INDEX
Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables.
abolitionist movement, 3, 20, 22–24, 30–31, 34
academic outcomes: of desegregated education, 11–14, 115, 120; disparities between city and suburban districts, 222–23; at magnet schools, 215, 228; of open enrollment programs, 115, 120; poverty and, 9, 11–12, 223–25; at World of Inquiry School, 169. See also education
Aex, Robert, 160
African Americans. See Black Americans
African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Zion Church, 3, 21, 27, 36, 38, 75, 85
Aikens v. Board of Education (1962), 89–90, 96, 98, 108–10, 151, 226
Alinsky, Saul, 107
Allen, James, 99–102, 115, 148, 160, 163, 183, 185
Al-Sarag, Gloria Winston, 108, 208
Amaker, Julius, 52
AME (African Methodist Episcopal) Zion Church, 3, 21, 27, 36, 38, 75, 85
Anthony, Susan B., 74
antibusing movement: federal support for, 147; 15-Point Plan aligned with, 118; leadership of, 6, 116–17, 123; rallies held for, 130; rationale of, 13, 120, 134; resolution passed in favor of, 123, 124
antiracism education, 16, 237–39
Arthur v. Nyquist (1976), 227–28
Auld, Sophia, 30
Balter, Jerome, 17, 89–90, 109, 118, 151, 164
Beard, James, 113, 134, 150, 153
Bennion, John, 175
Bethune, Mary McLeod, 78
Bianchi, Lewis, 143
bias. See discrimination
bilingual education programs, 2, 207
Bishop, John, 28
Bishop, William, 26
Black Americans: advocacy by, 7–8, 19, 25, 37–40; Great Migration by, 42, 50, 57, 59, 78, 110, 207; housing for, 5, 42, 59–60, 62–68, 83; Italian American relations with, 138–39; as migrant workers, 43, 50–59; opposition to desegregation, 8–11, 14; percentages in US cities, 43–44, 44; police relations with, 73, 105–6, 149–50; skepticism of medical profession by, 56; in suburban areas, 208; Sunday schools for, 20–21, 23, 25–27, 75; as teachers, 75, 110–12; voter registration and, 78–79. See also civil rights movement; discrimination; racism
Black Power movement, 46, 107, 112, 154
Black student unions (BSUs), 112–13
Bloss, William and Celestia, 29
Board of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES), 165–66, 171, 190, 193
Board of Education, Levittown Union Free School District et al. v. Ewald B. Nyquist (1982), 211, 224, 225
Bock, Franklin, 47
Bonner, Walter, 77
Boo, Katherine, 218
Boothby, Samuel, 28
Bork, Robert, 155
Bower, Frank, 141
Bracken, Gary, 192
Branch, David, 124, 127–30, 135, 141, 143
Brewer, Laurie, 193
Breyer, Stephen, 229
Brighton Central School District, 2, 174–76, 185, 188–89, 196, 202
Brizard, Jean-Claude, 177
Brockport Center for Innovation in Education, 14, 170–73, 175, 176, 180, 182
Brockport Central School District, 159, 188
Brown, Albert, 170
Brown, Regina, 185
Brown, Sereena. See Martin, Sereena Brown
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): alternative outcomes to, 10; de jure segregation disallowed by, 144; implementation of ruling, 82–83, 87, 104; modern-day disregard for, 206, 218, 229; NAACP role in, 80–82, 155; racial admissions criteria and, 195; reversal of Plessy v. Ferguson by, 4–5
BSUs (Black student unions), 112–13
Buffalo City School District: 19th century segregation in, 26, 39; 20th century segregation in, 85, 110, 145, 227–28. See also Arthur v. Nyquist (1976)
Burger, Warren, 155
Burkhart, Harvey, 47
Burks, George, 48
Bush, George H. W., 214
