Abbreviations Used in Notes

Introduction

1. 1. Jimmy Carter, Address at Commencement Exercises at the University of Notre Dame, May 22, 1977, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=7552.

2. 2. Daniel J. Whelan, “ ‘Under the Aegis of Man’: The Right to Development and the Origins of the New International Economic Order,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 6, no. 1 (2015): 93–108. For an extended discussion of the relationship between the right to development and the NIEO, see Christopher Dietrich, Oil Revolution: Anticolonial Elites, Sovereign Rights, and the Economic Culture of Decolonization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017).

3. 3. “A Letter from the President of Venezuela to the Chairman of the World Food Conference Meeting in Rome,” November 5, 1974 (Caracas: Oficina Central de Informacion).

4. 4. For the NIEO and Europe, see Giuliano Garavini, After Empires: European Integration, Decolonization, and the Challenge from the Global South 1957–1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). For the NIEO and OPEC, see Dietrich, Oil Revolution; Giuliano Garavini, The Rise and Fall of OPEC in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019). For the NIEO’s larger role in global South–Third World politics and thought, see Adom Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), especially chapter 5; Christy Thornton, Revolution in Development: Mexico and the Governance of the Global Economy (Oakland: University of California Press, 2021). For prominent European neoliberals’ (or “ordoliberals’ ”) opposition to the NIEO, see Quinn Slobodian, Globalists: The End of Empire and the Rise of Neoliberalism (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 2018), especially chapter 7 and conclusion. For the NIEO and global human rights movements, see Samuel Moyn, Not Enough: Human Rights in an Unequal World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), especially chapter 5.

5. 5. Those delegations were Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Iran, Iraq, Liberia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, and Venezuela.

6. 6. Keynes and White quoted in John Toye and Richard Toye, The UN and Global Political Economy: Trade, Finance, and Development (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 23.

7. 7. The Center for Financial Stability provides an explanation of and access to the transcripts at http://www.centerforfinancialstability.org/brettonwoods_docs.php.

8. 8. Shroff quoted in Michael Franczak, “ ‘Asia’ at Bretton Woods: India, China, and Australasia in Comparative Perspective,” in Global Perspectives on the Bretton Woods Conference and the Post-War World Order, ed. Giles Scott-Smith and J. Simon Rofe (London: Palgrave, 2017), 111–27. For more about the South and development at Bretton Woods, see Eric Helleiner, Forgotten Foundations of Bretton Woods: International Development and the Making of the Postwar Order (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014).

9. 9. Two excellent overviews are Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), and David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010).

10. 10. W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (London and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1960). For a detailed history of this period, see Michael Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and Nation Building in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).

11. 11. Resolution IV.32, adopted at OPEC’s fourth meeting, Geneva, Switzerland, April 1962, quoted in Garavini, Rise and Fall of OPEC, 133.

12. 12. “Raúl Prebisch: Latin America’s Keynes,” Economist, March 5, 2009, https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2009/03/05/latin-americas-keynes. Like the NIEO itself, most global histories of capitalism either misrepresent Prebisch’s ideas or ignore him altogether (the former was common in Prebisch’s lifetime, much to his frustration). An excellent corrective is the biography by Edgar J. Dosman, The Life and Times of Raúl Prebisch, 1901–1986 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008).

13. 13. B. R. Tomlinson, “What Was the Third World?” Journal of Contemporary History 38, no. 2 (2003): 31.

14. 14. See David Engerman, The Price of Aid: The Economic Cold War in India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018).

15. 15. Speech by Deng Xiaoping, chairman of the delegation of the People’s Republic of China, at the special session of the UN General Assembly, April 10, 1974, in Barbara Barnouin and Changgen Yu, Chinese Foreign Policy during the Cultural Revolution (New York: Routledge, 1998), 214–26.

16. 16. Elizabeth O’Brien Ingleson, Making Made in China: The Transformation of U.S.-China Trade in the 1970s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, forthcoming).

17. 17. Congyan Cai, The Rise of China and International Law: Taking Chinese Exceptionalism Seriously (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 171.

18. 18. James Mark and Yakov Feygin, “The Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and Alternative Visions of a Global Economy 1950s–1980s,” in Alternative Globalizations: Eastern Europe and the Postcolonial World, ed. James Mark, Artemy M. Kalinovsky, and Steffi Marung (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2020), 43–44. See also Johanna Bockman, “Socialist Globalization against Capitalist Neocolonialism: The Economic Ideas behind the New International Economic Order,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 6, no. 1 (2015): 109–28.

19. 19. Vijay Prashad, The Poorer Nations: A Possible History of the Global South (New York: Verso Books, 2012), 66; Marcin Wojciech Solarz, The Language of Global Development: A Misleading Geography (London: Routledge, 2014), 120; Bruce Lambert, “Lord Franks, Diplomat Who Led Marshall Plan Effort, Dies at 87,” New York Times, October 18, 1992, https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/18/world/lord-franks-diplomat-who-led-marshall-plan-effort-dies-at-87.html.

20. 20. Along with Hermann Abs of Deutsche Bank and Allan Sproul of the New York Federal Reserve, who accompanied him on the trip, Franks filed a lengthy analysis that the World Bank released on April 20, 1960, titled “Bankers’ Mission to India and Pakistan,” http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/865621594705223686/pdf/Announcement-of-Bankers-Mission-to-India-and-Pakistan-on-April-20–1960.pdf.

21. 21. Franks quoted in Miriam Camps, Britain and the European Community, 1955–63 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), 239–40.

22. 22. Alex Danchev, Oliver Franks: Founding Father (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).

23. 23. W. W. Rostow, Concept and Controversy: Sixty Years of Taking Ideas to Market (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003), 241–42.

24. 24. Ball told an audience at the University of North Carolina, “Lord Franks called attention to this division 5 years ago in referring to ‘the relationship of the industrialize[d] nations of the North to the under-developed and developing countries that lie to the South of them, whether in Central or South America, in Africa or the Middle East, in South Asia or in the great island archipelagos of the Pacific.”

25. 25. George C. Ball, “The Open vs. Closed System in North-South Relations,” speech at University of North Carolina, April 9, 1964, Department of State Bulletin 50, no. 1296 (April 27, 1964): 659–70.

26. 26. See especially Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “UNCTAD: Poor Nations’ Pressure Group,” in Robert W. Cox and Harold Jacobson, The Anatomy of Influence: Decision Making in International Organizations (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973) and Fred C. Bergsten, Robert Keohane, and Joseph Nye, “International Economics and International Politics: A Framework for Analysis,” International Organization 29 (Winter 1975): 3–36; Susan Strange, “What Is Economic Power, and Who Has It?” International Journal 30, no. 2 (1975): 207–24; Branislav Gosovic and John G. Ruggie, “On the Creation of a New International Economic Order: Issue Linkage and he Seventh Special Session of the UN General Assembly,” International Organization 30 (Spring 1976): 309–46; G. K. Helleiner, A World Divided: The Less-Developed Countries in the International Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976) and G. K. Helleiner, International Economic Disorder: Essays in North-South Relations (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1980); Robert W. Cox, “The Crisis of World Order and the Problem of International Organization in the 1980s,” International Journal 35, no. 2 (1980): 370–95; and Stephen Krasner, Structural Conflict: The Third World against Global Liberalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).

27. 27. Robert W. Cox, “Ideologies and the New International Economic Order: Reflections on Some Recent Literature,” International Organization 33, no. 2 (1979): 257–302.

28. 28. Richard Nixon, “Address to the Nation Outlining a New Economic Policy: The Challenge of Peace,” August 15, 1971, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3115.

29. 29. Richard E. Moody, “The Economic Scene,” New York Times, July 20, 1975.

30. 30. UN General Assembly, Resolution 3202, “Programme of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order,” May 1, 1974, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/218451?ln=en.

31. 31. For an overview of works on Kissinger up to 2003, see Jussi M. Hanhimäki, “Kissingerology, Thirty Years and Counting,” Diplomatic History 27, no. 5 (2003): 637–76.

32. 32. Some recent titles are Joshua Kurlantzick, A Great Place to Have a War: America in Laos and the Birth of a Military CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017); Nancy Mitchell, Jimmy Carter in Africa: Race and the Cold War (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018), especially chapters 1 and 2; Steven O’Sullivan, Kissinger, Angola and U.S.-African Foreign Policy: The Unintentional Realist (London: Taylor and Francis, 2020); Stephen G. Rabe, Kissinger and Latin America: Intervention, Human Rights, and Diplomacy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2020).

33. 33. Emma Rothschild, “Short Term, Long Term,” New Yorker, May 26, 1975, 66.

34. 34. For the origins, evolution, and alternative applications of the Washington Consensus, see John Williamson, “The Strange History of the Washington Consensus,” Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 27, no. 2 (Winter 2004–2005): 195–206.

1. Food Power and Free Markets

1. 1. See Derek Headey and Fan Shengen, Reflections on the Global Food Crisis: How Did It Happen? How Has It Hurt? And How Can We Prevent the Next One? (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2010), especially chapter 4, “Learning from the Past: Comparisons to the 1972–74 World Food Crisis.”

2. 2. Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Arabs Vow Money for New Aid Fund,” New York Times, November 17, 1974.

3. 3. UN General Assembly, Resolution 3201, “Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order,” May 1, 1974, http://www.un-documents.net/s6r3201.htm. On the same day, the General Assembly adopted Resolution 3202, “Programme of Action.” The US delegation registered only minor criticisms of the “Programme of Action,” which it called a “significant political document.” Cited in John Toye and Richard Toye, The UN and Global Political Economy: Trade, Finance, and Development (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 241–42.

4. 4. Antoine J. Groosman, “World Food Problems and the New International Economic Order,” in Change and the New International Economic Order, ed. J. A. van Lith (Dordrecht, NL: Springer, 1979), 119.

5. 5. Richard E. Moody, “The Economic Scene,” New York Times, July 20, 1975.

6. 6. European leaders also argued this point. Helmut Schmidt “repeatedly explained that the so-called third world was now split into rich and poor countries and that the actions of the rich—especially oil-producing—severely affected the poor countries.” Rudiger Graf, “Making Use of the ‘Oil Weapon: Western Industrialized Countries and Arab Petropolitics in 1973–1974’ ” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (January 2012): 199n71.

7. 7. Geoffrey Barraclough, “Wealth and Power: The Politics of Food and Oil,” New York Review of Books, August 7, 1975. Barraclough attached great importance to the global South’s challenge to the postwar world order and went on to write several more essays on the emerging North-South dialogue for the New York Review of Books: “The Great World Crisis I,” January 23, 1975; “The Haves and the Have Nots,” May 13, 1976; “The Struggle for the Third World,” November 9, 1978; “Waiting for the New Order,” October 26, 1978.

