NOTES

Abbreviations Used in the Notes

APP  American Presidency Project

AW&ST  Aviation Week and Space Technology

AWIST  Aviation Week Including Space Technology

BAS  Bulletin of Atomic Scientists

BG  The Boston Globe

BSP  Bernard Schriever Papers (Library of Congress)

CBNH  Celestial Bodies Negotiating History (Lyndon Johnson Library)

CLP  Curtis LeMay Papers (Library of Congress)

COPUOS  Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

CSM  Christian Science Monitor

CDT  Chicago Daily Tribune

CT  Chicago Tribune

DDE  Dwight D. Eisenhower

DDEL  Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library

DDRS  Declassified Documents Reference System

DoD  Department of Defense

DSB  Department of State Bulletin

DNSA  Digital National Security Archive

FBIS  Foreign Broadcast Information Service

FCJ  Files of Charles E. Johnson (Lyndon Johnson Library)

FJC  Files of Joseph Califano (Lyndon Johnson Library)

FRUS  Foreign Relations of the United States

GF  General File

JBIS  Journal of the British Interplanetary Society

JFKL  John F. Kennedy Presidential Library

JMP  John McConnell Papers (Swarthmore College Peace Collection)

LAT  Los Angeles Times

LBJL  Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library

LBP  Lincoln Bloomfield Papers (MIT Special Collections)

LLIU  Lilly Library, Indiana University

LS  Legal Subcommittee (UN COPUOS)

LOC  Library of Congress

MD  Manuscripts Division (Library of Congress)

MIT  Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Special Collections

MOSC  Militarization of Outer Space Collection (National Security Archive)

NSAM  National Security Action Memorandum

NSF  National Security File

NYHT  New York Herald Tribune

NYT  New York Times

RG  Record Group (US National Archives)

SCPC  Swarthmore College Peace Collection

TWP  Thomas White Papers (Library of Congress)

UNA  United Nations Archives, New York City

USNA  United States National Archives

WP  Washington Post

WSJ  Wall Street Journal

WvB  Werner von Braun Papers

Introduction

1. “Chicago Man Calls Space His Property,” The Sun (Chicago, IL), January 7, 1949; “Chicago Man Stakes Claim to Outer Space,” Science Illustrated (May 1949): 42–43; Virgiliu Pop, “The Nation of Celestial Space,” Space Policy 22 (2006): 205–13. Mangan's grandson, Dean Stump, whom Mangan dubbed “Duke of the Moon,” would later claim that Celestia had more than 100,000 “members”: see the preface to James T. Mangan, The Secret of Perfect Living (Conshohocken, PA, 2006).

2. “Claims South Half of Space,” NYHT, February 12, 1950; “‘Hey! That's My Space!’ Yank's Protest to Reds,” CDT, October 6, 1957.

3. Virgiliu Pop, Unreal Estate: The Men Who Sold the Moon (Cardiff, UK, 2006), 31–32.

4. James T. Mangan, “Sky Merchandisers Notified They Are Out of Order,” press release, Nation of Celestial Space, March 5, 1963.

5. Mangan, “Sky Merchandisers”; “Trespassers Beware! Designer Got Deed to All Outer Space,” LAT, January 19, 1949.

6. “Chicago Man Stakes Claim to Outer Space”; “‘Ruler’ of All Space Would Like to Bring Ike Up to Date,” BG, May 7, 1958.

7. Charter of Celestia, Nation of Celestian Space, accessed May 15, 2017, http://nationofcelestialspace.com/history/.

8. David W. Ziegler, “Safe Heavens: Military Strategy and Space Sanctuary Thought” (master's thesis, School of Advanced Airpower Studies, 1998); Joseph E. Justin, Space: A Sanctuary, The High Ground, Or a Military Mission? (RAND Report P-6758, Santa Monica, CA, 1982); Brian Weeden, “The End of Sanctuary in Space,” War Is Boring, January 7, 2015, https://medium.com/war-is-boring/the-end-of-sanctuary-in-space-2d58fba741a; Dale Armstrong, “American National Security and the Death of Space Sanctuary,” Astropolitics 12, no. 1 (March 2014): 69–81; Bruce M. DeBlois, “Space Sanctuary: A Viable National Strategy,” Airpower Journal 12, no. 4 (Winter 1998): 41–57; Michael E. O’Hanlon, Neither Star Wars nor Sanctuary: Constraining the Military Uses of Space (Washington, DC, 2004); Elbridge Colby, From Sanctuary to Battlefield: A Framework for a US Defense and Deterrence Strategy for Space (Washington, DC, 2016); Karl P. Mueller, “Totem and Taboo: Depolarizing the Space Weaponization Debate,” Astropolitics 1, no. 1 (June 2003): 4–28; Tommy C. Brown, Violating the Sanctuary: The Decision to Arm Space (Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1994); Stephen Buono, “Sanctuary or Battlefield? Fighting for the Soul of American Space Policy,” Perspectives on History, July 15,2020, https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/summer-2020/sanctuary-or-battlefield-fighting-for-the-soul-of-american-space-policy; Robin Dickey, “Space Has Not Been a Sanctuary for Decades,” War on the Rocks, September 16, 2020, https://warontherocks.com/2020/09/space-has-not-been-a-sanctuary-for-decades/.

9. “Sanctuary” (n.), Online Etymology Dictionary, accessed January 24, 2022, https://www.etymonline.com/word/sanctuary.

10. Kendrick Oliver, To Touch the Face of God: The Sacred, the Profane, and the American Space Program, 1957–1975 (Baltimore, MD, 2013).

11. Alton Frey, “The Military Danger,” Atlantic Monthly 212, no. 2 (August 1963): 46–50. Lyndon B. Johnson address before meeting of CBS affiliates, January 14, 1958, “Space Notebook [removed from binder],” box 359, CMTE on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, United States Senate, 1949–61, Papers of LBJ, LBJL; Edward R. Finch, “Outer Space Can Help the Peace,” International Lawyer 7, no. 4 (October 1973): 898.

12. Alexander C. T. Geppert, ed. Imagining Outer Space: European Astroculture in the Twentieth Century (London, 2018); Alexander C. T. Geppert, “Space Personae: Cosmopolitan Networks of Peripheral Knowledge, 1927–1957,” Journal of Modern European History 6, no. 2 (September 2008): 262–85.

13. David Lasser, The Conquest of Space (Burlington, ON, 1931), 15, 114, 137, 181. Also see the appendix item, in the same book, “Annual Report to the American Interplanetary Society,” April 13, 1931; De Witt Douglas Kilgore, Astrofuturism: Science, Race, and Visions of Utopia in Space (Philadelphia, PA, 2003), 38–39.

14. Walter McDougall, … the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York, 1985); William E. Burrows, This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age (New York, 1998); Matthew Brzezinski, Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries that Ignited the Space Age (New York, 2008). The works in footnote 23 are also representative.

15. Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence, KS, 2006), chap. 10; Yanek Mieczkowski, Eisenhower's Sputnik Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige (Ithaca, NY, 2013); Teasel Muir-Harmony, Operation Moonglow: A Political History of Project Apollo (New York, 2020); David Meerman Scott and Richard Jurek, Marketing the Moon: The Selling of the Apollo Lunar Program (Cambridge, MA, 2014); Michael Allen, Live from the Moon: Film, Television and the Space Race (London, 2009), chap. 8.

16. David H. DeVorkin, Science with a Vengeance: How the Military Created the US Space Sciences after World War II (New York, 1992); Paul B. Stares, The Militarization of Space: US Policy, 1945–1984 (Ithaca, NY, 1985); Matthew Mowthorpe, The Militarization and Weaponization of Space (New York, 2003); Jack Manno, Arming the Heavens: The Hidden Military Agenda for Space, 1945–1995 (New York, 1984); Sean Kalic, US Presidents and the Militarization of Outer Space, 1946–1967 (College Station, TX, 2012); Steven J. Zaloga, The Kremlin's Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia's Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945–2000 (Washington, DC, 2002); Nicholas M. Sambaluk, The Other Space Race: Eisenhower and the Quest for Aerospace Security (Annapolis, MD, 2015); Gerald L. Borrowman, “Sovet Military Activities in Space,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 35, no. 2 (1982): 86–92; Nicholas L. Johnson, Soviet Military Strategy in Space (Coulsdon, UK, 1987); Curtis Peebles, High Frontier: The United States Air Force and the Military Space Program (Washington, DC, 1997); David N. Spires, Beyond Horizons: A Half Century of Air Force Space Leadership (Peterson AFB, CO, 1997); R. Cargill Hall and Jacob Neufeld, The US Air Force in Space: 1945 to the Twenty-First Century (Washington, DC, 1998). Useful overviews of the military space historiography include Peter L. Hays, “Space and the Military,” in Space Politics and Policy, an Evolutionary Perspective, ed. Eligar Sadeh (Dordrecht, Netherlands, 2002); Dwayne A. Day, “The State of Historical Research on Military Space,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 50 (1997): 203–6; Roger D. Launius, “The Military in Space: Policy-Making and Operations in a New Environment,” in A Guide to the Sources of United States Military History: Supplement IV, ed. Robin Higham and Donald J. Mrozek (North Haven, CT, 1998); and Stephen B. Johnson, “The History and Historiography of National Security Space,” in Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight, ed. Steven J. Dick and Roger D. Launius (Washington, DC, 2006).

17. John Logsdon, John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon (London, 2010); Deborah Cadbury, Space Race: The Epic Battle Between America and the Soviet Union for Dominion of Space (New York, 2007); Douglas Brinkley, American Moonshot: John F. Kennedy and the Great Space Race (New York, 2019); Asif Siddiqi, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 (Washington, DC, 2000); Asif Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Tallahassee, FL, 2003); Alan J. Levine, The Missile and Space Race (Westport, CT, 1994); Michael D’Antonio, A Ball, a Dog, and a Monkey: 1957—The Space Race Begins (New York, 2008); Matt Bille and Erika Lishock, The First Space Race (College Station, TX, 2004).

18. McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 9 (emphasis added). The book won the Pulitzer Prize for history in 1986.

19. Hal Brands and John Lewis Gaddis, “The New Cold War,” Foreign Affairs 100, no. 6 (November–December 2021), 10–21.

20. Trump quoted in David Montgomery, “Trump's Excellent Space Force Adventure,” Washington Post Magazine, December 3, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine/2019/12/03/trumps-proposal-space-force-was-widely-mocked-could-it-be-stroke-stable-genius-that-makes-america-safe-again/.

21. David E. Sanger and William J. Broad, “China, Testing New Weapon, Jolts Pentagon,” NYT, October 27, 2021.

22. Daniel Deudney, Dark Skies: Space Expansionism, Planetary Geopolitics, and the Ends of Humanity (New York, 2020); Joan Johnson-Freese, Heavenly Ambitions: America's Quest to Dominate Space (Philadelphia, PA, 2009); James Clay Moltz, Crowded Orbits: Conflict and Cooperation in Space (New York, 2014); Namrata Goswami and Peter A. Garretson, Scramble for the Skies: The Great Power Competition to Control the Resources of Outer Space (Lanham, MD, 2020); Everett C. Dolman, Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age (London, 2002); Bleddyn E. Bowen, Original Sin: Power, Technology and War in Outer Space (New York, 2022). For a representative sample of other works that reflect the political science debate over international space security, see Colin S. Gray, “Space and Arms Control: A Skeptical View,” in America Plans for Space: A Reader Based on the National Defense University Space Symposium (Washington, DC, 1986); Joan Johnson-Freese, Space as a Strategic Asset (New York, 2007); Joan Johnson-Freese, Space Warfare in the 21st Century: Arming the Heavens (London, 2016); James Clay Moltz, The Politics of Space Security: Strategic Restraint and the Pursuit of National Interests, 3rd ed. (Stanford, CA, 2019). All agree that in the near-term, space will remain “congested, contested, and competitive,” as the US National Security Space Strategy phrased it in 2011. See Department of Defense, National Security Space Strategy: Unclassified Summary (Washington, DC, 2011), i.

23. Donald E. Kash, The Politics of Space Cooperation (West Lafayette, IN, 1967); Arnold Frutkin, International Cooperation in Space (New York, 1965); Dodd L. Harvey and Linda C. Ciccoritti, US-Soviet Cooperation in Space (Miami, FL, 1974); Matthew J. Von Benke, The Politics of Space: A History of US Soviet/Russian Competition and Cooperation in Space (Boulder, CO, 1997).

24. See Stares, Militarization of Outer Space, appendix 2.

25. CIA, “The Soviet Space Program: Expenditure Implications of Soviet Space Programs,” April 1969, 8. In 1984, Colin Gray and B. R. Schneider, estimated that 70 to 80 percent of Soviet launches were military, and another 15 percent were “partly” military. See Colin Gray and B. R. Schnieder, “The Soviet Military Space Program,” Signal (December 1984): 69.

26. National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, Pub. L. No. 85-568, 72 Stat. 426–438 (July 29, 1959), Sec. 102(a). For the transition of this utopian language to the UN resolutions, see P. J. Blount, “Peaceful Purposes for the Benefit of All Mankind: The Ethical Foundations of Space Security,” in War and Peace in Outer Space: Law, Policy and Ethics, ed. Cassandra Steer and Matthew Hersch (New York, 2021), 115–16; P. J. Blount and David Miguel Molina, “Bringing Mankind to the Moon: The Humans Rights Narrative in the Space Age,” in NASA and the Long Civil Rights Movement, ed. Stephen P. Waring and Brian C. Odom (Gainesville, FL, 2019).

27. John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (New York, 1987), chap. 7.

28. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Signed at Washington, London, and Moscow, January 27, 1967, in Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era, ed. Thomas Graham, Jr. and Damien J. LaVera (Seattle, WA, 2003), 35.

29. Summary of Speech of Professor Lincoln Bloomfield before New England Regional Conference on Space, Cambridge, November 13, 1962, Outer Space Conference 1962, box 4, Lincoln P. Bloomfield Papers (LBP), MIT Archives.

30. Rhodes, the arch-imperialist prime minister of the Cape Colony in South Africa, once regretted that the heavens were so distant and inaccessible, for “I would annex the planets if I could.”

31. John F. Kennedy, “Inaugural Address,” January 20, 1961, American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/inaugural-address-2.

1. Imagination

1. Frank Borman, Countdown: An Autobiography (New York, 1988), 212.

2. Archibald MacLeish, “A Reflection: Riders on the Earth, Brothers in the Eternal Cold,” NYT, December 25, 1969.

3. Robert Poole, Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth (New Haven, CT, 2008), 36–55; Benjamin Lazier, “Earthrise; or, The Globalization of the World Picture,” American Historical Review 16, no. 3 (2011): 602–30; Kelly Oliver, Earth and World: Philosophy after the Apollo Mission (New York, 2015); Denis Cosgrove, “Contested Global Visions: One-World, Whole-Earth, and the Apollo Space Photographs,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 84, no. 2 (1994): 270–94; Joshua Yates, “Mapping the Good World: The New Cosmopolitans and Our Changing World Picture,” Hedgehog Review 11, no. 3 ( Fall 2009): 7–27; Sheila Jasanoff, “Image and Imagination: The Formation of Global Environmental Consciousness,” in Changing the Atmosphere: Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, ed. Clark A. Miller and Paul N. Edwards (Cambridge, MA, 1996); Robin Kelsey, “Reverse Shot: Earthrise and Blue Marble in the American Imagination,” in New Geographies 4: Scales of the Earth, ed. El Hadi Jazairy and Mellisa Vaughn. (Cambridge, MA, 2011). For a complete list works linking space exploration to the emergence political and environmental globalism, see Neil H. Maher, Apollo in the Age of Aquarius (Cambridge, MA, 2017), 241, n. 4.

4. Poole, Earthrise, 37–55; Denis Cosgrove, Apollo's Eye: A Cartographic Genealogy of the Earth in the Western Imagination (Baltimore, MD, 2001).

5. David Lasser, The Conquest of Space (Burlington, ON, 1931), 138, 164.

6. Frank White, The Overview Effect: Space Exploration and Human Evolution (Boston, 1987).

7. H. G. Wells, The First Men in the Moon, ed. Simon J. James (1901; repr., New York, 2017), 126–27.

8. Alexander Bogdanov, Red Star: The First Bolshevik Utopia, ed. Loren R. Graham and Richard Stites, trans. Charles Rougle (1908; repr., Bloomington, IN, 1984), 47.

9. Frank Winter, Prelude to Space: The Rocket Societies, 1924–1940 (Washington, DC, 1983). Beryl Williams and Samuel Epstein, The Rocket Pioneers: On the Road to Space (New York, 1955); Chris Gainor, To a Distant Day: The Rocket Pioneers (Lincoln, NE, 2008); Wyn Wachhorst, The Dream of Spaceflight: Essays on the Near Edge of Infinity (New York, 2000).

10. Bradley G. Shreve, “The US, the USSR, and Space Exploration, 1957–1963,” International Journal on World Peace 20, no. 2 (June 2003): 78; Karsten Werth, “A Surrogate for War—The US Space Program in the 1960s,” Amerikastudien/American Studies 49, no. 4 (2004): 563–87.

11. Arthur C. Clarke, “The Challenge of the Spaceship: Astronautics and Its Impact upon Human Society,” JBIS 6, no. 3 (December 1946): 42.

12. White, Overview Effect; Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, “Planets Are Inhabited by Living Creatures,” Cosmic Philosophy, accessed January 12, 2019, https://tsiolkovsky.org/en/the-cosmic-philosophy/planets-are-inhabited-by-living-creatures-1933/.

13. Lionel Kochan, Russia in Revolution 1890–1918 (New York, 1966); Mark D. Steinberg, The Russian Revolution, 1905–1921 (New York, 2017).

14. Sidney Harcave, First Blood: The Russian Revolution of 1905 (London, 1964), 19–26.

15. Richard Stites, “Fantasy and Revolution: Alexander Bogdanov and the Origins of Bolshevik Science Fiction,” in Red Star, 1–16, esp. 7; Loren R. Graham, “Bogdanov's Inner Message,” in Red Star, 241–54; Mark B. Adams, “‘Red Star’: Another Look at Aleksandr Bogdanov,” Slavic Review 48, no. 1 (Spring 1989): 1–15; Nikolai Krementsov, A Martian Stranded on Earth: Alexander Bogdanov, Blood Transfusions, and Proletarian Science (Chicago, IL, 2011).

16. Michael G. Smith, Rockets and Revolution: A Cultural History of Early Spaceflight (Lincoln, NE, 2014), 42; A. N. Shuspanov, “Alternative Social Ideals in Russian Utopian Novels and Science Fiction at the Beginning of the 20th Century,” in Aleksandr Bogdanov Revisited, ed. Vesa Oittinen (Helsinki, Finland, 2009), 262–63.

17. Stites, “Fantasy and Revolution,” 6–7.

18. Howard P. Segal, Technological Utopianism in American Culture (Syracuse, NY, 1985), 1, 7.

19. H. G. Wells, Experiment in Autobiography: Discoveries and Conclusions of a Very Ordinary Brain (Since 1866) (1934; repr., Boston, 1962); Lovat Dickson, H. G. Wells: His Turbulent Life and Times (New York, 1969); Norman Mackenzie and Jeanne Mackenzie, H. G. Wells: A Biography (New York, 1973); Anthony West, H. G. Wells: Aspects of a Life (New York, 1984); David C. Smith, H. G. Wells: Desperately Mortal (New Haven, CT, 1986); Adam Roberts, H. G. Wells: A Literary Life (New York, 2019); Andrea Lynn, Shadow Lovers: The Last Affairs of H. G. Wells (London, 2001).