Busing: criticisms of, 14, 146; emotionalism of, 131, 151, 172; funding for, 190, 197; national moratorium on, 147; in reorganization plan, 129, 152; school overcrowding alleviated by, 95; student responses to, 103. See also antibusing movement
Cala, William, 176–80, 190–91, 195
Caldwell, Velverly, 70
Camelio, Ann, 141
Campaign for Fiscal Equity Inc. v. State (1995), 223–26
Carmichael, Stokely, 107
Caroselli, Marlene, 134, 149, 152
Carter, Robert L., 90
Cason, Alberta, 14
Cavalier, Ed, 136–37, 143, 149, 150, 222
Cerulli, Louis: in antibusing movement, 6, 116, 123, 130, 134; death of, 150; on desegregation initiatives, 91, 101, 117–19, 125, 204; on educational parks, 174; on metropolitan school districts, 163–64; photograph of, 117; reorganization plan opposed by, 138, 143; resignation from school board, 121, 124, 263n71; United Schools Association and, 128, 135
Cervone, Gian Carlo and Maria, 170
Charlotte High School: Black student union at, 113; conversion to junior high school, 123, 135; magnet program at, 215; nonwhite student percentage at, 151; racist incidents at, 14, 130, 134; social class divisions at, 137; Madison High School exchange, 185; violence at, 17, 133–35, 137, 148–49
charter schools, 6, 177, 196, 215, 220–22
children: discrimination and impact on, 82; of migrant workers, 54–56, 73; orphanages for, 76–77; of refugees, 207; traumatic experiences for, 55, 56, 70. See also education
Christian, James, 49
Christian, Yancey and Yalawn, 223
Churchville-Chili Central School District, 191
Ciaccia, Frank, 13, 142, 156, 209
Cimusz, Linda, 229
civil rights movement: in curricular materials, 112; desegregation litigation during, 7, 79, 90, 156; educational access during, 205; migrant workers during, 57; nonwhite teacher recruitment during, 110; Urban-Suburban during, 204; Young Turks in, 83–85
Clark, Mamie, 82
Claytor, Glen, 87
Coalition of Concern, 125, 127, 129
Coles, Clayton, 60
Coles, Howard, 53–54, 60–63, 61, 67
Coles, Joan, 60
Colquhoun, Lillian, 17, 127, 144, 145, 153, 223
Colquhoun v. Board of Education (1970), 127, 145–48, 151, 223, 267n35
common schools, 22, 24–29, 35–37, 39, 226
community school councils, 8, 9, 127, 129, 146
Cona, David, 150
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 66, 84, 112, 116, 226
Conning, Mary, 29
Cooper, Walter: background of, 87–88; on desegregation efforts, 94; on double-shifting plan, 86; inspiration provided by, 17; on metropolitan school districts, 204; on migrant workers, 50; as NAACP activist, 84, 88; on racial uprising in Rochester (1964), 106; on Steepee study, 96, 257n53
CORE (Congress of Racial Equality), 66, 84, 112, 116, 226
Corrigan, Dean, 167
Crane, Jeff, 192, 195, 197, 202–3
Crewson, Walter, 184
Cromwell, David, 189
Cross, Whitney, 22
Crumb, Michael, 191
Culpepper (Virginia), 42–43, 51, 60
Curran, Arthur, 91
Daley, Marie, 75
D’Angelo, Louis, 209
Davis, Mark Allan, 91
Davis, Reecy, 121–23, 122, 125, 129, 142
de facto segregation: Aikens lawsuit and, 109; Arthur decision and, 227; Brown decision and, 83; de jure segregation vs., 94; educational inequality and, 79; educational parks as solution to, 173; Keyes decision and, 153; Panetta on, 95; RCSD response to, 91; Steepee study of, 98, 257n53; Urban-Suburban Program in reduction of, 194
de jure segregation, 82–83, 94, 144, 153, 223, 227
de Kiewiet, Cornelius, 49
Deane-Williams, Barbara, 179, 231
DeCaro family, 169
Deets, Norman, 213
DeHond, Gordon, 124, 128, 136, 141–43, 148
Deller, W. McGregor, 172