8. 8. Henry Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), 699.

9. 9. Barraclough, “Wealth and Power.”

10. 10. See Daniel Sargent, A Superpower Transformed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), for this term.

11. 11. Dale E. Hathaway, The World Food Crisis—Periodic or Perpetual? (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Group, 1975), 67.

12. 12. Hathaway, 68.

13. 13. Figures from Samuel S. Kim, China, the United Nations, and World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), 243–44, and Tamim Bayoumi, “Changing Patterns of International Trade,” a report prepared by the Strategy, Policy, and Review Department of the International Monetary Fund, 8, https://www.imf.org/external/np/pp/eng/2011/061511.pdf.

14. 14. Hathaway, World Food Crisis, 68–69.

15. 15. Annual Report of the Council of Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1967), 173, https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/economic-report-president-45/1967-8138.

16. 16. Martha M. Hamilton, The Great American Grain Robbery and Other Stories (Washington, DC: Agribusiness Accountability Project, 1972), 313.

17. 17. Hamilton, 313.

18. 18. Jyoti Shankar Singh, A New International Economic Order: Toward a Fair Redistribution of the World’s Resources (New York: Praeger, 1977), 57.

19. 19. Headey and Shengen, Reflections on the Global Food Crisis, 81–84.

20. 20. “Transcript of a Recording of a Meeting between the President and H. R. Haldeman in the Oval Office on June 23, 1972,” https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/forresearchers/find/tapes/watergate/wspf/741-002.pdf.

21. 21. Richard Nixon, “Address to the Nation Outlining a New Economic Policy: The Challenge of Peace,” August 15, 1971, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3115.

22. 22. Headey and Shengen, Reflections on the Global Food Crisis, 85.

23. 23. The six countries (in order of production magnitude) were Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Algeria, and Qatar. Iraq was the sole Arab OPEC member not to join.

24. 24. Quoted in William D. Smith, “Price Quadruples for Iran Crude Oil,” New York Times, December 12, 1973.

25. 25. Vijay Prashad, The Poorer Nations: A Possible History (London: Verso, 2012), 19.

26. 26. Eckart Woertz, Oil for Food: The Global Food Crisis and the Middle East (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 87; Prashad, Poorer Nations, 18.

27. 27. Wade Greene, “Triage: Who Shall Be Fed? Who Shall Starve?” New York Times Magazine, January 5, 1975, 44.

28. 28. See Jeremi Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); Sargent, Superpower Transformed; Christopher Dietrich, “Oil Power and Economic Theologies: The United States and the Third World in the Wake of the Energy Crisis,” Diplomatic History 40, no. 3 (June 2016): 500–29.

29. 29. “Kissinger on Oil, Food, and Trade,” Business Week, January 13, 1975.

30. 30. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, Documents on the United Nations, 1973–1976, doc. 129, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d129.

31. 31. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, Foreign Economic Policy, 1969–76, doc. 252, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d252.

32. 32. For a discussion of Orr’s World Food Board and its defeat by the US State Department and UK Foreign Office, see Amy L. S. Staples, “To Win the Peace: The Food and Agriculture Organization, Sir John Boyd Orr, and the World Food Board Proposals,” Peace and Change: A Journal of Peace Research 28, no. 4 (2003): 495–523.

33. 33. D. John Shaw, World Food Security: A History since 1945 (Basingstroke, UK: Palgrave, 2007), 86–89.

34. 34. In addition to Grant of the ODC, Aziz’s collaborators included Mahbub ul-Haq at the World Bank, Amartya Sen at the International Labor Organization, and Barbara Ward at the Society for International Development in the United Kingdom. See Oral History of Richard Jolly, 57, http://www.unhistory.org/CD/PDFs/Jolly.pdf.

35. 35. Shaw, World Food Security, 122.

36. 36. Group of 77 refers to a coalition of developing countries (now 134) at the UN, with the goal of increasing their bargaining power in international economic relations. The G-77 acts as the main coordinating body in the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 38, pt. 1, Foundations of Foreign Policy, 1973–76 doc. 17, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v38p1/d17. Proposed by Mexican president Luis Echeverria at the April–May 1972 session of the Third World–dominated UNCTAD, CERDS put some basic elements of the NIEO (such as the right to “permanent sovereignty over natural resources”) in the form of international law. CERDS would be adopted by the UN General Assembly (against US opposition) in December 1974, one month after the World Food Conference.

37. 37. UN General Assembly, Resolution 3201, “Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order”; Priya Lal, “African Socialism and the Limits of Global Familyhood: Tanzania and the New International Economic Order in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 6, no. 1 (Spring 2015): 22.

38. 38. Giuliano Garavini, “Completing Decolonization: The 1973 ‘Oil Shock’ and the Struggle for Economic Rights” International History Review 33, no. 3 (2011): 483.

39. 39. Advertisement, “The President of Venezuela Responds to the President of the United States,” New York Times, September 25, 1974.

40. 40. FRUS, 1973–1976, vol. 31, Foreign Economic Policy, doc. 266, http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1552792.pdf; emphasis added.

41. 41. James P. Grant to Members of the ODC Board of Directors, “ODC Treatment of Interdependence Themes: Energy and Food,” August 7, 1973, in University of Notre Dame Archives, Collected Papers of Theodore Hesburgh, box 93, folder 17.

42. 42. The hearings’ conclusions were reprinted in the New York Times, September 10, 1974, 7.

43. 43. “Farming and Farm Income,” US Department of Agriculture, https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-the-essentials/farming-and-farm-income/.

44. 44. Bill Peterson, “Earl Butz: Controversial Hoosier,” Louisville Times, June 9, 1971, in Earl Butz Papers, Purdue University Library (hereafter EBP), Album of News Clippings, binder 1, 1971.

45. 45. Garnett D. Horner, “Nixon Won’t Abolish Agriculture Department,” Indianapolis Star, November 11, 1971, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 1, 1971.

46. 46. Nick Kotz, “Butz an Agribusiness Man,” and “Butz Denies that He Favors Corporate over Family Farm,” Washington Post, November [n.d.] 1971, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 1, 1971.

47. 47. “Is Butz that Bad?” Salt Lake City Tribune, November 21, 1971, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 1, 1971.

48. 48. “Farm Group Backs Butz,” Chicago Tribune, November 20, 1971, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 1, 1971.

49. 49. Nick Kotz, “Butz Approved, 51–44, after Price Promise,” Washington Post, December 3, 1971, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 1, 1971.

50. 50. Ralph D. Wennblom, “The Battle over Butz,” Farm Journal, January 1972, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 2, 1972.

51. 51. “Interview with the Secretary of Agriculture: Why Food Prices Are Up,” U.S. News and World Report, April 10, 1972, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 3, 1972.

52. 52. Julius Duscha, “Up, up, up—Butz Makes Hay down on the Farm,” New York Times Magazine, April 16, 1972, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 3, 1972.

53. 53. “Corn Has a Bright Future in Agriculture,” 1973 Corn Annual, EBP, Album of News Clippings, binder 5, 1973.

54. 54. “Corn Has a Bright Future in Agriculture.”

55. 55. Butz to Nixon, April 27, 1973, EBP, box 16—Correspondence, 1971–1975, folder 3, Secretary Butz, 1973.

56. 56. Earl Butz, “Agriculture’s Potential in World Trade,” address to the 26th World Trade Conference, Chicago, March 8, 1973, EBP, box 8, Statements & Speeches, 1973–74, folder 1, Statements & Speeches, Jan. 12, 1973–May 31, 1973.

57. 57. Earl Butz, “Food Power—A Major Weapon,” address to the Advertising Council, Mayflower Hotel, Washington, DC, June 24, 1974, EBP, box 8, Statements & Speeches, 1973–74, folder 4, Statements & Speeches, March 12, 1974–June 26, 1974.

58. 58. Bryan L. McDonald, Food Power: The Rise and Fall of the Postwar American Food System (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 188.

59. 59. Assistant secretary of state for economic affairs Thomas Enders told Kissinger, “This is a major element in the politics of one of the farm groups, the American Farm Bureau. And they are adamantly against government-held stocks, and return to the former system. This is what Butz is responding to.” FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 263, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d263.

60. 60. The NSC was “doubtful” that “such privately held stocks could be counted upon” in a crisis, nor could “private trade … be expected to incur the heavy carrying charges (interest and storage) for the stocks required to meet a contingency which occurs only once in six years or so.” FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 252.

61. 61. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 263.

62. 62. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 147, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d147.

63. 63. Scowcroft to the President, “Results of Meeting to Review Issues in World Food Conference Speech,” November 2, 1974, Gerald Ford Presidential Library (hereafter GFPL), Files of the National Security Adviser, Presidential Subject File, box 6, Food/Food Aid/World Food Conference (3).

64. 64. Emma Rothschild, “Short Term, Long Term,” New Yorker, May 26, 1975, 40.

65. 65. In the months leading up to the Rome conference, secretary-general Sayed Marei asked Ward to convene a group of “eminent persons from all over the world … to consider the issues that are likely to arise [at the conference], to examine the proposals that are being put forward and to give guidance and leadership in the search for solutions.” The attendees, which included Nobel Prize-winning agronomist and Green Revolution pioneer Norman Borlaug, anthropologist Margaret Mead, and ketchup heir and CEO Henry J. Heinz II, produced a series of essays released as Hunger, Politics, and Markets: The Real Issues in the Food Crisis (New York: New York University Press, 1975).

66. 66. Anthony Lewis, “The Politics of Hunger,” New York Times, October 24, 1974; “The Politics of Hunger: II,” New York Times, October 30, 1974.

67. 67. Leslie H. Gelb and Anthony Lake, “Washington Dateline: Less Food, More Politics,” Foreign Policy 17 (Winter 1974–75): 185, 188.

68. 68. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 153, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d153.

69. 69. Shaw, World Food Security, 129.

70. 70. Shaw, 129.

71. 71. “Address by Secretary Kissinger,” November 5, 1974, Department of State Bulletin 71, no. 1851 (December 16, 1974): 821–29. http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/dosb/1851.pdf#page=3.

72. 72. Leslie Gelb, “Rome Strategy on Food Is Dividing US Officials,” New York Times, November 3, 1974.

73. 73. Nigel Hawkes, “World Food Conference: Amid Politicking, Some Progress,” Science 186, no. 4167 (December 6, 1974): 905–8.

74. 74. “Address by Secretary Kissinger,” November 5, 1974.

75. 75. Farnsworth, “Arabs Vow Money.”