20. Frank McConnell, The Science Fiction of H. G. Wells (New York, 1981); Justin E. A. Busch, The Utopian Vision of H. G. Wells (Jefferson, NC, 2009); Peter Furshow, Modern Utopian Fictions from H. G. Wells to Iris Murdoch (Washington, DC, 2007).

21. West, H. G. Wells, 232.

22. David Y. Hughes and Harry M. Geduld, eds., A Critical Edition of The War of the Worlds: H. G. Well's Scientific Romance (Bloomington, IN, 1993), 184.

23. Bernard Bergonzi, The Early H. G. Wells: A Study of the Scientific Romances (Manchester, UK, 1961), 134; Peter Fitting, “Estranged Invaders: The War of the Worlds,” in Learning from Other Worlds: Estrangement, Cognition, and the Politics of Science Fiction and Utopia, ed. Patrick Parrinder (Durham, NC, 2001), 143, n.13; Mark Rose, Alien Encounters: Anatomy of Science Fiction (Cambridge, MA, 1981), 76.

24. Hughes and Geduld, Critical Edition of The War of the Worlds, 52. Wells's complicated attitudes toward race and eugenics are outside the scope of this study, but they are ably summarized in Duncan Bell, “Pragmatic Utopianism and Race: H. G. Wells as Social Scientist,” Modern Intellectual History 16, no. 3 (November 2019): 863–95; and John S. Partington, “The Death of the Static: H. G. Wells and the Kinetic Utopia,” Utopian Studies 11, no. 2 (2000): 96–111.

25. Mahesh Rangarajan, “Environment and Ecology Under British Rule,” in India and the British Empire, ed. Douglas M. Peers and Nandini Gooptu (New York, 2012).

26. Wells quoted in David Seed, “The Course of Empire: A Survey of the Imperial Theme in Early Anglophone Science Fiction,” Science Fiction Studies 37 (2010): 233; Aaron Worth, “Imperial Transmissions: H. G. Wells, 1897–1901,” Victorian Studies 53, no. 1 (Autumn 2010): 65–89.

27. Emelie Jonsson, “The Human Species and the Good Gripping Dreams of H. G. Wells,” Style 47, no. 3 (Fall 2013): 296–315; Peter Kemp, H. G. Wells and the Culminating Ape: Biological Imperatives and Imaginative Obsessions (1982; repr., New York, 1996); J. P. Vernier, “Evolution as a Literary Theme in H.G. Wells's Science Fiction,” in H. G. Wells and Modern Science Fiction, ed. Darko Savin and Robert M. Philmus (London, 1977).

28. Norman and Jeanne Mackenzie, H. G. Wells, 56.

29. H. G. Wells, “Zoological Retrogression,” in H. G. Wells: Early Writings in Science and Science Fiction, ed. Robert M. Philmus and David Y. Hughes (Berkeley, CA, 1975), 158, 168.

30. H. G. Wells, “Human Evolution, an Artificial Process, Fortnightly Review 60, no. 358 (October 1896): 590.

31. H. G. Wells, “On Extinction,” Chambers Journal 10 (Sept. 30, 1893): 623–24.

32. H. G. Wells, The Island of Dr. Moreau (1896; repr., Garden City, NY, 1929), 130.

33. Mackenzie and Mackenzie, H. G. Wells: A Biography, 128–29.

34. Mackenzie and Mackenzie, H. G. Wells: A Biography, 129.

35. Hughes and Geduld, Critical Edition of The War of the Worlds, 192–193.

36. Wells, Experiment in Autobiography, 106.

37. David Lake, Introduction to H. G. Wells, The First Men in the Moon, ed. David Lake (New York, 1995), xiv; Karen ní Mheallaigh, The Moon in the Greek and Roman Imagination (Cambridge, UK, 2020), chap. 5.

38. Philmus and Hughes, H. G. Wells, 182; Patrick Parrinder, H. G. Wells (Edinburgh, UK, 1970), 21, 28.

39. H. G. Wells, The First Men in the Moon (Leipzig, 1902), 257, 280, 291.

40. Wells, First Men (1902), 271–78.

41. Wells, First Men (1902), 281–83.

42. Wells, First Men (1902), 286–87.

43. John S. Partington, Building Cosmopolis: The Political Thought of H. G. Wells (Burlington, VT, 2003), 4.

44. H. G. Wells, The War and the Future: Italy, France and Britain at War (London, 1917), 8, 143.

45. W. Warren Wagar, H. G. Wells and the World State (New Haven, CT, 1961); Or Rosenboim, The Emergence of Globalism: Visions of World Order in Britain and the United States, 1939–1950, 212–216.

46. Wells, First Men in the Moon ([1901] 2017), 112–13.

47. H.G. Wells, In the Days of the Comet (1906; repr., New York, 1924).

48. Wells, Days of the Comet, 207, 215–16.

49. Wells, Days of the Comet, 232–33.

50. Wells, Days of the Comet, 215–16, 267–70.

51. Wells, Days of the Comet, 273–74.

52. Wells, Experiment in Autobiography, 558–59.

53. H. G. Wells, letter to the editor, The New Age, mid-October 1907, in The Correspondence of H. G. Wells, vol. 2, 1904–1918, ed. David C. Smith (London, 1998), 163.

54. Wells, Experiment in Autobiography, 549.

55. Within two generations The War of the Worlds had been adapted to radio, film, television, comics, graphic novels, and even a stage play. For the extent of its influence see tables 1.1 and 10.1 in Peter J. Beck, The War of the Worlds: From H. G. Wells to Orson Welles, Jeff Wayne, Steven Spielberg and Beyond (New York, 2016), 6, 185. The novel has never been out of print.

56. Patrick Parrinder and John S. Partington, The Reception of H. G. Wells in Europe (London: Thoemmes Continuum, 2005), 4, 6, 74, 106; Mackenzie and Mackenzie, H. G. Wells, 209; William J. Scheick, ed., The Critical Response to H. G. Wells (Westport, CT, 1995).

57. George Orwell, “Wells, Hitler and the World State,” Horizon 4, no. 20 (August 1941): 133–38.

58. David T. Hughes, “The War of the Worlds in the Yellow Press,” Journalism Quarterly 43, no. 4 (Winter 1966): 639–46.

59. Garrett P. Serviss, Edition's Conquest of Mars (1898; repr., Los Angeles, CA, 1947), 16–19; Paul K. Alkon, Science Fiction before 1900 (London, 2002), 108–9; David Seed, “The Course of Empire: A Survey of the Imperial Theme in Early Anglophone Science Fiction,” Science Fiction Studies 37, no. 2 (July 2010): 235–36.

60. Franz Rottensteiner, “German SF,” in Anatomy of Wonder: A Critical Guide to Science Fiction, 3rd ed., ed. Neil Barron (New York, 1987), 379–404.

61. Kurd Lasswitz, Auf zwei Planeten (Weimar, 1897).

62. Ingo Cornils, “The Martians Are Coming! War, Peace, Love, and Scientific Progress in H. G. Well's ‘The War of the Worlds’ and Kurd Lasswitz's ‘Auf zwei Planeten,’” Comparative Literature 55, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 28.

63. Cornils, “The Martians Are Coming!,” 37.

64. For a full summary of the novel, see William B. Fisher, The Empire Strikes Out: Kurd Lasswitz, Hans Dominik, and the Development of German Science Fiction (Bowling Green, OH, 1984), 127–30.

65. Epigraph by von Braun in Kurd Lasswitz, Two Planets (1897; repr., Carbondale, IL, 1971), vii.

66. Cornils, “The Martians Are Coming!,” 31; Fisher, Empire Strikes Out, 126.

67. Quoted in Fisher, Empire Strikes Out, 129; Karl S. Guthke, The Last Frontier: Imagining Other Worlds, from the Copernican Revolution to Modern Science Fiction (Bern, 1993), chap. 4.

68. Fisher, Empire Strikes Out, 31.

69. H. Bruce Franklin, War Stars: The Superweapon and the American Imagination (New York, 1988), chap. 2; I. F. Clarke, “Trigger-Happy: An Evolutionary Study of the Origins and Development of Future-War Fiction, 1763–1914,” Journal of Social and Evolutionary Systems 20, no. 2 (1997): 117–36; I. F. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War: Future Wars, 1763–3749 (New York, 1993); I. F. Clarke, “Future-War Fiction: The First Main Phase, 1871–1900,” Science Fiction Studies 24, no. 3 (November 1997): 387–412.

70. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, “Exploration of the Universe with Reaction Machines,” Doc. I-5 in Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the US Civil Space Program, vol. 1, Organizing for Exploration (Scotts Valley, CA, 1995), 59–83; Robert H. Goddard, “A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes,” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 71, no. 2 (Washington, DC, 1919); Hermann Oberth, Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen (Munich, 1923); William Sims Bainbridge, Spaceflight Revolution: A Sociological Study (New York, 1976), 19–20.

71. George M. Young, The Russian Cosmists: The Esoteric Futurism of Nikolai Fedorov and His Followers (New York, 2012), 3; Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, “Political Implications of the Occult Revival,” in The Occult in Russian and Soviet Culture, ed. Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal (Ithaca, NY, 1997); Asif Siddiqi, “Imagining the Cosmos: Utopians, Mystics, and the Popular Culture of Spaceflight in Revolutionary Russia,” Osiris 23, no. 1 (2008): 265; Boris Grois, ed., Russian Cosmism (Cambridge, MA, 2018).

72. Quoted in Young, Russian Cosmists, 47.

73. Siddiqi, “Imagining the Cosmos,” 265–66.

74. Siddiqi, “Imagining the Cosmos,” 266.

75. James T. Andrews, Red Cosmos: K. E. Tsiolkovskii, Grandfather of Soviet Rocketry (College Station, TX, 2009).

76. Daniel Shubin, Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky: The Pioneering Rocket Scientists and His Cosmic Philosophy (New York, 2016), 15–75.

77. Andrews, Red Cosmos, chap. 2.

78. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, “Citizens of the Universe,” August 2, 1933; “Necessity of Cosmic Mindset,” 1934; “Planets Are Inhabited by Living Creatures,” 1933, Cosmic Philosophy, accessed May 15, 2017, http://tsiolkovsky.org/en/cosmic-philosophy-by-tsiolkovsky/; Shubin, Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky, 146; Young, Russian Cosmists, 145–54.

79. Siddiqi, “Imagining the Cosmos,” 260–88; Asif Siddiqi, “Russia's Long Love Affair with Space: It Started with Utopian Dreams and Rocketeers,” Air and Space, August 2007, accessed August 25, 2017, http://www.airspacemag.com/space/russias-long-love-affair-with-space-19739095/; James T. Andrews, “Storming the Stratosphere: Space Exploration, Soviet Culture, and the Arts from Lenin to Khrushchev's Times,” Russian History 36, no. 1 (2009): 77–87; Asif Siddiqi, The Rockets’ Red Glare: Spaceflight and the Soviet Imagination, 1857–1957 (Cambridge, UK, 2014); Asif Siddiqi, “Deep Impact: Dr. Robert Goddard and the Soviet Space Fad of the 1920s,” History and Technology 20, no. 2 (2004): 97–113.

80. Siddiqi, “Russia's Long Love Affair with Space.”

81. Frank Winter, “Birth of the VfR: The Start of Modern Astronautics,” Spaceflight 19 (1977): 243–56.

82. Michael J. Neufeld, “Weimar Culture and Futuristic Technology: The Rocketry and Spaceflight Fad in Germany, 1923–1933,” Technology and Culture 31, no.4 (October 1990): 725–52; Alexander C. T. Geppert, ed., Imagining Outer Space: European Astroculture in the Twentieth Century (London, 2018).

83. Geppert et al., Militarizing Outer Space: Astroculture, Dystopia and the Cold War (London, 2021), 7; John MacCormac, “War with Rockets Pictured by Oberth,” NYT, January 31, 1931.

84. Hermann Oberth, Man into Space (New York, 1957), 1, 151.

85. Jared S. Buss, Willy Ley: Prophet of the Space Age (Gainesville, FL, 2017), 16, 34, 45, 56–58.

86. Buss, Willy Ley, 66.

87. Quoted in Buss, Willy Ley, 69.

88. Winter, Prelude to Space, 73–86. Beryl Williams and Samuel Epstein, The Rocket Pioneers: On the Road to Space (New York, 1955), 171–203; Chris Gainor, To a Distant Day: The Rocket Pioneers (Lincoln, NE, 2008), 50–52. Wyn Wachhorst, The Dream of Spaceflight: Essays on the Near Edge of Infinity (New York, 2000); Laurence B. Chase, “Space Travel Since 1640,” Princeton University Library Chronicle 30, no. 1 (Autumn 1968): 1–19; Bainbridge, Spaceflight Revolution.

89. Eric Leif Davin, Pioneers of Wonder: Conversations with the Founders of Science Fiction (Amherst, NY, 1999), 27–60; De Witt Douglas Kilgore, Astrofuturism: Science, Race, and Visions of Utopia in Space (Philadelphia, PA, 2003), chap. 1.

90. David Lasser, “The Rocket and the Next War” (Presidential Address, American Rocket Society, 1931), in Fighting the Future War: An Anthology of Science Fiction War Stories, 1914–1945, ed. Frederic Krome (New York, 2012), 176–83.

91. Lasser, “Rocket and Next War,” 183.

92. Lasser, “Rocket and Next War,” 183.

93. Lasser, Conquest of Space, 114, 137; David Lasser, “Annual Report to the American Interplanetary Society,” April 13, 1931 (appendix item), 181; Kilgore, Astrofuturism, 39–40.

94. Lasser, “Annual Report to the American Interplanetary Society”; Michael L. Ciancone and Amelia “Mimi” Lasser, “David Lasser: An American Spaceflight Pioneer (1902–1996),” History of Rocketry and Astronautics 33, no. 22 (San Diego, CA, 2010), 123.

95. Halford Mackinder, “The Geographical Pivot of History,” Geographic Journal 23, no. 4 (April 1904): 422; Lucian M. Ashworth, “Realism and the Spirit of 1919: Halford Mackinder, Geopolitics and the Reality of the League of Nations,” European Journal of International Relations 17, no. 2 (2010): 279–301; Lucian M. Ashworth, “Mapping a New World: Geography and the Interwar Study of International Relations,” International Studies Quarterly 57, no. 1 (March 2013): 138–49.

96. G. Lowes Dickinson, The European Anarchy (London, 1916), 9–10; G. Lowes Dickinson, The International Anarchy, 1904–1914 (London, 1926), 14; James Bryce, International Relations (New York, 1922), 3–4.

97. Robert Vitalis, White World Order, Black Power Politics: The Birth of American International Relations (Ithaca, NY, 2015), 57, 65; Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race; or The Racial Basis of European History (1916; repr., New York, 1922), 263; Arthur Herman, The Idea of Decline in Western History (New York, 1997), 182–85.

98. Herman, Idea of Decline, 207.

99. E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis: 1919–1939 (1939; repr., New York, 1949), 5–8.

100. Hans Morgenthau, Scientific Man vs. Power Politics (Chicago, 1946), 9–10; Alison McQueen, Political Realism in Apocalyptic Times (Cambridge, UK, 2018), 163.

101. Carl Schmitt, The Nomos of the Earth in the International Law of the Jus Publicum Europaeum, trans. G. L. Ulmen (1950; repr., New York, 2003).

102. Stanley Hoffmann, “Raymond Aron and the Theory of International Relations,” International Studies Quarterly 29, no. 1 (March 1985): 16.

103. Carr, Twenty Years’ Crisis, 5, 89.

2. Interplanetary Men

1. “The Spirit That Beats V2,” Nottingham Evening Post, November 11, 1944.

2. Amy Bell, “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945,” Journal of British Studies 48, no. 1 (January 2009): 162–64.

3. Michael J. Neufeld, Von Braun: Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War (New York, 2008), 223.

4. Neufeld, Von Braun, 186.

5. Daniel Lang, “A Romantic Urge,” New Yorker, April 21, 1951, 85–86.

6. Neufeld, Von Braun, 244.

7. Neufeld, Von Braun, 212–13.

8. Lang, “Romantic Urge,” 85–86.

9. Thomas Gangale, How High the Sky? The Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space and Territorial Airspace in International Law (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2018), 2.

10. Arthur C. Clarke, Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds! Collected Essays, 1934–1998 (New York, 2001), 106.

11. Jay Winter, Dreams of Peace and Freedom: Utopian Moments in the Twentieth Century (New Haven, CT, 2008), chap. 4.

12. John Cheng, Astounding Wonder: Imagining Science and Science Fiction in Interwar America (Philadelphia, PA, 2012), 3.

13. Asif Siddiqi, “Imagining the Cosmos: Utopians, Mystics, and the Popular Culture of Spaceflight in Revolutionary Russia,” Osiris 23, no. 1 (2008): 285.

14. Michael Neufeld, “Introduction: Mittelbau-Dora—Secret Weapons and Slave Labor,” in Yves Béon, Planet Dora: A Memoir of the Holocaust and the Birth of the Space Age (Boulder, CO, 1997), xix.

15. Bell, “Landscapes of Fear,” 163.

16. Alexander C. T. Geppert, “Space Personae: Cosmopolitan Networks of Peripheral Knowledge, 1927–1957,” Journal of Modern European History 6, no. 2 (September 2008): 279.

17. “Bomb Defense ‘Impossible,’” The Sun, October 5, 1945; Fraser MacDonald, “Space and the Atom: On the Popular Geopolitics of Cold War Rocketry,” Geopolitics 13 (2008): 613; “Science Nicks Moon Romance,” Indianapolis Star, January 27, 1946.

18. C. P. Ives, “Mere Devices Aren’t Going to Be Enough,” The Sun, November 18, 1945.

19. “The Future Is Here,” The Enquirer (Cincinnati, OH), February 20, 1949.

20. Oliver Dunnett, “The British Interplanetary Society and Cultures of Outer Space, 1930–1970” (PhD diss., University of Nottingham, 2011); Oliver Dunnett, “Geopolitical Cultures of Outer Space: The British Interplanetary Society, 1933–1965,” Geopolitics 22, no. 2 (2017): 452–73.

21. William R. Macauley, “Crafting the Future: Envisioning Space Exploration in Postwar Britain,” History and Technology 28, no. 3 (2012): 286.

22. A. V. Cleaver as quoted in William Sims Bainbridge, Spaceflight Revolution, 154.

23. A. V. Cleaver, “The Interplanetary Project,” JBIS 7, (1948) 21–39; Andrew Chatwin, Val Cleaver: A Very English Rocketeer (London, 2015).

24. Cleaver, “Interplanetary Project,” 27.

25. Cleaver, “Interplanetary Project,” 27.

26. Cleaver, “Interplanetary Project,” 28.

27. Discussion, “Interplanetary Project,” 37.

28. De Witt Douglas Kilgore, Astrofuturism: Science, Race, and Visions of Utopia in Space (Philadelphia, PA, 2003), 113. Gary Westfahl, Arthur C. Clarke (Urbana, IL, 2018), chap. 1; Neil McAleer, Arthur C. Clarke: The Authorized Biography (London, 1993).

29. Arthur C. Clarke, “Extraterrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?,” Wireless World 51, no. 10 (October 1945), 305–8.

30. Arthur C. Clarke, Letters to the Editor, “Peacetime Uses for V2,” Wireless World 51, no. 2 (February 1945): 58.

31. Arthur C. Clarke, “The Rocket and the Future of Warfare” in Ascent to Orbit (Ann Arbor, MI, 1984), 70; Clarke, Greetings, 32.

32. Arthur C. Clarke, “The Challenge of the Spaceship: Astronautics and Its Impact Upon Human Society,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 6, no. 3 (December 1946): 66–81.