Delmont, Matthew, 151
demonstration schools, 170–71, 175
Dennis, Lorie, 201
desegregated education: academic outcomes of, 11–14, 115, 120; advocacy for, 7–8, 19, 25, 38–40; Black opposition to, 8–10, 14; cities under court supervision for, 227; educational parks for, 116, 173–74, 240; employment outcomes of, 13; in federation plan for school districts, 118, 164–66, 234, 235; 15-Point Plan for, 118–19, 121, 164, 234; funding for, 2, 7, 12–13, 101, 147–48; Goldberg Plan for, 123–30, 126, 144; interdistrict partnerships for, 14, 158, 170, 173–80, 182; Italian American opposition to, 138–40; at magnet schools, 215–17, 224; in metropolitan school districts, 158–59, 161–64, 180–82, 204, 233–35; in neighborhood schools, 39, 87, 116; Princeton Plan for, 102, 103, 109, 116, 123; public polling on, 14–15, 15; RCSD initiatives for, 13–15, 101–5, 113–25, 119, 127–31; Rochester plan for, 116–17; structural obstacles to, 15–16; Triad Plan for, 113; white opposition to, 3, 6–7, 10, 17, 102–4, 114–18, 130–31. See also busing; open enrollment programs; reorganization plan; Urban-Suburban Interdistrict Transfer Program
Dett, R. Nathaniel, 45
Dieck, William, 174
Dinolfo, Cheryl, 206
discrimination: children impacted by, 82; in employment, 5, 45–49, 107–8, 206; in housing, 5, 42, 59–60, 62–68, 83, 94–96, 208–9; of immigrant populations, 44; NAACP response to, 46–49, 73. See also racism; segregated education
Douglas, William, 156
Douglass, Anna Murray, 1–2, 30, 31, 33
Douglass, Charles Remond, 34
Douglass, Frederick: in abolitionist movement, 3, 30; on education, 3, 30–31, 34–40, 85, 233; letter to Warner, 32, 33, 249n42; on liberalism in Rochester, 42; schools named after, 2–3, 135
Douglass, Frederick, Jr., 33, 34
Duffy, Bob, 218
East High School, 74, 96, 97, 123, 127, 135–36, 222
East Irondequoit Central School District, x, 161, 185, 195
East Rochester (New York), 67
East Rochester Union Free School District, 189, 195, 196
Eastman Kodak Company, 45–48, 65, 107–8
Easton, William, 104
Edison Technical and Industrial High School, 160–61, 213, 215, 217
education: antiracism, 16, 237–39; bilingual programs, 2, 207; block schools, 140–42, 266n23; charter schools, 6, 177, 196, 215, 220–22; common schools, 22, 24–29, 35–37, 39, 226; curriculum for, 77, 88, 108, 111–12, 184, 188, 237–39; demonstration schools, 170–71, 175; on discrimination, 16; federation plan for school districts, 118, 164–66, 234, 235; gifted programs, 2, 118–20, 216; inequality in, 3–4, 15, 79, 234; metropolitan school districts, 158–59, 161–64, 180–82, 204, 233–35; for migrant children, 54–56, 73; open classroom concept, 124, 153, 172, 173; private schools, 9, 29, 141, 188–89, 201; reform efforts, 5, 176, 205, 212–13, 217–22, 229, 233–40; school district formation in US, 269n6; slaves prohibited from, 2, 30; special education services, 165, 201, 202, 231; Sunday schools, 20–21, 23, 25–27, 75. See also academic outcomes; desegregated education; magnet schools; segregated education; teachers
educational parks: Herman Goldberg plan for, 116, 173; John Woods plan for, 173–74, 240
Edwards, Glenn, 240
Elins, Herbert, 175
employment: desegregated education and, 13; discrimination in, 5, 45–49, 107–8, 206; of migrant workers, 43, 50–59
Essley, Peter, 175
Etter, Doyle O., 185
eugenics movement, 46
excellence in education movement, 212–13, 229
Faegre, Mark and Susan, 90