76. 76. Farnsworth.

77. 77. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 153.

78. 78. Ross Talbot, “The International Fund for Agricultural Development,” Political Science Quarterly 95, no. 2 (Summer 1980): 263.

79. 79. Farnsworth, “Arabs Vow Money.”

80. 80. Pronk quoted in Thomas G. Weiss, UN Voices: The Struggle for Development and Social Justice (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 226.

81. 81. Talbot, “International Fund for Agricultural Development,” 264.

82. 82. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 153.

83. 83. Gelb, “Rome Strategy.”

84. 84. “Address by Secretary Butz,” November 6, 1974, Department of State Bulletin 71, no. 1851 (December 16, 1974): 829–31.

85. 85. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 148, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d148.

86. 86. Rothschild, “Short Term, Long Term,” 43.

87. 87. Shaw, World Food Security, 133–34.

88. 88. Rothschild, “Short Term, Long Term,” 42. Those countries were Bangladesh, Central African Republic, Chad, Dahomey, Democratic Yemen, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, India, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Khmer Republic, Laos, Lesotho, Malagasy Republic, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Pakistan, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, United Republic of Cameroon, United Republic of Tanzania, Upper Volta, and Yemen. Report on the World Food Conference, Hearing before the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Third Congress, Second Session, November 26, 1974 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1974), 22.

89. 89. Farnsworth, “Arabs Vow Money.”

90. 90. On October 4 the US government signed an agreement to sell Bangladesh a hundred thousand tons of wheat; the first shipment did not arrive until December 26. Rothschild, “Short Term, Long Term,” 42.

91. 91. Rothschild, 41.

92. 92. Mitchell B. Wallerstein, Food for War, Food for Peace: United States Food Aid in a Global Context (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1980), 202.

93. 93. Shaw, World Food Security, 135.

94. 94. Rothschild, “Short Term, Long Term,” 42, 66.

95. 95. Hawkes, “World Food Conference,” 905.

96. 96. Statement of Hon. Edwin M. Martin, US coordinator for the World Food Conference, in Report on the World Food Conference, 23.

97. 97. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 153.

98. 98. “A Letter from the President of Venezuela to the Chairman of the World Food Conference Meeting in Rome,” November 5, 1974 (Caracas: Oficina Central de Informacion).

99. 99. US Department of State, “World Food Conference—November 7 Plenary Sessions,” November 9, 1974, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/1974ROME15572_b.html.

100. 100. Rothschild, “Short Term, Long Term,” 72; Shaw, World Food Security, 135.

101. 101. Figures from https://www.macrotrends.net/2534/wheat-prices-historical-chart-data.

102. 102. Statement of Martin McLaughlin, senior fellow, Overseas Development Council, “Implementation of World Food Conference Recommendations,” Subcommittee on Foreign Agricultural Policy, US Senate, November 6, 1975 (Washington: GPO, 1975) 79.

103. 103. “The Status of Proposals on Grain Reserves and the Proposed Kissinger Speech,” May 7, 1975, GFPL, Seidman Files, EPB Subject Files, box 113.

104. 104. Memo, Butler to Scowcroft, “EPB Meeting on Food Reserves Proposal,” May 11, 1975, GFPL, Files of the National Security Advisor, Presidential Subject File, box 6.

105. 105. Shaw, World Food Security, 158.

106. 106. The IFAD was finally formed in 1977; unsurprisingly, it was undercapitalized, and Kissinger’s September 1975 promise at the UN for a $200 million US contribution never materialized.

107. 107. Examples include the Saudi Arabian Development Fund, the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, the Islamic Development Bank, the Arab Fund for Economic Social Development, the Special Arab Fund for Africa, the Arab Technical Assistance Fund for Africa, and the Abu Dhabi Development Fund. Prashad, Poorer Nations, 21.

2. North-North Dialogues

1. 1. State Department Office of the Historian, “The 1973 Arab-Israeli War,” Milestones: 1969–76 https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/arab-israeli-war-1973.

2. 2. James Cronin, Global Rule: America, Britain, and a Disordered World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2014), 33.

3. 3. Henry Kissinger, “1973: The Year of Europe” (Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Media Services, 1973).

4. 4. Craig Daigle, The Limits of Détente: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1969–1973 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), 323.

5. 5. Jussi Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 277.

6. 6. “Organization for European Cooperation and Development,” http://www.oecd.org/general/organisationforeuropeaneconomicco-operation.htm.

7. 7. Robert Schumann, speech, May 9, 1950, http://www.schuman.info/9May1950.htm.

8. 8. William Brown, The EU and Africa: The Restructuring of North-South Relations (London: I. B. Tauris, 2002), 40.

9. 9. John Peterson and Mark Pollack, Europe, America, Bush: Transatlantic Relations in the Twenty-First Century (London: Routledge, 2003), 3.

10. 10. Brown, EU and Africa, 42–43.

11. 11. Giuliano Garavini, After Empires: European Integration, Decolonization, and the Challenge from the Global South 1957–1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 121.

12. 12. The golden age narrative of postwar capitalism typically dates the period from 1945 to 1973, when economic events in the developed countries seemed to belie the assumptions of the postwar Keynesian consensus. However, some authors refer specifically to a golden age of social democracy in Europe. Garavini (After Empires) begins this period in 1969. Stefan Berger places it a little earlier, 1966–69, and notes that it was replaced by a social-liberal coalition in 1969 that lasted until 1982. See Berger, “Democracy and Social Democracy,” European History Quarterly 32, no. 1 (2002): 13–37

13. 13. Garavini, After Empires, 123, 127.

14. 14. Garavini, 142–44.

15. 15. Garavini, 145.

16. 16. US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1969–1976, vol. 4, Foreign Assistance, International Development, Trade Policies, 1969–72, doc. 146, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v04/d146.

17. 17. Vanya Walker-Leigh, “Was UNCTAD III a Failure?” World Today 28, no. 9 (September 1972): 41120.

18. 18. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 3, Foreign Economic Policy; International Monetary Policy, 1969–72, doc. 91, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v03/d91.

19. 19. Garavini, After Empires, 148.

20. 20. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 3, doc. 91.

21. 21. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 3, doc. 91.

22. 22. Quoted in David Milne, Worldmaking: The Art and Science of American Diplomacy (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2015), 371.

23. 23. Milne, 371.

24. 24. Gian Giancomo Migone, “The Nature of Bipolarity,” in Dealignment: A New Foreign Policy Perspective, ed. Mary Kaldor, Richard A. Falk, and Gerard Holden (New York: United Nations University Press, 1987), 56–57. European public opinion reacted strongly against the coup, and several European socialist governments adopted special programs extending refugee status to Chilean political prisoners and their families. See Johan Cels, “Refugee Policies of Western Europe,” in Human Rights and Foreign Policy: Principles and Practice, ed. Dilys M. Hill (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 167.

25. 25. Henry Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Touchstone, 1999), 602.

26. 26. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, Foreign Economic Policy, 1973–76, doc. 31, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d31.

27. 27. Jeremi Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2007), 171–72.

28. 28. Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), 455.

29. 29. Daniel Sargent, A Superpower Transformed: The Remaking of American Foreign Relations in the 1970s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 157.

30. 30. Statement of Federal Reserve Chairman Arthur Burns, in “Kissinger-Simon Proposals for Financing Oil Imports,” Hearings before the Joint Economic Committee, Ninety-Third Congress of the United States, Second Session, November 26–29, 1974, http://www.jec.senate.gov/reports/93rd%20Congress/Hearings/Kissinger-Simon%20Proposals%20for%20Financing%20Oil%20Imports%20(679).pdf.

31. 31. Alberto Clo, Oil Economics and Policy (New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2013), 126.

32. 32. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 36, Energy Crisis, 1969–74, doc. 314, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36/d314.

33. 33. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 36, doc. 262, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36/d262.

34. 34. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 36, doc. 299, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36/d299.

35. 35. Anthony Lewis, “A Fortress America,” New York Times, December 3, 1973.

36. 36. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 36, doc. 256, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36/d256.

37. 37. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 36, doc. 295, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36/d295.

38. 38. Memorandum of conversation (hereafter memcon), January 17, 1974, Gerald Ford Presidential Library (hereafter GFPL), http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1552652.pdf.

39. 39. Memcon, February 9, 1974, GFPL, http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1552661.pdf.

40. 40. “Final Communique of the Washington Energy Conference,” http://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/1999/1/1/96e19fad-6aba-4b79-a791-34624e94acf9/publishable_en.pdf.

41. 41. Emanuele Gazzo, “Conference and Crisis,” European Community 175 (April 1974): 8, http://aei.pitt.edu/43960/1/A7561.pdf.

42. 42. Sargent, Superpower Transformed, 159.

43. 43. Memcon, March 6, 1974, GFPL, http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1552666.pdf.

44. 44. Keith Hamilton, “Britain, France, and America’s Year of Europe, 1973,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 17, no. 4 (2016): 890.

45. 45. Thomas George Weiss, UN Voices: The Struggle for Development and Social Justice (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 227; emphasis added.

46. 46. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 607.

47. 47. Alan Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (London: Routledge, 2012), 143.

48. 48. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 608–9.

49. 49. For “idiot,” see Memcon, February 9, 1974, GFPL; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 622.

50. 50. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 613.

51. 51. Max Otte and Jürgen Greve, A Rising Middle Power? German Foreign Policy in Transformation, 1989–1999 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 38.

52. 52. Memcon, December 17, 1974, GFPL, http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1552890.pdf.

53. 53. Memcon, December 15, 1974, GFPL, http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1552887.pdf.

54. 54. Memcon, December 17, 1974.

55. 55. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 34, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d34.

56. 56. Helmut Schmidt, Men and Powers: A Political Retrospective (New York: Random House, 1990).

57. 57. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 94, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d94.

58. 58. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 124, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d124.

59. 59. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 677.

60. 60. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 93, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d93.

61. 61. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 116, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d116.

62. 62. Quoted in Sargent, A Superpower Transformed, 191.

63. 63. Economic Policy Board, May 1975, GFPL, U.S. Council of Economic Advisers Records, Alan Greenspan Files, box 58, Economic Policy Board Meetings.

64. 64. Simon and Seidman to Ford, [n.d.] 1975, GFPL, William Seidman Files, Foreign Trips File, box 312, International Economic Summit, Nov. 15–17, 1975—Memoranda (1). .

65. 65. Simon and Seidman to Ford, [n.d.] 1975.

