, Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings, reel 3.
52. Robert Goldberg, Goldwater (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 105.
53. Barry Goldwater, With No Apologies (New York: Berkley Books, 1979), 89.
54. Edgar Eisenhower to DDE, November 1, 1954, Edgar 1954 (2), Box 11, Name Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
55. DDE to Edgar Eisenhower, November 8, 1954, in PDDE, 15:1386.
56. June 21, 1955, 1953 (1), Box 2, Legislative Meetings Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
57.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 129.
58.The Eisenhower Diaries, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 288–89.
59.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 129.
60. DDE to Gabriel Hauge, September 30, 1954, in PDDE, 15:1322.
61. Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (New York: Harper, 1961), 28.
62. Ambrose, Eisenhower, 2:152.
63.Eisenhower Diaries, 289.
64. DDE to Edgar Eisenhower, May 2, 1956, in PDDE, 17:1322.
65. Paul Hoffman visit, June 1, 1955, June 1955 (6), Box 6, Ann Whitman Diary Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
66.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 53, 106; see also Minutes of Cabinet meeting, December 15, 1953, Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings, reel 1.
67. DDE diary entry February 13, 1956, Ann Whitman Diary, February 1956, Box 8, Ann Whitman Diary Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL. Henry Cabot Lodge encouraged these views; see Lodge to Eisenhower, October 15, 1953, Brownell, Herbert, Jr. 1952–54 (5), Box 8, Administration Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
68. Drew DeSilver, “The Polarization in Today’s Congress Has Roots that Go Back Decades,” Pew Research Center, March 10, 2022, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/03/10/the-polarization-in-todays-congress-has-roots-that-go-back-decades/.
4. A New Look for National Security
1. “The President’s News Conference of April 23, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 239–40.
2. Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 153–55.
3. John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 162. See also Saki Dockrill, Eisenhower’s New-Look National Security Policy, 1953–61 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 267–75.
4. Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman, Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 1–5.
5. National Security Act, July 26, 1947, Public Law 80-253, National Archives Catalog, https://catalog.archives.gov/id/299856.
6. Bowie and Immerman, Waging Peace, 88.
7. “Memorandum for the President by the Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs (Cutler), 16 March 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 50.
8. Robert Cutler, No Time for Rest (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1966), 293–307, 310–13; Robert Cutler, “The Development of the National Security Council,” Foreign Affairs 34, no. 3 (April 1956): 441–58.
9. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 168th Meeting of the NSC, Thursday, October 29, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 100.
10. Cutler, No Time for Rest, 307–8.
11. Cutler, No Time for Rest, 308–9.
12. “Memorandum for the Record by Cutler, May 9, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 63.
13. “Memorandum by the President to the Secretary of State, May 20, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 67.
14. Telegram, George Kennan to James Byrnes, February 22, 1946, Ideological Foundations of the Cold War Collection, Harry Truman Administration File, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/node/312883; X [George Kennan], “The Sources of Soviet Conduct,” Foreign Affairs 25, no. 4 (July 1947): 566–82.
15. William Pickett, ed., George F. Kennan and the Origins of Eisenhower’s New Look: An Oral History of Project Solarium (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Institute for International and Regional Studies, 2004), 19.
16. “Report to the NSC by the Executive Secretary (Lay), June 10, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 74.
17. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 136th Meeting of the NSC, March 11, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 8: doc. 566. The Big Four were the Allies in World War II: the United States, USSR, France, and the United Kingdom.
18. Emmet John Hughes, The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years (New York: Atheneum, 1963), 103–4.
19. “Address ‘The Chance for Peace’ Delivered Before the American Society of Newspaper Editors, April 16, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 179–88.
20. “The Ambassador in the Soviet Union (Bohlen) to the Department of State, April 25, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 8: doc. 587.
21. “Memorandum to the NSC by the Executive Secretary (Lay), July 22, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 80.
22. Pickett, Oral History of Project Solarium, 20, 24.
23. “Memorandum by Cutler, July 16, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 79.
24. Pickett, Oral History of Project Solarium, 20–24, 32.
25. “Memorandum by Cutler, July 16, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 79.
26. Pickett, Oral History of Project Solarium, 24–25.
27. “Memorandum by Cutler, July 16, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 79.
28. Pickett, Oral History of Project Solarium, 10–11.
29. Pickett, Oral History of Project Solarium, 29–30.
30. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 157th Meeting of the NSC, July 30, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 81.
31. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 157th Meeting of the NSC, July 31, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 82.
32. “Editorial Note,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 78.
33. Bowie and Immerman, Waging Peace, 184–85.
34. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 160th Meeting of the NSC, August 27, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 85.
35. “Memorandum by Cutler to the Secretary of State, September 3, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 87.
36. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 165th Meeting of the NSC, October 7, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 94.
37. “Report [NSC 162/2] to the NSC by Lay, October 30, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 2, pt. 1: doc. 101.
38. “Text of an Address by Admiral Radford on the Defense Plans of the Nation,” NYT, December 15, 1953.
39. “Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, January 7, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 6.
40. “Text of Dulles’ Statement on Foreign Policy of Eisenhower Administration,” NYT, January 13, 1953.