33. Clarke, “Challenge of the Spaceship”; Robert Poole, “The Challenge of the Spaceship: Arthur C. Clarke and the History of the Future, 1930–1970,” History and Technology 28, no. 3 (September 2012): 255–280; Kilgore, Astrofuturism, 116–19.

34. Clarke, “Challenge of the Spaceship,” 42.

35. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, NY, 1990), chap. 6; John Hersey, “Hiroshima,” New Yorker, August 23, 1946; Lewis Mumford, Atomic War—The Way Out (London, 1949); Lewis Mumford, “Gentlemen: You Are Mad!,” Saturday Review, March 2, 1946, 5–6; Lewis Mumford, “Anticipations and Social Consequences of Atomic Energy,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 98, no. 2 (1954): 149–52; “Cosmic Power” in Donald L. Miller, The Lewis Mumford Reader (New York, 1986), 301; “The Morals of Extermination,” Atlantic Monthly, October 1959, 38–44; Michael Sherry, The Rise of American Airpower: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, CT, 1988), 251–55.

36. “National Affairs: World War III?,” Time, November 3, 1941; “Foreign News: World War III?,” Time, March 22, 1943; “INTERNATIONAL: or Else,” Time, February 15, 1943; “GERMANY: For World War III,” Time, June 5, 1944; “Science: World War III Preview?,” Time, July 10, 1944; “Medicine: Germs for World War III?,” Time, March 25, 1946; “The Nations: The Chances for World War III,” Time, March 15, 1948.

37. Matthew Connelly et al., ““General, I Have Fought Just as Many Nuclear Wars as You Have’: Forecasts, Future Scenarios, and the Politics of Armageddon,” AHR 117, no. 5 (December 2012): 1435.

38. “Preview of the War We Do Not Want,” Collier's, October 27, 1951; David Alan Rosenberg, “The History of World War III, 1945–1990: A Conceptual Framework,” in On Cultural Ground: Essays in International History, ed. Robert David Johnson (Chicago, IL, 1994).

39. James R. Randolph, “Occupation of Mars?,” Army Ordnance 31 (March–April 1947): 422–23; “Recommended Occupation of Mars as Strategic Necessity,” The Mercury (Hobart, Australia, March 22, 1947), 1.

40. R. L. Farnsworth, Rockets: New Trail to Empire, 2nd ed. (Glen Ellyn, IL, 1945), 16.

41. Arthur C. Clarke, “The Moon and Mr. Farnsworth,” in Clarke, Greetings, 26–29.

42. Quoted in Clarke, Greetings, 29.

43. Arthur C. Clarke, The Exploration of Outer Space (1951; repr., Greenwich, CT, 1959), 176; Arthur C. Clarke, “Space Flight and the Spirit of Man,” in Voices from the Sky: Previews of the Coming Space Age (New York, 1965), 8.

44. Clarke, “Challenge of the Spaceship,” 72.

45. Arthur C. Clarke, “On the Morality of Space,” The Saturday Review, October 5, 1957, 8–10, 35.

46. Clarke, Exploration of Outer Space, 175.

47. Clarke, Exploration of Outer Space, 177.

48. Poole, “Challenge of the Spaceship,” 259.

49. Clarke, “Space Flight and the Spirit of Man”; Clarke, Exploration of Outer Space, 181.

50. Arthur C. Clarke, Astounding Days: A Science-Fictional Autobiography (New York, 1990), 99, 181; Poole, “Challenge of the Spaceship,” 261; Dale Carter, The Final Frontier: The Rise and Fall of the American Rocket State (New York, 1988).

51. Clarke, “Space Flight and the Spirit of Man,” 4.

52. Clarke, “Space Flight and the Spirit of Man,” 8.

53. Arthur C. Clarke, “Social Consequences of the Communications Satellites” (paper delivered to the symposium on Space Law at the Twelfth International Astronautical Congress, Washington, 1961), in Voices from the Sky, 129–41.

54. Arthur C. Clarke, Childhood's End (London, 1953), 68–72.

55. Clarke, Childhood's End, 68–72, 107.

56. Arthur C. Clarke, Prelude to Space (London, 1954), 112.

57. Robert Crossey, Olaf Stapledon: Speaking for the Future (Syracuse, NY, 1994), 32.

58. Patrick A. McCarthy, Olaf Stapledon (Boston, 1982), 18.

59. Stapledon as quoted in McCarthy, Olaf Stapledon, 22.

60. Vincent Geoghegan, “Olaf Stapledon: Religious but Not a Christian,” in Socialism and Religion: Roads to Commonwealth (London, 2011), 85–108.

61. Olaf Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man?,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 7, no. 6 (November 1948): 220–23.

62. William Olaf Stapledon, Last and First Men: A Story of the Near and Far Future (1930; repr., London, 2020), 10.

63. Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man,” 220–23.

64. “Last and First Men—Olaf Stapledon (1930),” Weighing a Pig Doesn’t Fatten It (blog), accessed May 20, 2019, https://schicksalgemeinschaft.wordpress.com/2016/05/30/last-and-first-men-olaf-stapledon-1930/.

65. Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man,” 220–23.

66. Stapledon, Last and First Men, 9.

67. Robert Crossley, An Olaf Stapledon Reader (Syracuse, NY, 1997), 365; “Planetary Colonies of Eugenic ‘Quasi-Human’ Races Forecast,” The Sun, October 11, 1948; “USS.” (United Solar System), Time, October 18, 1948, 67–70.

68. Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man,” 229.

69. Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man,” 217.

70. Stapledon, Last and First Men, 33–34.

71. Stapledon, Last and First Men, 33–34.

72. David W. Bath, Assured Destruction: Building the Ballistic Missile Culture of the US Air Force (Annapolis, MD, 2020); Gregory P. Kennedy, The Rockets and Missiles of White Sands Proving Ground, 1945–1958 (Schiffer, 2009); Jacob Neufeld, The Development of Ballistic Missiles in the United States Air Force, 1945–1960 (Washington, DC, 1990); John C. Lonnquest and David F. Winkler, The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program, USACERL Special Report 97/01 (Washington, DC, 1996); Christopher Gainor, The Bomb and America's Missile Age (Baltimore, MD, 2018).

73. “Stapledon Fears War at Any Moment,” BG, April 6, 1949; Alistair Cooke, “Dr. Stapledon Tells of Britain's ‘Passion for Peace,’” Manchester Guardian, March 28, 1949.

74. Waldemar Kaempffert, “Science in Review: Rockets and Atomic Power Suggest Conquest of Solar System by New Species,” NYT, March 6, 1949; “Course of Empire,” WP, October 23, 1948; “War or Guided-Missile Bases on Moon Held Possible by ‘98,” WP, March 5, 1948.

75. Willy Ley, Rockets Missiles and Space Travel (1944); Rockets: The Future of Travel Beyond the Stratosphere (New York, 1944); with Wernher von Braun, The Complete Book of Outer Space (Maco Magazine, 1953); with Wernher von Braun, The Exploration of Mars (New York, 1956); the Adventure in Space Series: Space Pilots (1957), Space Stations (1958), and Space Travel (1958); Satellites, Rockets and Outer Space (1958); Mars and Beyond: A Tomorrowland Adventure Adapted for School Use (1959); Rockets (1960).

76. James Mangan, “Report to the Universe: The First Seven Years” (white paper, State Department, Celestia, USA, April 30, 1956), personal collection of Virgiliu Pop.

77. Virgiliu Pop, Unreal Estate: The Men Who Sold the Moon (Cardiff, UK, 2006), 31–32.

78. “The Nation of Celestial Space, since 1948,” accessed May 23, 2022, https://nationofcelestialspace.com/history/.

79. I thank W. Patrick McCray for this insight.

80. Fraser MacDonald, Escape from Earth: A Secret History of the Space Rocket (New York, 2019); M. G. Lord, ASTRO TURF: The Private Life of Rocket Science (Walker, 2005); W. Patrick McCray, Making Art Work: How Cold War Engineers and Artists Forged a New Creative Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2020); George Pendle, Strange Angel: The Otherwordly Life of Rocket Scientist John Whiteside Parsons (New York: Harcourt, 2005); Iris Chang, Thread of the Silkworm (New York, 1995); Christpher Gainor, To a Distant Day: The Rocket Pioneers (Lincoln, NE, 2008).

81. John Bluth, “Malina, Frank Joseph,” American National Biography, February 2000, accessed May 9, 2022, https://www.anb.org/display/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.001.0001/anb-9780198606697-e-1302215.

82. Gainor, To a Distant Day, 127–32.

83. MacDonald, Escape from Earth, 63.

84. McCray, Making Art Work, 21.

85. C. R. Koppes, JPL and the American Space Program: a History of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (New Haven, CT, 1982).

86. Frank Malina, interview with Mary Terrall, December 14, 1978, Caltech Archives, chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://oralhistories.library.caltech.edu/149/1/Malina.pdf.

87. Frank Malina to Liljan Malina, September 6, 1944, personal files of W. Patrick McCray.

88. MacDonald, Escape from Earth, 121.

89. Gainor, To a Distant Day, 132; MacDonald, Escape from Earth, 122–23.

90. MacDonald, Escape from Earth, 128–29; Fraser MacDonald, “High Empire: Rocketry and the Popular Geopolitics of Space Exploration, 1944–62,” in New Spaces of Exploration: Geographies of Discovery in the Twentieth Century, ed. Simon Naylor and James R. Ryan (London, 2010), 200.

91. MacDonald, Escape from Earth, 130.

92. Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, November 4, 1945.

93. Malina interview with Terrall.

94. McCray, Making Art Work, 22–23, 29; MacDonald, Escape from Earth, 131–32.

95. McCray, Making Art Work, 2, 43–46.

96. Lasser, The Conquest of Space, 15.

97. Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man?,” 223.

98. Olaf Stapledon, “Mankind at the Crossroads,” in Crossley, Olaf Stapledon Reader, 211.

99. Konstantin Tsiolkovski, “Creatures Higher Than a Man,” June 28, 1939; “Creatures from Different Stages of Evolution,” n.d., The Cosmic Philosophy, https://tsiolkovsky.org/en/the-cosmic-philosophy/creatures-higher-than-a-man-1939/.

100. Clarke, Greetings, 35, 107, 134; Poole, “Challenge of the Spaceship,” 259.

101. Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man?,” 220–23.

102. Clarke, Exploration of Outer Space,181.

103. Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man?,” 220–21.

104. Olaf Stapledon, “Interplanetary Man?,” 215–16.

105. “Toward Outer Space: An Address of His Holiness Pope Pius XII to the Seventh International Congress of Astronautics,” September 21, 1956, The Pope Speaks 3, no. 3 (December 1956): 305–8.

3. Star of Hope

1. Robert A. Divine, The Sputnik Challenge (New York, 1993), xiii–xiv.

2. Robert M. Weir, Peace, Justice, Care of Earth (Kalamazoo, MI, 2007); Robert M. Weir, Star of Hope: The Life and Times of John McConnell (Pine Plains, NY, 2006); Darrin J. Rodgers and Nicole Sparks, “Pentecostal Pioneer of Earth Day: John McConnell,” in Blood Cries Out: Pentecostals, Ecology, and the Groans of Creation, ed. A. J. Swoboda (Eugene, OR, 2014), 19–20; John McConnell, Earth Day: Vision for Peace, Justice and Earth Care: My Life and Thought at Age 96 (Eugene, OR, 2011).

3. John McConnell, “Make Our Satellite a Symbol of Hope!,” Toe Valley Review, October 31, 1957, Star of Hope—news and articles, box 33, John McConnell Papers (hereafter JMP), Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania (SCPC).

4. McConnell, “Make Our Satellite a Symbol of Hope!”; John McConnell, “Share-a-Star,” n.d., Star of Hope planning/organizational, box 33, JMP.

5. Divine, Sputnik Challenge; David Callahan and Fred I. Greenstein, “The Reluctant Racer: Eisenhower and US Space Policy,” in Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership, ed. Roger D. Launius and Howard E. McCurdy (Urbana, IL, 1997); Yanek Mieczkowski, Eisenhower's Sputnik Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige (Ithaca, NY, 2013); Roger D. Launius, John M. Logsdon, and Robert W. Smith, eds., Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years Since the Soviet Satellite (New York, 2000); Asif Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Tallahassee, FL: University Press of Florida, 2003); Rip Bulkeley, The Sputniks Crisis and Early United States Space Policy: A Critique of the Historiography of Space (Bloomington, IN, 1991); Barbara Barksdale Clowse, Brainpower for the Cold War: The Sputnik Crisis and National Education Act of 1958 (New York, 1981); Wayne J. Urban, More Than Science and Sputnik: The National Defense Education Act of 1958 (Tuscaloosa, AL, 2010).

6. Walter Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown: The International Geophysical Year (New York, 1961); Sydney Chapman, IGY: Year of Discover; the Story of the International Geophysical Year (Ann Arbor, MI, 1959); McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, chap. 7; Western Working Paper Submitted to the Disarmament Subcommittee: Proposals for Partial Measures of Disarmament, August 29, 1957, Documents on Disarmament, 1945–1959, vol. 2 (Washington, DC, 1960), 871.

7. James R. Killian to DDE, “Memorandum on Organizational Alternatives for Space Research and Development,” December 30, 1957, accessed June 30, 2017, https://history.nasa.gov/monograph10/doc2.pdf.

8. United States Memorandum Submitted to the First Committee of the General Assembly, January 12, 1957, Documents on Disarmament, 1945–1959, vol. 2 (Washington, DC, 1960), 733.

9. Statement by the United States Representative (Lodge) to the First Committee of the General Assembly, October 10, 1957, Documents on Disarmament, 1945–1959, vol. 2, 901–2.

10. Letters, J. Albert Robbins to Dwight Eisenhower (hereafter DDE), October 9, 1957 (emphasis in original); Paul C. Shererty to DDE, October 6, 1957 (emphasis in original); Thomas R. Mitchell to DDE, undated, 145-F Earth Circling Satellites—Space Travel—Flying Saucers—Outer Space (hereafter 145-F) (1–3), box 1155, General File (hereafter GF), Record of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library (hereafter DDEL). For an analysis of the congressional and media reactions to Sputnik, Divine, Sputnik Challenge, xiv-xvi; Mieczkowski, Eisenhower's Sputnik Moment, chap. 1; McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, chap. 6.

11. Donald N. Michael, “The Beginning of the Space Age and American Public Opinion,” Public Opinion Quarterly 24, no. 4 (Winter 1960): 573–82; Joseph Goldsen, “Public Opinion and Social Effects of Space Activity” (RAND Corporation Research Memorandum RM-2417-NASA, July 20, 1959); Sharon Weinberger, The Imagineers of War: The Untold Story of DARPA, the Pentagon Agency That Changed the World (New York, 2017), 32–33.

12. Eugene Exman to DDE, December 18, 1957, Star of Hope Correspondence, 1957, box 32, JMP.

13. Letter, Women's Prayer Crusade for World Order and Peace to DDE, November 22, 1957, 145-F (3), box 1155, GF, Record of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, DDEL.

14. “Satellite for Peace” recommended in Letter, Henry S. Chasman to DDE, October 11, 1957; “Star of Hope” in several letters, and “Freedom Sphere in Letter, John S. Hayes to DDE, November 14, 1957, 145-F (3), box 1155, GF, Record of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, DDEL.

15. Letter, Henry S. Chasman to DDE, October 11, 1957, 145-F (3), box 1155, GF, Record of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, DDEL.

16. Eugene Exman to DDE, December 18, 1957, Star of Hope Correspondence, 1957, box 32, JMP.

17. Star of Hope, “By-laws for the Regulation, Except as Otherwise Provided by Statute or its Articles of Incorporation of Star of Hope, Inc.,” n.d., Star of Hope planning/organizational, box 33, JMP; “Star of Hope Proposals,” n.d. (spring 1958); “Moral Equivalent to War,” in John McConnell to DDE, undated draft (1954); Louise Toness, “Star of Hope: A Coordinated Program to Wage Peace,” 145-F (6), box 1156, GF, Records as President, DDEL.

18. John McConnell, “Purpose,” n.d., Star of Hope proposals/ideas, box 33, JMP. Consider, as another example of the organization's goals, a June 1958 poem written by Stetler Wright, a Star of Hope member: “Over the weary, aching, world/ Flaming it's friendly light/ Emblem of friendship's noble worth/ Our Star of Hope takes flight./ Burn your message of cheer, good will/ And make the dark clouds blend/ Star of Hope dispel doubt and fear/ United the hearts of all men.” See Stetler Wright (Oakland, CA), “Star of Hope,” June 6, 1958, Star of Hope Correspondence, 1958, box 32, JMP.

19. Summary of Response to Star of Hope Idea Presented First in an Editorial in the Toe Valley View, October 31, 1957; Bernard Fedler to Arlene Francis, November 29, 1957; Charles and Esther Quedens to Arlene Francis, n.d.; and Mrs. Kenneth Courter to Arlene Francis, n.d.; Sam J. Ervin, Jr. (Raleigh, NC) to DDE, November 25, 1957; W. Kerr Scott (US Senate D-NC) to DDE, November 27, 1957; and Chester Bowles to Peter Hill, January 17, 1958, each in Star of Hope Correspondence, 1957, box 32, JMP; Adlai Stevenson to Peter Hill, February 10, 1958; Eleanor Roosevelt to John McConnell, July 2, 1958; Henry M. Jackson to John McConnell, December 1, 1958; and Peter Hill, Summary of Star of Hope Activities, January 26, 1958, each in Star of Hope Correspondence-1958, box 32, JMP.

20. Letter, John McConnell to Khrushchev, October 1, 1958, Star of Hope Correspondence-195, box 32, JMP; McConnell, Earth Day, 285–86.

21. Fred Singer, “A Statement of Conscience,” NYHT, November 16, 1957; Nate Haseltine, “Singer Urges Christmas Satellite,” WP, November 14, 1957; S. F. Singer, “A Reply to Sputnik,” November 18, 1957, in The Next Ten Years in Space, 1959–1969: Staff Report of the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration (Washington, DC, 1959), 180, 184.

22. Raymond Loewy, “Let's Launch a Star of Good Will,” NYHT, December 10, 1957; “Raymond Loewy Continues Work on ‘Star of Good Will,’” Desert Sun (Palm Springs, CA), February 8, 1958; “Loewy Unveils Satellite Designed to Spiritually Link Men of All Nations,” Desert Sun, February 26, 1958.

23. US Senate, “Extension of Remarks of Hon. Lyndon B. Johnson: United States Satellite's Need of Good Will Stressed,” Congressional Record, January 29, 1958, 85th Congress, 2nd Session., Vol. 104, part 1, appendix, A759.

24. Or Rosenboim, The Emergence of Globalism: Visions of World Order in Britain and the United States, 1939–1950 (Princeton, NJ, 2017), 1–5; Perrin Selcer, The Postwar Origins of the Global Environment (New York, 2018), 2.

25. John McConnell, “Proposal: Eisenhower and Khrushchev to Trade Places,” May 1958, Star of Hope Correspondence-1958, 32, JMP.

26. Mrs. Ruth Finkelstein to Peter Hill, November 29, 1957; Dorothy Auerbach to Arlene Francis, November 29, 1957, Star of Hope Correspondence, 1957, box 32, JMP; Richard Philbrick, “Star of Christ No Satellite, Say Churches,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 21, 1957.

27. Lewis M. Haskins to Peter Hill, December 4, 1957, Star of Hope Correspondence, 1957, box 32, JMP.

28. Peter Hill to Edwin Theodore Dahlberg, December 21, 1957, Star of Hope Correspondence, 1957, box 32, JMP.

29. Ivan Whitkov to DDE, August 1, 1955, 145-F (1), box 1155, GF, Record of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, DDEL.

30. Alfred Amer to DDE, October 14, 1957, 145-F (1), box 1155, GF, Record of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President, DDEL.

31. John McConnell, “Grow Up or Blow Up,” Geneva Diplomat, October 1, 1958, Star of Hope—news and articles, box 33, JMP.

32. Norman Cousins, “Sense and Satellites,” Saturday Review, October 19, 1957.

33. Malvina Lindsay, “Go-It-Alone Trend in Space, a Peril,” January 16, 1958, WP; Malvina Lindsay, “Not Easy to Be a Space Citizen,” WP, October 19, 1957.

34. Malvina Lindsay, “Missiles or Stars for Outer Space?,” WP, December 7, 1957.

35. McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 189.

36. Joseph M. Golden and Leon Lipson, “Some Political Implications of the Space Age,” RAND P-1435, February 1958.

37. DDE, Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, January 10, 1957, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=11029; American Foreign Policy: Current Documents, 1957, 1316–1323; Department of State, Department of State Bulletin, February 11, 1957, 225, 227; Paul B. Stares, The Militarization of Space: US Policy, 1945–1984 (Ithaca, NY, 1985), 54.

38. Letter from President Eisenhower to the Soviet Premier (Bulganin), January 12, 1958, Documents on International Aspects of the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, 1954–1962: Staff Report Prepared for the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, United States Senate (Washington, DC, 1963), 52–53 (emphasis added).

39. News Conference Remarks by Secretary of State Dulles Regarding Outer Space, January 16, 1958, DSB, February 3, 1958, 166–67.

40. John Rigden, “Eisenhower, Scientists, and Sputnik,” Physics Today 60, no. 6 (June 1, 2007): 47–52; James R. Killian, Jr., Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower: A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977), chap. 5; George B. Kistiakowsky, A Scientist in the White House: The Private Diary of President Eisenhower's Special Assistant for Science and Technology (Cambridge, MA, 1976); Zuoyue Wang, In Sputnik's Shadow: The President's Science Advisory Committee and Cold War America (Piscataway, NJ, 2008), 2.

41. Dwight Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe (Garden City, NY, 1948), 443; Benjamin Greene, Eisenhower, Science Advice, and the Nuclear Test Ban Debate (Stanford, CA, 2007), 10; Ira Chernus, General Eisenhower: Ideology and Discourse (East Lansing, MI, 2002), 126; Andrew P. N. Erdmann, “‘War No Longer Has Any Logic Whatever’: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Thermonuclear Revolution,” in Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb: Nuclear Diplomacy since 1945, ed. John L. Gaddis (New York, 1999).

42. McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 164–69; NASA, “The Birth of NASA: November 3, 1957–October 1, 1958,” Monographs in Aerospace History no. 10, accessed June 9, 2020, https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/monograph10/nasabrth.html.

43. James R. Killian to DDE, “Memorandum on Organizational Alternatives for Space Research and Development,” December 30, 1957, accessed June 30, 2017, https://history.nasa.gov/monograph10/doc2.pdf.

44. L. A. Minnich, Jr., “Legislative Leadership Meeting, Supplementary Notes,” February 4, 1958, in Documentary History of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidency, vol 21, NASA and the US Space Program (Bethesda, MD, 2013), 28–31.

45. Stares, Militarization of Space, 42.

46. Minnich, Jr., “Legislative Leadership Meeting,” 28–31.

47. S. Paul Johnson to James R. Killian, “Activities,” February 21, 1958, with attached: “Preliminary Observations on the Organization for the Exploration of Outer Space,” February 21, 1958, Militarization of Outer Space Collection (MOSC), Digital National Security Archive (DNSA).

48. Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History of NASA, 1958–1963 (Washington, DC, 1966), 9.

49. Memorandum for the President, “Organization for Civil Space Programs,” March 5, 1958, with attached: “Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Alternative Organizational Arrangements,” accessed June 3, 2017, https://history.nasa.gov/monograph10/doc5.pdf; McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 171.

50. Memorandum of Conversation with the President, March 5, 1958, MOSC, DNSA; McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 171; President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization, Executive Office of the President, Memorandum for the President, “Organization for Civil Space Programs,” March 5, 1958, 3.

51. Special Message to the Congress Relative to Space Science and Exploration, April 2, 1958, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight Eisenhower: 1958, doc. 64, 269; Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense Chairman, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, April 2, 1958, in US House of Representatives, “Hearings before the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration,” 85th Congress, 2nd Session, April 15–May 12, 1958 (Washington, DC, 1958), 967–68.

52. President's Scientific Advisory Committee (PSAC), “Introduction to Outer Space,” March 26, 1958 (Washington, DC, 1958).

53. US Congress, House of Representatives, Subcommittee on National Security and Scientific Developments Affecting Foreign Policy, “Relative to the Establishment of Plans for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” 85th Congress, 2nd Session, May 20, 1958.

54. US Congress, House of Representatives, Subcommittee on National Security and Scientific Developments Affecting Foreign Policy, “Relative to the Establishment of Plans for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” 85th Congress, 2nd Session, May 20, 1958.

55. US Congress, “Relative to the Establishment of Plans.”

56. US Congress, “Relative to the Establishment of Plans.”

57. “Main Problems in the Senate Bill Establishing a Federal Space Agency,” July 7, 1958, NASA's Origins and the Dawn of the Space Age, accessed September 25, 2018, https://history.nasa.gov/monograph10/doc7.pdf; “The Birth of NASA: November 3, 1957–October 1, 1958,” NASA's Origins and the Dawn of the Space Age: Monographs in Aerospace History no.10, accessed September 25, 2018, https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/monograph10/nasabrth.html.

58. “National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958,” Public Law 85-568, 72 Stat., 426, in Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the US Civil Space Program,, vol. 1, Organizing for Exploration (Washington, DC, 1995), doc. II-17, 335.

59. Cousins, “Sense and Satellites,” 26–27.

60. Federation of American Scientists, “Nuclear Test Ban, U.N. Control for Space Research, and U.N. Police Force—First Steps Toward Peace,” BAS 14, no. 3 (1958): 125; Charles and Norma Herzfeld, “For UN Control of Outer Space,” New Leader, December 30, 1957, 9–10; Gabriel Almond, “Public Opinion and the Development of Space Technology,” in Joseph M. Goldsen, “International Political Implications of Activities in Outer Space: A Report of a Conference, October 22–23, 1959” (Rand Corporation, May 5, 1960).

61. Statement by the United States Representative (Lodge) to the General Assembly, February 14, 1957, DSB, March 11, 1957, 423

62. Robert F. Futrell, Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine, vol. 1, Basic Thinking in the United States Air Force (Maxwell AFB, AL, 1971), 548–49.

63. James M. Gavin, War and Peace in the Space Age (New York, 1958), 286–87; James M. Gavin, “Space Strategy and US Defense,” Life, August 11, 1958, 114; Donald Cox and Michael Stoiko, Spacepower: What It Means to You (Philadelphia, PA, 1958), 187–94.

64. Gabriel Almond, “Public Opinion and the Development of Space Technology,” in “International Political Implications of Activities in Outer Space”; “Anarchy in Space?” World Today 14, no 9. (September 1958): 390–98.

65. Paul Boyer, By the Bomb's Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (Chapel Hill, NC, 1987), chap. 2; Paul Kecskemeti, “Outer Space and World Peace,” in Outer Space and World Politics, ed. Joseph M. Goldsen (New York, 1963), 40; Lawrence H. Fuchs, “Nations in the Future: Organization for Survival,” Western Political Quarterly 9, no. 1 (1956): 11–20.

66. Lincoln P. Bloomfield, Accidental Encounters with History (and Some Lessons Learned) (Cohasset, MA, 2005), 217; Bryan Marquard, “Lincoln P. Bloomfield, 93; Helped Create Tools to Contain Conflict,” Boston Globe, November 12, 2013; Lincoln P. Bloomfield, “The United States, the United Nations, and the Creation of Community,” International Organization 14, no. 4 (1960): 503–8.

67. Lincoln P. Bloomfield, “The Quest for Law and Order,” in Outer Space: Prospects for Man and Society, rev. ed., ed. Lincoln P. Bloomfield (New York, 1968), 114–15.

68. Joseph M. Goldsen, Outer Space and World Politics, 18–19 (emphasis in original).

69. “Soviet Proposal on the Question of Banning the Use of Cosmic Space for Military Purposes, Elimination of Foreign Military Bases on the Territories of Other Countries, and International Cooperation in the Study of Cosmic Space, March 15, 1958,” Documents on Disarmament, 1945–1959, vol. II, 976–77; “Dulles Rejects Russian Bid to Link Space, US Bases,” The Sun, March 19, 1958; “Dulles Rejects Russian Plan on Space Control: Secretary in Effect Accuses Soviets of Stealing US Idea and Killing It,” LAT, March 19, 1958.

70. Memorandum of a Conversation, Department of State, Washington, DC, March 20, 1958, FRUS, vol. II, doc. 438, 833.

71. National Security Council Report 5814/1, “Statement of Preliminary US Policy on Outer Space,” August 18, 1958, FRUS, vol. II, doc. 442, 856.

72. National Security Council Report 5814/1, “Statement of Preliminary US Policy on Outer Space,” FRUS, vol. II, doc. 442, 845–62.

73. Letter, Lodge to Hammarskjold, September 2, 1958, US Congress, Senate, “Documents on International Aspects of the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, 1954–1962: Staff Report Prepared for the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences (Washington, DC, 1963), 81–82; Telegram from the Department of State to the Mission at the United Nations, FRUS, vol. II, doc. 443, 863–864.

74. McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 184–85; “United Nations Establishes Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” Department of State Bulletin 40, January 5, 1959, 24–33; Telegram from the Department of State to the Mission at the United Nations, Washington, DC, November 19, 1958, FRUS, vol. II, doc. 457, 875; Telegram from the Mission at the United Nations to the Department of State, November 20, 1958, FRUS, vol. II, doc. 450, 872.

75. Address by Secretary of State Dulles to the General Assembly, September 18, 1958, Department of State Bulletin 39, no. 1006 (October 6, 1958), 528–29; DDE, Address Before the 15th General Assembly of the United Nations, New York City, September 22, 1960, APP, accessed March 8, 2017, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=11954; Statement by Lodge to the First Committee of the General Assembly, October 10, 1957, Documents on Disarmament, 1945–1959, vol. 2, 901–2; Address by Senator Lyndon B. Johnson to the First Committee of the General Assembly, November 17, 1958, Department of State Bulletin 39, no. 1016 (December 15, 1958): 977–80.

76. Address by Senator Lyndon B. Johnson to the First Committee of the General Assembly, November 17, 1958, Department of State Bulletin 39, no. 1016 (December 15, 1958): 977–80.

77. Thomas J. Hamilton, “Space-Talk Boycott Another Blow to U.N.,” NYT, May 10, 1959; McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 185.

78. United Nations General Assembly, Resolution 1348 (XIII) Question of the Peaceful Use of Outer Space, 792nd Plenary Meeting, December 13, 1958, 5–6.

79. Circular Airgram from the Department of State to Certain Diplomatic Missions, Washington, DC, April 28, 1959, FRUS, vol. II, doc. 458, 884–86.

80. Statement by the United States Representative (Lodge) to the General Assembly, February 14, 1957, DSB, March 11, 1957, 423.

81. McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 174; Stares, Militarization of Space, 57; John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries Into the History of the Cold War (New York, 1989), chap. 7; Sean N. Kalic, US Presidents and the Militarization of Outer Space, 1946–1967 (College Station, TX, 2012), 81–82.

82. USIA, Office of Research and Analysis, “Impact of US and Soviet Space Programs on World Opinion,” July 7, 1959, US President's Committee on Information Activities Abroad (Sprague Committee) Reports, 1959–1961.

83. Malvina Lindsay, “Earth in Crisis—A Space View,” WP, October 4, 1958.

84. Karl G. Harr, Memorandum to the President, “US Position on Outer Space,” November 25, 1958, MOSC, DNSA.

85. McConnell, Earth Day, 286.

4. Lunartics!

1. US Army, Project Horizon, vol. 1, Summary and Supporting Considerations, March 20, 1959; US Army, Project Horizon, vol. 2, Technical Considerations and Plans, March 20, 1959; “Soldiers, Spies and the Moon: Secret US and Soviet Plans from the 1950s and 1960s,” National Security Archive (hereafter NSA), http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB479/; Jeffrey T. Richelson, “Shootin’ for the Moon,” Bulletin of Atomic Scientists 56, no. 5 (September/October 2000): 22–28.

2. US Army, Project Horizon, vol. 1, 2.

3. US Army, Project Horizon, vol. 1, 3, 61.

4. Memorandum, White House to J. R. Killian. “Preliminary Observations on the Organization for the Exploitation of Outer Space,” February 21, 1958, Militarization of Outer Space, 1945–1991 Collection, Digital National Security Archive (hereafter MOSC, DNSA).

5. “Control of the World,” NYT, January 9, 1958.

6. Simon Ramo, “Choosing Our Space Goals,” in Space Weapons: A Handbook of Military Astronautics, ed. James H. Straubel et al. (New York, 1959), 164.

7. “Space and National Security,” undated (but around December 1960), 4–6 Space/Nuclear, box 45, Thomas D. White Papers hereafter (TWP), Manuscripts Division (MD), Library of Congress (LOC).

8. The Military Mission in Space: A Summary of Views by Key Officials, 7–6 Nuclear Testing and Space 1962, box B137, Curtis E. LeMay Papers (CLP), MD, LOC.

9. Dwayne A. Day, “Take Off and Nuke the Site from Orbit (It's the Only Way to Be Sure),” Space Review, June 4, 2007, http://www.thespacereview.com/article/882/1.

10. Stephen B. Johnson, “The History and Historiography of National Security Space,” in Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight (Washington, DC, 2006); Dwayne A. Day, Eye in the Sky: The Story of the Corona Spy Satellites (Washington, DC, 1999); Paul B. Stares, The Militarization of Space: US Policy, 1945–1984 (Ithaca, NY, 1985); Jeffery T. Richelson, America's Space Sentinels: DSP Satellites and National Security (Lawrence, KS, 2001); William Burrows, Deep Black: Space Espionage and National Security (New York, 1988); Robert M. Dienesch, Eyeing the Red Storm: Eisenhower and the First Attempt to Build a Spy Satellite (Lincoln, NE, 2016); Sean N. Kalic, US Presidents and the Militarization of Outer Space, 1946–1967 (College Station, TX, 2012).

11. Johnson, “History and Historiography,” 481–572.

12. Steffen Hantke, Monsters in the Machine: Science Fiction Film and the Militarization of America after World War II (Jackson, MS, 2016), 4; Howard E. McCurdy, Space and the American Imagination (Washington, DC, 1997), chap. 3; Keith M. Booker, Monsters, Mushroom Clouds, and the Cold War: American Science Fiction and the Roots of Postmodernism, 1946–1964 (Westport, CT, 2001); David Seed, American Science Fiction and the Cold War: Literature and Film (Chicago, IL, 1999); Mike Ashley, Transformations: The Story of the Science-Fiction Magazines 1950 to 1970, vol. 2 (Liverpool, UK, 2005); David Pringle, “What Is This Thing Called Space Opera?,” in Space and Beyond: The Frontier Theme in Science Fiction, ed. Gary Westfahl (Westport, CT, 2000).

13. The Space Ace, no. 1 (1951), box 34, Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington (hereafter LLIU); Space Man, no. 5 (June–August 1963), box OS13, LLIU; “Victory Viceroy,” Out of This World, vol. 1, no. 11 (January 1959), box OS11, LLIU.

14. John Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1987).

15. “Easy Victory,” Space War, vol. 1, no. 19 (March 1963), box OS13, LLIU; Space Man, no. 2 (May–July 1962), box OS13, LLIU.

16. McCurdy, Space and the American Imagination, chap. 2; Joseph Kaplan and Wernher von Braun, Across the Space Frontier (New York, 1952), Wernher von Braun et al., Conquest of the Moon (New York, 1953); Chelsey Bonestell, Willy Ley, and Wernher von Braun, The Exploration of Mars (New York, 1956).

17. Michael J. Neufeld, Von Braun: Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War (Washington, DC, 2007).

18. Speech delivered during the Symposium on Space Medicine at the University of Illinois, Chicago, March 3, 1950, Speeches and Writings File, 1949–50, box 46, Wernher von Braun Papers (WvB), MD, LOC.

19. Speech at ARS Luncheon, May 6, 1953, in Indiana, Speeches and Writings File, 1951–1955, box 46, WvB; “Scientists Says Moon Military Base Useless,” LAT, March 13, 1958; Speech before the Delta Council in Cleveland, Mississippi, May 19, 1959, Speeches and Writings Files, May–June 1959, box 47, WvB; Space Superiority as a Means for Achieving World Peace, December 1952 in San Diego, California, Speeches and Writings File, 1951–55, box 46, WvB.

20. Robert S. Richardson, “Rocket Blitz from the Moon,” Collier's Weekly, October 23, 1948, 25.

21. Robert Granville, “Death Ray Weapons,” Space World 2, no. 5 (May 1962): 48–49; Robert Granville, “The Weapons—Part I,” Space World 2, no. 2 (February 1962): 34; Stephen Gorove, “On the Threshold of Space: Toward Cosmic Law,” New York Law Forum 4 (1958): 307–8 (emphasis in original).

22. Marvin Kepler, “The Weapons, Part II,” Space World 2, no. 3 (February 1962): 37.

23. Donald Cox and Michael Stoiko, “The Need for a United Nations Space Law,” in US Senate, Legal Problems of Space Exploration: A Symposium: Prepared for the Use of the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences (Washington, DC, 1961), 246; Thomas J. Hamilton, “U.N. Space Agreement Bogged by ‘Cold War,’” NYT, November 16, 1958.

24. M. N. Golovine, Conflict in Space: A Pattern of War in n New Dimension (New York, 1962), 88–96.

25. Golovine, Conflict in Space, 96–105.

26. Carroll Kilpatrick, “‘Moon's’ Military Role Weighed,” WP, October 10, 1957.

27. James B. Edson, “Astronautics and the Future,” BAS 14, no. 3 (March 1958): 105.

28. Albert C. Stillson, “Space Control—How … and How Much?,” Air Force Magazine (May 1959), accessed June 15, 2020, http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/1959/May%201959/0559spacecontrol.aspx.

29. Alexander P. deSeversky, “Air Power, Missiles, and National Survival,” Air Power Historian 5, no. 1 (January 1958): 21; Donald Cox, “Space Power: When US Air Force Becomes US Space Force,” Missiles and Rockets (June 1957): 65–69.

30. Robert S. Richardson, “Space Fix,” Astounding Science Fiction 31 no. 1 (April 1943).

31. Nordin Yusof, Space Warfare: High-Tech War of the Future Generation (Melaka, Malaysia, 1999), 268–69; Simon P. Worden and Bruce P. Jackson, “Space, Power, and Strategy,” National Interest, no. 13 (Fall 1988): 43–52; G. Harry Stine, Confrontation in Space (New York, 1981), 55–58.

32. Albert C. Stillson, “The Military Control of Outer Space,” Journal of International Affairs 13, no. 1 (1959), 73–74; Edson, “Astronautics and the Future,” 105.