66. 66. Gerrit Faber, “The Lomé Conventions and the Causes of Economic Growth” (paper presented at the 5th SUSTRA workshop on European Governance and European Opinions on Trade and Sustainable Development, IFRI, Paris, June 3–4, 2004), http://www.agro-montpellier.fr/sustra/research_themes/ue_governance/papers/Faber.pdf.

67. 67. Briefing book, “Relations with Developing Countries,” GFPL, Federal Reserve, Subject File, box B62, International Economic Summit, Rambouillet 1975.

68. 68. E. L. M. Völker, Euro-Arab Cooperation (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 1976), 144.

69. 69. Memcon, December 2, 1975, GFPL, http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1553299.pdf.

70. 70. Memcon, December 2, 1975.

71. 71. Memcon, December 2, 1975.

72. 72. Memcon, December 2, 1975.

73. 73. Memcon, December 2, 1975.

74. 74. Memcon, February 24, 1976, GFPL, http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1553378.pdf.

75. 75. Sargent, A Superpower Transformed, 194.

76. 76. Memo, Greenspan and Scowcroft to the President, “Puerto Rico Summit Overview,” June 25, 1976, GFPL, Council of Economic Advisers, Alan Greenspan File, box 39, Economic Summit (Puerto Rico) June 1976 (1). .

77. 77. Sargent, Superpower Transformed, 194–95.

78. 78. Michael Crozier, Samuel P. Huntington, and Joji Watanuki, The Crisis of Democracy: Report on the Governability of Democracies to the Trilateral Commission (New York: NYU Press, 1975), 64.

79. 79. Seidman to EPB Executive Committee Members, June 7, 1976, “Preparation for International Summit,” 3, GFPL, Seidman Files, Economic Policy Board, EPB Executive Committee Memoranda, box 33. .

80. 80. Sargent, Superpower Transformed, 195.

81. 81. Garavini, After Empires, 221.

82. 82. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 693.

83. 83. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 300, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d300.

84. 84. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 301, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d301.

3. Neoconservatives and the NIEO at the United Nations

1. 1. Frederick A. O. Schwarz Jr., Democracy in the Dark: The Seduction of Government Secrecy (New York: New Press, 2015), 177.

2. 2. Quoted in Foreign Policy Association, “Rethinking U.S. Foreign Policy: How Should Our Power Be Used?” Great Decisions (1976): 76.

3. 3. Quoted in Irving Kristol, “The ‘New Cold War,’ ” Wall Street Journal, July 17, 1975, Gerald Ford Presidential Library (hereafter GFPL), L. William Seidman Files, box 50, Commodities—International.

4. 4. Kristol.

5. 5. Michael Harrington, “The Welfare State and Its Neoconservative Critics,” Dissent, Fall 1973, https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/the-welfare-state-and-its-neoconservative-critics.

6. 6. Penn Kemble, “The New Politics and the Democrats,” Commentary, December 1, 1972, https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/the-new-politics-the-democrats/.

7. 7. Justin Vaisse, Neoconservatism: The Biography of a Movement (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2010), 4.

8. 8. See Irving Kristol, “Confessions of a True, Self-Confessed ‘Neoconservative,’ ” Public Opinion, October/November 1979, and Neoconservative: The Autobiography of an Idea (New York: Free Press, 1995) for Kristol’s early embrace of the term. For two partisan defenses, see Douglas Murray, Neoconservatism: Why We Need It (New York: Encounter Books, 2006); Adam L. Fuller, Taking the Fight to the Enemy: Neoconservatism and the Age of Ideology (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2012). For attacks on neoconservatism, see Gary Dorrien, Imperial Designs: Neoconservatism and the New Pax Americana (New York: Routledge, 2004); Bruce W. Holsinger, Neomedievalism, Neoconservatism, and the War on Terror (Chicago: Prickly Paradigm, 2007); Jean-François Drolet, American Neoconservatism: The Politics and Culture of a Reactionary Idealism (London: Hurts, 2011).

9. 9. In Neoconservatism, Vaïsse speaks of “Three Ages” of neoconservatism, tracing its history from the leftward drift of the Democratic Party in the 1960s through the turn toward foreign policy concerns in 1972 and finally to the Reagan administration, which gave birth to the contemporary understanding associated primarily with the administration of George W. Bush.

10. 10. John Ehrman, The Rise of Neoconservatism: Intellectuals and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1994 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 69–70.

11. 11. Gil Troy, Moynihan’s Moment: America’s Fight against Zionism as Racism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 48.

12. 12. Ehrman, Rise of Neoconservatism, 67.

13. 13. Murray Rothbard, “Confessions of a Right-Wing Liberal,” Ramparts 6, no. 4 (June 1968), https://mises.org/library/confessions-right-wing-liberal; Troy, Moynihan’s Moment, 49.

14. 14. Vaïsse, Neoconservatism, 70, proposes Commentary’s 1970 offensive as one of neoconservatism’s possible birth dates.

15. 15. Troy, Moynihan’s Moment, 51–52.

16. 16. Troy, 52.

17. 17. Troy, 55–56.

18. 18. Notable neoconservatives in the coalition included Daniel Bell, Midge Decter, Nathan Glazer, Samuel Huntington, Max Kampleman, Jeane Kirkpatrick, Charles Krauthammer, Irving Kristol, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Michael Novak, and Norman Podhoretz.

19. 19. Vaïsse, Neoconservatism, 136–37; Douglas Schoen, The Nixon Effect: How His Presidency Has Changed American Politics (New York: Encounter Books, 2016), 190.

20. 20. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, “Was Woodrow Wilson Right?” Commentary, May 1, 1974, https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/was-woodrow-wilson-right/.

21. 21. Israel Shanker, “Moynihan Finds UN with Head Lost in Cloud of Ideals,” New York Times, November 10, 1971.

22. 22. Ehrman, Rise of Neoconservatism, 83.

23. 23. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, “The United States in Opposition,” Commentary, March 1, 1975, https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/the-united-states-in-opposition/.

24. 24. Troy, Moynihan’s Moment, 60.

25. 25. Memorandum of conversation (hereafter memcon), Ford, Moynihan, Kissinger, and Scowcroft, “American Strategy at the UN,” April 12, 1975, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1553022.pdf.

26. 26. Troy, Moynihan’s Moment, 59–61.

27. 27. See Niall Ferguson, Kissinger, vol. 1, 1923–1968: The Idealist (New York: Penguin, 2015). For the argument that Kissinger was actually a neoconservative pioneer, see Greg Grandin, Kissinger’s Shadow: The Long Reach of America’s Most Controversial Diplomat (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2015). I reject both views.

28. 28. Memo, White House, “The Moynihan Article in Commentary Magazine,” April 15, 1975, GFPL, folder: Moynihan, Daniel (1), box 26, Robert Goldwin Papers.

29. 29. US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, Documents on the United Nations, 1973–1976, ed. William B. McAllister (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2008), doc. 13, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d13.

30. 30. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 35, National Security Policy, 1973–1976, ed. M. Todd Bennett (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2014), doc. 29, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d29.

31. 31. Memcon, Ford et al., “American Strategy at the UN”; emphasis added.

32. 32. John Toye and Richard Toye, The UN and Global Political Economy: Trade, Finance, and Development (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 241; Ash Narain Roy, The Third World in the Age of Globalization: Requiem or New Agenda? (New York: Zed Books, 1999), 56.

33. 33. Telephone conversation (hereafter telcon), Kissinger-Ingersoll, “U.N. Vote on Economic Rights Charter,” December 6, 1974, in “The Kissinger Telephone Conversations: A Verbatim Record of U.S. Diplomacy, 1969–1977” (hereafter “Kissinger Telcons”), National Security Archive at George Washington University, http://search.proquest.com/dnsa_ka/docview/1679092061/3A02D9DCD17047DCPQ/58?accountid=9673.

34. 34. Memcon, Ford, Kissinger, and Scowcroft, April 15, 1975, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1553028.pdf.

35. 35. Memo, Hormats to Kissinger, “Followup to Consumer/Producer Preparatory Conference,” April 25, 1975, GFPL, folder: Utilities, box 4, White House Central Files (hereafter WHCF).

36. 36. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, Foreign Economic Policy, 1973–76, doc. 94, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d94.

37. 37. Memo, Hormats to Kissinger, “Scenario for Dealing with Energy and Raw Materials,” May 16, 1975, GFPL, folder: Utilities, box 4, WHCF.

38. 38. Memo, Economic Policy Board, “Kissinger’s UN 7th Special Session Speech,” August 20, 1975, GFPL, folder: Porter, Roger (2), box 200, Economic Policy Board.

39. 39. Memcon, Ford et al., “American Strategy at the UN.”

40. 40. Clipping, “United Nations: Barking Less and Liking It More,” Time, September 29, 1975, GFPL, folder: Moynihan, Daniel P. (1), box K25, Arthur Burns Papers; telcon, Kissinger-Moynihan, “U.N. Issue and Treasury Department,” September 13, 1975, in “Kissinger Telcons,” http://search.proquest.com.proxy.bc.edu/dnsa_ka/docview/1679101022/70D0F486ECD44D35PQ/18?accountid=9673.

41. 41. Clipping, Don Shannon, “Rich, Poor Nations Compromise on Aid,” Los Angeles Times, September 17, 1975, GFPL, folder: Moynihan, Daniel P. (1), box K25, Arthur Burns Papers.

42. 42. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, A Dangerous Place (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978), 131–32.

43. 43. Shannon, “Rich, Poor Nations Compromise.”

44. 44. Clipping, Paul Hofmann, “Shift in Third World’s Views Shown in U.N. Session,” New York Times, September 19, 1975, GFPL, folder: Moynihan, Daniel P. (1), box K25, Arthur Burns Papers.

45. 45. Telcon, Kissinger-Moynihan, “U.N. Economic Debate,” September 13, 1975, in “Kissinger Telcons,” http://search.proquest.com/dnsa_ka/docview/1679104673/CF5415D9F7E04EB8PQ/11?accountid=9673.

46. 46. Hofmann, “Shift in Third World’s Views.”

47. 47. “Benign Attention at the U.N.,” Newsweek, September 22, 1975, GFPL (II), folder: Moynihan, Daniel P. (2), box 26, Robert Goldwin Papers.

48. 48. “Winning the Fourth World,” Wall Street Journal, September 26, 1975, GFPL, folder: Moynihan, Daniel P. (2), box 26, Robert Goldwin Papers.

49. 49. Moynihan, Dangerous Place, 118.

50. 50. Members of the commission were particularly fond of this phrase. See, for example, C. Fred Bergsten, Georges Berthoin, and Kinhide Mushakoji, “The Reform of International Institutions: A Report of the Trilateral Task Force on International Institutions to the Trilateral Commission,” Triangle Papers no. 11 (1976), v; Richard N. Gardner, “To Make the World Safe for Interdependence,” UN 30 (New York: United Nations Association of the USA, 1975).