41. John Foster Dulles, “Policy for Security and Peace,” Foreign Affairs 32, no. 3 (April 1954): 359.
42. Susan Eisenhower, “50 Years Later: A Reflection on the Farewell Address,” Washington Post, January 16, 2011, https://www.susaneisenhower.com.
5. Indochina and the Domino Theory
1. “The President’s News Conference of April 7, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 382–83.
2. Chalmers Roberts, “The Day We Didn’t Go to War,” Washington Post, June 7, 1954.
3. Kathryn Statler, “Eisenhower, Indochina, and Vietnam,” in A Companion to Dwight D. Eisenhower, ed. Chester Pach (Malden, MA: John Wiley and Sons, 2017), 494–516.
4. Robert A. Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2, The President, 1952–1969 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984).
5. Melanie Billings-Yun, Decision against War: Eisenhower and Dien Bien Phu, 1954 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); Geoffrey Perret, Eisenhower (New York: Random House, 1999).
6. George Herring and Richard Immerman, “Eisenhower, Dulles, and Dien Bien Phu: ‘The Day We Didn’t Go to War’ Revisited,” Journal of American History 71, no. 2 (September 1984): 363.
7. “The President’s News Conference of April 29, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 427.
8. DDE, At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends (New York: Doubleday, 1967), 167–68.
9.The Eisenhower Diaries, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 190.
10. “Inaugural Address, January 20, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 4.
11. “Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, February 2, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 16.
12. James Reston, “Foreign Diplomats Puzzled by Dulles’ Off-Cuff Speech,” NYT, January 29, 1953.
13. “Text of Secretary Dulles’ Warning against Communist Encirclement of the West,” NYT, January 28, 1953.
14. “Memorandum of Conversation, by the Secretary of State, March 24, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 202.
15. “Minutes of the Meeting Between President Eisenhower and the Prime Minister of France on the Presidential Yacht Williamsburg, March 26, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 208.
16. George Allen, None So Blind: A Personal Account of the Intelligence Failure in Vietnam (Chicago: Ivan Dee, 2001), 46.
17. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 143rd Meeting of the NSC, May 6, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 268.
18. “Special Message to Congress on the Mutual Security Program,” in PPP, 1953, 258.
19. Fredrik Logevall, Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America’s Vietnam (New York: Random House, 2012), 354–55.
20. “Lieutenant General John O’Daniel to the Commander in Chief, Pacific (Radford), June 30, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 317; “Substance of Discussions of State-JCS Meeting at the Pentagon, July 17, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 348.
21. “Editorial Note,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 409.
22. James R. Arnold, The First Domino: Eisenhower, the Military, and America’s Intervention in Vietnam (New York: William Morrow, 1991), 119.
23. “Remarks at the Governors’ Conference, Seattle Washington, August 4, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 540–41.
24. “Report to the NSC by the Department of State, August 5, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 367; “Record of Actions by the NSC at its 158th Meeting, August 6, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 368.
25. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 161st Meeting of the NSC, September 9, 1953,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 396.
26. Arnold, The First Domino, 131–33.
27. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 179th Meeting of the NSC, January 8, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 499.
28. “Report to the NSC by the Executive Secretary, January 16, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 509.
29. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 181st Meeting of the NSC, January 21, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 516.
30. “Memorandum of the Meeting of the President’s Special Committee on Indochina, January 29, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 525.
31. “The President’s News Conference of February 3, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 226–27.
32. Arnold, The First Domino, 142–43.
33. “The President’s News Conference of February 10, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 245–55.
34. “The President’s News Conference of March 10, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 299–309.
35. “The Secretary of State to the President, February 6, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 539.
36. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 186th Meeting of the NSC, February 26, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 585.
37. Bernard Fall, Hell in a Very Small Place (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), 137.
38. Arnold, The First Domino, 152–53.
39. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 189th Meeting of the NSC, March 18, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 620.
40. “Editorial Note,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 622.
41. “Memorandum for the Record, March 21, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 626.
42. “Memorandum for the Record, March 23, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 629.
43. “Memorandum of Conversation, by the Secretary of State, March 24, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 636.
44. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 190th Meeting of the NSC, March 25, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 646.
45. Logevall, Embers of War, 457–58. See also Stephen Jurika, ed., From Pearl Harbor to Vietnam: The Memoirs of Admiral Arthur W. Radford (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1980), 394–401.
46. “Memorandum by the JCS to the Secretary of Defense, March 31, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 666.
47. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 190th Meeting of the NSC, March 25, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 646.
48. “Text of Address by Secretary of State Dulles on United States Policy in the Far East,” NYT, March 30, 1954.
49. “Draft Prepared in the Department of State, April 2, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 677.
50. “Memorandum of Conversation, by the Secretary of State, April 2, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 676.
51. “Memorandum for the File of the Secretary of State, April 5, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 686.
52. Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (New York: Harper, 1961), 122.
53. “The Ambassador in France to the Department of State, April 4, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 691.
54. “Memorandum of Presidential Telephone Conversation, April 5, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 694.
55. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 192nd Meeting of the NSC, April 6, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 705.