33. Homer A. Boushey, “Some Military Implications of Astronautics,” in The Impact of Air Power: National Security and World Politics, ed. Eugene M. Emme (Princeton, NJ, 1959), 871–72; Homer Boushey, “Lunar Base Vital Says AF General,” Army-Navy-Air Force Register, February 8, 1958; Homer Boushey, “The Space Frontier,” in Space Weapons, 45.

34. “Mars, Moon Bases Foreseen in 20 Years,” AWISP 68, no. 26, June 30, 1958; “US Base on Moon Vital, Air Force Expert Says,” BG, January 29, 1958; “A Shot at the Moon,” Time, March 10, 1958; “A Shot at the Moon,” Time, March 10, 1958.

35. Louis Kraar, “Westinghouse Seeks to Build Power Station on Moon, Make Electricity from Sunlight,” WSJ, September 11, 1958; Harold S. Roberts, “Progress Made on Moon Plant,” The Sun, July 19, 1964.

36. “Model for a Moon-Base Displayed,” LAT, June 22, 1962.

37. Robert B. Rigg, “Outer Space and National Defense,” Military Review 39, no. 2 (May 1959): 22.

38. “Space Strategy Hinges on Time Factors, AWIST 69, no. 16 (October 20, 1958): 53–55.

39. Rigg, “Outer Space and National Defense,” 22; Golovine, Conflict in Space, 136.

40. Thomas D. White to Lt. Gen. Ennis C. Whitehead, March 17, 1960, 4–5 Missiles/Space/Nuclear, box 36, TWP.

41. Thomas Schelling, “Military Uses of Outer Space: Bombardment Satellites,” in Joseph M. Goldsen, Outer Space in World Politics (New York, 1963), 101; Philip Siekman, “The Fantastic Weaponry,” in Reflections on Space, ed. Oscar H. Rechtschaffen (Air Force Academy, CO, 1964), 265; Edson, “Astronautics and the Future,” 105; Golovine, Conflict in Space, 110, 115, 136;Donald Cox and Michael Stoiko, Spacepower: What It Means to You (Philadelphia, PA, 1958), 149; Klaus Knorr, “The International Implications of Outer Space Activities,” in Outer Space in World Politics, 134–37.

42. Arthur C. Clarke, “On the Morality of Space,” Saturday Review, October 5, 1957; Marguerite Higgins, “How Many Pearl Harbors?,” in The Challenge of the Sputniks, ed. Richard Witkin (New York, 1957), 49–50; Lincoln P. Bloomfield, ed., Outer Space: Prospects for Man and Society, rev. ed. (New York, 1968), 3; Joseph M. Goldsen, “Outer Space in World Politics,” in Outer Space and World Politics, 5; Walter Sullivan, “The International Geophysical Year,” International Conciliation 111 (1959): 259; Lloyd V. Berkner, “Earth Satellites and Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs 6, no. 2 (January 1958): 221–31.

43. Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783, intro. Louis M. Hacker (New York, 1957).

44. Dandridge Cole, “The Panama Hypothesis,” Astronautics 6, no. 6 (June 1961), 36–39; Golovine, Conflict in Space, 112–13; Cox and Stoiko, Spacepower, 102; “Why We Must Beat the Russians to the Moon,” Space World 2, no. 3 (February 1962), 30.

45. Jacob D. Hamblin, Arming Mother Nature: The Birth of Catastrophic Environmentalism (New York, 2013), 142.

46. Stine, Confrontation in Space, 58.

47. Peter Ritner, “Reflections on Sea and Space,” Saturday Review, June 22, 1957, 11–12.

48. The Military Mission in Space: A Summary of Views by Key Officials, 7–6 Nuclear Testing and Space 1962, box B137, CLP.

49. Robert F. Futrell, Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine, vol. 1, Basic Thinking in the United States Air Force (Maxwell AFB, AL, 1971), 553–54.

50. Stephen Rothstein, “Ideas as Institutions: Explain the Air Force's Struggle with Its Aerospace Concept” (PhD diss., Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, 2006), 158.

51. Thomas White, “Space Control and National Security,” Air Force Magazine 41, no. 4 (April 1958): 83; Thomas D. White, “Air and Space are Indivisible,” Air Force Magazine 41, no. 3 (March 1958): 40–41; Thomas D. White, “The Inevitable Climb to Space,” Air University Quarterly Review 10, no. 4 (Winter 1958–59): 3–4; Thomas D. White, “At the Dawn of the Space Age,” Air Power Historian 5, no. 1 (January 1958), 17; Alexander P. deSeversky, “Air Power, Missiles, and National Survival,” Air Power Historian 5, no. 1 (January 1958): 22.

52. Rothstein, “Ideas as Institutions,” 163.

53. David N. Spires, “The Air Force and Military Space Missions: The Critical Years, 1957–1961,” in The US Air Force in Space, 1945 to the 21st Century, ed. R. Cargill Hall and Jacob Neufeld (Washington, DC, 1998), 39–40.

54. Emme, Impact of Air Power, 844.

55. “A Job for the Military, Too,” NYT, October 8, 1961.

56. Straubel et al., Space Weapons, 2.

57. “Space and National Security,” undated but around December 1960, 4–6 Space/Nuclear, box 45, TWP.

58. Statement by General Bernard Schriever Before the House Committee on Armed Services, n.d., box 25, Bernard A. Schriever Papers (BSP), MD, LOC.

59. “A Job for the Military, Too.”

60. Bernard Schriever, “Does The Military Have a Role in Space?,” in Space: Its Impact on Man and Society, ed. Lillian Levy (New York, 1965), 63.

61. Memorandum, Henry Jackson to James S. Lay (executive secretary of the NSC), June 15, 1960, MOSC, DNSA.

62. Eugene Zuckert, “Military Space Program,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, March 25, 1963, 17.

63. Chester Ward, “National Sovereignty in Space,” Proceedings (American Bar Association. Section of International and Comparative Law) (August 24, 26, 1958), 42–45; James H. Doolittle, “Impact of the Present World Situation on the Development of Peaceful Uses of Space,” in Peacetime Uses of Outer Space, ed. Simon Ramo (New York, 1961), 33; Walter McDougall, “Technocracy and Statecraft in the Space Age—Toward the History of a Saltation,” American Historical Review 87, no. 4 (October 1982): 1010–40.

64. Thomas D. White, “Space Control and National Security,” 80–83; Thomas D. White, “Space Control and National Security,” in Space Weapons, 11–17; Thomas D. White, “Aerospace Power … Today and Tomorrow,” Air Force Magazine 41, no. 11 (November 1958): 51–54; Thomas D. White, “The Space Frontier,” in Space Weapons, 20; Rigg, “Outer Space and National Defense,” 22 (emphasis in original).

65. Dan C. Ogle, “The Threshold of Space,” Air University Quarterly Review 10, no. 2 (Summer 1958): 3.

66. US Congress, Hearings before the Select Committee on Aeronautics and Space Exploration, House of Representatives, 85th Congress, 2nd Session, April 16, 1958 (Washington, DC, 1958), 99–102.

67. Walter McDougall, … the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York, 1985), 339.

68. Nicholas M. Sambaluk, The Other Space Race: Eisenhower and the Quest for Aerospace Security (Annapolis, MD, 2015).

69. McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 335–37.

70. “Scientists Says Moon Military Base Useless,” LAT, March 13, 1958; Seymour Korman, “Raps View of Space as War Asset,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 21, 1958; “Military Base on Moon Unsound, Scientist Says,” LAT, May 15, 1958; “Moon on the Potomac,” WSJ, August 15, 1958; Hanson W. Baldwin, “Conquest of the Moon,” NYT, April 14, 1958.

71. “Moon Held Too Valuable for Military Use,” LAT, August 15, 1958.

72. Arthur C. Clarke, The Exploration of Outer Space (1951; repr., Greenwich, CT, 1959), 177.

73. “Moon Discounted as Arms Base,” NYT, April 29, 1958; “Moon on the Potomac.”

74. Peter Ritner, “Reflections on Sea and Space,” Saturday Review, June 22, 1957, 11–12; Phil Casey, “Lunartics Cry for Moon but US Darkens Hopes,” WP, November 21, 1958; John Brunner, letter to the editors, Space World 3, no. 2 (July 1962): 4.

75. “Planning Implications for National Security of Outer Space in the 1970s, Basic National Security Policy, Planning Task I (1),” January 30, 1964, space, Outer, 11/63-4/64 Volume I [3 of 3], box 37, National Security File (NSF), Subject File, LBJL (emphasis in the original).

76. H. Bruce Franklin, War Stars: The Superweapon and the American Imagination (New York, 1988).

5. The Cosmic Bomb

1. L. Reiffel, Armour Research Foundation, Illinois Institute of Technology, A Study of Lunar Research Flights, vol. 1 (Kirkland Air Force Base, NM: Air Force Special Weapons Center, June 19, 1959); “Soldiers, Spies and the Moon: Secret US and Soviet Plans from the 1950s and 1960s,” National Security Archive (hereafter NSA), accessed May 2, 2017, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB479/; Vince Houghton, Nuking the Moon: And Other Intelligence Schemes and Military Plots Left on the Drawing Board (New York, 2019), 279–83.

2. Reiffel, A Study of Lunar Research Flights; James MacNees, “US Bomb on Moon Seen Sputnik Answer,” The Sun, November 5, 1957.

3. Sidney Shallett, “New Age Ushered: Day of Atomic Energy Hailed by President, Revealing Weapon,” NYT, August 7, 1945; Luther Huston, “No Cut in the Army Is Planned as a Result of New Bomb Use,” NYT, August 8, 1945; “Secret War Nipped Reich Cosmic Bomb,” NYT, August 10, 1945; Major George Fielding Eliot, “Atomic Bomb Seen Increasingly Necessity for Military Training,” NYHT, October 26, 1945; James Marshall, “World in Mortal Peril: Promotion of Good Will Called Only Safeguard,” NYHT, August 15, 1945.

4. Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (Stanford, CA, 1991); Daniel Ellsberg, The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner (New York, 2017); Richard Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly (New York, 2007).

5. Ed Regis, Monsters: The Hindenburg Disaster and the Birth of Pathological Technology (New York, 2015), chap. 9; Scott Kaufman, Project Ploughshare: The Peaceful Use of Nuclear Explosives in Cold War America (Ithaca, NY, 2013); Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia's Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburg, PA, 2005), chap. 8.

6. H. Bruce Franklin, War Stars: The Superweapon and the American Imagination (New York, 1988), 3–4.

7. United Nations, General Assembly Resolution 1884 (XVIII): Stationing Weapons of Mass Destruction in Outer Space, October 17, 1963, Documents on Disarmament: 1963 (Washington, DC, 1964), 538; Raymond L. Garthoff, “Banning the Bomb in Outer Space.” International Security 5, no. 3 (Winter 1980): 25–40; Stephen Buono, “‘This Grim Game’: Kennedy and Arms Control for Outer Space,” Diplomatic History 43, no. 5 (November 2010): 840–66.

8. Asif Siddiqi, “The Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment System,” Quest 7, no. 4 (2000): 28; Paul N. Stares, “US and Soviet Military Space Programs: A Comparative Assessment,” Daedalus 114, no. 2 (1985) 127–45.

9. ACDA, “A US-Soviet Arrangement Concerning the Placing in Orbit of Weapons of Mass Destruction,” October 1, 1963, Space Activities: Space Bombs in Orbit, 1963: September-November, box 308, NSF, John F. Kennedy Library (JFKL); Peter Hill, “Love in Action Is Our Star of Hope!” December 1957, Star of Hope Correspondence 1957, box 32, JMP.

10. “First a Light Man Had Never Seen …” Life 53, no. 3 (July 20, 1962), 26–29; “Explosion's Effect on Radio and Radar Studied by Experts,” The Sun (Baltimore, MD), July 10, 1962; “Report H-Bomb Fired 400 Mi. Up,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 10, 1962; John A. Osmundsen, “Blast Makes Visible Fields of Magnetism In Sky Over Samoa,” NYT, July 10, 1962; “Report H-Bomb Fired 400 Mi. Up,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 10, 1962; Daniel G. Dupont, “Nuclear Explosions in Orbit,” Scientific American 290, no. 6 (June 2004): 100–107; Mark Wolverton, Burning the Sky: Operation Argus and the Untold Story of the Cold War Nuclear Tests in Outer Space (New York, 2018), 188–89.

11. Elisheva R. Coleman, “Greek Fire: Nicholas Christofilos and the Astron Project in America's Early Fusion Program,” Journal of Fusion Energy 30, no. 3 (June 2011): 238–56; Abigail Foerstner, James Van Allen: The First Eight Billion Miles (Iowa City, IA, 2007):188; Wolverton, Burning the Sky, 22–23.

12. Herbert York, Making Weapons, Talking Peace: A Physicist's Odyssey from Hiroshima to Geneva (New York, 1987), 131.

13. James Rodger Fleming, “Iowa Enters the Space Age: James Van Allen, Earth's Radiation Belts, and Experiments to Disrupt Them,” Annals of Iowa 70, no. 4 (Fall 2011): 310–11.

14. Defense Nuclear Agency, DNA 6039F, Operation Argus, 1958 (Washington, DC, 1982), 16.

15. US Department of Energy, NV0059492, Briefing to Admiral Arleigh Burke, Chief of Naval Operations, The Argus Experiment, July 29, 1958, DOE OpenNet, www.osti.gov/opennet; Frank H. Shelton, Reflections of a Physicist: Project Argus (Colorado Springs, CO, 2000), 17, slide 58; Wolverton, Burning the Sky, 23; Ann Finkbeiner, The Jasons: The Secret History of Science's Postwar Elite (New York, 2006), 56; Zuoyue Wang, In Sputnik's Shadow: The President's Science Advisory Committee and Cold War America (Piscataway, NJ, 2008), 109; Lisa M. Mundey, “The Civilization of a Nuclear Weapons Effects Test: Operation ARGUS,” Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 42, no. 4 (September 2012): 291.

16. Robert J. Watson, History of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, vol. 4, Into the Missile Age, 1956–1960 (Washington, DC: Office of the Secretary of Defense Historical Office, 1997): 699–700; Donald A. Stricland, “Scientists as Negotiators: The 1958 Geneva Conference of Experts,” Midwest Journal of Political Science 8, no. 4 (November 1964): 372–84.

17. Lisa Mundey, “Civilianization of a Nuclear Weapon,” 296.

18. York, Making Weapons, 149.

19. Mundey, “Civilianization of a Nuclear Weapon,” 296; George H. Ludwig, Opening Space Research: Dreams, Technology, and Scientific Discovery (Washington, DC, 2011), 369.

20. Defense Nuclear Agency, DNA 6039F, 18.

21. Wolverton, Burning the Sky, 87, 97–98; James A. Van Allen, Carl E. McIlwain, and George H. Ludwig, “Satellite Observations of Electrons Artificially Injected into the Geomagnetic Field,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 45, no. 8 (August 15, 1959): 1152–71; Christian Brahmnstedt, ed., Defense's Nuclear Agency, 1947–1997 (Washington, DC, 2002): 145–46.

22. James R. Killian, Memorandum for the President, “Preliminary Results of the ARGUS Experiment,” November 3, 1958, Declassified Document Reference System (DDRS); Memorandum for the White House, October 17, 1958, DDRS.

23. Wolverton, Burning the Sky, 110.

24. N. C. Christofilos, “The Argus Experiment,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 45, no. 8 (August 15, 1959): 1144–52.

25. Walter Sullivan, Assault on the Unknown: The International Geophysical Year (New York, 1961), 143; Mark Wolverton, “How the World Learned about the Pentagon's Sky-High Nuclear Testing,” The Atlantic, November 24, 2018.

26. Wolverton, Burning the Sky, 93, 112.

27. Hanson W. Baldwin, “US Atom Blasts 300 Miles Up Mar Radar, Snag Missile Plan,” NYT, March 19, 1959; George B. Kistiakowsky, A Scientist in the White House: The Private Diary of President Eisenhower's Special Assistant for Science and Technology (Cambridge, MA, 1976), 72; York, Making Weapons, 149–50.

28. Nuclear Explosions in Space: Hearing before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, US House of Representatives, 86th Congress, 1st Session, April 10, 1959 (Washington, DC, 1959).

29. Baldwin, “US Atom Blasts 300 Miles Up.”

30. Fleming, “Iowa Enters the Space Age,” 324.

31. Katherine B. Faulkner, “To the Editor,” NYT, March 30, 1959; “Of Bombs and Men,” BG, March 20, 1959.

32. US Senate, The Nature of Radioactive Fallout and Its Effects on Man, Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Radiation of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, 85th Congress, 1st Session, May 27, 28, 29, and June 3, 1957 (Washington, DC, 1957); US Congress, Biological and Environmental Effects of Nuclear War, Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Radiation of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 86th Congress, 1st Session, June 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, 1959 (Washington, DC, 1959), 56–60; Barton Sumner, “Space Taint Could Twist Weather,” BG, January 21, 1962; Samuel Glasstone, ed., The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (Washington, DC, 1957), 446–49; Edward Gamarekian, “Expert Says One Bomb Can End Satellite Life around World,” WP, April 30, 1959; Brahmnstedt, Defense's Nuclear Agency, 135–37.

33. Harold K. Jacobson and Eric Stine, Diplomats, Scientists, and Politicians: The United States and the Nuclear Test Ban Negotiations (Ann Arbor, 1966), 89–90.

34. Martha Smith-Norris, “The Eisenhower Administration and the Nuclear Test Ban Talks, 1958–1960,” Diplomatic History 27, no. 4 (September 2004): 530; Robert Divine, Blowing on the Wind: The Nuclear Test Ban Debate, 1954–1960 (New York, 1978), chap. 10; Thomas F. Soapes, “A Cold Warrior Seeks Peace: Eisenhower's Strategy for Nuclear Disarmament,” Diplomatic History 4, no. 1 (Winter 1980): 67–68; Brahmnstedt, Defense's Nuclear Agency, 147.

35. Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs, trans. Richard Lourie (New York, 1992), 215–27; Sergei Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower (Philadelphia, PA, 2001), 514–15.

36. Anatoly Zak, “The ‘K’ Project: Soviet Nuclear Tests in Space,” Nonproliferation Review 13, no. 1 (March 2006): 143–50; Pavel Podvig, ed., Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces (Cambridge, MA, 2001), 449–52.

37. Zak, “The ‘K’ Project,” 143.

38. V. N. Greesai, et. al., “Response of Long Lines to Nuclear High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP),” IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility 40, no. 4 (November 1998): 348–54; Fleming, “Iowa Enters the Space Age,” 319.

39. “Report H-Bomb Fired 400 Mi. Up,” CT, July 10, 1962; Robert C. Toth, “The Big Blast,” NYHT, July 10, 1962; “Explosion's Effect on Radio and Radar Studied by Experts,” The Sun (Baltimore, MD), July 10, 1962; Dupont, “Nuclear Explosions in Orbit,”100.

40. John Lear, “The Facts about the 1962 Space Bomb,” SR/Research, August 6, 1963, 47; Walter Sullivan, “Radiation Belt Made by H-Bomb Produces Hiss Audible on Radio,” NYT, October 14, 1962; Robert J. Toth, “In Outer Space—Hell to Pay,” NYHT, August 29, 1962.

41. David S. Portree, “Starfish and Apollo (1962),” Wired, March 21, 2012, https://www.wired.com/2012/03/starfishandapollo-1962/.

42. Wolverton, Burning the Sky, 174–75.

43. Richard Hollingham, “The Cold War Nuke That Fried Satellites,” BBC.com, September 11, 2015, https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20150910-the-nuke-that-fried-satellites-with-terrifying-results.