51. 51. Moynihan, Dangerous Place, 118.

52. 52. Moynihan, Dangerous Place, 140.

53. 53. Moynihan, 141.

54. 54. Henry Kissinger, “Building International Order,” address to the 30th General Assembly of the United Nations, September 22, 1975, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/dosb/1894.pdf#page=3.

55. 55. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 292, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d292#fn2.

56. 56. See Richard N. Cooper, The Economics of Interdependence: Economic Policy in the Atlantic Community (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968); Zbigniew Brzezinski, “U.S. Foreign Policy: The Search for Focus,” Foreign Affairs 51, no. 4 (July 1973): 708–27.

57. 57. Moynihan, Dangerous Place, 148; emphasis in original.

58. 58. Moynihan, 142, 147.

59. 59. Television transcript, Meet the Press, GFPL (II), folder: Meet the Press—Sept. 14, 1975, box 70, Ron Nessen Files.

60. 60. Michael Novak, “Twice Chosen,” in The Neoconservative Imagination: Essays in Honor of William Kristol, ed. Christopher C. Demuth and William Kristol (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 1995), 73–82.

61. 61. Television transcript, Meet the Press.

62. 62. Moynihan, Dangerous Place, 153–54.

63. 63. Moynihan, 155.

64. 64. Moynihan, 154.

65. 65. Moynihan, 155–56.

66. 66. Joel Peters, Israel and Africa: The Problematic Friendship (London: I. B. Tauris Press, 1992), 75–76.

67. 67. “Clearer Days at Turtle Bay,” Wall Street Journal, October 14, 1975, GFPL, folder: Moynihan, Daniel P. (2), box 26, Robert Goldwin Papers.

68. 68. Poll conducted by Opinion Research Corporation, Princeton, NJ, January 12, 1976, GFPL, folder: Moynihan, Daniel P. (2), box 26, Robert Goldwin Papers.

69. 69. Troy, Moynihan’s Moment, 104.

70. 70. “Moynihan Criticism of Amin Has U.N. People Buzzing,” New York Times, October 5, 1975, GFPL, folder: Moynihan, Daniel P. (2), box 26, Robert Goldwin Papers.

71. 71. Troy, Moynihan’s Moment, 103; “The Moynihan Controversy,” Newsweek, October 20, 1975.

72. 72. Telcon, Kissinger-Ingersoll, “Daniel Moynihan and Organization of African Unity,” October 9, 1975, in “Kissinger Telcons,” http://search.proquest.com/dnsa_ka/docview/1679102728/AA93F227380C427FPQ/2?accountid=9673.

73. 73. Troy, Moynihan’s Moment, 98.

74. 74. Memo, Hal Horan to Scowcroft, “Presidential Statement on Zionism/Racism,” October 24, 1975, GFPL, folder: USUN (8), box 21, Presidential Agency Files, National Security Advisor (hereafter NSA).

75. 75. Telcon, Kissinger-Buffum, “Daniel Moynihan’s Statement on Zionism,” November 10, 1975, in “Kissinger Telcons,” http://search.proquest.com/dnsa_ka/docview/1679101778/AC632375A56849A1PQ/3?accountid=9673.

76. 76. “An ‘Infamous Act’ at the U.N.,” Newsweek, November 24, 1975.

77. 77. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 36, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d36.

78. 78. “ ‘Infamous Act’ at the U.N.”

79. 79. Ehrman, Rise of Neoconservatism, 85.

80. 80. Clipping, “A Fighting Irishman,” Time, January 26, 1976, GFPL, folder: USUN (9), box 21, International Economic Affairs Staff, NSA.

81. 81. John F. Burns, “Huge Rally Here Condemns U.N. Anti-Zionism Move,” New York Times, November 12, 1975.

82. 82. Vaïsse, Neoconservatism, 122–24.

83. 83. Telcon, Kissinger-Buffum, “UN Resolution; Includes Follow-up Telephone Conversation at 3:43 pm,” November 5, 1975, in “Kissinger Telcons,” http://search.proquest.com/dnsa_ka/docview/1679091106/DED11DCFF2A14EADPQ/1?accountid=9673.

84. 84. Daniel J. Sargent, A Superpower Transformed: The Remaking of American Foreign Relations in the 1970s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 199.

85. 85. Moynihan, Dangerous Place, 162.

86. 86. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 16, Soviet Union, August 1974–December 1976, doc. 299, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v16/d229.

87. 87. Memcon, “Rambouillet Economic Summit,” November 16, 1975, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0314/1553299.pdf.

88. 88. “Fighting Irishman.”

89. 89. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 38, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d38.

90. 90. Moynihan, Dangerous Place, 275–76.

91. 91. “Fighting Irishman.”

92. 92. Ehrman, Rise of Neoconservatism, 91–92.

93. 93. Kissinger explained: “We should try to break what the Chancellor [Helmut Schmidt] correctly called the unholy alliance between the LDCs and OPEC. This can happen, and we can achieve our results, if they know that their disruptive actions could stop discussions on commodities or that they will pay a price in terms of cooperation, or military exports. In this way we can combat our dependence with a coherent strategy.” FRUS, 1969–76, vol. 31, doc. 124, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d124.

94. 94. Henry Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), 677.

95. 95. US State Department, Office of the Historian, “The Panama Canal and the Torrijos-Carter Treaties,” https://history.state.gov/milestones/1977-1980/panama-canal.

96. 96. Gerald E. Thomas, “The Black Revolt: The United States and Africa in the 1960s,” in The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s, ed. Diane B. Kunz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 346–47.

97. 97. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 18, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d18.

98. 98. Sargent, Superpower Transformed, 220–21.

99. 99. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-6, Documents on Africa, 1973–1976, doc. 34, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve06/d34.

100. 100. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-6, doc. 31, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve06/d31.

101. 101. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-6, doc. 44, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve06/d44.

102. 102. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-6, doc. 44.

103. 103. Memcon, Ford, Kissinger, and congressional leadership, “Report on Secretary’s Trip to Africa,” May 12, 1976, GFPL, folder: Africa, box 1, International Economic Affairs Staff, NSA.

104. 104. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-6, doc. 42, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve06/d42.

105. 105. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 301, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d301.

106. 106. Briefing paper, State Department, “Relationship of CIEC and Other International Agencies,” n.d., GFPL, folder: State Department (1), box 105, Paul W. MacAvoy Files, Council of Economic Advisors.

107. 107. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 304, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v31/d304.

108. 108. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 925.

109. 109. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-6, doc. 44.

110. 110. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-6, doc. 39, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve06/d39.

111. 111. Henry Kissinger, “America and Africa,” April 30, 1976, Department of State Bulletin 74, no. 1927 (1976): 679, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/dosb/1927.pdf#page=3.

112. 112. Henry Kissinger, “United States Policy on Southern Africa,” April 27, 1976, Department of State Bulletin 74, no. 1927 (1976): 674.

113. 113. Sargent, Superpower Transformed, 206, 225. Kaunda was known for weeping at public events, so this would not have surprised Zambians.

114. 114. “Press Conference by Secretary Kissinger and British Foreign Secretary Crosland,” April 24, 1976, Department of State Bulletin 74, no. 1927 (1976): 691.

115. 115. Kissinger, “United States Policy on Southern Africa,” 677.

116. 116. B. P. Menon, Global Dialogue: The New International Economic Order (New York: Pergamon, 1977), 20.

117. 117. Gamani Corea, Taming Commodity Markets: The Integrated Programme and the Common Fund in UNCTAD (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1992). About UNCTAD II, Corea writes, “The ideas and the analysis presented there established the basis of UNCTAD’s approach to the commodity problem and UNCTAD’s efforts in the subsequent period—right up to UNCTAD IV in 1976—were essentially to win acceptance of this [comprehensive] approach” (24).

118. 118. Menon, Global Dialogue, 23–25.

119. 119. Menon, 26.

120. 120. Gwenyth Williams, Third World Political Organizations: A Review of Developments (London: Macmillan Press, 1987), 35; Giuliano Garavini, After Empires: European Integration, Decolonization, and the Challenge from the Global South 1957–1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 223.

121. 121. “UNCTAD IV: Expanding Cooperation for Global Economic Development,” May 6, 1976, Department of State Bulletin 74, no. 1927 (1976): 622–23.

122. 122. Ann Crittendom, “Kissinger’s Trade-off on Aid,” New York Times, May 7, 1976, http://www.nytimes.com/1976/05/07/archives/kissingers-tradeoff-on-aid-plan-for-resources-bank-is-viewed-as.html.

123. 123. Garavini, After Empires, 202.

124. 124. Paul Hallwood and Stuart Sinclair, Oil, Debt, and Development: OPEC in the Third World (London: Routledge, 1981), 84. Those countries, in order of most to least indebted were Mexico, Brazil, India, Israel, Korea, Pakistan, Egypt, Argentina, Turkey, and Chile.

125. 125. Garavini, After Empires, 222.

126. 126. “UNCTAD IV,” 670.

127. 127. See Corea, Taming Commodity Markets, 52–53, for a detailed explanation of this phenomenon.

128. 128. Corea, 52–57.

129. 129. The G-77 leaders were Herbert Walker of Jamaica, Layachi Yaker of Algeria, Manuel Perez-Guerrero of Venezuela, Wijojo Nitisastro of Indonesia, and “certain others.” For Group B, they were Charles Robinson of the United States, Frank Judd of Britain, Jean Francois-Poncet of France, Jan Pronk of the Netherlands, Hans Friderichs and Egon Bahr of Germany, C. Lindbom of Sweden, and B. Yoshino of Japan. Corea, 59.

130. 130. Corea, 59–60.

131. 131. Corea, 63.

132. 132. This is the source of an old joke in UN circles regarding UNCTAD’s name: Under No Circumstances Take Any Decisions. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was also mocked as the General Agreement to Talk and Talk. For UNCTAD, see Thomas George Weiss, UN Voices: The Struggle for Development and Social Justice (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 421. For GATT, see Robert Kuttner, “Another Great Victory of Ideology over Prosperity,” Atlantic, October 1991.

133. 133. Corea, Taming Commodity Markets, 66–68.

134. 134. Menon, Global Dialogue, 28.

135. 135. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 304.

136. 136. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 304.

137. 137. Memo, Robinson to Kissinger, “Discussion with Giscard on North-South Relations,” May 17, 1976, GFPL (II), folder: France (2), box 1, International Economic Affairs Staff, NSA.