56. “The Secretary of State to the Embassy in the United Kingdom, April 4, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 692.
57. “Secretary of State to the President, April 13, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 744; Logevall, Embers of War, 482–84.
58. “The First Secretary of Embassy in France to Department of State, April 14, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 747.
59. “The Secretary of State to the Department of State, April 22, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 769.
60. “The Secretary of State to the Department of State, April 23, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 779.
61. “The Secretary of State to the Department of State, April 24, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 791.
62. “The Secretary of State to the Department of State, April 23, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 1: doc. 780.
63. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 194th Meeting of the NSC, April 29, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 818.
64. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 194th Meeting of the NSC, April 29, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 818.
65. “The President’s News Conference of April 29, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 427.
66. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 194th Meeting of the NSC, April 29, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 818.
67. “Memorandum by the Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs to the Under Secretary of State, April 30, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 819.
68. “Memorandum of Conversation, by the Secretary of State, May 11, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 866.
69. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 196th Meeting of the NSC, May 8, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 849.
70. “Secretary of State to the Embassy in France, May 11, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 867.
71. Logevall, Embers of War, 569–71.
72. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 202nd Meeting of the NSC, June 17, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 980.
73. “Memorandum of Conversation, by the Coordinator of the U.S. Delegation at the Geneva Conference, July 13, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 1051.
74. “Secretary of State to the Under Secretary of State, July 16, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 1061.
75. “Editorial Note,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 1073.
76. “The President’s News Conference of July 21, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 642.
77. DDE, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956–1961 (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 366.
78. Jurika, From Pearl Harbor to Vietnam, 446.
79. “President to Supreme Allied Commander, April 26, 1954,” in FRUS, 1952–1954, vol. 13, pt. 2: doc. 808.
6. Dealing with McCarthyism
1. “Address at the Columbia University National Bicentennial Dinner, New York City, May 31, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 523–24.
2.The Diary of James C. Hagerty: Eisenhower in Mid-Course, 1954–1955, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), 59.
3. “Address at Columbia University, May 31, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 524.
4. Charles Grutzner, “Eisenhower Warns U.S. of Demagogues Greedy for Power,” NYT, June 1, 1954.
5. Robert Griffith, The Politics of Fear: Joe McCarthy and the Senate (Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden Book Co., 1970), 199.
6. Fred Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 157. This interpretation is echoed in David Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy (New York: Free Press, 1983).
7. See for example Larry Tye, “The President and the Bully: In Dealing with Senator Joe McCarthy, Eisenhower Chose Conciliation over Confrontation,” Saturday Evening Post, October 15, 2020, https://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2020/10/the-president-and-the-bully-joseph-mccarthy-vs-dwight-eisenhower/.
8. “The President’s News Conference of June 17, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 426.
9. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 107.
10. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 109. Ten days later McCarthy submitted a copy of the speech to the Congressional Record. In this version the number of communists in the State Department had been changed to fifty-seven.
11. Harold Hinton, “Marshall U.S. Foe, McCarthy Charges,” NYT, June 15, 1951.
12. DDE, The White House Years: Mandate for Change, 1953–1956 (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 317.
13. Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (New York: Harper, 1961), 30–31.
14. “Sixth Draft” of Eisenhower speech given on October 3, 1952, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, deleted section defending Marshall, Stephen Benedict Papers, Box 4, 10–3–52 Milwaukee, Wisc. (1), NAID #16614761, DDEL.
15. DDE, Mandate for Change, 318–19; see also DDE to Harold Edward Stassen, October 5, 1952, in PDDE, 13:1372.
16. DDE, Mandate for Change, 213.
17. Richard M. Nixon, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 139.
18.The Eisenhower Diaries, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 234.
19. Nixon, RN, 139.
20. DDE to Bill Robinson of the New York Herald Tribune, July 27, 1953, December 1952 – July 1953 (1), Box 3, DDE Diaries Series, DDE Papers as President, 1953–61, DDEL. The term “Old Guard” referred to the conservative wing of the Republican party.
21. Ferrell, Eisenhower Diaries, 234.
22. DDE to Harry Bullis, May 18, 1953, 99-R McCarthy, Joseph, Box 368, Official File, White House Central Files, 1953–61, DDE Records as President, DDEL.
23. DDE to Robinson, July 27, 1953, December 1952 – July 1953 (1), Box 3, DDE Diaries Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
24. DDE to Paul Hoy Helms, March 9, 1954, in PDDE, 15:937.
25. DDE to Philip Dunham Reed, June 17, 1953, in PDDE, 14:305.
26.Ike’s Letters to a Friend, 1941–1958, ed. Robert W. Griffith (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1984), 110.
27. Herbert Brownell, Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), 236–39.
28. “Text of Address by Truman Explaining to Nation His Actions in the White Case,” NYT, November 17, 1953.
29. “Text of Senator McCarthy’s Speech Accusing Truman of Aiding Suspected Red Agents,” NYT, November 25, 1953.
30. “Daily Notes by C.D. Jackson, November 27, 1953, C. D. Jackson Papers, Box 68, Log 1953 (3), NAID #16702995, DDEL.