Fair Housing Act of 1968, 59, 208
Fairport Central School District, 176, 177, 190–91, 202
Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 59, 64
federation plan for school districts, 118, 164–66, 234, 235
15-Point Plan, 118–19, 121, 164, 234
FIGHT organization, 69, 85, 107–8, 110–13, 116, 125, 137
Finney, Charles Grandison, 22
Flannery, J. Harold, 151
Florence, Franklin: on desegregation efforts, 121; on employment discrimination, 107; on 15-Point Plan, 118; as FIGHT president, 6, 85, 100, 107; on nonmilitant activists, 108; on open enrollment programs, 115; on racial uprising in Rochester (1964), 106; student boycott supported by, 128
Ford, Ruby McCants, 53
Franco, John, 14, 129, 141, 153, 212
Franklin High School, 17, 123, 134–36, 139, 149, 161, 216
Freeman, Zenas, 21
Frey, Thomas, 124, 127–30, 145, 176–78
Frusci, Irene, 210
Fullager, William, 167
Garrison, William Henry, 31
Gates Chili Central School District, x, 163
Genesee Community Charter School (GCCS), 221
Gerst, Wilbur, 125
Gibson, John, 50
Gifford, Bernard, 8, 127, 129, 168
gifted programs, 2, 118–20, 216
Gitomer, Deborah, 185
Goldberg, Herman: background of, 100; on Black teacher recruitment, 110; on educational parks, 116, 173, 174; 15-Point Plan promoted by, 118–19; on interdistrict partnerships, 175, 176; on metropolitan school districts, 163; on open enrollment programs, 101, 115, 238; photograph of, 122; Project UNIQUE and, 167; reorganization plan of, 123–30, 126, 144; on resources for Black schools, 96, 98; Rochester plan promoted by, 116–17; as superintendent, 99, 133; transfer plan initiated by, 102–4
Grant, Gerald, 178
Gray, Irving, 47
Great Migration, 42, 50, 57, 59, 78, 110, 207
Great Schools for All, 158, 178–80, 182
Greater Rochester Area Coalition for Education (GRACE), 222, 223. See also Paynter v. New York (2002)
Greece Central School District, 110, 157, 166, 173, 174
Green v. County School Board (1968), 154
Gross, Norman, 17, 170–72, 185–90, 186, 193, 198, 203
Halpin, Mary, 187
Hannah-Jones, Nikole, 7–8, 180
Hare, Mark, 178
Harmon, Benjamin Franklin, 43
Harris, Katherine Jordan, 83
Harrison, Richard, 122
Heiligman, Warren, 146
Helmer, Earle, 185
Henderson, John, 144, 146–48, 154
Hetherington, Bryan, 176–78, 223, 224, 227
Hill, Kermit, 211
Hillman, Shannon, 221
Hilton Central School District, 189, 191, 195
Holme, Jennifer Jellison, 234
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), 64
Homer, Porter, 106
Honeoye Falls-Lima Central School District, 191, 196, 200
Hopwood v. Texas (1996), 194
housing: discrimination in, 5, 42, 59–60, 62–68, 83, 94–96, 208–9; for migrant workers, 51–54, 57; poverty and, 69, 70; public housing projects, 68–70, 88; redlined communities, 42, 64–65; restrictive covenants and, 5, 48, 64, 65, 68; segregated education and, 5, 42, 59, 64, 71, 86, 94–96; in suburbs, 15, 65, 67, 208
Howard, Joan Coles, 60
immigrant populations, 44, 138, 170, 207–8
integrated education. See desegregated education
interdistrict partnerships, 14, 158, 170, 173–80, 182. See also Urban-Suburban Interdistrict Transfer Program
Irondequoit (New York): housing discrimination in, 65; Ku Klux Klan activity in, 67. See also East Irondequoit Central School District; West Irondequoit Central School District
Italian Americans, 44, 96, 135, 137–40, 150
Jackson, Marvin, 219
Jackson, Trent, Jr., 105
Jarvie, Danielle, 15
Javits, Jacob, 57