138. 138. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 31, doc. 304.

139. 139. Corea, Taming Commodity Markets, 110–14.

140. 140. Robert A. Pastor, ed., Latin American Debt Crisis: Adjusting for the Past or Planning for the Future (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1987), 9.

141. 141. Donella H. Meadows, The Global Citizen (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1991), 77.

142. 142. Corea, Taming Commodity Markets, 52.

143. 143. State Department, “Briefing Paper on CIEC,” July 26, 1976, GFPL, folder: International Organizations, box 1, International Organizations, WHCF.

144. 144. Menon, Global Dialogue, 32.

145. 145. “Brazil, Venezuela, Argentina, India, Indonesia, Zaire, and Zambia,” the State Department reported in April 1977, “all indicated that their support for postponement was based on expectations that the new Administration will soften the U.S. position on LDC debt rescheduling and ask Congress for increased U.S. contributions to the World Bank’s ‘soft loan’ facility.” Telegram, State to Embassies, April 1977, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, RAC, NLC-24-59-2-4-4. .

146. 146. Vaïsse, Neoconservatism, 125.

147. 147. CDM member Penn Kemple explained, “Carter was not elected with any real ideological views, he was just somebody all people could coalesce around, and this was very uncomfortable for us, because we didn’t have much confidence in Carter, we were against him, we were for [Henry] Scoop [Jackson].” Vaïsse, 126.

148. 148. Transcript, “The Second Ford-Carter Presidential Debate, October 6, 1976,” http://www.debates.org/index.php?page=october-6-1976-debate-transcript.

4. Interdependence, Development, and Jimmy Carter

1. 1. Robert A. Strong, “Jimmy Carter: Campaigns and Elections,” http://millercenter.org/president/biography/carter-campaigns-and-elections.

2. 2. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Advisor, 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1983), 7.

3. 3. Second Debate—Carter on Foreign Policy—Briefing Book (1), October 6, 1975, Gerald Ford Presidential Library (hereafter GFPL), White House Special Files Unit, box 2, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0010/1554419.pdf.

4. 4. Gardner to Eizenstat, October 12, 1976, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library (hereafter JCPL), Carter-Mondale Campaign Committee, Eizenstat Subject Files, box 3, Commodities, 6/74–10/76; Strong, “Jimmy Carter.”

5. 5. Richard N. Cooper, The Economics of Interdependence: Economic Policy in the Atlantic Community (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).

6. 6. Address by President Nixon to the UN General Assembly, September 18, 1969, http://www.state.gov/p/io/potusunga/207305.htm.

7. 7. US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, Documents on the United Nations, 1973–1976, doc. 129, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d129.

8. 8. Henry Kissinger, “An Age of Interdependence: Common Disaster or Common Community,” speech before the 29th UN General Assembly, September 23, 1974, https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/dosb/1842.pdf#page=8.

9. 9. Greg Grandin, Kissinger’s Shadow: The Long Reach of America’s Most Controversial Statesman (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2015), 130.

10. 10. Stephen McGlinchey, “Review—Brzezinski’s Technetronic Era,” July 22, 2011, E-International Relations, http://www.e-ir.info/2011/07/22/review-between-two-ages-america%E2%80%99s-role-in-the-technetronic-era/; Andrew Gavin Marshall, “Controlling the Global Economy,” August 3, 2009, Center for Research on Globalization, http://www.globalresearch.ca/controlling-the-global-economy-bilderberg-the-trilateral-commission-and-the-federal-reserve/14614.

11. 11. Richard Ullman, “Trilateralism: Partnership for What?” Foreign Affairs, October 1976, 3–4.

12. 12. “Meeting on Proposed Trilateral Commission,” July 23–24, 1972, JCPL, Zbigniew Brzezinski Collection, Gerard Smith Subject Files, box 1, Gerard Smith File—Chron File, 5/11/72–2/28/73.

13. 13. Richard N. Gardner, Saburo Okita, and B. J. Udink, A Turning Point in North-South Economic Relations: A Report of the Trilateral Task Force on Relations with Developing Countries to the Executive Commission of the Trilateral Commission, Triangle Papers no. 3 (1974), 11, http://trilateral.org//download/doc/economic_relations_19741.pdf.

14. 14. Gardner et al., 9, 15.

15. 15. Scowcroft to the President, “Results of Meeting to Review Issues in World Food Conference Speech,” November 2, 1974, GFPL, Files of the National Security Adviser, Presidential Subject File, box 6, Food/Food Aid/World Food Conference (3). .)

16. 16. Richard N. Gardner, Saburo Okita, and B. J. Udink, OPEC, the Trilateral Countries, and the Developing Countries: New Arrangements for Cooperation 1976–1980, Triangle Papers no. 7 (1975), 9–12, http://trilateral.org//download/doc/OPEC_new_arrangements_cooperation_1976_1980.pdf.

17. 17. Gardner et al., 13–14.

18. 18. A. van de Laar, The World Bank and the Poor, vol. 6 of Institute of Social Studies Series on the Development of Societies (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980), 30–31.

19. 19. Bergsten advised: “Politicization of issues is better avoided in functionally specific institutions [such as the IMF and GATT] simply because of the consensus that such institutions are the best, perhaps only, places where serious business could be done. The same countries which will indulge in fanciful rhetoric in a broad, multipurpose organization (such as various UN agencies) will often be negotiating seriously and cooperatively in another organization (such as GATT) on the same issue at the very same time. The more technical focus, and lesser public awareness, of such organizations promotes such a result.” C. Fred Bergsten, Georges Berthoin, Kinhide Mushakoji, and John Pinder, The Reform of International Institutions, 6, http://trilateral.org//download/doc/reform_of_internatioal_institutions.pdf.

20. 20. Bergsten et al., 2.

21. 21. Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (New York: Bantam Books, 1982), 51.

22. 22. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 5.

23. 23. Carter, Keeping Faith, 51.

24. 24. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-14, pt. 1, doc. 147, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve14p1/d147.

25. 25. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 5.

26. 26. Carter, Keeping Faith, 51–52.

27. 27. Jimmy Carter, Why Not the Best? The First 50 Years (New York: Bantam Books, 1976), 141–42. Historian Douglas Brinkley explains in the introduction to a 1996 reprint of this book: “Almost as a matter of policy Carter would ask reporters about to interview him if they had read his book.” When a reporter asked whether Carter had a “master plan” for his presidency, Carter “snapped, ‘It’s in the book … how I decided to run for the presidency, and the plans are in the book. There’s no point in talking about these things when they’re in the book.’ ”

28. 28. Brzezinski is referring to the Conference on International Economic Cooperation, which first met in Paris on December 16–19, 1975.

29. 29. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 7.

30. 30. Brzezinski, 7.

31. 31. Jimmy Carter, “Relations between the World’s Democracies,” speech to the New York Foreign Policy Association, in FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 1, Foundations of Foreign Policy, doc. 6, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v01/d6.

32. 32. “ ‘Ask President Carter’: Remarks during a Telephone Call-in Program on the CBS Radio Network,” March 5, 1977, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1977 (Washington, DC: Federal Register Division, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, 1977), 313.

33. 33. Edward S. Berman, The Influence of the Ford, Rockefeller, and Carnegie Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1983), 140.

34. 34. Javier A. Reyes and W. Charles Sawyer, Latin American Economic Development (New York: Routledge, 2016), 281.

35. 35. John Toye and Richard Toye, The UN and Global Political Economy: Trade, Finance, and Development (Bloomington: Indiana University Press), 13; “Raul Prebisch: Latin America’s Keynes,” Economist, March 5, 2009, http://www.economist.com/node/13226316.

36. 36. Colm Foy and Henry Helmich, Public Support for International Development (Development Centre of the OECD, 1996), 71.

37. 37. David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 190.

38. 38. Bauer collected many of his earlier critiques in a book published in 1971. See P. T. Bauer, Dissent on Development: Studies and Debates in Development Economics (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971). He was also active in neoconservative circles and penned many criticisms of US development and North-South policy in Commentary throughout the 1970s. Bauer’s relationship with and influence on Margaret Thatcher is well known, but his influence was also felt in the Reagan administration, where, a top official recalled receiving “ ‘many position papers of the P. T. Bauer variety’ ” on foreign aid. See Steven G. Livingston, “The Politics of International Agenda-Setting: Reagan and North-South Relations” International Studies Quarterly 36, no. 3 (Sept. 1992): 319.

39. 39. Ekbladh, Great American Mission, 244.

40. 40. Devesh Kapur and John P. Louis, The World Bank: Its First Half Century; History(Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), 233.

41. 41. Edward Ramsamy, World Bank and Urban Development: From Projects to Policy (New York: Routledge, 2006), 61–63.

42. 42. “World Banking McNamara-Style,” Business Week, September 27, 1969, 100.

43. 43. Ekbladh, Great American Mission, 245.

44. 44. Berman, Influence of the Ford, Rockefeller, and Carnegie Foundations, 140; Ekbladh, Great American Mission, 245.

45. 45. Michael O’Brien, Hesburgh: A Biograph (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press of America, 1998), 145.

46. 46. “World Banking McNamara-Style,” 100.

47. 47. Berman, Influence of the Ford, Rockefeller, and Carnegie Foundations, 140.

48. 48. Kapur and Louis, World Bank, 227–28.

49. 49. Thomas G. Weiss, Tatiana Carayannis, Louis Emmerij, and Richard Jolly, UN Voices: The Struggle for Development and Social Justice (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 240–42; Louis Emmerij, “The Basic Human Needs Development Strategy,” background paper, UN World Economic and Social Survey 2010, http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_bg_papers/bp_wess2010_emmerij.pdf.

50. 50. Ekbladh, Great American Mission, 245.

51. 51. Kapur and Louis, World Bank, 229.

52. 52. James P. Grant, “Growth from Below: A People-Oriented Development Strategy,” ODC Development Paper 16, December 1973, 5–6.

53. 53. Donald Mackay Fraser, inventory of his papers at the Minnesota Historical Society, http://www2.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00290.xml.

54. 54. Arvonne Fraser and Hudson Perdita, eds., Third World Women Speak Out: Interviews in Six Countries on Change, Development, and Basic Human Needs (New York: Praeger for the Overseas Development Council, 1979).

55. 55. Brian H. Smith, More than Altruism: The Politics of Private Foreign Aid (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 67–68.

56. 56. Mark F. McGuire and Vernon W. Ruttan, “Lost Directions: U.S. Foreign Assistance Policy since New Directions,” Economic Development Center, University of Minnesota, August 1989, 2, http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/7465/1/edc89-05.pdf.