31. James Reston, “Eisenhower Staff Interprets McCarthy Speech as Attack,” NYT, November 26, 1953.
32. “Daily Notes by C.D. Jackson, November 30, 1953, C. D. Jackson Papers, Box 68, Log 1953 (3), NAID #16702996, DDEL.
33. “Daily Notes by C.D. Jackson, December 2, 1953, C. D. Jackson Papers, Box 68, Log 1953 (3), NAID #16702997, DDEL.
34. “The President’s News Conference of December 2, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 802.
35. “Daily Notes by C.D. Jackson, December 2, 1953, C. D. Jackson Papers, Box 68, Log 1953 (3), NAID #16702997, DDEL.
36. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 365–66.
37. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 366–68.
38. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 368–70. The Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution provides protection against self-incrimination. It allows witnesses to refuse to answer questions on the grounds that the answer may incriminate them.
39. “Transcript of General Zwicker’s Testimony before the McCarthy Senate Subcommittee,” NYT, February 23, 1954.
40. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 377–80.
41. White House Chief of Staff Sherman Adams and Army Counsel John Adams were not related.
42. Brownell, Advising Ike, 257–58; Adams, Firsthand Report, 153–54; Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 363.
43. Nixon, RN, 141–42.
44. W. H. Lawrence, “Stevens Bows to McCarthy at Administration Behest; Will Yield Data on Peress,” NYT, February 25, 1954.
45.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 19–21.
46. W. H. Lawrence, “Army Secretary Denies Surrender—Senator Charges Falsehood,” NYT, February 26, 1954.
47. “The President’s News Conference of March 3, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 288–91.
48. W. H. Lawrence, “President Chides McCarthy on ‘Fair Play’ at Hearings; Senator Defiant in Retort,” NYT, March 4, 1954.
49. Lawrence, “President Chides McCarthy on ‘Fair Play’ at Hearings,” NYT, March 4, 1954.
50. “Text of Stevenson Address to the Southeastern Democratic Conference at Miami Beach,” NYT, March 7, 1954.
51. Nixon, RN, 144–46. The term “pink” was often used at this time to describe someone who was not quite red (a communist).
52. “Text of Nixon Reply to Stevenson Attack on the Administration,” NYT, March 14, 1954.
53. W. H. Lawrence, “McCarthy Strives ‘To Shatter’ G.O.P., Flanders Asserts,” NYT, March 10, 1954.
54. W. H. Lawrence, “Army Charges McCarthy and Cohn Threatened It in Trying to Obtain Preferred Treatment for Schine: Stevens a Target,” NYT, March 12, 1954.
55. Senate Committee on Government Operations, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Special Senate Investigation on Charges and Countercharges Involving: Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens, John G. Adams, H. Struve Hensel and Senator Joe McCarthy, Roy M. Cohn, and Francis P. Carr, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., 1954 [hereafter PSI, Army-McCarthy Hearings], 5:135, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b5138098.
56. W. H. Lawrence, “McCarthy Charges Army ‘Blackmail,’ Says Stevens Sought Deal with Him,” NYT, March 13, 1954; Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 405–6.
57. “The President’s News Conference of March 24, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 339.
58. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 406–10.
59. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 416.
60. PSI, Army-McCarthy Hearings, 5:969.
61.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 52.
62. PSI, Army-McCarthy Hearings, 6:1059.
63. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 442.
64. Adams, Firsthand Report, 149.
65. Brownell, Advising Ike, 257–58.
66.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 53.
67. DDE to Secretary of Defense Charles Wilson, May 17, 1954, in PDDE, 15:1075.
68. “The President’s News Conference of May 19, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 489–90.
69. W. H. Lawrence, “McCarthy Hearing Off a Week as Eisenhower Bars Report,” NYT, May 18, 1954.
70. Anthony Leviero, “President Wants McCarthy Inquiry to Go On—It Will,” NYT, May 20, 1954.
71. “Dare to Indict Him Made by McCarthy,” NYT, May 28, 1954.
72.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 58.
73. HUAC, Report on the National Lawyer’s Guild: Legal Bulwark of the Communist Party, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 1950, Report no. 3123.
74. Robert Marcus and Anthony Marcus, On Trial: American History Through Court Proceedings and Hearings, vol. 2 (Hoboken, NJ: Brandywine, 1998), 136–51; “ ‘Have You No Sense of Decency?’: The Army-McCarthy Hearings,” History Matters: The U.S. Survey Course on the Web, American Social History Project, City University of New York, http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6444/.
75.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 68.
76. Senate Resolution 301, 83rd Cong., 2nd Sess., July 30, 1954, Report no. 2508.
77. “The Censure Case of Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin (1954),” United States Senate, https://www.senate.gov/about/powers-procedures/censure/133Joseph_McCarthy.htm.
78. “Text of McCarthy Speech for Delivery Today in Censure Debate,” NYT, November 10, 1954.
79. Anthony Leviero, “Final Vote Condemns McCarthy, 67–22, for Abusing Senate and Committee; Zwicker Count Eliminated in Debate,” NYT, December 3, 1954.