44. Phyllis Schlafly and Chester Ward, The Gravediggers (Alton, IL, 1964); Phyllis Schlafly and Chester Ward, The Betrayers (Alton, IL, 1968); Phyllis Schlafly and Chester Ward, Kissinger on the Couch (Westport, CT, 1975); Phyllis Schlafly and Chester Ward, Ambush at Vladivostok (Alton, IL, 1976).

45. Phyllis Schlafly and Chester Ward, Strike from Space: A Megadeath Mystery (Alton, IL, 1965), 50 (emphasis in original).

46. “The Polyansky Report on Khrushchev's Mistakes in Foreign Policy, October 1964,” October 1964, The National Security Archive, https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/115108

47. Jeff Sutton, Bombs in Orbit (New York, 1959); Jeff Sutton, H-Bomb over America (New York, 1967).

48. Everett C. Dolman, Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 8.

49. “Scientists Say Moon Military Base Useless,” LAT, March 13, 1958.

50. Report on Political and Informational Aspects of Satellite Reconnaissance Policy, July 5, 1962, NSAM, 156, box 336, NSF, JFKL.

51. “Sun Gun,” Time 46, no. 2 (July 9, 1945), 58–60; “The German Space Mirror,” Life 19, no. 4 (July 23, 1945), 78–80; Gladwin Hill, “Nazis’ Scientists Planned Sun ‘Gun’ 5,100 Miles Up,” NYT, June 29, 1945; John O’Reilly, “Weapons the Nazis Almost Used: A Nightmare of War Horrors,” NYHT, June 29, 1945.

52. Louis N. Ridenour, “Pilot Lights of the Apocalypse,” Fortune 33 (January 1946): 116–17, 219.

53. Douglas Aircraft Company, Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, Report No. SM-11827 (Santa Monica, CA, 1946), 10.

54. Rand Corporation, “Conference on Methods for Studying the Psychological Effects of Unconventional Weapons,” Santa Monica, California, January 26–28, 1949, MOSC, DSNA; Sean N. Kalic, US Presidents and the Militarization of Outer Space, 1946–1967 (College Station, TX, 2012), 18–24.

55. National Security Council Report, NSC 5520, May 20, 1955, FRUS, 1955–1957, United Nations and General International Matters, vol. 11, ed. Lisle A. Rose (Washington, DC, 1998), doc. 340, 725.

56. PSAC, “Introduction to Outer Space,” March 26, 1958, Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the US Civil Space Program, vol. 1, Organizing for Exploration, ed. John M. Logsdon (Washington, DC, 1995), 332; James R. Killian, Sputnik, Scientists and Eisenhower: A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology (Cambridge, MA, 1977), 297.

57. Cargill Hall, “Origins of US Space Policy: Eisenhower, Open Skies, and Freedom of Space,” in Exploring the Unknown, 229, fn. 72; Kistiakowsky, Scientist in the White House, 229–46; “Satellite Unsuited to Be Bomb Carrier,” BG, March 27, 1958; “Satellite Is Seen A Flop As Carrier of H-Bomb,” The Sun, October 9, 1957; “Satellites Have No Military Future,” LAT, March 23, 1958.

58. Paul B. Stares, The Militarization of Space: US Policy, 1945–1984 (Ithaca, NY, 1985), 49, 59.

59. Rand Corporation, Space Weapons, Earth Wars (Santa Monica, CA, 2002), 10–11.

60. Robert W. Buchheim and the Rand Corporation, Space Handbook (New York, 1958), 255–57; Edward Gamarekian, “Bomb Role Held Possible For Satellites: RAND Study Also Says A-Weapons Usable in Space,” WP, January 9,1959.

61. Brent D. Ziarnick, “Tough Tommy's Space Force: General Thomas S. Power and the Air Force Space Program” (master's thesis, Air University, 2016), 71; Dwayne A. Day, “Nuking the Site From Orbit: When the Air Force Wanted a Base on the Moon,” Space Review, November 4, 2019, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3826/1; Dwayne A. Day, “Take Off and Nuke the Site From Orbit (It's the Only Way to Be Sure …),” Space Review, June 4, 2007, https://www.thespacereview.com/article/882/1.

62. “The USAF Reports to Congress: A Quarterly Review Staff Report,” Air University Quarterly Review 10, no. 1 (Spring 1958): 49.

63. James M. Gavin, War and Peace in the Space Age (New York, 1958), 223–24; Thomas C. Schelling, “The Military Uses of Outer Space,” 97–113; M. N. Golovine, Conflict in Space: A Pattern of War in n New Dimension (New York, 1962), 93; Miles Marvin, “Satellites with Bombs Possible,” LAT, May 17, 1959.

64. Golovine, Conflict in Space, 93; Frank Bristow, “Satellite Bomb, Good or Evil?,” LAT, October 2, 1960.

65. Schelling, “Military Uses of Outer Space,” 97–113.

66. Paul V. Bartlett and Relf A. Fenley, “The Case for a Manned Space Weapon System,” Air University Quarterly Review 10, no. 4 (Winter 1958–59): 45; Marvin, “Satellites with Bombs Possible.”

67. Astronautics and Space Exploration: Hearings Before the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, 85th Congress, 2nd Session, April 15–May 12, 1958, 1180–81; “The USAF Reports to Congress: A Quarterly Review Staff Report,” 49.

68. Max Frankel, “Khrushchev's Weapon An ‘Orbital H-Bomb,’ US Scientists Suggest: Soviet Boss Decides to Cut Army,” Atlanta Constitution, January 15, 1960; “Orbital H-Bomb Seen as New Soviet Weapon,” LAT, January 15, 1960.

69. Telegram from the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council (Smith) to the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy),” September 16, 1964, FRUS, 1964–1968, vol. 10, National Security Policy, ed. David S. Patterson (Washington, DC, 2001), doc. 51.

70. Siddiqi, “Soviet Fractional Orbiting Bombardment System,” 23; Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Gainesville, FL, 2003), 321–22.

71. Director of Central Intelligence, National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) 11-1-62, The Soviet Space Program, December 5, 1962, CIA Electronic Reading Room, doc. 0000283833, 3–4, 21–22; Memorandum for Director of Intelligence McCone, September 25, 1963, FRUS, 1961–1963, vol. 5, Soviet Union (Washington, DC, 1998), doc. 357.

72. Siddiqi, “Soviet Fractional Bombardment System,” 24; Air Power Australia, Technical Report APA-TR-2010-0101, “The Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment System Program,” January 2010, http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Sov-FOBS-Program.html; Braxton Eisel, “The FOBS of War,” Air Force Magazine (June 2005): 72–75; Steven J. Zaloga, The Kremlin's Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia's Strategic Nuclear Forces, 1945–2000 (Washington, DC, 2002), 112–14; Nicholas Johnson, Soviet Military Strategy in Space (Coulsdon, UK, 1987), 131–48.

73. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, 253–54; “Reds Retrieve Space Capsule with Live Animals Aboard,” WP, August 21, 1960.

74. Miles Marvin, “Can Russ Orbit Satellite Bomb? Retired General Speculates upon Feat …” LAT, August 25, 1960.

75. Stares, Militarization of Space, 74–75; Herbert L. Sawyer, “The Soviet Space Controversy, 1961 to 1963” (PhD diss., Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, 1969), 34.

76. Mark Eastwood, “Anti-Nuclear Activism and Electoral Politics in the 1963 Test Ban Treaty,” Diplomatic History 44, no. 1 (January 2020): 133.

77. Sarah Bridger, Scientists at War: The Ethics of Cold War Weapons Research (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 31–32.

78. Stares, Militarization of Space, 73.

79. John F. Kennedy, Address in New York City Before the General Assembly of the United Nations, September 25, 1961, APP, accessed February 1, 2018, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=8352; US Department of State, Freedom from War: The United States Program for General and Complete Disarmament in a Peaceful World (Washington, DC, 1961), 7, 15; Stares, Militarization ofSpace, 82.

80. Kendrick Oliver, Kennedy, Macmillan and the Nuclear Test-Ban Debate, 1961–63 (London, 1998); Ronald J. Terchek, The Making of the Test Ban Treaty (New York, 1970); Glenn Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Test Ban (Berkeley, CA, 1983).

81. James Clay Moltz, The Politics of Space Security: Strategic Restraint and the Pursuit of National Interests, 3rd ed. (Stanford, CA, 2019), 130–33; Meeting on the Dominic Nuclear Test Series, September 5, 1962, in Timothy Naftali and Philip Zelikow, John F. Kennedy: The Great Crises, vol. 2, September–October 21, 1962, 81–100.

82. “Russians Accuse US on Test Plan,” NYT, June 5, 1962; “Space Atom Dangerous, Russia Says,” Atlanta Constitution, June 4, 1962.

83. “Charges US Tests Peril Astronauts,” CT, September 11, 1962.

84. Ernest B. Furgurson, “Titov Assails US Nuclear Plan as Space ‘Sabotage,” The Sun (Baltimore, MD), June 5, 1962.

85. Ernest B. Furgurson, “Gagarin Seeks US Support In Opposing High A-Blasts,” The Sun (Baltimore, MD), July 12, 1962; Gagarin Statement, Moscow TASS, June 5, 1962, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS).

86. Georgi Pokrovsky, “Crime in Space,” New Times no. 25, June 20, 1962, 9–11.

87. Wolverton, Burning the Sky, 176

88. Alekseyev on US “Adventurism,” Moscow, June 4, 1962, FBIS; High Altitude Tests Endanger World, Cairo Domestic Service, June 19, 1962, FBIS; Matyash on Indian Reaction, Moscow TASS, July 15, 1962, FBIS; US High-Altitude Tests Stir Protests, Moscow Voice and Press Transmissions, June 8, 1962,FBIS.

89. “Thant Raps US Nuclear Space Blasts: Sees Planned Tests As Sign of Psychosis,” NYT, June 6, 1962.

90. “High A-Test Halt Is Asked by Scientists,” CDT, June 18, 1962; “Britons Deplore Atom Test in Sky,” NYT, May 17, 1963; Robert Toth, “Will New A-Test in Space Backfire? Yes! Say British—Bunk! Says US,” BG, May 8, 1962.

91. Furgurson, “Gagarin Seeks US Support”; “Explosion's Effect on Radio and Radar Studied by Experts,” The Sun, July 10, 1962; Lear, “The Facts about the 1962 Space Bomb,” 46; Arthur Veysey, “Macmillan Defends US Nuclear Tests in Space,” CDT, May 9, 1962.

92. Lisa Ruth Rand, “Orbital Decay: Space Junk and the Environmental History of Earth's Planetary Borderlands (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2016), 126; “Soviet Protests Space Needles as War Move,” WP, May 18, 1963.

93. Toth, “Will New A-Test in Space Backfire?”

94. Veysey, “Macmillan Defends US Nuclear Tests.”

95. Memo, McGeorge Bundy to Dean Rusk, n.d. (spring 1962), NSAM 156, Re: Negotiations on disarmament and peaceful uses of outer space (NSAM 156), box 336, NSF, JFKL; Editorial Note, FRUS, 1961–1963, vol. 7, doc. 226.

96. Memorandum for the President, “Recommended US Position on a Separate Ban on Weapons of Mass Destruction in Outer Space,” July 12, 1962, NSAM 156, box 336, NSF, JFKL.

97. Garthoff, “Banning the Bomb in Space,” 29.

98. NSAM 183, Space Program of the United States, August 27, 1962, box 338, NSF, JFKL.

99. Excerpt from Remarks by Deputy Secretary of Defense Gilpatric, South Bend, Indiana, September 5, 1962, NSAM 192, Re: “A Separate Arms Control Measure for Outer Space” (NSAM 192), box 339, NSF, JFKL; Editorial Note, FRUS, 1961–63, vol. 7, doc. 565, 563–64.

100. Address at Rice University in Houston on the Nation's Space Effort, September 12, 1962, APP, accessed January 22, 2018, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=8862; John Logsdon, John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon (Washington, DC, 2010) 149–51.

101. Garthoff, “Banning the Bomb in Space,” 31–32.

102. Speech by Mr. Gromyko, September 19, 1963, UN doc. A/PV.1208.

103. Address before the 18th General Assembly of the United Nations, September 20, 1963, AAP, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-before-the-18th-general-assembly-the-united-nations.

104. Statement by the United States Representative (Stevenson) to the First Committee of the General Assembly: Stationing Weapons of Mass Destruction in Outer Space, October 16, 1963, Documents on Disarmament: 1963, 536.

105. Arthur C. Clarke, “On the Morality of Space,” The Saturday Review, October 5, 1957; Lyndon B. Johnson address before meeting of CBS affiliates, January 14, 1958, “Space Notebook [removed from binder],” box 359, CMTE on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, United States Senate, 1949–61, Papers of LBJ, LBJL; US House of Representatives, “Outer Space—the Road to Peace; Observations on Scientific Meetings and International Cooperation,” 86th Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, DC, 1960); “Space: Zone of Peace,” NYT, October 5, 1963.

106. Leonard Meeker to U. Alexis Johnson, Longer-Range Prospects in the Law of Outer Space, April 25, 1962, “Celestial Bodies Treaty Negotiating History—4, box 71, Office Files of Joseph Califano, Presidential Papers, 1963–1969, LBJL.

107. Walter McDougall, … the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York, 1985), 335; Stares, Militarization of Space, 90; Kalic, US Presidents, 82.

108. John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries Into the History of the Cold War (New York, 1989), chap. 7.

109. ACDA, “A US-Soviet Arrangement Concerning the Placing in Orbit of Weapons of Mass Destruction,” October 1, 1963, Space Activities: Space Bombs in Orbit, 1963: September–November, box 308, NSF, JFKL; McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 342.

6. A Celestial Magna Carta

1. Thomas Graham, Jr. and Damien J. LaVera, eds., Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era (Seattle, WA, 2003), 35–40.

2. John W. Finney, “Senate Approves Treaty to Limit Space Arms, 88-0,” NYT, April 26, 1967.

3. Hal Brands, “Progress Unseen: US Arms Control Policy and the Origins of Détente, 1963–1968,” Diplomatic History 30, no. 2 (April 2000): 255, 262; Helen Caldicott and Craig Eisenwrath, War in Heaven: The Arms Race in Outer Space (New York, 2007), 17.

4. Walter McDougall, … the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York, 1985), 416; Everett C. Dolman, Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age (London, 2002), 8; Robin Ranger, Arms and Politics, 1958–1978: Arms Control in a Changing Political Context (New York, 1982), 8.

5. Lyndon Johnson, Remarks at the Signing of the Treaty on Outer Space, January 27, 1967, APP, accessed July 2, 2018, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=28205.

6. United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), Legal Subcommittee (LS), A/AC.105/C.2/SR.57, Summary Record of the 57th Meeting, July 12, 1966; Andrew G. Haley, Space Law and Government (New York, 1963), 394; COUPUS, LS, A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, LS Summary Records, July 19, 1966.

7. Haley, Space Law and Government, 394.

8. COPUOS, LS, A/AC.105/C.2/SR.62, Summary Record of the 62nd Meeting, July 19, 1966.

9. Emile Laude, “Questions Pratiques,” Revue Juridique Internationale de Locomotion Arienne, vol. 1 (Paris, 1910): 16–18. Partial translation in Stephen E. Doyle, The Origins of Space Law and the International Institute of Space Law of the International Astronautical Federation (San Diego, CA, 2002), 1.

10. V. A. Zarzar, “Mezhdunarodnoye Publichnoye Vozdushnoye Pravo” (Public International Air Law), in Problems of Air Law, A Symposium of Works by the Air Law Sections of the USSR and RSFSR Unions of Societies for Assisting Defense and Aviation and Chemical Construction, Moscow, December 1926, vol. 1, 90–103.

11. Vladimir Mandl, Das Weltraum-Recht: Ein Problem der Raumfahrt (Leipzig, 1932).

12. Vladimir Kopal, “Vladimir Mandl: Founding Writer on Space Law,” Smithsonian Annals of Flight no. 8–10 (1974): 89–90.

13. Philip C. Jessup, “Jurisdiction,” Naval War College Review 8, no. 5 (January 1956): 28.

14. American Bar Association, Report of the Committee on Law of Outer Space, 14.B Outer Space 14.B.11 International Space Law 1959, part 2 of 2, box 343, RG 59 General Records of the Department of State, Office of the Secretary Special Assistant to Secretary of State for Atomic Energy and Outer Space, General Records Relating to Atomic Energy Matters, 1948–1962, USNA.

15. Ann L. Beresford, “Astronautics in World Affairs,” World Affairs 124, no. 1 (Spring, 1961): 5.

16. P. W. Quigg, “Open Skies and Open Space,” Foreign Affairs 37, no. 1 (October 1958): 95–106; Andrew G. Haley, “Law Must Precede Man into Space,” Missiles and Rockets 2, no. 11 (November 1957): 67–70; Stuart H. Loory, “Lawyer Says Space Law Is Needed Now: Fears War If Rocket ‘Incidents’ Continue,” NYHT, December 8, 1960; Matthew J. Corrigan, “Outer Space Lawyers: Eagles or Turtles?,” American Bar Association Journal 51, no. 9 (September 1965): 858; D. G. Brennan, “Why Outer Space Control?,” BAS 15, no. 5 (May 1959): 198–202.

17. US House of Representatives, Hearings before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, “International Control of Outer Space,” March 5, 6, and 11, 1959, 86th Congress, 1st Session (Washington, DC, 1959), 67.

18. Chester Ward, “Projecting the Law of the Sea into the Law of Space,” in Space Law: A Symposium, 163; McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 188.

19. Chester Ward, “National Sovereignty in Space,” Proceedings of the American Bar Association. Section of International and Comparative Law (August 24 and 26, 1958): 42–45 (emphasis in original).

20. House of Representatives, “International Control of Outer Space,” 96.

21. McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 188.

22. Andrew G. Haley, “The Rule of Law in the Space Age,” Foreign Policy Bulletin, September 1, 1958, 189.

23. Andrew G. Haley, “Space Law and Metalaw—A Synoptic View,” in Space Law: A Symposium.

24. Haley, “Space Law and Metalaw,” 158.

25. Elizabeth Mirel, “Golden Rule Invalid in Space,” Science News-Letter 85, no. 7 (February 15, 1964): 106–7.

26. Haley, Space Law and Government, 395; “Space Ethics,” Time 68, no. 14 (October 1, 1956): 53; Harry Gabbett, “Lawyer Blazes Cosmic Trail,” WP, January 9, 1957.

27. Mirel, “Golden Rule,” 106–7.

28. Haley, “Space Law and Metalaw,” 150–62.

29. Haley, “Rule of Law in the Space Age,” 189.

30. Haley, “Space Law and Metalaw,” 150–62.

31. Andrew G. Haley, “Space Law and Metalaw—Jurisdiction Defined,” Journal of Air Law and Commerce 24, no. 3 (1957): 286–303; Mirel, “Golden Rule,” 106–7.

32. Haley, Space Law and Government, 394.

33. Haley, “Space Law and Metalaw,” 150–62.

34. Haley, “Rule of Law in the Space Age,” 189.

35. Haley, “Rule of Law in the Space Age,” 190.

36. American Bar Foundation, Report to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration on the Law of Outer Space (Chicago, IL, 1961), 5.

37. William A. Hyman, Magna Carta of Space (Amherst, MA, 1966), 304A.

38. Hyman, Magna Carta of Space, 18.

39. “William Hyman, Lawyer, Is Dead: Early Advocate of Rules for Outer Space Was 72,” NYT, July 11, 1966.

40. Ryan A. Musto, “The Eisenhower Administration and the Origins of Regional Denuclearization: An International History (PhD diss., George Washington University, 2019).

41. Paul G. Dembling and Daniel M. Arons, “The United Nations Celestial Bodies Convention,” Journal of Air Law and Commerce 32 (January 1966): 424–25.

42. Albert Gore, “To Rule Space: Law or Might?,” NYT, November 10, 1963.

43. Arthur J. Goldberg Address to Committee I of the UN General Assembly on December 18, 1965, DSB, January 31, 1966, 163–67.

44. Position Paper for US Participation in Legal Subcommittee of UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, July 15, 1960, “Celestial Bodies Negotiating History—4,” box 71, Office Files of Joseph Califano, Presidential Papers, 1963–1969 (hereafter FJC), Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library (LBJL).

45. “United States Calls for Treaty on Exploration of the Moon,” May 7, 1966, DSB LIV, no. 1384 (June 1966): 900; Letter, Arthur J. Goldberg to Kurt Waldheim, May 9, 1966, DSB LIV, no. 1406 (June 6, 1966): 900–901; ACDA, Documents on Disarmament, 1966 (Washington, DC, 1966), 304, 347–55.

46. Eilene Galloway, “United States and USS.R. Draft Treaties on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies—A Comparative Analysis,” Space Treaty Proposals by the United States and USS.R., Staff Report Prepared for the Use of the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, US Senate, July 1966 (Washington, DC, 1966); Department of State, “Transcript of Background Press and Radio New Briefing, January 27, 1967,” Background on Outer Space Treaty Amb Golberg/Sisco/Meeker, 1/27/67, RG 59, Background and Press Briefings 1961–1975, box 6, USNA.

47. Galloway, “United States and USS.R. Draft Treaties,” 16–26; Goldberg to Rusk, July 22, 1966, “Celestial Bodies Treaty Negotiating History—2,” box 71, FJC, LBJL; Roman Gaither to Leonard Meeker, “Comparison of Soviet and United States Drafts, Outer Space Agreement, June 17, 1966,” “Celestial Bodies Treaty Negotiating History—3,” box 71, FJC, LBJL; Department of State, “Transcript of Background Press and Radio New Briefing, January 27, 1967.”

48. Legal Sub-Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, July 12, 1966 to August 24, 1966, S-0858-0001-02-00001, United Nations Archives (UNA); Department of State, “Transcript of Background Press and Radio New Briefing, January 27, 1967.”

49. “Toward Lunar Coexistence,” WP, August 28, 1966; “Background Papers for Forthcoming Outer Space Talks in New York, August 29, 1966,” Celestial Bodies Treaty Negotiating History—1, box 71, FJC, LBJL; Memorandum from the Executive Secretary of the Department of State (Read) to the President's Special Assistant (Rostow), August 10, 1966, FRUS, 1964–1968, vol. 11, doc. 145.

50. Memorandum of a Conversation, Secretary's Delegation to the Twenty-First Session of the United Nations General Assembly, September-October 1966, September 22, 1966, FRUS vol. 11, doc. 151, 365–68; Memo, Joseph Sisco to Dean Rusk, FRUS, vol. 11, doc. 154, 383; “Text of Goldberg's Address on Vietnam, Africa and Space,” NYT, September 23, 1966.

51. Memorandum for Walt Rostow, “Negotiation of an Outer Space Treaty,” August 10, 1966, MOSC, DSNA.

52. Telegram, Goldberg to DoD, August 4, 1966, “Celestial Bodies Negotiating History (hereafter CBNH)—2,” box 72, FJC, LBJL.

53. Department of State, “Transcript of Background Press and Radio New Briefing, January 27, 1967.”

54. Rusk to Goldberg, July 29, 1966, CBNH—2, box 71, FJC, LBJL.

55. Memorandum of a Conversation, Secretary's Delegation to the Twenty-First Session of the United Nations General Assembly, September–October 1966, September 22, 1966, FRUS, vol. 11, doc. 151, 365–68; Memo, Joseph Sisco to Dean Rusk, FRUS, vol. 11, doc. 154, 383; “Text of Goldberg's Address on Vietnam, Africa and Space.”

56. Administrative History of the Department of State during the Johnson Administration, vol. 1, chap. 10: The United Nations, section E: Outer Space Treaty, White House, n.d.; Background Papers for Outer Space Talks in New York; Proposal That Nuclear Weapons Not Be Placed in Orbit, August 29, 1966; Summary of Ambassador Arthur Goldberg's Talks with Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko Regarding: US-Soviet Outer Space and Celestial Bodies Treaty, US Bombing of North Vietnam, Nuclear Nonproliferation, Chinese Membership in the UN. Department of State, October 4, 1966. All documents available in the Declassified Document Reference System (DDRS).

57. Position Paper for US Participation in Legal Subcommittee of UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, n.d., CBNH—4, box 71, FJC, LBJL.

58. Paul Kennedy, The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations (New York, 2006), 125; Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton, NJ, 2009), chap. 4.

59. Dolman, Astropolitik, 100.

60. Dembling and Arons, “United Nations Celestial Bodies Convention,” 539.

61. US Senate, “Treaty on Outer Space: Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Relations,” 90th Congress, 1st Session, March 7–April 12, 1967 (hereafter “Space Treaty Hearings”), 36.

62. Background Papers for Forthcoming Outer Space Talks in New York, August 29, 1966, CBNH–1, FJC, box 71, LBJL.

63. Telegram, Goldberg to DoD, August 4, 1966, CBNH—2, box 72, FJC, LBJL.

64. Mark Orlove, “Space Out: The Third World Looks for a Way into Outer Space,” Connecticut Journal of International Law 4, no. 3 (Spring/Summer 1989): 597–634.

65. Excerpts from an Address Delivered on Thursday, 8 December 1966, by President William V. S. Tubman, President of the Republic of Liberia, Relating to the Subject of Outer Space, PO 146/1 (1) Legal Principles on the exploration and use of outer space, S-0442-0116-07, UNA (emphasis added).

66. Excerpts from an Address Delivered on Thursday, 8 December 1966, by President William V. S. Tubman.

67. “Keeping Space Bomb-Free,” BG, August 8, 1966.

68. “US, Russia Agree on Space Use Pact,” WSJ, December 9, 1966, 2.

69. Lyndon Johnson, Remarks at the Signing of the Treaty on Outer Space, January 27, 1967, APP; Remarks of His Excellency, Anatoly F. Dobrynin, Ambassador of the USS.R. to the United States, at the Ceremony on the Outer Space Treaty, October 10, 1967, Outer Space Treaty, NSF, box 36, LBJL; “Keeping Space Bomb-Free”; “Space Treaty?,” WP, July 24, 1966; “A Good Treaty,” WP, December 10, 1966.

70. “Peace on the Moon, Good Will to Orion,” CT, December 12, 1966.

71. “Space: No Arms There, but Lots on Earth,” NYT, December 11, 1966.

72. Joshua Lederberg, “On Cosmic Law: ‘An Earthly Start,’” WP, December 17, 1966.

73. Cameron K. Wehringer, “The Treaty on Outer Space,” American Bar Association Journal 54, no. 6 (June 1968): 586–88.

74. M. N. Golovine, Conflict in Space: A Pattern of War in n New Dimension (New York, 1962), 110, 115, 136; Donald Cox and Michael Stoiko, Spacepower: What It Means to You (Philadelphia, PA, 1958), 149; Philip Siekman, “The Fantastic Weaponry,” in Reflections on Space, 265, ed. Oscar H. Rechtschaffen (Air Force Academy, CO, 1964); Thomas Schelling, “Military Uses of Outer Space: Bombardment Satellites,” in Joseph M. Goldsen, Outer Space in World Politics (New York, 1963), 101.

75. “Peace on the Moon, Good Will to Orion.”

76. “Peace on the Moon, Good Will to Orion”; Art Buchwald, “A Hawk in Space,” BG, March 21, 1967.

77. Murrey Murder, “Senators Become Wary on Outer Space Treaty,” WP, March 8, 967; Memorandum for the Assistant Secretary, ISA, February 2, 1967, DDRS.

78. Finney, “Senate Approves Treaty.”

79. “Space Treaty Hearings,” 83 (emphasis added).

80. Finney, “Senate Approves Treaty”; “Space Treaty Welcome If …,” LAT, December 12, 1966.

81. “Space Treaty Hearings,” 81.

82. Finney, “Senate Approves Treaty,” 1.

83. Asif Siddiqi, “The Soviet Fractional Orbiting Bombardment System,” Quest 7, no. 4 (2000): 25.

84. Statement by Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara at Pentagon, November 3, 1967, Bombs in Orbit-General (Ballistic Missiles in Orbit, FOBS, MOBS, etc. [hereafter Bombs in Orbit]), box 11, NSF, Files of Charles E. Johnson, LBJL; “Shadow of the FOBS: Bombs in Orbit,” Science News 92, no. 21 (November 18, 1967): 487–88; Charles Corddry, “US Reports Russ Orbit Bomb Work,” The Sun, November 4, 1967.

85. Memorandum for Mr. Rostow (from Spurgeon Keeny), November 8, 1967, Bombs in Orbit-General, Bombs in Orbit, box 11, NSF, FCJ, LBJL.

86. Statement on FOBS, November 3, 1967 (Spurgeon Keeny prepared for [NSC staffer] Dick Moose in the Senate), Bombs in Orbit, box 11, NSF, FCJ, LBJL.

87. Tom Wicker, “In the Nation: The Meaning of the Orbital Bomb,” NYT, November 5, 1967.

88. Stewart Alsop, “M.I.R.V. and F.O.B.S. and D.E.A.T.H.,” Saturday Evening Post 241, no. 7 (April 6, 1968), 16.

89. Majorie Hunter, “Dual Motive Seen in A-Bomb Report,” NYT, November 5, 1967.

90. “Russia's Orbital Bomb,” NYT, November 5, 1967.

91. Siddiqi, “Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment System,” 28.

92. Dolman, Astropolitik, 8.

93. “Peace on the Moon, Good Will to Orion,” 20.

94. Sean Harry Strijdom, “The Use of Outer Space for Military Purposes: Article IV of the Outer Space Treaty” (PhD diss., University of Pretoria, 2013), 37.

95. Lisa Ruth Rand, “Orbital Decay: Space Junk and the Environmental History of Earth's Planetary Borderlands” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2016).

96. United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, Celebrating the Space Age: 50 Years of Space Technology 40 Years of the Outer Space Treaty: Conference Report 2–3 April 2007 (Geneva, 2007); Annette Froehlich, ed., A Fresh View on the Outer Space Treaty (Cham, Switzerland, 2018); Duncan Blake and Steven Freeland, “As the World Embraces Space, the 50-Year-Old Outer Space Treaty Needs Adaptation,” The Conversation, July 9, 2017, accessed July 2, 2018, https://theconversation.com/as-the-world-embraces-space-the-50-year-old-outer-space-treaty-needs-adaptation-79833.

97. McDougall, Heavens and the Earth, 419.

98. James Vedda, “The Outer Space Treaty: Assessing Its Relevance at the 50-Year Mark,” (policy paper, Center for Space Policy and Strategy, June 2017).

99. “Senate Treaty Hearings,” 90.

100. Ethan Siegel, “The Tragedy of Apollo 1 and the Lessons that Brought Us to the Moon,” Forbes, January 27, 2016, https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2016/01/27/the-tragedy-of-apollo-1-and-the-lessons-that-brought-us-to-the-moon/#33871c9f330f.

7. Stairway to Heaven?

1. Andrew L. Jenks, The Cosmonaut Who Couldn’t Stop Smiling: The Life and Legend of Yuri Gagarin (DeKalb, IL, 2012), 241–51.

2. William E. Farrell, “The World‘s Cheers for American Technology Are Mixed with Pleas for Peace,” NYT, July 21, 1969.

3. “‘In Peace for All Mankind,’” LAT, August 15, 1969.

4. Sunny Tsiao, “Read You Loud and Clear!” The Story of NASA's Spaceflight and Tracking and Data Network (Washington, DC, 2008).

5. John Krige, Angelina Long Callahan, and Ashok Maharaj NASA in the World: Fifty Years of International Collaboration in Space (New York, 2013), 3–4; Walter Sullivan, “Moon Landing May Be Biggest Day for Science,” Atlanta Constitution, July 18, 1969; “Physicist to Speed Solar Wind Project,” NYT, August 17, 1969; Richard D. Lyons, “Three Apollo Astronauts Poised to Set Out Today on Moon-Landing Mission,” NYT, July 16, 1969; John Noble Wilford, “Lunar Dust Yields Solar Wind Gases,” NYT, August 6, 1969; Victor McElheney, “Soviets May Use Moon Laser Reflector First,” BG, July 20, 1969.

6. Remarks at Andrews Air Force Base on Returning From the Global Tour, August 3, 1969, APP, accessed September 1, 2018, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=2178; “Nixon, Returning, Hails Friendship He Found on Trip,” NYT, August 4, 1969; Rita G. Koman, “Man on the Moon: The US Space Program as a Cold War Maneuver,” OAH Magazine of History 8, no. 2 (Winter 1994): 42–50; Karsten Werth, “A Surrogate for War—The US Space Program in the 1960s,” Amerikastudien/American Studies 49, no. 4 (2004): 563–87.

7. Roger D. Launius, Apollo's Legacy: Perspectives on the Moon Landings (Washington, DC, 2019), 196; Asif Siddiqi, “Competing Technologies, National(ist) Narratives, and Universal Claims: Toward a Global History of Space Exploration,” Technology and Culture 51, no. 2 (April 2010): 425–43.

8. George Dugan, “Mental Power as Force of Peace Tied to Man's Triumph in Space,” NYT, July 21, 1969.

9. Daniel Immerwahr, “Twilight of Empire,” Modern American History 1, no. 1 (March 2018): 132.

10. Richard S. Lewis, The Voyages of Apollo: The Exploration of the Moon (New York, 1974), 3–5.

11. Inaugural Address of Richard M. Nixon, January 20, 1969, APP, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/inaugural-address-1.

12. “Vietnam: One Week's Dead,” Life 66, no. 25, June 27, 1969, 20–32; Dale Carter, The Final Frontier: The Rise and Fall of the American Rocket State (New York, 1988), 232; “The Massacre at My Lai,” Life 67, no. 23 (December 5, 1969): 36–45.

13. Robert Donovan, “Afterglow Lights Problems: Moon Voyage Turns Men's Thoughts Inward,” LAT, December 29, 1968.

14. Launius, Apollo's Legacy, 107.

15. Inaugural Address of Richard Nixon.

16. Gil Scott Heron, “Whitey on the Moon,” on Small Talk at 125th and Lenox (Ace Records, 1970); Jenna M. Loyd, “‘Whitey on the Moon’: Space, Race, and the Crisis of Black Mobility,” in Mobile Desires: The Politics and Erotics of Mobility Justice, ed. Liz Montegary and Melissa Autumn White (London, 2015), 41–52.

17. Michael Allen, Live From the Moon: Film, Television and the Space Race (London, 2009), 143, 154; Neil A. Armstrong, “The Moon Had Been Awaiting Us a Long Time,” Life 67, no. 8 (August 22, 1969): 26; “Don Oberdorfer, “Nixon Telephones the Moon: He Asserts Space Feat Will Spur Global Peace,” WP, July 21, 1969; Andrew Chaikin, A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts (New York, 2007), 213.

18. Alexander C. T. Geppert, “Moontime: Global Synchronicity in the Age of Space,” Rethinking Apollo: Technopolitics, Globality, and the Space Age, 133rd Meeting of the American Historical Association, Chicago, IL, January 3, 2019.

19. Robert Poole, Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth (New Haven, CT, 2008); Benjamin Lazier, “Earthrise; or, The Globalization of the World Picture,” American Historical Review 16, no. 3 (2011): 602–30; Kelly Oliver, Earth and World: Philosophy after the Apollo Mission (New York, 2015); Denis Cosgrove, “Contested Global Visions: One-World, Whole-Earth, and the Apollo Space Photographs,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 84, no. 2 (1994): 270–94; Joshua Yates, “Mapping the Good World: The New Cosmopolitans and Our Changing World Picture,” Hedgehog Review 11, no. 3 (Fall 2009): 7–27; Sheila Jasanoff, “Image and Imagination: The Formation of Global Environmental Consciousness,” in Changing the Atmosphere: Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, ed. Clark A. Miller and Paul N. Edwards (Cambridge, MA, 1996); Robin Kelsey, “Reverse Shot: Earthrise and Blue Marble in the American Imagination,” in New Geographies 4: Scales of the Earth (Cambridge, MA, 2011). For a complete list works linking space exploration to the emergence political and environmental globality, see Neil H. Maher, Apollo in the Age of Aquarius (Cambridge, MA, 2017), 241, n. 4.

20. Chaikin, Man on the Moon, 212.

21. Poole, Earthrise, 133–34.

22. “Riders on the Earth,” BG, December 28, 1968, 6.

23. “Small World,” NYT, December 24, 1968, 22.

24. Poole, Earthrise, 6.

25. Walter Orr Roberts, “After the Moon, the Earth!,” Science 167, no. 3914 (January 2, 1970): 13; Ron Garan, The Orbital Perspective: Lessons in Seeing the Big Picture from a Journey of 71 Million Miles (Oakland, CA, 2015); Frank White, The Overview Effect: Space Exploration and Human Evolution (New York, 1987). “Footprints on the Moon,” BG, July 21, 1969.

26. Teasel Muir-Harmony, “Project Apollo, Cold War Diplomacy and the American Framing of Global Interdependence (PhD diss., MIT, 2009), 200; see also Teasel Muir-Harmony, Operation Moonglow: A Political History of Project Apollo (New York, 2020).

27. Michael Collins, Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journey (New York, 2009), 470; White, Overview Effect, 37, 187.

28. Remarks to Apollo 11 Astronauts aboard the USS Hornet Following Completion of Their Lunar Mission, July 24, 1969, APP, accessed September 1, 2018, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2138.

29. Statement by the Secretary-General Welcoming the Apollo 11 Astronauts, August 13, 1969, Operational Files of the Secretary-General: U Thant: Speeches, Messages, Statements, and Addresses, S-0885-0001, UNA; “U Thant Hails Apollo, Urges World Harmony,” Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1969.

30. NASA, “50 Years Ago: Apollo 11 Astronauts Return from Around the World Goodwill Tour,” November 5 2019, https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-apollo-11-astronauts-return-from-around-the-world-goodwill-tour.

31. Teasel Muir-Harmony, “Selling Space Capsules, Moon Rocks, and America: Spaceflight in US Public Diplomacy,” in Reasserting America in the 1970s: US Public Diplomacy and the Rebuilding of America's Image Abroad, ed. Hallvard Notaker, Giles Scott-Smith, and David J. Snyder (Manchester, UK, 2016), 131.

32. Oral History Transcript, Geneva B. Barnes, interviewed by Glen Swanson, Washington, DC, March 26, 1999, Johnson Space Center Oral History Project.

33. Norman Mailer, Of a Fire on the Moon (New York, 1970), 398; Roger D. Launius, “Heroes in a Vacuum: The Apollo Astronaut as Cultural Icon,” Florida Historical Quarterly 87, no. 2 (Fall 2008): 174–209.

34. Muir-Harmony, “Selling Space Capsules,” 128–30; Trevor Rockwell, “Space Propaganda ‘For All Mankind’: Soviet and American Responses to the Cold War 1957–1977 (PhD diss., University of Alberta, 2012).

35. Muir-Harmony, “Project Apollo,” 197.

36. Eric Benson, “One Small Step for Mankind: Was Apollo 11 a Beginning or an End?,” Texas Monthly 47, no. 7 (July 2019): 20; Amitai Etzioni, Moondoggle: Domestic and International Implications of the Space Race (New York, 1964).

37. John M. Logsdon, After Apollo? Richard Nixon and the American Space Program (London, 2015), 12.

38. Launius, Apollo's Legacy.

39. Maher, Apollo in the Age of Aquarius, 11–14, 48–53; “Letters to the Times: Readers View Apollo's Achievements in Light of Earthly Needs, Benefits,” LAT, July 24, 1969.

40. James Jeffrey, “The Dark Side of the Moon Mission,” The Progressive, July 18, 2019, https://progressive.org/dispatches/dark-side-of-moon-mission-jeffrey-190718/.

41. “Reaching into Space: Eminent Thinkers Mull Import of Moon Voyage for Mankind's Future,” WSJ, July 18, 1969.

42. David Streitfeld, “Footprints in the Cosmic Dust,” WP, July 20, 1989.

43. Dean Rusk, “The Unfinished Business of Peace,” American Scientist 57, no. 4 (Winter 1969): 545, 553–63.

44. Flora Lewis, “Real Wisdom from Moon Trip May Be of Ourselves,” LAT, June 22, 1969; “Man on the Moon: Mixed Emotions,” Science News 96, no. 4 (July 26, 1969); Max Lerner, “Ironies Abound in Space Effort,” Washington Evening Star, July 23, 1969.

45. Alexis C. Madrigal, “Moondoggle: The Forgotten Opposition to the Apollo Program,” The Atlantic, September 12, 2012, https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/09/moondoggle-the-forgotten-opposition-to-the-apollo-program/262254/.

46. George Lichtheim, “Beneath the Moon,” Commentary 47, no. 3 (March 1, 1969): 75.

47. G. L. Mehta, “Stray Thoughts on the Moon,” Times of India, August 10, 1969.

48. GDR Papers, “Scientists Comment on Apollo,” July 24 Press Opinion, Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS).

49. Hanoi in Vietnamese to South Vietnam 0330 GMT, July 30, 1969, FBIS; Hanoi VNA International Service in English 0608 GMT, July 26, 1969, B, FBIS; Edward K. Wu, “Hanoi Lauds Apollo Feat: But Rejects Nixon Words on Peace Hopes,” The Sun, July 27, 1969, 4.

50. W. Fred Boone, NASA Office of Defense Affairs: The First Five Years (Washington, DC, 1970), 249–51; Maher, Apollo in the Age of Aquarius, 60; Thomas O’Toole, “NASA's Role in War Grows,” WP, 4 December 1967; Thomas O’Toole, “NASA Cut $282 Million More,” WP, August 19, 1967, A4.

51. Boone, NASA Office of Defense Affairs, 249–51; Andrew Butrica, Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication (Washington, DC, 1997), 65–69; Maher, Apollo in the Age of Aquarius, 60–65; O’Toole, “NASA's Role in War Grows.”

52. Maher, Apollo in the Age of Aquarius, 64; Seymour J. Deitchman, “The ‘Electronic Battlefield’ in the Vietnam War,” Journal of Military History 72, no. 3 (July 2008): 869–87.

53. O’Toole, “NASA's Role in War Grows.”

54. Rudy Abramson, “Apollo Paradox: Peace Symbol Rooted in War,” LAT, July 15, 1969; “Intellectuals Divided over Apollo,” BG, July 27, 1969.

55. Mailer, Of a Fire on the Moon, 63–81.

56. Matthew Tribbe, No Requiem for the Space Age: The Apollo Moon Landings and American Culture (New York, 2014), 104; Oriani Fallaci, If the Sun Dies (New York, 1966).

57. Tribbe, No Requiem, 114–15.

58. Saul Bellow, Mr. Sammler's Planet (New York, 1969), 6; Tribbe, No Requiem, 113.

59. William D. Atwill, Fire and Power: The American Space Program as Postmodern Narrative (Athens, GA, 1994), chap. 6.

60. “What Is Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow About?,” Martin Paul Eve (blog), March 7, 2011, https://eve.gd/2011/03/07/what-is-thomas-pynchons-gravitys-rainbow-about/.

61. Immerwahr, “Twilight of Empire”; Pierre J. Huss, “Let's Claim the Moon!,” Mechanix Illustrated (February 1957), 70–72.

62. “Flag-Planting Gives No Claim to Moon,” WP, July 18, 1969.

63. Eugene Brooks, “Legal Aspects of the Moon Landings,” International Lawyer 4, no. 3 (April 1970): 416–17.

64. Rusk, “Unfinished Business”; Immerwahr, “Twilight of Empire.”

65. Anne M. Platoff, “Where No Flag Has Gone Before: Political and Technical Aspects of Placing a Flag on the Moon,” NASA Contractor Report 188251, August 1993, accessed May 29, 2020, https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/alsj-usflag.html.

66. Courtney G. Brooks, James M. Grimwood, and Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft (Washington, DC, 1979), chap. 13.

67. Muir-Harmony, “Selling Space Capsules,” 132.

68. “House Votes US Flag Use on Moon,” Chicago Tribune, June 11, 1969.

69. “Michel Insists US Flag Be 1st on Moon,” Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1969; US Senate, Congressional Record, June 12, 1969, 91st Congress, vol. 115, part 12, 15521.

70. Anne M. Platoff, “Flags in Space: NASA Symbols and Flags in the US Manned Space Program,” Flag Bulletin: International Journal of Vexillology 46, no. 5–6 (2007): 169–70; US Senate, Congressional Record, June 16, 1969, 91st Congress, vol, 115, part 12, 15859.

71. “What Flag(s) on the Moon?,” NYT, June 23, 1969.

72. Lincoln Harrice, “Letter to the Editor: Flags on the Moon,” NYT, June 6, 1969; Stephen Borsody, “Letters to the Editor of the Times: Flags on Moon,” NYT, July 6, 1969; Darius Jhabvala, “Envoys Say UN Flag Should Fly on Moon,” BG, July 16, 1969; Glenn W. Coate, “US Flag on Moon,” Chicago Tribune, June 27, 1969; Philip Howitt, “Appropriate Moon Flag,” LAT, June 12, 1969; Max Frankel, ”Moon Wide Open to Human Strife: Rivalry Expected to Develop Despite Space Treaty,” NYT, July 21, 1969.

73. Charles Reagan Wilson, “American Heavens: Apollo and American Civil Religion,” Journal of Church and State 26, no. 2 (Spring 1984): 214; Jeffrey St. John, “Confusion in America: Space Effort: No Apologies Necessary,” LAT, April 9, 1972; Buzz Aldrin and Malcolm McConnell, Men from Earth (New York, 1989), 274; Allen, Live from the Moon, 57.

74. Arthur C. Clarke, “Will Advent of Man Awaken a Sleeping Moon?,” NYT, July 17, 1969.

75. Alexander MacDonald, The Long Space Age: The Economic Origins of Space Exploration from Colonial America to the Cold War (New Haven, CT, 2017).

76. Robert Jastrow, “The Moon Is a Rosetta Stone,” NYT, November 9, 1969.

77. Megan Black, The Global Interior: Mineral Frontiers and American Power (Cambridge, MA, 2018), chap. 6.

78. C. L. Sulzberger, “Foreign Affairs: From the Moon to the Earth,” NYT, July 20, 1969; J. E. S. Fawcett, “The Politics of the Moon,” World Today 25, no. 8 (August 1969): 357–62.

79. Report of the Second Annual Meeting of the Working Group on Extraterrestrial Resources (Washington, DC, 1963), v; Proceedings of the Working Group on Extraterrestrial Resources, 4th Annual Meeting (Washington, DC, 1966), 10.

80. Black, The Global Interior, chap. 6; Thomas Atchison and Clifford W. Schultz (Bureau of Mines), “Bureau of Mines Research,” Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Working Group on Extraterrestrial Resources (Washington, DC, 1969).

81. “Mineral Mining on Moon Studied: US Seeking to Develop Resources for Astronauts,” NYT, July 4, 1965; Robert A. Wright, “Can We Mine the Moon?,” NYT, July 27, 1969; Joseph L. Myler, “US Seeks Means to Tap Mineral Riches in Space,” WP, July 4, 1965.

82. R. L. Schmidt, “Developing a Lunar Drill: A 1969 Status Report,” Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Working Group on Extraterrestrial Resources (Washington, DC, 1970); “Ways Sought to Tap Resources on Moon,” WP, November 20, 1969; Walter Sullivan, “What Earthly Use in the Moon? What Earthly Use Is the Moon?,” NYT, August 28, 1966.

83. “Ways Sought to Tap Resources on Moon”; Kathleen Teltsch, “Nations Beginning to Consider Who Owns What on the Moon,” NYT, June 29, 1969; Black, Global Interior, chap. 6.

84. A/8391, Request for the Inclusion of an Item in the Provisional Agenda of the Twenty-Sixth Session, Preparation of a Treaty Concerning the Moon, May 27, 1971; Letter, Andrei Gromyko to U Thant, Preparation of a Treaty Concerning the Moon,” May 27, 1971.

85. COPUOS, Legal Subcommittee, A/AC.105/C.2/L.91, Draft Treaty Relating to the Moon, May 6, 1974; “US, at U.N., Urges Broader Moon Pact,” NYT, April 11, 1972.

86. Stanley B. Rosenfield and Delbert D. Smith, “The Moon Treaty: The United States Should Not Become a Party,” Proceedings of the Annual Meeting (American Society of International Law) 74 (April 17–19, 1980): 162–70.

87. Ed Zuckerman, “Homesteading in Space,” BG, July 15, 1979. Patrick McCray, The Visioneers: How a Group of Elite Scientists Pursued Space Colonies, Nanotechnologies, and a Limitless Future (Princeton, NJ, 2012), chap. 3; Michael A. G. Michaud, Reaching for the High Frontier: The American Pro-Space Movement, 1972–84 (Westport, CT, 1986), chap. 4; Gerard K. O’Neill, The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space (New York, 1976).

88. William J. Broad, “Earthlings at Odds Over Moon Treaty,” Science, New Series 206, no. 4421, November 23, 1979, 915.

89. Fabio Tronchetti, The Exploitation of Natural Resources of the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Leiden, 2009), 57.

90. S. Neil Hosenball and Pierre Hartman, “The Dilemma of Outer Space Law,” American Bar Association Journal 60, no. 3 (March 1974): 302.

91. “Toward an ‘Open’ Moon,” NYT, June 14, 1971.

92. Statement of Leigh Ratiner, Counsel to the L-5 Society, Accompanied by Gerald Driggers, President, L-5 Society, July 31, 1980, in US Senate, “The Moon Treaty: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation United States Senate (hereafter Moon Treaty Hearings), 96th Congress, 2nd Session, July 29 and 31, 1980 (Washington, DC, 1980), 105–7; “Way Out,” WP, October 31, 1979.

93. Letter, Alexander Haig to Robert B. Owen, June 4, 1980, “Moon Treaty Hearings,” 219–20.

94. Charles Sheffield [President of American Astronautical Society], “AAS against Lunar Agreement,” L-5 News 5, no. 1 (January 1980).

95. Keith Henson, “Bulletin from the Moon Treaty Front,” L-5 News 5, no. 1 (January 1980).

96. Helen Dewar, “Would-Be Space Colonists Lead Fight against Moon Treaty,” WP, October 30, 1979.

97. Letter, Jacob Javits and Frank Church to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, L-5 News 4, no. 12 (December 1979): 5.

98. Arel Lucas, “Ratiner Attacks Treaty,” L-5 News 4, no. 12 (December 19979): 7. The five opposed were Church, Javits, S. I. Hayakawa (R-CA), Dick Stone (D-FL), and Richard Luger (R-IN).

99. “UN Moon Treaty Falling to US Opposition Groups,” L-5 News (March 1982): see http://space.nss.org/l5-newsun-moon-treaty-falling-to-us-opposition-groups/.

100. Paul Kramer, “How Not to Write the History of US Empire.” Diplomatic History 42, no. 5 (November 2018): 919.

101. Frankel, “Moon Wide Open to Human Strife.”

102. William E. Farrell, “The World's Cheers for American Technology Are Mixed with Pleas for Peace,” NYT, July 21, 1969; Frankel, “Moon Wide Open to Human Strife.”

Conclusion

1. “Moon ‘Overlord’ Sends Passports to Astronauts,” WP, December 27, 1968.

2. “Mangan Dies at 73; Founded Nation of Celestial Space,” Sun, July 16, 1970.

3. Virgiliu Pop, Unreal Estate: The Men Who Sold the Moon (Cardiff, UK, 2006), 33.

4. Dean Stump, “Celestia: Nation of Celestial Space,” https://nationofcelestialspace.com/history/.

5. National Space Act of 1958, 51 U.S.C. Chap. 201 (1958).

6. William C. Selover, “Nobody Owns Moon, Legal Experts Say,” CSM, July 19, 1969.

7. Robin Dickey, The Rise and Fall of Space Sanctuary (El Segundo, CA, 2020), 9; Aaron Bateman, Weapons in Space: Technology, Politics, and the Rise and Fall of the Strategic Defense Initiative (Cambridge, MA, 2024), 27, 32–33.

8. Useful introductions can be found in James Clay Moltz, The Politics of Space Security: Strategic Restraint and the Pursuit of National Interests, 3rd ed. (Stanford, CA, 2019), chaps. 5–7; Joan Johnson-Freese, Heavenly Ambitions: America's Quest to Dominate Space (Philadelphia, PA, 2009), chap. 3; Aaron Bateman, Weapons in Space: Technology, Politics, and the Rise and Fall of the Strategic Defense Initiative (Cambridge, MA, 2024), chap. 1; and later chapters of Paul B. Stares, The Militarization of Outer Space: US Policy, 1945–1984 (Ithaca, NY, 1985).

9. Joan Hoff, “The Presidency, Congress, and the Deceleration of the US Space Program in the 1970s,” in Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership (Chicago, IL, 1997).

10. Herbert Friedman, “Adrift in Space,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 140, no. 1 (March 1996): 10–21; Roger D. Launius, Apollo's Legacy: Perspectives on the Moon Landings (Washington, DC, 2019).

11. Roger D. Launius, “NASA and the Decision to Build the Space Shuttle, 1969–72,” The Historian 57, no. 1 (Autumn 1994): 17–34.

12. Launius, Apollo's Legacy, 198.

13. Dwayne A. Day, “Doomed from the Start: The Manned Orbiting Laboratory and the Search for a Military Role for Astronauts,” Space Review, June 17, 2019; Stares, Militarization of Outer Space, appendix I, table I, 258.

14. Paul Stares, Space and National Security (Washington, DC, 1987), 86; Nicholas L. Johnson, The Soviet Year in Space, 1983 (Colorado Springs, CO, 1983), 39; Stares, Militarization of Outer Space, 143, 210.

15. Stares, Militarization of Outer Space, 203–4.

16. Stares, Space and National Security, 99–113.

17. Stares, Space and National Security, 96–99; UNIDIR, Disarmament: Problems Related to Outer Space (New York, 1987), 180–81; John Pike, “Anti-Satellite Weapons and Arms Control,” Arms Control Today 13, no. 11 (December 1983): 1, 4–7.

18. Stares, Militarization of Outer Space, 219.

19. U.S. Senate, “Arms Control and the Militarization of Space,” Hearings before the Subcommittee on Arms Control, Oceans, International Operations and Environment of the Committee on Foreign Relations, Senate, 97th Congress, September 20, 1982 (Washington, DC, 1982), 9.

20. Ronald Regan, Remarks at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on Completion of the Fourth Mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia, July 4, 1982, APP, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-edwards-airforce-base-california-completion-the-fourth-mission-the-space-shuttle.

21. Ronald Reagan, Address to the Nation on Defense and National Security,March 23, 1983, APP, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-the-nation-defense-and-national-security.

22. Thomas Karas, The New High Ground: Systems and Weapons of Space Age War (New York, 1983).

23. Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars, and the End of the Cold War (New York, 2000), 481–84.

24. Konstantin Lantratov, trans. Asif Siddiqi, “The ‘Star Wars’ Which Never Happened,” Quest Magazine 14, no. 1 (2007); Dwayne A. Day and Robert G. Kennedy III, “Soviet Star Wars,” Air and Space Magazine, January 2010, https://www.airspacemag.com/space/soviet-star-wars-8758185/; Peter J. Westwick, “‘Space-Strike Weapons’ and the Soviet Response to SDI,” Diplomatic History 32, no. 5 (2008): 955–79.

25. Peter Anson Bt. and Dennis Cummings, “The First Space War: The Contribution of Satellites to the Gulf War,” RUSI Journal 136, no. 4 (Winter 1991): 41–53.

26. Larry Greenemeier, “GPS and the World's First ‘Space War,’” Scientific American, 8 February 2016; Marcia S. Smith, CRS Report for Congress, Military and Civilian Satellites in Support of Allied Forces in the Persian Gulf (Washington, DC, 1991).

27. Greenemeier, “World's First ‘Space War.’”

28. William J. Perry, “Desert Storm and Deterrence,” Foreign Affairs 70, no. 4 (Fall 1991): 66–82.

29. For a partial list, see Bleddyn Bowen, War in Space: Strategy, Spacepower, Geopolitics (Edinburgh, UK, 2020), 13, n. 5.

30. Steven J. Burger, “Not Ready for the First Space War: What about the Second?,” Naval War College Review 48, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 73–83; Colin S. Gray, “The Influence of Space Power upon History,” Comparative Strategy (October-December 1996); Judson J. Jussel, Space Power Theory: A Rising Star (Maxwell AFB, AL, 1998), 10–12.

31. David E. Lupton, On Space Warfare (Maxwell AFB, AL, 1998), 29, 34.

32. Niall Ferguson, “Cold War II,” Boston Globe, March 11, 2019; Michael Hirsh, “Global Cold War,” Foreign Policy, June 27, 2022; Robert Kaplan, “A New Cold War Has Begun,” Foreign Policy, January 7, 2019.

33. Demetri Sevastopulo, “China Tests New Space Capability with Hypersonic Missile,” Financial Times, October 16, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/ba0a3cde-719b-4040-93cb-a486e1f843fb.

34. Andrew Jones, “‘We’re in a Space Race,’ NASA Chief Says US ‘Better Watch Out’ for China's Moon Goals,” Space.com, January 5, 2023, https://www.space.com/nasa-bill-nelson-china-space-race-moon.

35. Tim Marshall, “China's Bid to Win the New Space Race,” Wired, April 12, 2023, https://www.wired.co.uk/article/china-space-race.

36. DoD, National Security Space Strategy: Unclassified Summary (Washington, DC, 2011), i.

37. David Montgomery, “Trump's Excellent Space Force Adventure,” Washington Post Magazine, December 3, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine/2019/12/03/trumps-proposal-space-force-was-widely-mocked-could-it-be-stroke-stable-genius-that-makes-america-safe-again/.

38. United States Space Force, Spacepower: Doctrine for Space Forces (June 2020), 16, 26.

39. CNN Special Report, Season 37, Episode 11, “War in Space: The Next Battlefield,” aired November 29, 2016, 9 p.m. ET, CNN.

40. Everett C. Dolman, Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age (London, 2002), 4–5.

41. Bleddyn E. Bowen, Original Sin: Power, Technology and War in Outer Space (New York, 2022); Daniel Deudney, Dark Skies: Space Expansionism, Planetary Geopolitics, and the Ends of Humanity (New York, 2020), xix.

42. Quoted in Barton Beebe, “Law's Empire and the Final Frontier: Legalizing the Future in the Early Corpus Juris Spatialis,” Yale Law Journal 108, no. 7 (May 1999):1754–55.