57. 57. James W. Howe, The United States and the Developing World: Agenda for Action, 1974 (New York: Praeger for the Overseas Development Council, 1974), v.

58. 58. James W. Howe, The United States and the Developing World: Agenda for Action, 1975 (New York: Praeger for the Overseas Development Council, 1975), v.

59. 59. Quoted in Howe, Agenda for Action, 1975, v–vii; emphasis in original.

60. 60. “Stuart Eizenstat Exit Interview,” January 10, 1981, JCPL,https://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/assets/documents/oral_histories/exit_interviews/Eizenstat.pdf.

61. 61. Owen to Eizenstat, April 17, 1974, JCPL, Carter-Mondale Campaign Committee, Eizenstat Subject Files, box 16, Foreign Policy, 10/73–8/74.

62. 62. Hesburgh to Ford, November 22, 1974; Ford to Hesburgh, December 9, 1974; Hesburgh to Ford, December 14, 1974; Ford to Hesburgh, January 21, 1975; Hesburgh to Ford, February 13, 1975; Ford to Hesburgh, March 18, 1975, JCPL, Carter-Mondale Campaign Committee, Eizenstat Subject Files, box 3, Commodities, 11/74–3/75.

63. 63. O’Brien, 144–45.

64. 64. O’Brien, 148.

65. 65. Gardner to Eizenstat, October 12, 1976.

66. 66. Transcript, “The Second Ford-Carter Presidential Debate, October 6, 1976,” http://www.debates.org/index.php?page=october-6-1976-debate-transcript.

67. 67. O’Brien, Hesburgh, 148.

68. 68. Jimmy Carter, Address at Commencement Exercises at the University of Notre Dame, May 22, 1977, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-commencement-exercises-the-university-notre-dame.

69. 69. Second Debate—Carter on Foreign Policy—Briefing Book (1).

70. 70. Second Debate—Carter on Foreign Policy—Briefing Book (1).

71. 71. Guy Erb to Brzezinski, “North-South Policies: Assessment and Recommendations,” February 11, 1978, JCPL, NLC-15-108-2-1-3.

72. 72. Lars Schoultz, Human Rights and United States Policy toward Latin America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), 122.

73. 73. Arthur Schlesinger Jr., “Human Rights and the American Tradition,” Foreign Affairs, Fall 1978, 512.

74. 74. Lucy Komisar, “Kissinger Covered up Torture,” Guardian (Manchester), February 28, 1999, http://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/feb/28/theobserver3.

75. 75. Second Debate—Carter on Foreign Policy—Briefing Book (1).

76. 76. Schoultz, Human Rights, 118.

77. 77. General Assembly resolution 29/3281, Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, A/RES/29/3281 (December 12, 1974), http://www.un-documents.net/a29r3281.htm.

78. 78. Roland Burke, “Competing for the Last Utopia? The NIEO, Human Rights, and the World Conference for the International Women’s Year, Mexico City, June 1975,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights 6, no. 1 (Spring 2015): 1, 50–53.

79. 79. Roger D. Hansen, “North-South Policy—What’s the Problem?” Foreign Affairs, Summer 1980, 1111.

5. Debt, Development, and Human Rights

1. 1. Henry Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), 707–9.

2. 2. Kissinger, 709.

3. 3. US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1969–1976, vol. 36, Energy Crisis, 1969–74, doc. 299, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v36/d299.

4. 4. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 710.

5. 5. Christopher Dietrich, Oil Revolution: Anticolonial Elites, Sovereign Rights, and the Economic Culture of Decolonization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 277–78.

6. 6. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 710.

7. 7. Henry Kissinger, “A Just Consensus: A Stable Order, a Durable Peace,” speech to the 28th session of the UN General Assembly, September 24, 1973, Department of State Bulletin 69, no. 1790 (October 15, 1973): 469–73.

8. 8. Henry Kissinger, “A Western Hemisphere Relationship of Cooperation,” October 5, 1973, Department of State Bulletin 69, no. 1792 (October 29, 1973): 543.

9. 9. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 38, pt. 1, Foundations of Foreign Policy, doc. 18, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v38p1/d18.

10. 10. See Zbigniew Brzezinski, Between Two Ages: America’s Role in the Technetronic Era (New York: Viking Press, 1970).

11. 11. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 38, pt. 1, doc. 18.

12. 12. Abraham Lowenthal, “The United States and Latin America: Ending the Hegemonic Presumption,” Foreign Affairs 55, no. 199 (1976–77): 202.

13. 13. Odd Arne Westad, The Cold War: A Global History (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 344.

14. 14. Hal Brands, Latin America’s Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 13, 58–59.

15. 15. Westad, Cold War, 349–51.

16. 16. John W. Young and John Kent, International Relations since 1945: A Global History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 149.

17. 17. Ronald W. Cox, Power and Profits: U.S. Policy in Central America (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994), 83–85.

18. 18. Peter H. Smith, Talons of the Eagle: Dynamics of U.S.–Latin American Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 150–52.

19. 19. International Commission for Central American Recovery and Development, Central American Recovery and Development Task Force Report (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989), 352–53.

20. 20. Quoted in John Toye and Richard Toye, The UN and Global Political Economy: Trade, Finance, and Development (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 143–44.

21. 21. Robert D. Bond, “Regionalism in Latin America: Prospects for the Latin American Economic System (SELA),” International Organization 32, no. 2 (Spring 1978): 402.

22. 22. “Special Latin American Coordinating Committee (CECLA)—European Communities: Declaration Establishing Machinery for Dialogue on System of Cooperation,” International Legal Materials 10, no. 4 (1971): 873–76.

23. 23. Judith Ewell, Venezuela and the United States: From Monroe’s Hemisphere to Petroleum’s Empire (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 219.

24. 24. Bond, “Regionalism in Latin America,” 402.

25. 25. Ewell, Venezuela and the United States, 204–5.

26. 26. “The President of Venezuela Responds to the President of the United States,” New York Times, September 25, 1974.

27. 27. David Binder, “20 Latin Countries Condemn U.S. Trade Act,” New York Times, January 24, 1975, 3.

28. 28. Arthur S. Banks et al., Political Handbook of the World 1998 (London: Palgrave, 1998), 1120, s.v. “SELA.”

29. 29. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 730.

30. 30. Kissinger, 724.

31. 31. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 38, pt. 1, doc. 63, fn. 3, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v38p1/d63#fn3.

32. 32. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 38, pt. 1, doc. 63.

33. 33. Russel Crandall, Gunboat Diplomacy: U.S. Interventions in the Dominican Republic, Grenada, and Panama (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006), 184.

34. 34. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 716.

35. 35. US Department of State, “The Panama Canal and the Torrijos-Carter Treaties,” https://history.state.gov/milestones/1977-1980/panama-canal.

36. 36. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 716.

37. 37. Transcript, “The Second Carter-Ford Presidential Debate,” October 6, 1976, http://www.debates.org/index.php?page=october-6-1976-debate-transcript.

38. 38. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of a National Security Advisor (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1983), 51.

39. 39. Abraham Lowenthal, “Latin America—A Not so Special Relationship,” Foreign Policy no. 32 (Autumn 1978): 110.

40. 40. “Review of U.S. Policy toward Latin America,” n.d. (but matches other documents from February–March 1977), Jimmy Carter Presidential Library (hereafter JCPL), RAC, NLC-24-65-3-8-9.

41. 41. Robert A. Pastor, “The Carter Administration and Latin America: A Test of Principle,” July 1992, 12–13, http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/1243.pdf.

42. 42. Commission on United States–Latin American Relations, “The United States and Latin America, Next Steps: A Second Report,” Center for Inter-American Relations, December 20, 1976.

43. 43. Commission on United States–Latin American Relations, 3–5.

44. 44. Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 9–10.

45. 45. National Security Council, “Presidential Review Memorandum/NSC 1,” January 21, 1977, JCPL, http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/prmemorandums/prm01.pdf.

46. 46. “The Panama Canal Treaties: The Terms of the Treaties,” JCPL, http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/education/panama/terms.phtml.

47. 47. Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 14–15.

48. 48. “Statement on the Panama Canal Treaty Signing,” September 7, 1977, http://millercenter.org/president/carter/speeches/speech-3928. Panamanians ratified the treaties in October 1977 through a national plebiscite, with two-thirds in favor. The US Congress took longer—a resolution from a freshman congressman threatened to derail the entire effort—but the Senate approved the second treaty on March 16, 1978, and the first treaty on April 18.

49. 49. Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 17–19.

50. 50. Memo, Pastor to Brzezinski, “ ‘Do We Need a Latin American Policy?’ ” March 14, 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-60-9-1-9; emphasis added.

51. 51. FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 38, pt. 1, doc. 63; emphasis in original.

52. 52. Pastor to Brzezinski, “ ‘Do We Need a Latin American Policy?’ ”; emphasis in original.

53. 53. Jimmy Carter, “Organization of the American States Address before the Permanent Council,” April 14, 1977, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=7347.

54. 54. Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 22.

55. 55. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., “Human Rights and the American Tradition,” Foreign Affairs 57, no. 3 (1978): 503.

56. 56. Tony Smith, America’s Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the 20th Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). For a historiographic overview of recent scholarship on the Carter administration’s post–Cold War foreign policy, see David F. Schmitz and Vanessa Walker, “Jimmy Carter and the Foreign Policy of Human Rights,” Diplomatic History 28, no. 1 (January 2004): 113–43.

57. 57. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 49.

58. 58. Brzezinski, 124.

59. 59. “Presidential Review Memorandum/NSC-28: Human Rights,” August 15, 1977, 2–3, JCPL, RAC, NLC-28-10-10-4-5.

60. 60. “Presidential Review Memorandum/NSC-28,” 3.

61. 61. “Mrs. Carter’s Trip: The Western Hemisphere in Creative Flux,” May 23, 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-49-6-2-3.

62. 62. Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 23.

63. 63. Memorandum for Dr. Zbigniew Brzezinski, “Follow-up to President Carter’s Pan-American Day Speech and Mrs. Carter’s Trip,” July 19, 1977, 2–3, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-61-3-5-9.

64. 64. “Review of U.S. Policy toward Latin America.”

65. 65. Ewell, Venezuela and the United States, 209–17.

66. 66. Ewell, 209.

67. 67. See the chapter “Disarmament and Development” in the Brandt Report, officially titled North-South: A Programme for Survival (London: Pan Books, 1980), 117.

68. 68. Westad, Cold War, 573–74.

69. 69. John Dinges and Saul Landau, Assassination on Embassy Row (New York: Pantheon, 1980), 139.

70. 70. Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 24.