80. Of the Republican leadership in the Senate, only Leverett Saltonstall (MA) voted in favor of censure. William Knowland (CA), Styles Bridges (NH), Eugene Millikin (CO), and Everett Dirksen (IL) all voted against.
81.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 126.
82. “Texts of Statement by McCarthy and Some Replies,” NYT, December 8, 1954.
83.Diary of James C. Hagerty, 128; “Memo by Ann Whitman regarding events leading up to so-called ‘break’ made by McCarthy,” December 7, 1954, DDE’s Papers as President, Admin. Series, Box 25, McCarthy Letters, NAID #16702984, DDEL.
84. Brownell, Advising Ike, 261.
85. “Staff Notes on McCarthyism, June 21, 1955,” Notes by L. Arthur Minnich, Assistant White House Staff Secretary, White House Office of the Staff Secretary, L. Arthur Minnich Series, Box 1, Miscellaneous McC, NAID #16703048, DDEL.
7. Brown v. Board and the Little Rock Desegregation Crisis
1. “Radio and Television Address to the American People on the Situation in Little Rock, September 24, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 689–90.
2. “The President’s News Conference of July 17, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 134.
3. Arthur Schlesinger Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965); Theodore Sorenson, Kennedy (New York: Harper and Row, 1965).
4. Earl Warren, The Memoirs of Earl Warren (New York: Doubleday, 1977), 289–91.
5. See James Duram, A Moderate among Extremists: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the School Segregation Crisis (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1981); and Robert Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984).
6. Stephen Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2, The President, 1952–1969 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984), 620.
7. David A. Nichols, A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007), 273.
8. DDE, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956–1961 (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 150.
9. Quoted in William I. Hitchcock, The Age of Eisenhower: America and the World in the 1950s (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2018), 215.
10. DDE, Waging Peace, 149.
11. Memorandum for the record, August 19, 1953, Brownell 1952–1954 (c), ACW Administration Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
12. DDE to Governor James F. Byrnes, December 1, 1953, DDE Diary December 1953 (2), Box 4, DDE Diaries Series, DDE Papers as President, NAID #12171150, DDEL.
13.Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
14. “The President’s News Conference of May 19, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 491–92.
15. These were the southern states of Texas, Florida, Tennessee, and Virginia, and the border states of Oklahoma, Missouri, and Maryland.
16. Frederic Morrow to Dr. Gabriel Hauge, March 21, 1956, March 1956 Misc. (2), Box 24, DDE Diaries Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
17. “The President’s News Conference of May 19, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 491–92.
18. Herbert Brownell, Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), 165–67.
19. Edgar Eisenhower to DDE, September 28, 1953, and DDE to Edgar Eisenhower, October 1, 1953, Eisenhower, Edgar-1953 (1), Box 11, Name Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
20. One example is Gayle B. Montgomery and James W. Johnson, One Step from the White House: The Rise and Fall of Senator William F. Knowland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 152.
21. Brownell, Advising Ike, 173; Herbert Brownell Oral History, Recorded at the DDEL, 1977.
22. Telegram from DDE to Walter White, June 29, 1954, for delivery at the Forty-fifth Annual Meeting of the NAACP, Box 47, President’s Personal Files, DDE Records as President, White House Central Files, 1953–61, DDEL; Duram, A Moderate among Extremists, 116.
23.Ike’s Letters to a Friend, 1941–1958, ed. Robert W. Griffith (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1984), 134–35.
24. Brownell, Advising Ike, 196–98.
25. “The President’s News Conference, November 23, 1954,” in PPP, 1954, 1065–66.
26. Brownell, Advising Ike, 196–98; Duram, A Moderate among Extremists, 118–19.
27.Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 349 U.S. 294 (1955).
28. August 14, 1956, August 1956 Diary-ACW (1), Box 8, ACW Diary Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
29.Ike’s Letters to a Friend, 186.
30. Minutes of Cabinet meeting, March 9, 1956, in Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings of President Eisenhower (1953–1961), 10 reels (Washington, DC: University Publications of America, 1980), reel 4.
31. Minutes of Cabinet meeting, March 9, 1956, Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings, reel 4.
32. Brownell, Advising Ike, 183.
33. Duram, A Moderate among Extremists, 145–46.
34. Duram, A Moderate among Extremists, 146–48.
35. “Telegram to the Governor of Arkansas in Response to His Request for a Meeting, September 11, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 673–74.
36. “Notes dictated by the President on October 8, 1957 concerning visit of Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas to Newport on September 14, 1957,” Little Rock, Arkansas (1), Box 23, Administration Series, DDE Papers as President, NAID #17366732, DDEL; “Statement by the President Following a Meeting with the Governor of Arkansas, September 14, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 674–75.
37. “Governor Faubus Assures President He’ll Obey Integration Order, but Asks for Patience by US,” NYT, September 15, 1957.
38. Brownell, Advising Ike, 210.
39. “Statement by the President on the Developments at Little Rock, September 21, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 678–79.
40. Brownell, Advising Ike, 211; “Statement by the President Regarding Occurrences at Central High School in Little Rock, September 23, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 689.
41. For a firsthand account from the point of view of one of the Little Rock Nine, see Melba Patillo Beals, Warriors Don’t Cry (New York: Washington Square Press, 1995).
42. Telegram, Woodrow Wilson Mann, Mayor of Little Rock, to President Eisenhower, September 23, 1957, DDE Records as President, Official File, Box 615, OF 142-A-5-A (2), NAID #12237734, DDEL.
43. “Statement by the President Regarding Occurrences at Central High School in Little Rock, September 23, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 689.
44. Press release, Proclamation 3204, Obstruction of Justice in the State of Arkansas, by the President of the United States of America, September 23, 1957, Kevin McCann Collection of Press and Radio Conferences and Press Releases, Box 20, September 1957, NAID #17366742, DDEL.
45. Telegram, Woodrow Wilson Mann, Mayor of Little Rock, to President Eisenhower, September 24, 1957, DDE Records as President, Official File, Box 615, OF 142-A-5-A (2), NAID #17366836, DDEL.
46. Press release, Executive Order 10730, Providing for the Removal of an Obstruction of Justice within the State of Arkansas, September 24, 1957, Kevin McCann Collection of Press and Radio Conferences and Press Releases, Box 20, September 1957, NAID #17366749, DDEL.
47. Eisenhower to General Alfred M. Gruenther, September 24, 1957, September 1957, Box 9, ACW Diary Series, DDE Papers as President, DDEL.
48. “Radio and Television Address to the American People on the Situation in Little Rock, September 24, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 690.
49. “The President’s News Conference, September 3, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 646.
50. Anthony Lewis, “Washington Studies Little Rock Dispute,” NYT, September 4, 1957.
51. “Telegram to Senator Russell of Georgia Regarding the Use of Federal Troops at Little Rock, September 28, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 695–96.
52. Duram, A Moderate among Extremists, 161–63.
53. “Statement by the President Concerning the Removal of the Soldiers Stationed at Little Rock, May 8, 1958,” in PPP, 1958, 387.
54. DDE, Waging Peace, 175.
55. Frederick E. Morrow, Black Man in the White House: A Diary of the Eisenhower Years by the Administrative Officer for Special Projects, the White House, 1955–1961 (New York: Coward-McCann, 1963), 179.
56. Emmett John Hughes, The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years (New York: Atheneum, 1963), 261, 349.
57. DDE, Waging Peace, 150.
58. DDE to Bradford G. Chynoweth, July 13, 1954, in PDDE, 15:1185–86.
59. Angie Maxwell and Todd Shields, The Long Southern Strategy: How Chasing White Voters in the South Changed American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019).
60. Anne Kornblut, “Bush and Party Chief Court Black Voters at Two Forums,” NYT, July 15, 2005.
61. “Trump Refuses to Condemn White Supremacists,” NYT, September 19, 2020.
62. Astead Herndon and Katie Glueck, “Biden Apologizes for Saying Black Voters ‘Ain’t Black’ if They’re Considering Trump,” NYT, May 22, 2020.
8. Sputnik and the Race for Space
1. “Text of Johnson’s Statement on Status of Nation’s Defenses and Race for Space,” NYT, January 8, 1958.
2. Robert A. Divine, The Sputnik Challenge (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), vii–viii. See also David L. Snead, The Gaither Committee, Eisenhower, and the Cold War (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999).
3. Yanek Mieczkowski, Eisenhower’s Sputnik Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013), 2, 20, 23.
4. “Senators Attack Missile Fund Cut,” NYT, October 5, 1957.
5. “Senators Attack Missile Fund Cut.”
6. Richard Witkin, “U.S. Delay Draws Scientists’ Fire,” NYT, October 5, 1957.
7. Mieczkowski, Eisenhower’s Sputnik Moment, 36–37, 57.
8. “Memorandum of Conference with the President on October 8, 1957, 8:30 a.m.” DDE Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 27, October ’57 Staff Notes (2), NAID #12043774, DDEL.
9. Mieczkowski, Eisenhower’s Sputnik Moment, 55–56.
10. “Memorandum of Conference with the President on October 8, 1957, 5:00 p.m.,” DDE Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 27, October ’57 Staff Notes (2), NAID #12043783, DDEL.
11. “Statement by the President Summarizing Facts in the Development of an Earth Satellite by the United States, October 9, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 733–35.
12. “The President’s News Conference, October 9, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 719–31.
13. Mieczkowski, Eisenhower’s Sputnik Moment, 27.
14. “Text of Khrushchev Interview on Wide Range of Issues Between East and West,” NYT, October 10, 1957.
15. Summary of Discussion, 339th Meeting of the NSC, October 10, 1957, DDE Papers as President, NSC Series, Box 9, NAID #12093096, DDEL.
16. Mieczkowski, Eisenhower’s Sputnik Moment, 27.
17. DDE, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956–1961 (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 211.
18. Memorandum of Conference with the President on American Science Education and Sputnik, October 15, 1957, DDE Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 27, October ’57 Staff Notes (2), NAID #12043792, DDEL.
19. “Radio and Television Address to the American People on Science in National Security, November 7, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 789–99.
20. “Radio and Television Address to the American People on Science in National Security, November 7, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 789–99.
21. James R. Killian, Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower: A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1977), 29.
22. “Radio and Television Address to the American People on Science in National Security, November 7, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 789–99.
23. “Radio and Television Address to the American People on ‘Our Future Security,” November 13, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 807–16.
24. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, 45.
25. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, 58–60.
26. “National Security Council Report (Gaither Committee Report),” November 7, 1957, in FRUS, 1955–1957, vol. 19: doc. 158.
27. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 343rd Meeting of the NSC,” November 7, 1957, in FRUS, 1955–1957, vol. 19: doc. 156.
28. DDE, Waging Peace, 221–22.
29. Snead, The Gaither Committee, 189–90.
30. Quoted in Killian, Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower, 98.
31. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, 41.
32.Ike’s Letters to a Friend, 1941–1958, ed. Robert W. Griffith (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1984), 190.
33. “The President’s News Conference, October 9, 1957,” in PPP, 1957, 724.
34. “Memorandum of Conference with the President on October 8, 1957, 8:30 a.m.,” DDE Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 27, October ’57 Staff Notes (2), NAID #12043774, DDEL.
35. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, 62–64.
36. DDE, Waging Peace, 221–22.
37. DDE to Frank Altschul, October 25, 1957, in PDDE, 18:514.
38. Mieczkowski, Eisenhower’s Sputnik Moment, 43.
39. DDE, Waging Peace, 206.
40. “Memorandum of Discussion with the President,” November 22, 1957, in FRUS, 1955–1957, vol. 19: doc. 165.
41. DDE, Waging Peace, 225.
42. “Vanguard Rocket Burns on Beach; Failure to Launch Test Satellite Assailed as Blow to U.S. Prestige,” NYT, December 7, 1957.
43. Killian, Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower, 121.
44. DDE, Waging Peace, 255–57.
45. Mieczkowski, Eisenhower’s Sputnik Moment, 49.
46. Killian, Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower, 9.
47. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, xvi.
48. Reminiscences of Marion B. Folsom, 1968, COHP. Secretary Hobby resigned in August 1955.
49. Minutes of Cabinet meetings, November 15 and December 2, 1957, Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings of President Eisenhower (1953–1961), 10 reels (Washington, DC: University Publications of America, 1980), reel 6.
50. DDE, Waging Peace, 241.
51. Minutes of Cabinet meeting, December 2, 1957, Minutes and Documents of the Cabinet Meetings, reel 6.
52. “Special Message to the Congress on Education, January 27, 1958,” in PPP, 1958, 127–32.
53. Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation, 1945–1964: A Review of Government and Politics in the Postwar Years (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Service, 1965), 1208.
54. Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation, 1208.
55. DDE, Waging Peace, 243.
56. “Statement by the President Upon Signing the National Defense Education Act, September 2, 1958,” in PPP, 1958, 671.
57. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, 99–100.
58. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, 100–102.
59. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, 102–3.
60. Alice Buchalter and Patrick Miller, The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics: An Annotated Bibliography (Washington, DC: NASA, 2014), iii; available at https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/NACA_Annotated_Bibliography.pdf.
61. Divine, Sputnik Challenge, 104.
62. “Special Message to the Congress Relative to Space Science and Exploration, April 2, 1958,” in PPP, 1958, 269.
63. Mieczkowski, Eisenhower’s Sputnik Moment, 172–73.
64. DDE to Arthur Eisenhower, November 8, 1957, in PDDE, 18:551.
65. “Public Opinion Index, April 14, 1958,” DDE Records as President, Official Files, Box 625, OF 146-F-2 Earth Circling Satellites (2), NAID #12060495, DDEL.
66. The World Bank, “World Bank Open Data,” https://data.worldbank.org.
67. Congressional Budget Office, “The Federal Budget in Fiscal Year 2020,” April 30, 2021, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/57170.
68. Diego Lopes Da Silva, Nan Tian, and Alexandra Marksteiner, “Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2020,” Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, April 2021, https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/2021-04/fs_2104_milex_0.pdf.
69. Peter G. Peterson Foundation, “Budget Basics: Spending,” https://www.pgpf.org/finding-solutions/understanding-the-budget/spending.
9. Eisenhower and the Farewell Address
1. “Farewell Radio and Television Address to the American People, January 17, 1961,” in PPP, 1960–1961, 1035–40. This is the source for all quotes from the Farewell Address throughout the chapter.
2. Chester Pach, ed., A Companion to Dwight D. Eisenhower (Malden, MA: John Wiley and Sons, 2017), 2.
3. James Ledbetter, Unwarranted Influence: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Military Industrial Complex (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 121–27.
4. Delores Janiewski, “Eisenhower’s Paradoxical Relationship with the ‘Military Industrial Complex,’ ” Presidential Studies Quarterly 41, no. 4 (December 2011): 676, 682.
5. DDE, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956–1961 (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 614–15.
6. Interview with Captain Ralph Williams on June 3, 1988, OH 503, DDEL, 17–21.
7. Milton Eisenhower, The President Is Calling (New York: Doubleday, 1974), 322–23.
8. Williams, OH 503, DDEL, 40.
9. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, May 25, 1959, Arthur Larson and Malcolm Moos Records, Box 17, Presidential Speech Planning, NAID #12614784, DDEL.
10. Interview with Malcolm Moos on November 2, 1972, COHP, 33.
11. Memo regarding George Washington’s Farewell Address, April 5, 1960, Arthur Larson and Malcolm Moos Records, Box 16, Farewell Address (1), NAID #12615069, DDEL.
12. George Washington, “Farewell Address, September 17, 1796,” George Washington Papers, Series 2, Letterbooks, Letterbook 24, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/mgw2.024/.
13. “Memorandum for the Record regarding the State of the Union 1961,” October 31, 1960, Ralph Williams Papers, Box 1 Chronological (1), NAID #16972132, DDEL.
14. Moos, COHP, 34.
15. Williams, OH 503, DDEL, 27.
16. Moos, COHP, 35.
17. Janiewski, “Eisenhower’s Paradoxical Relationship with the ‘Military Industrial Complex,’ ” 678.
18. “Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, January 12, 1961,” in PPP, 1961, 913–31.
19. Draft of the Speech with handwritten editing by Milton Eisenhower, January 7, 1961, DDE Papers as President, Speech Series, Box 38, Final TV talk (1), NAID #16972219, DDEL.
20. Janiewski, “Eisenhower’s Paradoxical Relationship with the ‘Military Industrial Complex,’ ” 679.
21. Williams, OH 503, DDEL, 32–35.
22. “Radio Address to the American People on the National Security and its Costs, May 19, 1953,” in PPP, 1953, 307, 310.
23. Harold Stassen and Marshall Houts, Eisenhower: Turning the World toward Peace (St. Paul, MN: Merril/Magnus Publishing, 1990), 236–37, 240.
24. Williams, OH 503, DDEL, 32–33, 36.
25. James R. Killian, Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower: A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1977), 238, 230.
26. DDE, Waging Peace, 615.
27. Charles Griffin, “New Light on Eisenhower’s Farewell Address,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 22, no. 3 (Summer 1992): 476.
28. Janiewski, “Eisenhower’s Paradoxical Relationship with the ‘Military Industrial Complex,’ ” 684.
29. Janiewski, “Eisenhower’s Paradoxical Relationship with the ‘Military Industrial Complex,’ ” 684.
30. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, May 25, 1959, NAID #12614784, DDEL.
31. Pach, A Companion to Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1–2.
32. “The President’s New Conference, January 18, 1961,” in PPP, 1960–1961, 1045.
33. Jack Raymond, “The ‘Military-Industrial Complex’: An Analysis,” NYT, January 22, 1961.
34. Quoted in Janiewski, “Eisenhower’s Paradoxical Relationship with the ‘Military Industrial Complex,’ ” 685.
35. C. Write Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956).
36. Aude Fleurant et al., “The SIPRI Top 100 Arms-Producing and Military Services Companies, 2018,” Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, December 2019, https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2019-12/1912_fs_top_100_2018_0.pdf.
37. Project on Government Oversight, “Brass Parachutes: Defense Contractors’ Capture of Pentagon Officials through the Revolving Door,” November 5, 2018, https://s3.amazonaws.com/docs.pogo.org/report/2018/POGO_Brass_Parachutes_DoD_Revolving_Door_Report_2018-11-05.pdf.
38. Helen Johnson, “The (Im)proper Meshing of the Corporate Media and the Military-Industrial Complex,” The Miscellany News, May 13, 2021.
39. National Science Foundation, “Higher Education Research and Development: Fiscal Year 2020,” December 27, 2021, https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf22311.
Conclusion. Why Eisenhower Still Matters
1. James Reston, “The Eisenhower Era: President Is Called the Most Popular and Most Criticized Man in the Nation,” NYT, January 19, 1961.
2. “The Eisenhower Years,” NYT, January 20, 1961.
3. “Text of General Eisenhower’s Address before Bar Association,” NYT, September 5, 1949.
4. DDE to Bradford G. Chynoweth, July 13, 1954, in PDDE, 15:1185–86.
5. “Farewell Radio and Television Address to the American People, January 17, 1961,” in PPP, 1960–1961, 1035–40.
6. Siena College Research Institute, “Siena’s 6th Presidential Expert Poll 1982–2018,” February 13, 2019, https://scri.siena.edu/2019/02/13/sienas-6th-presidential-expert-poll-1982-2018/.
7. Richard Damms, “Leadership and Decision-Making,” in A Companion to Dwight D. Eisenhower, ed. Chester J. Pach (Malden, MA: John Wiley and Sons, 2017), 181.
8. Drew DeSilver, “The Polarization in Today’s Congress Has Roots that Go Back Decades,” Pew Research Center, March 10, 2022, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/03/10/the-polarization-in-todays-congress-has-roots-that-go-back-decades/.
9. Lydia Saad, “U.S. Political Ideology Steady; Conservatives, Moderates Tie,” Gallup, January 17, 2022, https://news.gallup.com/poll/388988/political-ideology-steady-conservatives-moderates-tie.aspx; Frank Newport, “Bring about More Compromise in Congress,” Gallup, October 10, 2018, https://news.gallup.com/opinion/polling-matters/243566/bringing-compromise-congress.aspx.