Jefferson High School, 17, 123, 135, 137–40, 148–50
jobs. See employment
Johnson, Wayne, 201
Jordan, Anthony and Katherine Harris, 83
Josh Lofton High School, 216
Kaufman, Irving, 87
Kaye, Judith, 225
Kelly, Alfred, 81
Kennedy, Anthony, 195
Kennedy, Robert, 57
Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver (1973), 144, 153–54
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 107
King, Nellie Whitaker, 66, 72–73, 113
Kluger, Richard, 79
Knox, William Jacob, 68
Kodak. See Eastman Kodak Company
Kriegsfeld, Irving, 68
labor force. See employment
Lang, Perry, 150
Learning Community model, 234–35
Lee, Rachel, 159
Levy, Van, 47
Littwitz, James, 185
Lonsberry, Bob, 181
Love, Bettina, 111
Lunsford, Charles, 45, 47–49, 84, 88
Mace, Richard, 201
Madison High School, 104, 115, 123, 135, 146, 151, 184–85
magnet schools: academic outcomes at, 215, 228; desegregation at, 215–17, 224; in 15-Point Plan, 118, 119; interdistrict, 179, 204; poverty of students at, 179; public polling on, 15; Wilson Magnet High School, 9, 213–17. See also World of Inquiry School
Major Achievement Program (MAP), 119–20
Malcolm X, 107
Mann, Horace, 24
MAP (Major Achievement Program), 119–20
Marshall, Thurgood, 80, 81, 90, 107, 155–56
Marshall High School, 115, 123, 135, 184, 216
Martin, Sereena Brown, 144, 145, 223
Mastrella, John, 150
McClary, Cecil, 8
McLaurin v. Oklahoma Board of Regents (1950), 80–81
McWalters, Peter, 213, 216, 218–20, 229–30
medical profession, Black skepticism of, 56
Merrill, Arch, 51
metropolitan school districts, 158–59, 161–64, 180–82, 204, 233–35
Metropolitan World of Inquiry School, 14, 170–72, 180
Micheaux, Anne, 83
Miller, Dean, 141
Milliken v. Bradley (1974), 155–56, 227
Miner, Myrtilla, 29
Mitchell, Constance, 66, 84, 107
Monroe County (New York): Board of Cooperative Educational Services in, 165–66, 171, 190, 193; charter schools in, 220–22; Educational Planning Committee, 164–65, 175; executive race in (2003), 180–82; federation plan for school districts in, 164–66, 234, 235; Human Relations Commission, 89, 102, 115; metropolitan school districts for, 158–59, 161–64, 180–82, 204, 233–35; Non-Partisan Political League in, 83; population by geographic area, 63; public polling on desegregation initiatives, 15, 15; restrictive covenants utilized by, 65
Monroe High School, 67, 123, 135
Moore, Isaac, 29
Moore, Joan, 74
Morris, Jacob, 28
Mumford (New York), 42–43, 53, 60
Murray, Anna. See Douglass, Anna Murray
Myrdal, Gunnar, 80
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): on Black teacher recruitment, 110; Brown v. Board of Education and, 80–82, 155; desegregation initiatives supported by, 116; on discrimination, 46–49, 73; history and growth of, 78–79; lawsuits filed against RCSD, 73, 89–92, 108–10, 203; Legal Defense and Education Fund, 10, 151, 226; Princeton Plan supported by, 102; school curriculum concerns, 77; on segregative containment mechanisms, 155; University of Rochester chapter, 49, 88; Youth Council of, 73
National Association of Real Estate Boards, 62–63
neighborhood schools: desegregation of, 39, 87, 116; expansion of, 19; gerrymandering and, 87; housing practices and, 71; open enrollment as threat to, 104; overcrowding in, 85; preservation of, 119, 142, 146, 150, 156; reluctance to leave, 14, 136; renewed support for, 9
Nelkin, Dorothy, 50
Ness, Mildred, 148
Nixon, Richard, 131, 147, 155, 212
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 218
NorthSTAR program, 2
Norton, Herbert, 151
Nothnagle, John, 62
Nyquist, Ewald, 127, 131, 141, 143–46, 148, 175–76, 209
Oklahoma City v. Dowell (1991), 227
open classroom concept, 124, 153, 172, 173
open enrollment programs: academic outcomes of, 115, 120; characteristics of, 102, 238; criticisms of, 101, 104–5, 115; participation in, 14, 103, 113; reverse initiatives, 118–20, 131; student responses to, 114, 114; Urban-Suburban Program as extension of, 167, 184; white opposition to, 103–4, 114, 115
Ouimet, Jeremy and Rachel, 192
Padilla, Juan, 105
Padilla, Nydia, 110, 139–40, 207
Padilla, Ramon, 206
Panetta, Leon, 95
Parent Ass’n of Andrew Jackson High Sch. v. Ambach (1979), 194
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (2007), 11, 209, 228–29
Patti, Santo, 149
Paynter v. New York (2002), 176, 223–27
Peck, Nancy, 127
Pecoraro, Dorothy, 149
Penfield Central School District, 172, 188, 201, 204, 239
People ex rel. King v. Gallagher (1883), 4–5
Perkins, Jonathan, 113
Phillips, Dorothy, 123, 124, 127, 129, 145
Pittsford Central School District, 169, 188, 189, 196, 201, 208
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), 4–5, 10, 79–81
police-community relations. See Rochester Police Department
poverty: academic outcomes and, 9, 11–12, 223–25; charter schools and, 220; federal antipoverty funding, 94, 124, 174, 190; housing conditions and, 69, 70; of magnet school students, 179; of migrant workers, 55; of Regional Academy students, 177; Urban-Suburban and, 195
prejudice. See discrimination
Primo, Quintin, 65, 88, 91, 96
Princeton Plan, 102, 103, 109, 116, 123
private schools, 9, 29, 141, 188–89, 201
Project UNIQUE, 110, 131, 167–68, 189
Prude, Daniel, 239
public education. See education
public housing projects, 68–70, 88
Puerto Rican community, 69, 105–6, 125, 129, 139–40, 146, 206–7
Pugh, William, 168
Putnam, Robert, 13
Quigley, Joseph, 76
Quinn, John, 36
race riots (national), 78, 107. See also racial uprising in Rochester (1964); violence
racial uprising in Rochester (1964), 48, 65, 69–71, 101, 105–7, 166–67
racism: antiracism education, 16, 237–39; at Charlotte High School, 14, 130, 134; in curriculum, 77, 88; eugenics movement and, 46; of Ku Klux Klan, 52, 67–68; as learned behavior, 9; as obstacle to metropolitan school districts, 161, 182; root causes of, 16; of teachers, 74, 75, 187; in Urban-Suburban, 187, 188, 190–93, 202. See also discrimination; segregated education
Ray, Andrew, 111
RCSD. See Rochester City School District
Reed, Austin, 21
Regional Academy, 176–80, 182. See also Cala, William
reorganization plan: block schools as alternative to, 140–42; components of, 123–24, 132, 135; implementation of, 129–30, 136, 144; opposition to, 125–30, 126, 133–43; rescinding of, 133, 142–50, 210, 211; student and teacher responses to, 152–53
restrictive covenants, 5, 48, 64, 65, 68
Richardson, Benjamin, 134, 153
Ridley, Letha, 75
Risingh, Leonard, 28
RNSAC (Rochester Neighborhood School Associations Council), 125, 127–28
Robinson, David, 166
Robinson, Jackie, 16
Robinson, Joseph, 20
Roc 2 Change initiative, 239, 240
Roche, Michael, 119–21, 123, 124, 130, 263n71
Rochester City School District (RCSD): budget gaps facing, 166; desegregation initiatives, 13–15, 101–5, 113–25, 119, 127–31; double-shifting plan of, 85–86; financial challenges for, 211–12, 231; free school districts within, 159–60; interdistrict partnerships and, 14, 158, 170, 173–80, 182; NAACP lawsuit against, 73, 89–92, 108–10, 203; per-pupil funding allotment in, 196, 197; segregated education perpetuated by, 94–96, 98; students by race and ethnicity in, 207, 208; suburban students attending schools in, 160, 168, 169. See also open enrollment programs; reorganization plan; Urban-Suburban Interdistrict Transfer Program; specific schools
Rochester International Academy, 207
Rochester Neighborhood School Associations Council (RNSAC), 125, 127–28
Rochester Police Department, 73, 105–6, 149–50
Rochester Teachers Association (RTA), 116, 125, 127, 218
Rochester (New York): abolitionist movement in, 22–24, 34; annexation of outlying towns, 159–60; common schools in, 24–29, 35–37; employment discrimination in, 5, 45–49, 107–8, 206; Great Migration in, 42, 50, 57, 59, 110, 207; history of segregated education in, 19, 25–39, 94; housing discrimination in, 5, 42, 59–60, 62–68, 83, 94, 208–9; immigrant populations in, 44, 138, 170, 207–8; incorporation of, 22, 27; Ku Klux Klan activity in, 67–68; migrant workers in, 43, 50–59; population by race and ethnicity, 42–44, 43, 83, 154, 206–7; public polling on desegregation initiatives, 14–15, 15; racial uprising in (1964), 48, 65, 69–71, 101, 105–6, 166–67; social movements in, 22–24, 34–35; Sunday schools in, 20–21, 23, 25–27, 75; urban renewal projects in, 66, 68–69, 207.
Root, Laura, 58
Rosenberger, Geoff, 220
Rossi, Faust, 115, 118, 119, 121, 174
Rounds, Stephen, 187
RTA (Rochester Teachers Association), 116, 125, 127, 218
Rush-Henrietta Central School District, x, 195, 196, 200, 208, 238
St. Louis, Djinga, 2
Salminen, Wilho, 157
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1973), 156, 211
Sanford (Florida), 41, 49, 72, 73, 161
schools. See education
Scott, Elsie, 74
Scott, Evelyn, 201
segregated education: Brown decision on, 82–83; de jure segregation, 82–83, 94, 144, 153, 223, 227; history of, 19, 25–39, 94; housing practices and, 5, 42, 59, 64, 71, 86, 94–96; inequality resulting from, 3–4; Milliken decision on, 155–56; RCSD perpetuation of, 94–96, 98; “separate but equal” doctrine and, 4, 10, 39, 79–82, 216, 218. See also de facto segregation; desegregated education; neighborhood schools
Sellers, Helen, 75
“separate but equal” doctrine, 4, 10, 39, 79–82, 216, 218. See also Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Sepulzeda, Cero, 146
Serrano, Emilio, 124, 128, 263n71
Sette, Alfred, 205
Seward, Sarah, 31
Shagaloff, June, 87
Shanker, Albert, 213
Sheff v. O’Neill (1996), 223–24
Simmons, Ivory, 56
Sims, James, Jr., 125, 127, 128
Singletary, Yvette, 187
Slavery and enslaved people: education prohibited for, 2, 30; as migrant workers, 43; role-playing activities involving, 202. See also abolitionist movement
special education services, 165, 201, 202, 231
Spencerport Central School District, 7, 191–93, 195, 197, 202
Spinning, James, 77
Spoto, Catherine, 219
Sprague, Florence, 75
Springer, Robert, 91, 92, 94–96, 99
Steepee, Jonathan, 96, 98, 257n53
Stevenson, Bob, 138
Steward, Austin, 19–21, 23, 25, 27–29, 39
Straub, Chester, 194
Strippoli, Christopher, 104
Students Union for Integrated Education (SUIE), 240
Stutzman, Richard, 196
suburbs: Black Americans in, 208; housing in, 15, 65, 67, 208; opposition to metropolitan school districts, 163; public polling on desegregation initiatives, 15, 15; racist incidents in schools in, 14; RCSD acceptance of students from, 160, 168, 169; Regional Academy opposed by, 177; white flight to, 4, 67, 154, 157, 206. See also individual town and district names; Urban-Suburban Interdistrict Transfer Program
Suffoletto, Mike, 202
SUIE (Students Union for Integrated Education), 240
Sunday schools, 20–21, 23, 25–27, 75
SUNY Brockport. See Brockport Center for Innovation in Education
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Education (1971), 147, 155
Sweatt v. Painter (1950), 80–81
teachers: contract negotiations (1987), 218–19; decline in quality of, 9; in demonstration schools, 170, 171; nonwhite, 75, 110–12, 112; Project UNIQUE and, 167; racist attitudes of, 74, 75, 187; on reorganization plan, 152–53; of Sunday schools, 23, 75. See also Rochester Teachers Association
Thayer, Phebe, 33
Thomas, Stanley and Dolores, 183
Towler, Mary Anna, 182
Triad Plan, 113
Tucker, Marc, 213
United Council on Education and Taxation, 141, 143, 148
United Federation of Inner-City Parents, 121, 125
United Schools Association, 128, 135, 140–41, 150
University of Rochester (UR): desegregation at, 7; discrimination at, 48–49; East High School partnership with, 222; educational parks and, 173; on federation plan for school districts, 165; NAACP chapter at, 49, 88; Project UNIQUE and, 167
Urban League, 68, 84, 121, 123, 128–29, 208–10
urban renewal projects, 66, 68–69, 207
Urban-Suburban Interdistrict Transfer Program, 183–204; attrition rate in, 200–201; enrollment criteria, 193–95, 199–200, 235–37; funding for, 169–71, 190, 193, 204; level of interest in, 14; objectives of, 193, 195, 198, 203; opposition to, 7, 157–58, 174, 185, 187, 189–93; origins of, 183–85; Project UNIQUE and, 167, 189; reform recommendations, 202; revenue benefits for member districts, 196–97; student responses to, 187–88, 198, 201–2
Van Buren, Viola, 75
violence: by Ku Klux Klan, 67; lynchings, 74, 77; near public housing projects, 70; in schools, 6, 13, 17, 133–37, 148–50, 154; threat of, 65, 67, 70, 103, 114, 124–25, 134, 135, 140, 153, 210. See also race riots, racial uprising in Rochester (1964)
Virgilio, Andrew, 170
Walls, Bessie, 75
Warner, Horatio Gates, 32, 33, 249n42
Warren, Earl, 82
Warren, Lovely, 8–10, 14, 206, 214–16
Wayne County (New York), 49, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 98
Webster Central School District, 110, 171, 172, 189, 196, 202
Wells, Ida B., 74
West High School, 75, 113, 116, 123, 135–37, 146, 149. See also Wilson Magnet High School
West Irondequoit Central School District, 172, 183–85, 187–89, 191–99, 201
Wheatland-Chili Central School District, 188
Whitaker, Nellie. See King, Nellie Whitaker
White, Van, 2
Williamson, Obadiah, 84
Wilmot, Christopher, 180, 222–23
Wilmot, James, 158
Wilson, Laval, 166, 212, 214, 216, 218
Wilson Magnet High School, 9, 213–17. See also West High School
Wiltsey, Glenn, 118
Woodland, Jeannette, 86
Woodson, Theresa, 192
workers. See employment
World of Inquiry School: academic outcomes at, 169; boycott organized against, 127; funding for, 169–70; impact on city schools, 210; instruction style at, 168; racial integration at, 168, 173; student and teacher responses to, 182. See also Metropolitan World of Inquiry School
Wright, Dale, 52
Young, Alice Holloway, 67, 68, 92–94, 93, 103
Young, Solomon, 46
Zuber, Paul, 98
Zukosky, Jerome, 152