71. 71. Memorandum of conversation, “President Carter’s First Meeting with the President of Venezuela during His State Visit,” June 28, 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-61-3-5-9.

72. 72. Memo, Christopher to Carter, “Visit by Venezuelan President Carlos Andres Perez,” June 23, 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-5-15-1-1-8.

73. 73. “North/South Dialogue, Resource Transfer,” n.d., JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-63-8-2-5.

74. 74. Kissinger’s speech at UNCTAD IV, which met in May 1976 in Nairobi, is covered in chapter 3.

75. 75. Jahangir Amuzegar, “A Requiem for the North-South Conference,” Foreign Affairs, October 1977, 136–37.

76. 76. Memo, Christopher to Carter, June 4, 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-128-12-9-3.

77. 77. Telegram, State to Embassies, April 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-59-2-4-4.

78. 78. “Carlos Andres Perez,” Economist, January 6, 2011, http://www.economist.com/node/17848513.

79. 79. “New Strains Ahead as North-South Dialogue Resumes?” n.d., JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-59-2-2-7.

80. 80. Telegram, State to Embassies, April 1977.

81. 81. Jimmy Carter, “Remarks before the Venezuelan Congress,” March 29, 1978, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1978 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1979), 619–23. Upon his return, Carter tapped Father Hesburgh as his special ambassador to the UN Conference on Science and Technology for Development. This conference is covered in chapter 6.

82. 82. Memorandum of conversation, President Carter and President Perez of Venezuela, March 29, 1978, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-47-2-11-9.

83. 83. Memcon, Carter and Perez.

84. 84. In early 1974 the State Department commented that “never in history has such a transfer of resources occurred without a war.” Ewell, Venezuela and the United States, 204.

85. 85. Terry Lynn Karl, The Paradox of Plenty: Oil Booms and Petro-states (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: The University of California Press, 1997), 120

86. 86. Judith Ewell, Venezuela: A Century of Change (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 202–3.

87. 87. Ewell, Venezuela, 200.

88. 88. H. Micheal Tarver and Julia C. Frederick, The History of Venezuela (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005), 133.

89. 89. US Congress, Joint Economic Committee, Outlook on Venezuela’s Petroleum Policy (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1980), http://www.jec.senate.gov/reports/96th%20Congress/Outlook%20on%20Venezuela’s%20Petroleum%20Policy%20(959).pdf.

90. 90. “President Carter’s Talks with Lopez-Portillo: North/South Relations,” n.d. (probably September 1979), JCPL, NLC-15-89-6-26-4.

91. 91. See Gaddis Smith, Morality, Reason, and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986); David Skidmore, Reversing Course: Carter’s Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and the Failure of Reform (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1996); Jerel Rosati, “The Rise and Fall of America’s First Post–Cold War Foreign Policy,” in Jimmy Carter: Foreign Policy and Post-Presidential Years, ed. Herbert D. Rosebaum and Alexej Ugrinsky (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), 44–47.

92. 92. Michael Hunt makes this point in his classic Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987). One notable iteration of this persistent theme is Betty Glad, An Outsider in the White House: Jimmy Carter, His Advisors, and the Making of American Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009).

93. 93. Robert Pastor, “The Caricature and the Man,” in Zbig: The Strategy and Statecraft of Zbigniew Brzezinski, ed. Charles Gati (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013), 108–9.

94. 94. Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 38–39.

95. 95. Pastor, 43–44.

96. 96. Memo, Brzezinski to Carter, “The Caribbean Group,” September 13, 1980, JCPL, NLC-126-22-25-1-9.

97. 97. Memo, Pastor to Brzezinski, “Beyond Panama: A PRC on Latin America/Caribbean?” May 8, 1978, JCPL, NSA, Staff Material—North/South Files, Robert Pastor Files (Latin America and the Caribbean), box 27, Latin America, 10/77–12/78.

98. 98. Jaime Suchlicki, Mexico: From Montezuma to NAFTA and Beyond (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2000), 145.

99. 99. Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 31–32.

100. 100. In a lengthy North-South policy retrospective written in late 1980, the NSC’s Thomas Thornton wrote:

Many of us believe that this sacrifice [on foreign aid] should be made for humanitarian or other reasons but we are probably a very small minority. Americans resist this kind of thinking within their own borders and no doubt have still less sympathy for it when applied to distant parts. Nevertheless, the administration failed to test the proposition since the President was never mobilized to argue the foreign assistance case to the American public in the opening months of the Administration when he had his best chance to make a decisive impact. By the time he recognized the need himself it was too late and there were other priorities. Vance’s speech [in 1979] was a case of too little and too late.

1. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, Foreign Economic Policy, doc. 354, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d354.

2. 101. Quotes and figures from Pastor, “Carter Administration and Latin America,” 46, 49.

3. 102. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 354, fn. 2, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d354#fn2.

4. 103. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 295, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d295. Erb described the US approach at the CIEC and UNCTAD “as one word: containment. We seek to contain first those developed countries that wish to adopt more forthcoming approaches to negotiations with developing countries; and second, the leading developing countries, whose proposals are seen as a challenge to an economic system that has served our interests well and could also serve the interests of developing countries if given a chance.”

5. 104. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 295.

6. 105. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 295.

7. 106. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 295.

8. 107. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 296, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d296.

9. 108. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 295.

6. Basic Needs and Appropriate Technology

1. 1. Brzezinski quoted in Stanley Hoffman, “The Hell of Good Intentions,” Foreign Policy 29 (1977): 4.

2. 2. Memo, Brzezinski to Carter, “Four-Year Goals,” April 29, 1977, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library (hereafter JCPL), RAC, NLC-12-26-6-2-2.

3. 3. US Department of State, Foreign Relation of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1977–1980, vol. 2, Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs, doc. 313, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v02/d313.

4. 4. G-7, London Summit, Session 2, May 7, 1977, http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/111491.

5. 5. William Glen Grey, “Commercial Liberties and Nuclear Anxieties: The U.S.-German Feud over Brazil, 1975–7,” International History Review 34, no. 3 (2012): 450.

6. 6. Thornton to Brzezinski, “Annual Report—North-South,” December 8, 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-101-8-3-1.

7. 7. “Anatomy of PRM-8,” CIA Studies in Intelligence 21, no. 4 (Winter 1977), JCPL, RAC, NLC-29-42-4-10-9. .

8. 8. NSC memorandum, Hansen to Aaron, “My ‘Resignation,’ ” April 11, 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-133-225-2-4-8. Although few of his colleagues knew it, Hansen suffered from severe depression. After his tragic suicide in 1991 at age fifty-five, his college friend Calvin Trillin wrote a moving and insightful book on Hansen’s life, his struggles, and their meaning. See Calvin Trillin, Remembering Denny (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994).

9. 9. NSC memorandum, Pastor to Aaron, April 11, 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-59-2-3-5.

10. 10. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, Foreign Economic Policy, doc. 271, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d271.

11. 11. Presidential Directive/NSC, “U.S. Policies toward Developing Countries,” n.d., JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-101-8-2-2.

12. 12. The expectation that the Carter administration would “soften the U.S. position on LDC debt” was the main reason Brazil, Venezuela, Argentina, Nigeria, and others postponed reconvening the CIEC in the second half of 1976. Telegram, State to Embassies, April 1977, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-101-8-2-2.

13. 13. Memorandum of conversation (hereafter memcon), President Carter and President Pérez of Venezuela, March 29, 1978, JCPL, RAC, NLC-24-47-2-11-9.

14. 14. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 306, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d306.

15. 15. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 315, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d315.

16. 16. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 295, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d295.

17. 17. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 320, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d320.

18. 18. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 314, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d314.

19. 19. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 313, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d313; emphasis added.

20. 20. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 315.

21. 21. Cyrus Vance, “Human Rights Policy,” April 30, 1977, http://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1015&context=lectures_pre_arch_lectures_lawday.

22. 22. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 315.

23. 23. Robert K. Olson, U.S. Foreign Policy and the New International Economic Order: Negotiating Global Problems, 1974–1981 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981), 36n12.

24. 24. The framework proposed eight negotiating groups to address the following topics: 1. Structural changes and the way UNCTAD could be strengthened; 2. Abolishing Group B protectionism; 3. Revisiting North-South terms of trade; 4. More debt relief and fewer conditionalities for loans; 5. Technology transfer; 6. Special treatment for least developed countries; 7. Trade between developing and socialist countries; 8. Economic cooperation among developing countries.

25. Stephen Taylor, “Note of the Month,” World Today 35, no. 8 (1979): 311–15.

26. 25. The action plan included a global system of exclusionary trade preferences among developing countries, cooperation among state trading organizations, establishment of multinational enterprises, strengthening of existing regional and subregional groups such as the Latin American Economic System (SELA), and technology sharing.

27. 26. I. S. Gulati, “UNCTAD Yes, Structural Reform No,” Economic and Political Weekly 14, no. 36 (1979): 1547.

28. 27. In a 1985 interview, Raul Prebisch, the “father” of UNCTAD, summarized the results of Latin American regional economic integration with characteristic ambivalence and wit: “It was not a failure. It was not a success. It was a mediocrity. A typical Latin American mediocrity.” Raul Prebisch, interview with David Pollock, http://www.cepal.org/publicaciones/xml/7/20097/lcg2150i_Pollock.pdf.

29. 28. Commonwealth secretary-general Shridath S. Ramphal said at Arusha, “We had high hopes when [US undersecretary of state for economic affairs] Dick Cooper joined the administration, but nothing changed. What happens to people when they get into office?” Quoted in Olson, U.S. Foreign Policy, 34.

30. 29. Olson, 33.

31. 30. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 321, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v03/d321.

32. 31. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 3, doc. 321.

33. 32. Carter himself submitted plans for the IDCA to Congress, which approved the new agency in July 1979. The idea, which initially came from senator Hubert Humphrey, was to depoliticize foreign aid by removing USAID from the State Department and placing it under the IDCA’s control. Guy Erb, an ODC senior fellow and NSC North-South cluster member, was its first deputy director. However, according to one scholar, “President Carter did not support IDCA … [and] USAID programs were not immediately transferred from the State Department to IDCA. The end result was that the State Department co-opted IDCA.” In any case, the Reagan administration quickly brought the IDCA—and with it, USAID—back under State Department control. With no permanent staff or clear purpose, it was disbanded in 1998. Rachel M. McCleary, Global Compassion: Private Voluntary Organizations and U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 130.

34. 33. FRUS, 1977–1980, vol. 1, Foundations of Foreign Policy, doc. 115, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v01/d115.

35. 34. Gamani Corea described UNCTAD’s conundrum: