Notes

Introduction

1. “E. Frederick Morrow at the White House,” White House Historical Association, accessed May 11, 2020, https://www.whitehousehistory.org/e-frederick-morrow-at-the-white-house; E. Frederic Morrow, Black Man in the White House: A Diary of the Eisenhower Years by the Administrative Officer for Special Projects, the White House, 1955–1961 (New York: Conrad-McCann, 1963), 125–126, 142 (quote from 142).

2. Morrow, Black Man in the White House, 125–126 (quote from 125); Kevin Gaines, American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 85.

3. Morrow, Black Man in the White House, 131–135 (quote from 135).

4. Patrick Manning, The African Diaspora: A History through Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 268.

5. Gaines, American Africans in Ghana, 2; James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 163.

6. For more on Black America’s attraction to Ghana upon its independence, see James T. Campbell, Middle Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005 (New York: Penguin, 2006), 316; and Roger A. Davidson, Jr., “A Question of Freedom: African Americans and Ghanaian Independence,” Negro History Bulletin 60, no. 3 (July–September 1997): 6.

7. Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 78. Steven Feierman explains how Fernand Braudel made a similar distinction between a “Black” and “White” Africa based on religious differences, and in his distinction between civilizations and cultures placed Black Africa under the “cultural” label. See Steven Feierman, “African Histories and the Dissolution of World History,” in Africa and the Disciplines: The Contributions of Research in Africa to the Social Sciences and Humanities, ed. Robert H. Bates, V. Y. Mudimbe, and J. O’Barr (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 171–176.

8. Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, 78.

9. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Folk, Then and Now: An Essay in the History and Sociology of the Negro Race (New York: Henry Holt, 1939), 38.

10. “Middle East and North Africa,” World Bank, accessed December 21, 2020, https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/mena; “Middle East/North Africa,” Office of the United States Trade Representative, accessed December 21, 2020, https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/europe-middle-east/middle-east/north-africa; “Middle East and Northern Africa Region,” United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, accessed December 21, 2020, https://www.ohchr.org/en/countries/menaregion/pages/menaregionindex.aspx; “Sudan Fast Facts,” CNN, updated December 17, 2020, https://www.cnn.com/2013/10/30/world/africa/sudan-fast-facts/index.html; Simon Tisdall, “Sudan and Algeria Have Ousted Leaders, but Revolutions Rarely End Happily,” Guardian, April 13, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/13/north-africa-sudan-algeria-revolutions-rarely-end-happily; Josef Federman and Samy Magdy, “Sudanese Officials: Diplomatic Deal with Israel Is Near,” Associated Press, October 22, 2020, https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-virus-outbreak-bahrain-africa-israel-c2a12e4a28ba5280c6e0d1fbbce030f0; Francis M. Deng, War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995), 2–4.

11. Deng, War of Visions, 4–5.

12. Krystal Strong, “Do African Lives Matter to Black Lives Matter? Youth Uprisings and the Borders of Solidarity,” Urban Education 53, no. 2 (2018): 266; Alex Altman, “Black Lives Matter: A New Civil Rights Movement Is Turning a Protest Cry into a Political Force,” Time, accessed January 6, 2021, http://time.com/time-person-of-the-year-2015-runner-up-black-lives-matter.

13. Definition taken from AU Echo, no. 5 (January 27, 2013), 1, as cited in Hakim Adi, Pan-Africanism: A History (London: Bloomsbury, 2018), 1.

14. Henry Louis Gates Jr., foreword to Charles Bonnet, The Black Kingdom of the Nile (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019), ix–x.

15. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 163, 285n18.

16. Manning, The African Diaspora, 268.

17. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 8.

18. See Carol Anderson, Bourgeois Radicals: The NAACP and the Struggle for Colonial Liberation, 1941–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014); and Jonathan Rosenberg, How Far the Promised Land? World Affairs and the American Civil Rights Movement from the First World War to Vietnam (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 7. Other examples of scholarship that has focused on the NAACP’s global auspices include Jake Miller’s “The NAACP and global human rights,” Western Journal of Black Studies 26, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 22–31; Caroline Emmons, “Testing Boundaries: The NAACP and the Caribbean, 1910–1930,” Journal of Caribbean History 52, no. 2 (2018): 198–216; and Kenneth R. Janken, “From Colonial Liberation to Cold War Liberalism: Walter White, the NAACP, and Foreign Affairs, 1941–1955,” Ethnic and racial studies 21, no. 6 (1998): 1074–1095.

19. Eslanda Goode Robeson, African Journey (1945; repr., Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972); Elton C. Fax, Through Black Eyes: Journeys of a Black Artist to East Africa and Russia (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1974); Keith B. Richburg, Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa (New York: Basic Books, 1997); James Leonard Mack, My Life, My Country, My World (Pittsburgh: Dorrance Publishing, 2008); Susan Rice, Tough Love: My Story of the Things Worth Fighting For (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2019).

20.Andrew Brimmer’s papers can be found at Harvard University’s Baker Library; Robert W. Kitchen’s papers can be found at Howard University’s Moorland-Spingarn Research Center; Arthur B. McCaw’s papers can be found at Stanford University’s Hoover Institution; and Joe Madison’s papers can be found at Tulane University’s Amistad Research Center.

21. Algernon Austin, Achieving Blackness: Race, Black Nationalism, and Afrocentrism in the Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 12.

22. Austin, Achieving Blackness, 19; Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015), 4.

23. Mark Ledwidge, Race and US Foreign Policy: The African-American Foreign Affairs Network (New York: Routledge, 2012), 1, 4.

24. Gerald Horne, Mau Mau in Harlem? The U.S. and the Liberation of Kenya (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 3.

25. Rosenberg, How Far the Promised Land?, 2, 3, 11 (quote from 11).

26. Nico Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism: The Shared Struggle for Freedom in the United States and India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 2.

27. Gerald Horne, The End of Empires: African Americans and India (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), 2, 4 (quote from 4).

28. Slate, Colored Cosmopolitanism, 2; Horne, The End of Empires, 3–4.

29. Horne, The End of Empires, 4.

30. Vijay Prashad, The Karma of Brown Folk (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), viii, x–xi (quotes from x–xi).

31. Alex Lubin, “Locating Palestine in Pre-1948 Black Internationalism,” Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture and Society 9, no. 2 (2007): 97; Salim Yaqub, “Our Declaration of Independence’: African Americans, Arab Americans, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1967–1979,” Mashriq and Majhar 3, no. 1 (2015): 12–14.

32. Michael R. Fischbach, Black Power and Palestine: Transnational Countries of Color (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2019); Lenni Brenner and Matthew Quest, Black Liberation and Palestine Solidarity (Atlanta: On Our Own Authority, 2013); Elaine Mokhtefi, Algiers, Third World Capital: Freedom Fighters, Revolutionaries, Black Panthers (London: Verso Books, 2018); Melani McAlister, “One Black Allah: The Middle East in the Cultural Politics of African American Liberation, 1955–1970,” American Quarterly 51, no. 3 (September 1999): 622–656.

33. Alex Lubin, Geographies of Liberation: The Making of an Afro-Arab Political Imaginary (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014).

34. Paul Thomas Chamberlin, The Global Offensive: The United States, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the Making of the Post-Cold War Order (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 15, 40; Penny M. Von Eschen, “Soul Call: The First World Festival of Negro Arts at a Pivot of Black Modernities,” Nka: Journal of Contemporary African Art, no. 42–43 (2018): 126–127; David Murphy, “Introduction: The Performance of Pan-Africanism: Staging the African Renaissance at the First World Festival of Negro Arts,” in The First World Festival of Negro Arts, Dakar 1966: Contexts and Legacies (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2016), 1; Cédric Vincent, “‘The Real Heart of the Festival’: The Exhibition of L’Art nègre at the Musée Dynamique,” in The First World Festival of Negro Arts, Dakar 1966: Contexts and Legacies, ed. David Murphy, 45–63 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2016), 53.

35. Paraska Tolan-Szkilnik, “‘Collecting Bosoms’: Sex, Race, and Masculinity at the Pan-African Festival of Algiers, 1969,” Arab Studies Journal 29, no. 2 (2021): 98.

36. Andrew Apter, “Beyond Négritude: Black Cultural Citizenship and the Arab Question in FESTAC 77,” Journal of African Cultural Studies 28, no. 3 (2016): 313 (abstract).

1. Negro Canaan

1. Louis R. Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” American Historical Review 71, no. 2 (January 1966): 447 (see note 25 on same page); Sven Beckert, “From Tuskegee to Togo: The Problem of Freedom in the Empire of Cotton,” Journal of American History 92, no. 2 (September 2005): 509; A. Zimmerman, Alabama in Africa: Booker T. Washington, the German Empire, and the Globalization of the New South (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 62.

2. Jonathan Robins also links emigration to Africa with Hunt’s scheme. See Jonathan E. Robins, Cotton and Race across the Atlantic: Britain, Africa, and America, 1900–1920 (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2016), 150 (and 186–187, where Black American emigration is spoken of more broadly).

3. See Pero Gaglo Dagbovie, “Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship on Booker T. Washington,” Journal of African American History 92, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 247–248, where he cites Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 441; Michael O. West, “The Tuskegee Model of Development in Africa: Another Dimension of the African/African-American Connection,” Diplomatic History: The Journal of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations 16 (Summer 1992): 372; Mildred C. Fierce, The Pan-African Idea in the United States, 1900–1910: African-American Interest in Africa and Interactions with West Africa (New York: Garland, 1993), 176; and Edward O. Erhagbe, “African-Americans and the Defense of the African States against European Imperial Conquest: Booker T. Washington’s Diplomatic Efforts to Guarantee Liberia’s Independence, 1907–1911,” African Studies Review 39 (April 1996): 56, 61 (quote from 61).

4. Kendahl L. Radcliffe, “The Tuskegee-Togo Cotton Scheme 1900–1909” (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1998), ix–xi (quote from x).

5. Maya Peterson, “US to USSR: American Experts, Irrigation, and Cotton in Soviet Central Asia, 1929–32,” Environmental History 21 (2016): 442, 450, 453–454.

6. Peterson, “US to USSR,” 453–454.

7. See conclusion of this chapter, where I address this claim in the light of the US historian Sven Beckert’s claim that Washington and his disciples worked to obtain freedom for both Black Americans and Africans by accommodating to powerful statesmen and capitalists.

8.Sudan Times, circa 1904 (from Sudan Archive, Durham University [hereafter SAD], 802/1/51).

9. Jessie Hunt, Leigh J. Hunt biography and reminiscences, 1947, folder #/title VF0451, p. 1, Acc. #4667–001, University of Washington Special Collections; Bob Gagen, “Etna Farm Boy Became Global Tycoon,” News-Sun and Evening Star (Kendallville, IN), January 31, 2002, http://www.kpcnews.com/article_4463080f-be62-5631-bff1-a00dee3e25cd.html; The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 7, 1903–4, ed. Louis R. Harlan and Raymond W. Smock (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 403–404n1); Arthur Gaitskell, Gezira: A Story of Development in the Sudan (London: Faber and Faber, 1959), 51; “Leigh S. J. Hunt,” Annals of Iowa 19, no. 4 (April 1934): 314; Laurance B. Rand, High Stakes: the Life and Times of Leigh S. J. Hunt (New York: Peter Lang, 1989), 177, 179.

10. Gaitskell, Gezira, 51; Andrew S. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), xix, xxv, 24, 25–26; Robert O. Collins, “Sudan,” in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World, ed. Peter Stearns (Oxford University Press, 2008), Oxford Reference.

11. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 26.

12. Iris Seri-Hersch, “Education in Colonial Sudan, 1900–1957,” Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of African History, 2017, HAL Open Science, https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01514910/document; Fatin Abbas, “Coming to Terms with Sudan’s Legacy of Slavery,” African Arguments, January 18, 2018, https://africanarguments.org/2016/01/coming-to-terms-with-sudans-legacy-of-slavery-2; Robert S. Kramer, Richard A. Lobban Jr., and Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013), 389–390; Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 31.

13. Rand, High Stakes, 179, 184–185 (on 179 Rand cites letter from John G. Lang to David J. Hill, August 13, 1902, Consular Reports, National Archives).

14. Rand, High Stakes, 184–185; Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 447n26.

15. Hunt to Clarkson, April 19, 1903, Clarkson Papers, Library of Congress (hereafter LC), from Rand, High Stakes, 184.

16. Rand, Stakes, 185 [June 15, 1903, date inferred from June 18, 1903, letter from Clarkson to Jessie Hunt that Rand cites in High Stakes, 187].

17. Description and quotes from Rand, High Stakes, 187, which quotes Clarkson to Jessie Hunt, June 18, 1903, Hunt Papers.

18. James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 6, 14; Michele Mitchell, “‘The Black Man’s Burden’: African Americans, Imperialism, and Notions of Racial Manhood 1890–1910,” International Review of Social History 4, supplement 7 (1999): 78, 90.

19. Nemata Blyden, African Americans and Africa: A New History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019), 128 (Blyden cites Jabez Ayo Langley, “Chief Sam’s African Movement and Race Consciousness in West Africa,” Phylon 32, no. 2 (1971): 165.

20. For more on Hawaii-Philippines plan, see Guy Emerson Mount, “The Last Reconstruction: Slavery, Emancipation, and Empire in the Black Pacific” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2018).

21. James T. Campbell, Middle Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005 (New York: Penguin, 2006), 39–40, 45, 103, 113; Philippe R. Girard and Paul Finkelman, “Colonization,” in Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass (Oxford University Press, 2006), Oxford Reference.

22. Quoted in Campbell, Middle Passages, 113.

23. Rand, High Stakes, 189; J. A. Cannon, “Baring, Evelyn, 1st Earl of Cromer,” in The Oxford Companion to British History, 2nd ed., ed. Robert Crowcroft and John Cannon (Oxford University Press, 2015), Oxford Reference; J. C. B. Richmond, Egypt, 1798–1952: Her Advance towards a Modern Identity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), 132.

24. Ransford W. Palmer, “Jamaica,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, ed. Joel Mokyr (Oxford University Press, 2003), Oxford Reference.

25. Thomas C. Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labor, and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832–1938 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 76, 146 (quote from 146).

26. Holt, The Problem of Freedom, 42, 146–147, 167 (in note 16 on 147, Holt cites in his broader explanation William A. Green, British Slavery Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment, 1830–1865 [Oxford: Clarendon, 1976], 188, 194; and Philip D. Curtin, Two Jamaicas: The Role of Ideas in a Tropical Colony, 1830–1865 [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), 113, 121, 143, 156–57]). Quotes from 147 and 167.

27. Kramer, Lobban, and Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed., 389–392. For early Condominium efforts to stamp out slavery, see “Memorandum by Sir R. Wingate,” in Reports by His Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General on the Finances, Administration, and Condition of Egypt and the Soudan in 1902 (London: Printed for His Majesty’s Stationary Office, [1903]), 91–92; Earl of Cromer to the Marquess of Lansdowne, February 26, 1904 [no. 2] in Reports by His Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General on the Finances, Administration, and Condition of Egypt and the Soudan in 1903 (London: Printed for His Majesty’s Stationary Office, [1904]), 89; and Earl of Cromer to the Marquess of Lansdowne, March 15, 1905 [no. 2] in Reports by His Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General on the Finances, Administration, and Condition of Egypt and the Soudan in 1904 (London: Printed for His Majesty’s Stationary Office, [1905]), 133–134.

28. Earl of Cromer to the Marquess of Lansdowne, February 26, 1904 [no. 2] in Reports by His Majesty’s Agent [published 1904], 78–80.

29. Hunt to Cromer, [1903] from Rand, High Stakes, 189–190. Same letter can be found in SAD 802/1/3–6; 1903 dating can be ascertained by the dating of Hunt’s letter to Phillips, November 11, 1903, Barlow Rand Limited Archives, which is cited in Rand, High Stakes, 191n29.

30. Rand, High Stakes, 214; Sven Beckert, “From Tuskegee to Togo: The Problem of Freedom in the Empire of Cotto,” Journal of American History 92, no. 2 (September 2005): 502, 504, 525.

31. Rand, High Stakes, 191 (citing Hunt to Phillips, November 11, 1903, Barlow Rand Limited Archives).

32. Earl of Cromer to the Marquess of Lansdowne, February 26, 1904 [No. 2] in Reports by His Majesty’s Agent [published 1904], 80.

33. Rand, High Stakes, 191–192; Gaitskell, Gezira, 51.

34. Hunt to Roberts, November 20, 1903, from “Wants the American Negroes to Become Farm Owners in Africa: Colossal Scheme of Leigh Hunt,” Oregonian, February 7, 1904, Readex.

35. Robert Trent Vinson, The Americans Are Coming! Dreams of African American Liberation in Segregationist South Africa (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2012), 37; Rand, High Stakes, 185; Beckert, “From Tuskegee to Togo,” 509; West, “Tuskegee Model,” 374; Edward H. Berman, “Tuskegee—in—Africa,” Journal of Negro Education 41, no. 2 (Spring 1972): 99. With respect to the Black imaginary and its linkages to Africa and the Diaspora, see Nan Woodruff, American Congo: The African-American Freedom Struggle in the Delta (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003); and Brandon Byrd, “An Experiment in Self-Government: Haiti in the African-American Political Imagination, 1863–1915” (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 2015).

36. Beckert, “Tuskegee to Togo,” 508, 523; Zimmerman, Alabama in Africa, 13.

37. Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 447n26; Rand, High Stakes, 188.

38. Washington to Hunt, January 19, 1904, Washington Papers, LC.

39. Rand, High Stakes, 201 (which cites Seattle Times, September 27, 1903 in note 7).

40. “American Negroes Will Remove to Africa,” Trenton Evening Times, September 29, 1903, Readex.

41. “To Teach the Black Races,” Worcester (MA) Daily Spy, October 3, 1903, Readex.

42. Leigh Hunt to George Roberts, November 29, 1903, Clarkson Papers, State Historical Society of Iowa, from Rand, High Stakes, 201. See also Rand, Stakes, 201.

43. “The Angry Saxons,” Plaindealer (Cleveland), May 13, 1904, Readex.

44. Hunt to Roberts, November 20, 1903, from “Wants the American Negroes.”

45. “Wants the American Negroes.”

46. “Booker Washington Dodged Newspaper Notoriety in France,” Montgomery (AL) Advertiser, October 4, 1903, Readex.

47. See “Colonization of the Negro,” Daily Record-Miner (Juneau, AK), October 5, 1903, Readex; and “Race Doings,” Cleveland Gazette, October 17, 1903, Readex.

48. Kenneth C. Barnes, Journey of Hope: The Back-to-Africa Movement in Arkansas in the Late 1800s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 2, 9–10, 12 (quote from 2).

49. Barnes, Journey of Hope, 2.

50. “Adventures of Leigh S. J. Hunt,” Sunday Leader (Port Townsend, WA), November 8, 1903, University of Washington Libraries.

51. J. S. R. Duncan, The Sudan: A Record of Achievement (London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1952), 123; Gilbert Falkingham Clayton, An Arabian Diary, ed. Robert O. Collins (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 88n13; Rand, High Stakes, 217.

52. “Critical Period: The Growing Estrangement Between the Races,” Freeman (Indianapolis), June 11, 1904, Readex.

53. “Cotton Growing in Sudan,” Grey River Argus (Greymouth, New Zealand), June 6, 1904, Papers Past.

54. Gaitskell, Gezira, 51; Duncan, The Sudan, 123; Mohamed A. Dawoud and Ahmed Allam, “Effect of New Nag Hammadi Barrage on Groundwater and Drainage Conditions and Suggestion of Mitigation Measures,” Water Resources Management 18 (2004): 321.

55. “Cotton Growing in Sudan.”

56. [Untitled], Freeman (Indianapolis), June 11, 1904, Readex.

57. Booker T. Washington to Leigh Hunt, June 3, 1904, in The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 7, 520–521 (quote from 521).

58.The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 7, 425nn3–5); Rand, High Stakes, 218.

59. Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 447. For letter dating he cites Washington to Cain Triplett, Poindexter Smith, and John P. Powell, Dec. 12, 1904 (294), Washington Papers, LC.

60. Washington to Cain Triplett, Poindexter Smith, and John P. Powell, Dec. 12, 1904 (294), Washington Papers, from Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 447.

61. See Tunde Adeleke, Un-African Americans: Nineteenth-Century Black Nationalists and the Civilizing Mission (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1998).

62. Ann Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995), 10–11.

63. Rand, High Stakes, 230 (quoting Cain Triplett to Booker T. Washington, January 15, 1905, Washington Papers, LC).

64. John Perry Powell to Booker T. Washington, March 23, 1907, from The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 9, 1906–8, ed. Louis R. Harlan and Raymond W. Smock (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980), 231.

65. Hunt to Washington, February 3, 1905, in The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 7, 425. See also Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 447–448, where Harlan cites a portion of the same letter and frames Hunt’s letter as enthusiastic. While The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 7, positions this letter as being written in 1904 (on 425), I used Harlan’s 1905 dating of the aforementioned (in Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 448n28) to substantiate that these and subsequent letters that The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 7, dates as 1904 were actually written in 1905.

66.The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 7, 425nn1–2); Rand, High Stakes, 230–231; The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 8, 1904–6, ed. Louis R. Harlan and Raymond W. Smock (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979), first note 1 on 289.

67. Rand, High Stakes, 231.

68. Booker T. Washington to Cain Washington Triplett, John Perry Powell, Poindexter Smith, Ocie Romeo Burns, and John Brown Twitty, May 23, 1905, from The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 8, 288.

69. “Field for Educated Negroes: The Success of Four Tuskegee Graduates,” Freeman, May 20, 1905, Readex.

70. Description of this encounter taken from Rand, High Stakes, 187, which cites Clarkson to Jessie Hunt, June 18, 1903, Hunt Papers.

71. Rand, High Stakes, 234–236. The November 1905 dating is inferred from the placement of the Eckstein to Hunt letter (January 6, 1906) on p. 235; M. W. Daly, Empire on the Nile: The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1898–1934 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, 221; Clayton, An Arabian Diary, 88n13; Gaitskell, Gezira, 51–52.

72. Rand, High Stakes, 241 (quoting John P. Powell to Booker T. Washington, March 23, 1907, Washington Papers, LC).

73. John Perry Powell to Booker T. Washington, March 23, 1907, from The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 9, 232.

74. Rand, High Stakes, 214 (which quotes from John P. Powell to Booker T. Washington, March 23, 1907, Washington Papers, LC).

75. Rand, High Stakes, 242 (which quotes from J. B. Twitty to Washington, April 17, 1907, Washington Papers, LC).

76. “Educational Etchings,” Freeman, May 25, 1907, Readex.

77. Rand, High Stakes, 242.

78. Milfred C. Fierce, “Selected Black American Leaders and Organizations and South Africa, 1900–1977: Some Notes,” Journal of Black Studies 17, no. 3 (March 1987): 311.

79. Vinson, The Americans Are Coming!, 30.

80. Clayton, An Arabian Diary, 88n13; Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 448; Kramer, Lobban, and Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary, 4th ed., 177, 440; Duncan, The Sudan, 124.

81. Alden Young, Transforming Sudan: Decolonisation, Economic Development and State Formation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 35.

82.The Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 7, 404n1; Gagen, “Etna Farm Boy Became Global Tycoon”; Leigh Hunt, January 19, 1931, SAD 802/1/42–43 (for dating see Hunt, SAD 802/1/41).

83. Hunt, January 19, 1931, SAD 802/1/42–43.

84. Beckert, “From Tuskegee to Togo,” 526.

85. Robins, Cotton and Race across the Atlantic, 159.

86. Robins, Cotton and Race across the Atlantic, 158.

87. Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” 467.

88. Erhagbe, “African-Americans and the Defense of the African States,” 61 (from Dagbovie, “Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship,” 248).

89. Marybeth Gasman and Roger L. Geiger, introduction to Higher Education for African Americans before the Civil Rights Era, 1900–1964 (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2012), 4; “Andrew Brimmer Retires as Tuskegee University Board Chairman” Diverse Issues in Higher Education, October 21, 2010, https://diverseeducation.com/article/14298; Helen R. Houston, “Brimmer, Andrew Felton (1926–2012),” in Encyclopedia of African American Business, vol. 1, A–L, updated and rev. ed., ed. Jessie Carney Smith (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2018), 133.

90. Patrick S. Washburn, The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 134, 257; Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 4, 19.

2. Plain Imperialism

1. “Horace Cayton Dies Abroad,” New York Amsterdam News, January 31, 1970, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; Andrew Billingsley, “Horace R. Cayton 1903–1970,” American Sociologist 5, no. 4 (November 1970): 380–381; Robert Washington, “Horace Cayton: Reflections on an Unfulfilled Sociological Career,” American Sociologist 28, no. 1 (Spring 1997): 57; and Horace R. Cayton, Long Old Road: Back to Black Metropolis (New York: Routledge, 2017), 17 (for entire visit see 17–21).

2. Washington, “Horace Cayton,” 65.

3. Horace Cayton, “Sudan Key to Africa’s Freedom: UN Wonders Problem of Area Which Gave First Slaves to U.S.,” Courier, October 27, 1951, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

4. Cayton, “Sudan Key to Africa’s Freedom.”

5. Michael A. Gomez, Reversing Sail: A History of the African Diaspora, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 70.

6. Andrew S. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 28, 35.

7. James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 8; Gerald Horne, The Rise and Fall of the Associated Negro Press: Claude Barnett’s Pan-African News and the Jim Crow Paradox (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2017), 16.

8. Adam Lee Cilli, “Robert L. Vann and the Pittsburgh Courier in the 1932 Presidential Election: An Analysis of Black Reformism in Interwar America,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 143, no. 2 (April 2019): 141.

9. Kellie Hogue, “Garveyism,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World (Oxford University Press, 2008), Oxford Reference; Abdel Malek Auda, “Duse Mohamad Ali (1867–1945): A Forerunner of Pan-Africanism,” Égypte Contemporaine 58, no. 328 (1967): 63, 66–67; Michael Niblett, “African Times and Orient Review,” in The Oxford Companion to Black British History, ed. David Dabydeen, John Gilmore, and Cecily Jones (Oxford University Press, 2007), Oxford Reference; Hakim Adi and Marika Sherwood, Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2003), 4.

10. Hogue, “Garveyism”; Keisha N. Blain, Set the World on Fire: Black Nationalist Women and the Global Struggle for Freedom (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018), 12, 16–17.

11. Hollis R. Lynch, Black American Radicals and the Liberation of Africa: The Council on African Affairs, 1937–1955 (Ithaca: Africana Studies and Research Center, Cornell University, 1978), 17; Kevin Shillington, History of Africa, 4th ed. (London: Red Globe Press, 2019), 408–410.

12. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 4; Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 6; Wendy Theodore, “The Declining Appeal of Diasporic Connections: African American Organising for South Africa, Haiti and Rwanda,” Global Society 22, no. 2 (2008): 302; Michael L. Krenn, Black Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department, 1945–69 (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999), 3.

13. Joseph Fronczak, “Local People’s Global Politics,” Diplomatic History 39, no. 2 (April 2015): 245, 271 (quote from 245).

14.Blain, Set the World on Fire, 120, citing Tony Martin, Amy Ashwood Garvey: Pan Africanist, Feminist and Mrs. Garvey Number 1 (Dover, MA: Majority Press, 2008), 143.

15. For more on Black women’s internationalism, see Blain, Set the World on Fire; Keshia Blain and Tiffany M. Gill, eds., To Turn the Whole World Over: Black Women and Internationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2019); and Cheryl Higashida, Black Internationalist Feminism: Women Writers of the Black Left, 1945–1995 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011).

16. Imaobong D. Umoren, Race Women Internationalists: Activist-Intellectuals and Global Freedom Struggles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2018), 46n77; Eslanda Goode Robeson, African Journey (New York: John Day, 1945), 13; Maureen Mahon, “Eslanda Goode Robeson’s African Journey: The Politics of Identification and Representation in the African Diaspora,” Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture and Society 8, no. 3 (2006): 102; Robert Shaffer, “Out of the Shadows: The Political Writings of Eslanda Goode Robeson,” Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 66, no. 1 (Winter 1999): 47–48.

17. Umoren, Race Women Internationalists, 46; and, for the quote, “Our Closeness to Africa through the Negro American,” lecture, March 19, 1944, p. 4, box 10, Eslanda Robeson Papers, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center [hereafter MSRC].

18. Eslanda Goode Robeson, African Journey (1945; repr., Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972), 146–147 (quote from 147).

19. Lynch, Black American Radicals, 7, 17–18, 21; Umoren, Race Women Internationalists, 51.

20. Yosa Wawa, “Background to the Southern Sudan,” in Southern Sudanese Pursuits of Self-Determination: Documents in Political History, ed. Yosa Wawa (Kampala: Marianum Press, 2005), 11; Anders Breidlid, ed., A Concise History of South Sudan (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2010), 143, 148–149; Gino Barsella and Miguel Ángel Ayuso Guixot, “A List of Major Dates in the Modern History of the Sudan,” Nairobi, 2, 624 266.009 AAV Brack II, Comboni Mission Library, Rome, 2; Douglas H. Johnson, South Sudan: A New History for a New Nation (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2016), 118–119.

21. Rashed el-Barawy, “Egypt and the Sudan,” India Quarterly 7, no. 4 (October–December 1951): 356.

22. Egypt-Sudan, Collection of Documents (published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Cairo, 1947), p. 62, from Barawy, “Egypt and the Sudan,” 357.

23. Breidlid, Concise History, 147, 156–159; M. W. Daly and Øystein H. Rolandsen, A History of South Sudan: From Slavery to Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 66; Barsell and Guixot, “List of Major Dates,” 3.

24. “Biographical Note,” in A Guide to the Rogers, Joel Augustus Collection, 1883–1966, Fisk University Archives, accessed July 13, 2023, https://www.fisk.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/rogers-joela.collection1930-1968.pdf; J. A. Rogers, Nature Knows No Color-Line: Research into the Negro Ancestry in the White Race, 3rd ed. (St. Petersburg, FL: Helga M. Rogers, 1952), 244; Patrick S. Washburn, The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 134, 257.

25. J. A. Rogers, “Ruling Abyssinians Consider Themselves Jews and Not Negroes, Says J. A. Rogers,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 15, 1931, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

26. J. A. Rogers, “Rogers Says: One Drop of Arab Blood Can Make a Non-Arab, White or Black, an Arab,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 11, 1947, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

27. “Guide to the Percival L. Prattis Papers, 1916–1980 AIS.2007.01,” University of Pittsburgh ULS Archives & Special Collections, accessed March 31, 2020, https://digital.library.pitt.edu/islandora/object/pitt%3AUS-PPiU-ais200701/viewer.

28. Percival L. Prattis, “The Horizon: Sudanese Are the People in Egypt Who Are Most Like American Negroes,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 6, 1949, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

29.Percival L. Prattis, “Horizon: Sudanese Are Foxy,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 1, 1955, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

30. Prattis, “Sudanese Are the People in Egypt.”

31. Prattis, “Sudanese Are the People in Egypt.”

32. Percival L. Prattis, “The Horizon: Egyptian Grab for Sudan Is Plain Imperialism of the White Ruling Class,” Courier, October 27, 1951, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

33. Percival L. Prattis, “The Horizon: American Negroes Should Be Concerned about What Is Happening in Egypt,” Courier, November 17, 1951, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

34. Nael Shama, “Egypt’s Foreign Policy from Faruq to Mubarak,” in Routledge Handbook on Contemporary Egypt, eds. Robert Springborg, Amr Adly, Anthony Gorman, Tamir Moustafa, Aisha Saad, Naomi Sakr, and Sarah Smierciak (London: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2021), 43; Arthur Goldschmidt Jr., Historical Dictionary of Egypt, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013), xv, 41; Soheir A. Morsy, “Beyond the Honorary ‘White’ Classification of Egyptians: Societal Identity in Historical Context,” in Race, ed. Roger Sanjek and Steven Gregory (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 177–178.

35. Shama, “Egypt’s Foreign Policy,” 45–46; Morsy, “Beyond the Honorary,” 180; “The Rise and Fall of Pan-Arabism” (interview with Mohammad-Mahmoud Ould Mohamedou), Geneva Graduate Institute, January 31, 2019, https://www.graduateinstitute.ch/communications/news/rise-and-fall-pan-arabism.

36. Robert S. Kramer, Richard A. Lobban Jr., and Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013), 66; Heather J. Sharkey, “Arab Identity and Ideology in Sudan: The Politics of Language, Ethnicity, and Race,” African Affairs 107, no. 226 (Jan. 2008): 21–23.

37. Sharkey, “Arab Identity and Ideology,” 21.

38. Amir H. Idris, Conflict and Politics of Identity in Sudan (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 48.

39. Sharkey, “Arab Identity and Ideology,” 21; and Abdel Rahman Ali Taha [minister of education], “Introduction of the Teaching of Arabic into the Curriculum of Schools in the Southern Provinces,” ca. late 1940s, p. 1, box ZD 29, folder ZD.17.3 [Summer 2012], South Sudan National Archives (hereafter SSNA).

40. Mohamed Omer Beshir, Educational Development in the Sudan, 1898–1956 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), 152, from Oluwadare Aguda, “Arabism and Pan-Arabism in Sudanese Politics,” Journal of Modern African Studies 11, no. 2 (June 1973): 184.

41. Philip Abbas, “Growth of Black Political Consciousness in Northern Sudan,” Africa Today 20, no. 3 (1973): 32–33 (“the only true Sudanese” quote is from 32). Adam’s name is at one point spelled “Ahdam” in Abbas’s article but elsewhere “Adam” (32).

42. Jacob Rama Berman, American Arabesque: Arabs and Islam in the 19th-Century Imaginary (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 1.

43. Randa Kayyali, “US Census Classifications and Arab Americans: Contestations and Definitions of Identity Markers,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 39, no. 8 (2013): 1301.

44.Hind Makki, “Why Are Some Black Africans Considered White Americans?,” Al Jazeera, February 16, 2017, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/02/black-africans-considered-white-americans-170215073123425.html; Khaled A. Beydoun, “Are Arabs White?,” Al Jazeera, July 16, 2015, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2015/07/arabs-white-150716110921150.html.

45. Michael Woods and Mary B. Woods, The Tomb of Tutankhamen: Unearthing Ancient Worlds (Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2008), 9.

46. “King Tut-Ankh-Amen Was Part Negro, Declares Leader of the Colored Race, ca. 1922,” W. E. B. Du Bois Papers (MS 312), Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/full/mums312-b167-i138.

47. Thabiti Asukile, “The Admiration and Complementary Africana Historical Scholarship of W. E. B. Du Bois and Joel Augustus Rogers,” Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies 11, no. 8 (June 2018): 195. Asukile cites W. E. B. Du Bois, The World and Africa: An Inquiry into the Part Which Africa Has Played in World History (New York: Viking Press, 1947), 99.

48. J. A. Rogers, 100 Amazing Facts about the Negro with Complete Proof: A Short Cut to the World History of the Negro (Lebanon, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1995), 12.

49. Wilson J. Moses, Afrotopia: The Roots of African American Popular History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 24; Margaret Malamud, “Black Minerva: Antiquity in Antebellum African American History,” in African Athena: African Agendas, eds. Daniel Orrells, Gurminder K. Bhambra, and Tessa Roynon (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 88.

50. Prattis, “The Horizon: Egyptian Grab for Sudan.”

51. George Padmore, “World Views: Sudanese Leaders,” Chicago Defender, national ed., November 1, 1947, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

52. George F. McCray, “Negroes to Gain Self Government,” Atlanta Daily World, January 3, 1952, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

53. Prattis, “Sudanese Are the People in Egypt.”

54. Hugh Weston, “‘Color Line Exists in Egypt, but It Is Very Thin’—Weston,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 10, 1946, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

55. Hugh Weston, “Hollywood’s Racialism Portraying Negro in Bad Light before Eyes of the World,” Pittsburgh Courier, June 22, 1946, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

56. George S. Schuyler, “The World Today,” Pittsburgh Courier; September 20, 1947, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

57. “Egypt Seeks Rule of Sudan Riches,” Chicago Defender, national ed., February 22, 1947, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

58. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Black Mahdi,” ca. June 1947, 1, 4, W. E. B. Du Bois Papers, MS 312, Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/pageturn/mums312-b209-i083/#page/1/mode/1up.

59.Gabriel Warburg, Islam, Sectarianism, and Politics in Sudan Since the Mahdiyya (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), 81, 83; M. W. Daly, Imperial Sudan: The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, 1934–1956 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 6; Gabriel Warburg, Islam, Nationalism and Communism in a Traditional Society: The Case of Sudan (Totowa, NJ: Frank Cass, 1978), 38.

60. “Egypt-Arab Rule Threatens Sudan,” Chicago Defender, national ed., February 15, 1947, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

61. Padmore, “World Views.”

62. Prattis, “The Horizon: Egyptian Grab for Sudan.”

63. Shillington, History of Africa, 463.

64. Nicholas Grant, Winning Our Freedoms Together: African Americans and Apartheid, 1945–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 5–8.

65. Prattis, “The Horizon: American Negroes Should Be Concerned.”

66. “Guide to the Percival L. Prattis Papers.”

67. Weston, “Hollywood’s Racialism.”

68. Prattis, “Sudanese Are the People in Egypt.”

69. Schuyler, “The World Today”; Prattis, “The Horizon: Egyptian Grab for Sudan”; “Another Nation Wants Independence,” Courier, January 6, 1951, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

70. Prattis, “The Horizon: Egyptian Grab for Sudan.”

71. James T. Campbell, Middle Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005 (New York: Penguin, 2006), 316.

72. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 162–163 (for direct quotes, in note 5 Meriwether cites “Hail Ghana!” editorial, New York Amsterdam News, March 9, 1957).

73. Patrick Manning, The African Diaspora: A History through Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 268; Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 285.

74.“U.S. Relations with Sudan,” Bureau of African Affairs Bilateral Relations Fact Sheet, October 24, 2022, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-sudan.

3. An Atmosphere of Good Relations

1. Louis E. Martin, “Dope and Data,” Chicago Defender (national ed.), January 14, 1956, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; Neil A. Lewis, “Louis E. Martin, 84, Aide to 3 Democratic Presidents,” New York Times, January 30, 1997.

2. Martin, “Dope and Data.”

3. For scholarship on Black American engagements with these countries in the mid-twentieth century, see Kevin K. Gaines, American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Ira Dworkin, Congo Love Song: African American Culture and the Crisis of the Colonial State (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017); Nicholas Grant, Winning Our Freedoms Together: African Americans and Apartheid, 1945–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017).

4. Emily Jane O’Dell, “X Marks the Spot: Mapping Malcolm X’s Encounters with Sudan,” Journal of Africana Religions 3, no. 1 (2015): 96–115; “U.S. Congressman Diggs Visits Sudan,” Nile Mirror, January 20, 1972, Center for Research Libraries; “Shirley Graham Du Bois,” Harvard University Schlesinger Library, accessed May 11, 2020, https://www.radcliffe.harvard.edu/schlesinger-library/collection/shirley-graham-du-bois; Gerald Horne, Race Woman: The Lives of Shirley Graham Du Bois (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 155–156 (citing Shirley Graham Du Bois to Cedric Belfrage, December 22, 1958, box 2, Cedric Belfrage Papers; Baltimore Afro-American, February 3, 1959); Elton C. Fax, Through Black Eyes: Journeys of a Black Artist to East Africa and Russia (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1974), book jacket; Lisa E. Davenport, Jazz Diplomacy: Promoting America in the Cold War Era (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2009), 57–58; “Lois Jones Pierre-Noel Art Professor Returns from Africa,” Chicago Daily Defender, January 4, 1971, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; “Sets Precedent in Her Position with the AID,” New Journal and Guide, June 20, 1964, ProQuest Historical Newspapers. In addition to this group was Edgar Draper (dean of New York City’s Borough of Manhattan Community College), who served as deputy chief for the UN Institute of Public Administration in Khartoum. See “Dr. Draper Heads Manhattan College,” New York Amsterdam News, June 6, 1970, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

5. Veronica Nmoma, “The Shift in United States-Sudan Relations: A Troubled Relationship and the Need for Mutual Cooperation,” Journal of Conflict Studies (Winter 2006): 49 (citing Donald Petterson, Inside Sudan: Political Islam, Conflict and Catastrophe (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999), 9); Robert S. Kramer, Richard A. Lobban Jr., and Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013), 440.

6. See “U.S. Agency for International Development,” USA.gov, accessed May 11, 2020, https://www.usa.gov/federal-agencies/u-s-agency-for-international-development; and James Leonard Mack, My Life, My Country, My World (Pittsburgh: Dorrance Publishing, 2008), 58 (quote).

7. Kramer, Lobban, and Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed., 440; Anders Breidlid, Avelino Androga Said, and Astrid Kristine Breidlid, eds., A Concise History of South Sudan, rev. ed. (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2014), 200.

8. Deng D. Akol Ruay, The Politics of Two Sudans: The South and the North, 1821–1969 (Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute, 1994), 35.

9. Muddathir ‘Abd Al-Rahim, “Arabism, Africanism, and Self-Identification in the Sudan,” Journal of Modern African Studies 8, no. 2 (July 1970): 242n1 (citing his “The Development of British Policy in the Southern Sudan,” in Middle Eastern Studies (London) 2, no. 3 [April 1966]).

10. Iris Seri-Hersch, “Sudan and the British Empire in the Era of Colonial Dismantlement (1946–1956): History Teaching in Comparative Perspective,” in The Road to the Two Sudans, eds. Souad T. Ali, Stephanie Beswick, Richard Lobban and Jay Spaulding (New Castle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 177.

11. Breidlid, Said, and Breidlid, A Concise History of South Sudan, rev. ed., 200.

12. Nmoma, “The Shift in United States-Sudan Relations,” 50; Kramer, Lobban, and Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed., 441; Øystein H. Rolandsen, “A False Start: Between War and Peace in the Southern Sudan, 1956–62,” Journal of African History 52, no. 1 (2011): 105; Mack, My Life, My Country, 58.

13. Nmoma, “The Shift in United States-Sudan Relations,” 50.

14.Nmoma, “The Shift in United States-Sudan Relations,” 50; Kramer, Lobban, and Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed., 441.

15. “Being Black in a ‘Lily White’ State Department,” Terence Todman, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, interviewed by Michael Krenn, accessed December 8, 2022, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, https://adst.org/oral-history/fascinating-figures/being-black-in-a-lily-white-state-department.

16. Michael L. Krenn, Black Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department, 1945–69 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 7.

17. “Memorandum from the Deputy Under Secretary of State for Administration (Crockett) to the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Palmer),” May 9, 1966, document 72, Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, US Department of State, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v33/d72.

18. Stephanie Storm, “Andrew Brimmer, 86, First Black on Fed,” New York Times, October 12, 2012; “Biography of Andrew F. Brimmer” in “Description of Andrew Brimmer Papers,” box 172, folder 12, Baker Library, Harvard [hereafter BL]); Helen R. Houston, “Brimmer, Andrew Felton (1926–2012),” in Encyclopedia of African American Business, vol. 1, A–L, updated and rev. ed., ed. Jessie Carney Smith (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2018), 133; “Federal Reserve Bank Appointee Busy Scholar,” Jet, March 24, 1966, 26.

19. Houston, “Brimmer, Andrew Felton (1926–2012),” 133; Storm, “Andrew Brimmer, 86.”

20. Alan Holmes and Andrew Brimmer to Mr. Hayes, “Central Bank Mission to the Sudan,” March 20, 1957, box 40, folder 2, Andrew Brimmer Papers, BL.

21. Magda Ismail Abdel Mohsin, “The Practice of Islamic Banking System in Sudan,” Journal of Economic Cooperation 26, no. 4 (2005): 28; Alden Young, Transforming Sudan: Decolonisation, Economic Development and State Formation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 141.

22. For more on the role the economic auspices of Sudan’s early independence era, see Young, Transforming Sudan, and my review of that book, “Fragile States: Nation-Building in Sudan,” Books and Ideas, October 25, 2018, https://booksandideas.net/Fragile-States-Nation-building-in-Sudan.html.

23. Storm, “Andrew Brimmer, 86.”; “Biography of Andrew F. Brimmer.”

24. “Robert Kitchens Addresses Morehouse Founders’ Day,” Atlanta Daily World, February 24, 1962, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; “Negro Heading U.S. Mission to Sudan,” Los Angeles Tribune, April 18, 1958, Readex; “Sudan to Receive U. S. Financial Aid,” Atlanta Daily World, April 17, 1958, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; “Name Robert Kitchen to Head Sudan Mission,” Jet, April 17, 1958, 3.

25. “Negro Heading U.S. Mission to Sudan”; “Sudan to Receive U.S. Financial Aid.”

26. “Name Robert Kitchen,” 3.

27. “Robert Kitchens Addresses Morehouse Founders’ Day”; “Martha Kitchen,” East Bay Times, accessed May 13, 2020, https://www.legacy.com/obituaries/eastbaytimes/obituary.aspx?n=martha-kitchen&pid=142393844.

28. François M. Dickman, interview by Stanley Brooks, February 9, 2001, Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training (hereafter ADST), https://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Dickman,%20Francois%20M.toc.pdf?_ga=2.174856737.283742220.1621951167–1474005595.1621951167, pp. 3, 5 (quote from 5).

29.Robert W. Kitchen Jr. to John W. Davis, April 26, 1958, box 168–8, folder 1, John W. Davis Papers, MSRC.

30. Madison Broadnax, interview by W. Haven North, September 18, 1998, ADST, https://adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Broadnax-Madison.pdf, pp. 1, 6 (quote from 6); “Says Americans Can Aid Newly Developed Nations,” Atlanta Daily World, July 12, 1961, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

31. Broadnax interview, 7; El Subki Mohamed El Gizouli, “Higher Education in the Sudan from Its Origins to 1966, with Special Reference to University Education” (PhD diss., Durham University, 1968), 206.

32. El Gizouli, “Higher Education,” 125–126.

33. El Gizouli, “Higher Education,” 206; Heather J. Sharkey, “Colonialism, Character, Building and the Culture of Nationalism in the Sudan, 1898,” in The Decolonization Reader, ed. James D. Le Sueur (New York: Routledge, 2003), 218.

34. Broadnax interview, 8, 10.

35. Broadnax interview, 9.

36. Broadnax interview, 7, 12, 14 (first quote from 7, second from 14).

37. F. Dennis Conroy, “United States Economic Aid to Africa: 2. Aid Program in the Sudan,” African Studies Bulletin 7, no. 1 (March 1964): 7–8; L. Berry and S. Geistfeld, Eastern African Country Profiles: Sudan, rev. ed. (Worcester, MA: Clark University International Development Program, 1983), 80.

38. Berry and Geistfeld, Eastern African Country Profiles, 80.

39. Robert W. Kitchen Jr. to John Davis, December 23, 1958, box 168–8, folder 1, John W. Davis Papers, MSRC.

40. Robert W. Kitchen Jr. to John Davis, May 11, 1959, box 168–8, folder 1, John W. Davis Papers, MSRC.

41. Robert W. Kitchen, Jr. to John Davis, July 1, 1959, box 168–8, folder 1, John W. Davis Papers, MSRC.

42. Simeon Booker, “Tape U.S.A.,” Jet, September 3, 1959, 11; “Robert Kitchens Addresses Morehouse Founders’ Day”; “Kitchen, Kuykendall May Be Ambassadors,” Jet, March 10, 1960, 3; “Robert Kitchen Named to $18,900 U.S. Post,” New Journal and Guide, November 16, 1963, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

43. Vita Bite, African-American Participation at the United Nations (Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1995), p. CRS-10, https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/19951020_95-1095_e85094c7801edf426015d7e5a4a296a386b7d269.pdf; “U.S. Relations with Sudan,” U.S. Department of State, accessed January 27, 2023, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-sudan.

44.“To Sudan,” Courier, July 15, 1961, African American Communities database, Atlanta History Center; “College Roundup,” New York Amsterdam News, May 5, 1962, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; “A&T Prof. Back from Sudan Stay,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 14, 1962, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

45. “Printer Gets Post with State Dept,” New Journal and Guide, June 29, 1963, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

46. “Prominent Harlemites Equip African School,” New York Amsterdam News, February 3, 1962, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

47. For her being a Delta, see Jeanne L. Noble, national president to Arthur B. McCaw, October 9, 1962, box 1, Arthur B. McCaw Papers, Hoover Institution Archives (hereafter HIA). For other biographical material, see “Valaria Sarah Lee McCaw,” Find A Grave, accessed April 25, 2020, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/190442966/valaria-sarah-mccaw; “Arthur McCaw, 79, Who Served 2 Presidents,” Orlando Sentinel, March 14, 1985, https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-1985-05-14-0300080275-story.html.

48. “Blind Sudanese Remember Wife of Aid Official,” New Journal and Guide, March 19, 1966, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

49. “Blind See Beauty by Sculpting: Diplomat’s Wife Starts Ceramics Class for Blind,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 26, 1966, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

50. Damion Thomas, “Goodwill Ambassadors: African American Athletes and U.S. Cultural Diplomacy, 1947–1968,” in African Americans in U.S. Foreign Policy: From the Era of Frederick Douglass to the Age of Obama, ed. Linda Heywood, Allison Blakely, Charles Stith, and Joshua C. Yesnowitz (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015), 129; Davenport, Jazz Diplomacy, 57–58 (in note 110, Davenport cites, in her broader explanation of Wilbur de Paris, G. Lewis Johns, ambassador, Tunis, to DOS [Department of State], FSD [Foreign Service Dispatch]-465, “Tunisian Tour of WDP Orchestra,” May 9, 1957, 10). See also Kones, Tunis, to SOS, DOS Incom. [Department of State Incoming Telegram] 615, May 7, 1957, box 100, folder Wilbur De Paris, DF 032, 1955–1959. (DF stands for National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the Department of State, College Park, Maryland, RG-59, Decimal File 032, 1955–1959.)

51. John W. Davis to Robert Kitchen, June 2, 1958, box 168–8, folder 1, John W. Davis Papers, MSRC.

52. “Fla. Guild off on Tour of Africa,” New York Amsterdam News, October 4, 1958, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

53. See Anthony Tommasini, “Leonard de Paur Dies at 83; Lincoln Center Administrator,” New York Times, November 11, 1998; and Mack, My Life, 64 (quote from Mack).

54. Mack, My Life, 1–2, 5–6 (quote from 5).

55. Mack, My Life, 45–46.

56. Mack, My Life, 53–54, 74 (quote from 54).

57. Mack, My Life, 62.

58. Mack, My Life, 63.

59.“L[angston] H[ughes] with others, Sudan,” Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library Digital Collections, accessed May 14, 2020, https://brbl-dl.library.yale.edu/vufind/Record/3724708; Mack, My Life, 63; and “Langston Hughes,” American Academy of Poets, accessed May 14, 2020, https://poets.org/poet/langston-hughes; “The Morning News,” Library of Congress, accessed November 3, 2022, https://www.loc.gov/item/sn95021307; “American Negro Poet Visits Khartoum,” Morning News, May 1, 1966.

60. “American Negro Poet Visits Khartoum.”

61. Mack, My Life, 63–64.

62. Mack, My Life, 64.

63. James T. Campbell, Middle Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787–2005 (New York: Penguin, 2006), xix.

64. Langston Hughes, “The Negro Speaks of Rivers,” Poetry Foundation, accessed May 14, 2020, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44428/the-negro-speaks-of-rivers.

65. Mack, My Life, 64.

66. Elias Nyamell Wakson, “Islamism and Militarism in Sudanese Politics: Its Impact on Nation-Building,” Northeast African Studies, New Series, 5, no. 2: 58–59 (quote from 59), 78.

67. Mack, My Life, 63–64 (quote from 64).

68. Mack, My Life, 64.

69. Scott Wilson, Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3rd ed. (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2016), 359.

70. Paula Giddings, In Search of Sisterhood: Delta Sigma Theta and the Challenge of the Black Sorority Movement (New York: Perennial, 2002), 15.

71. “Tour of 45 members of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority to Africa and Europe,” Department of State Airgram, No: CA-303, to Accra, Addis Ababa, Athens, Cairo, Dakar, Khartoum, Lagos, London, Monrovia, Nairobi, Rome (7/5/62), box, 1, Arthur B. McCaw Papers, HIA; “Deltas Tour of Africa,” New York Amsterdam News, January 27, 1962, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; “Deltas’ African Tour,” New York Amsterdam News, May 5, 1962, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

72. “African Tour with Deltas Begins July 26,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 5, 1962, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

73. Freddye Henderson to Arthur B. McCaw, July 18, 1962, box 1, Arthur B. McCaw Papers, HIA (quote is from this correspondence). For the biographical information on Henderson, see Tiffany M Gill, “How a Black Female Fashion Designer Laid the Groundwork for Ghana’s ‘Year of Return,’” Washington Post, January 10, 2020. For the information on Arthur McCaw, see “Biographical Data” and untitled document with biographical information (p. 3), box 1, Arthur B. McCaw Papers, HIA.

74.“Tour of 45 members of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority to Africa and Europe.”

75. Arthur B. McCaw to Robert Johnson, box 1, Arthur B. McCaw Papers, HIA.

76. Arthur B. McCaw to Robert Johnson, box 1, Arthur B. McCaw Papers, HIA.

77. “World: Delta Tour,” Jet, September 6, 1962, 39.

78. Jeanne L. Noble to Arthur B. McCaw, October 9, 1962, box 1, Arthur B. McCaw Papers, HIA.

79. “Christmas Greetings 1963—Happy New Year 1964—From the McCaw’s” box 1, Arthur B. McCaw Papers, HIA.

80. See “Africans to Here [sic] What U.S. Women Think of Them through Tapes,” Chicago Daily Defender, November 1, 1962, ProQuest; and “World: Delta Tour” Jet, September 6, 1962, 39.

4. The Great Divergence

1. Andrew Brimmer, January 1, 1957, correspondence in box 41, folder, 7, Andrew Brimmer Papers, BL.

2. Brimmer, March 3, 1957, box 41, folder, 7, p. 140, Andrew Brimmer Papers, BL.

3. Brimmer, “Dear Frank (copy of letter to Mr. Coombs, Mrs Karius, [Eoreign (sic) and Domestic Research Div.),” January 5, 1957, box 41, folder 7, Andrew Brimmer Papers, BL.

4. Tom W. Smith, “Changing Racial Labels: From ‘Colored’ to ‘Negro’ to ‘Black’ to ‘African American,’” Public Opinion Quarterly 56, no. 4 (1992): 499; Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity, updated ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019), 1; Randolph Hohle, introduction to Black Citizenship and Authenticity in the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Routledge, 2013), 1–2 (quote from 2).

5. Sharon E. Hutchinson, Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 312.

6. Edward O. Erhagbe, “The Congressional Black Caucus and United States Policy toward Africa: 1971–1990,” Transafrican Journal of History 24 (1995): 85; Shelly Leanne, “The Clinton Administration and Africa: Perspective of the Congressional Black Caucus and TransAfrica,” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 26, no. 2 (1998): 17; Edward O. Erhagbe, “The American Negro Leadership Conference on Africa: A New African-American Voice for Africa in the United States, 1962–1970,” Boston University African Studies Center Working Papers, 1991, 3; Wendy Theodore, “The Declining Appeal of Diasporic Connections: African American Organising for South Africa, Haiti and Rwanda,” Global Society 22, no. 2 (2008): 304; Theodore E. Brown [American Negro Leadership Conference on Africa letterhead with Dorothy Height’s name listed] letter, October 10, 1962, box 270, folder 15, Walter P. Reuther Papers, Wayne State University Archives of Labor & Urban Affairs.

7. Seth M. Markle, A Motorcycle on the Run: Tanzania, Black Power, and the Uncertain Future of Pan-Africanism, 1964–1974 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2017), 6.

8.George M. Houser, “Meeting Africa’s Challenge: The Story of the American Committee on Africa,” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 6, no. 2/3 (Summer/Autumn 1976): 21 (quotes), 26.

9. Mitch Lerner, “Climbing off the Back Burner: Lyndon Johnson’s Soft Power Approach to Africa,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 22 (2011): 582; Hollis R. Lynch, Black American Radicals and the Liberation of Africa: The Council on African Affairs, 1937–1955 (Ithaca: Africana Studies and Research Center, Cornell University, 1978), 11.

10. Theodore Brown, interview by Robert Martin, August 20, [1968?], Ralph Bunche Oral History Collection (#294), MSRC, 1, 5, 7 (quotes from 5 and 7).

11. Lerner, “Climbing off the Back Burner,” 582.

12. James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 5.

13. “End of the Affair,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 7, 1956, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

14. “‘Sanafrica’ to Bring out Negro’s Place in History,” Daily Defender, July 1, 1957, ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Other instances of Black newspapers framing early independent Sudan as Black: “Let’s Get Acquainted,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 10, 1956, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; and George S. Schuyler, “World Today,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 2, 1958, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

15. “New Republic of Sudan Offers Full Equality for All the Races,” New Journal and Guide, February 16, 1957, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

16. “Arab League Fast Facts,” CNN, last modified March 31, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/30/world/meast/arab-league-fast-facts/index.html.

17. Marguerite Cartwright, “World Backdrop: Sudan,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 5, 1957, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

18. Anders Breidlid, Avelino Androga Said, and Astrid Kristine Breidlid, eds., A Concise History of South Sudan, rev. ed. (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2014), 104–105; Andrew S. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 31; Robert O. Collins, “Slavery in the Sudan in History,” Slavery and Abolition 20, no. 3 (1999): 76; UNESCO World Heritage Convention, “Deim Zubeir—Slave Route Site,” accessed October 7, 2022, https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6275.

19. “Slavery in the Sudan. Lazy and Happy Slaves—Cruelty of the Captors,” New York Globe, June 2, 1883 [from London News], Readex.

20. “Making a World,” African Repository, January 1, 1885, Readex.

21. “The Soudan: General Kitchener’s Great Task Successfully Accomplished,” Colored American, September 24, 1898, Readex.

22. “The Coming Mahdi: A More Notable Figure in Africa than Paul Kruger,” Wisconsin Weekly Advocate, July 9, 1900 [reprinted from New York News], Readex.

23.Gabriel Warburg, “Ideological and Practical Considerations Regarding Slavery in the Mahdist State and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1881–1918,” in The Ideology of Slavery in Africa, edited by Paul E. Lovejoy (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1981), 258.

24. Steven Serels, Starvation and the State: Famine, Slavery, and Power in Sudan, 1883–1956 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), xx; Collins, “Slavery in the Sudan in History,” 81.

25. J. A. Rogers, “Rambling Ruminations: Slavery Still Exists,” New York Amsterdam News, July 9, 1930, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

26. J. A. Rogers, “Abyssinians Charged with Slave Raids,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 29, 1932, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

27. “Slave Traffic Rampant in Africa,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 11, 1930, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

28. Collins, “Slavery in the Sudan in History,” 81.

29. “Sudan Revolts Parallels Civil War,” Atlanta Daily World, September 16, 1955, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

30. George S. Schuyler, “Views and Reviews,” Pittsburgh Courier, December 12, 1959, ProQuest.

31. Chimamanda Adichie, “The Danger of a Single Story,” TedTalk (2009), https://www.classacthr73.org/resources/Documents/Event%20Materials/Chimamanda%20Adichie%20The%20Danger%20of%20a%20Single%20Story.pdf.; and “The Danger of a Single Story,” TED, accessed January 27, 2023, https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story?language=en.

32. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 44–45 (quote from 45).

33. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 45; William K. DuVal to editor of the New York Times, August 25, 1965, box 1, folder 10, United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. Commission on Ecumenical Mission and Relations Office of the General Secretary Records, Presbyterian Historical Society Archives (hereafter PHS).

34. “Sudan Is Battleground in Negro-Arab Dispute,” Chicago Daily Defender, December 8, 1964, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

35. “Negroes, Arabs Clash in Sudan,” Chicago Daily Defender, December 9, 1964, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

36. “Trouble in Sudan,” Chicago Daily Defender, December 10, 1964, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

37. “Claims Sudanese Neither Arab or Negro, but Fusion of Both,” Chicago Defender, national ed., December 26, 1964, ProQuest Historical Newspapers. That it was a Negro Press International piece is inferred from Chatwood Hall, “Behind the Headlines,” Chicago Daily Defender, December 28, 1964, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

38.University of Chicago Library, finding aid for Homer Smith papers, accessed July 21, 2023, https://bmrc.lib.uchicago.edu/portal/view/?id=BMRC.HARSH.SMITH_HOMER.xml.

39. Hall, “Behind the Headlines.”

40. Edward E. Curtis IV and Sylvester A. Johnson, “Bayyinah Sharrieff: African American Traveler, University of Khartoum Student, National of Islam Leader,” Journal of Africana Religions 5, no. 1 (2017): 72; “An Open Letter to Tuskegee Students: Use Education to Help Your Own People,” Muhammad Speaks, February 23, 1968, 20–21 (from Curtis and Johnson, “Sharrieff,” 131); “Reappraisal of Old Habits Follows Musical Party at Sundanese University,” Muhammad Speaks, June 10, 1967, 11 (from Curtis and Johnson, “Sharrieff,” 80); “How Muslims in Sudan View Christians,” Muhammad Speaks, June 2, 1967, 11, 19 (from Curtis and Johnson, “Sharrieff,” 78; quote taken from here); and “Life in Girls Hostel at University of Khartoum,” Muhammad Speaks, December 5, 1967, 19–20 (from Curtis and Johnson, “Sharrieff,” 114).

41. “Life in Girls Hostel at University of Khartoum.”

42. See Curtis and Johnson, “Sharrieff,” 73; and “Life in Girls Hostel at University of Khartoum” (second quote is from Curtis and Johnson, “Sharrieff,” 115).

43. “How Muslims in Sudan View Christians,” Muhammad Speaks, June 2, 1967, 11, 19 (from Curtis and Johnson, “Sharrieff,” 79 [first quote]); and “An Open Letter to Tuskegee Students: Use Education to Help Your Own People,” Muhammad Speaks, February 23, 1968, 20–21 (from Curtis and Johnson, “Sharrieff,” 132).

44. “Elton C. Fax Papers, 1930–1974,” New York Public Library Archives and Manuscripts, accessed June 10, 2020, http://archives.nypl.org/scm/20719; Elton C. Fax, Through Black Eyes: Journeys of a Black Artist to East Africa and Russia (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1974), inside book jacket.

45. “Negro Amarican [sic] Artist to Visit Sudan,” Morning News (Khartoum), March 17, 1964, 3.

46. Fax, Through Black Eyes, 35–36 (quotes from 36).

47. Fax, Through Black Eyes, 36.

48. “National Security Council Report,” NSC 5719/1, Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957, Africa, vol. 18, accessed December 16, 2022, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v18/d24.

49. “Memorandum from the Secretary of State’s Special Assistant (Holmes) to Secretary of State Dulles,” February 6, 1958, Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Africa, vol. 14, accessed December 16, 2022, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v14/d1.

50. See, for example, “Second Draft: For Presentation to Africa Cttee, July 25th, 1944. Proposed Developments of C.M.S. Work in the Gordon Memorial Mission of the Southern Sudan,” 664/9/11, SAD; “From the Right Revered Oliver C. Allison: As from C.M.S. Juba, 23rd January, 1949,” Southern Sudan Mail Bag, no. 10 (February 1949), 15; and N. E. Ainley and M.C. Warburton, “Education of Women and Girls in the Area Occupied by the Church Missionary Society in the Southern Sudan: Report of the Commission Appointed by the Sudan Government and the Church Missionary Society, March 1939” (April 15, 1939), CMS/G/Y/S2 (1–114/4), Church Missionary Society Archives, Birmingham University (hereafter CMS).

51. Fax, Through Black Eyes, 37.

52. Fax, Through Black Eyes, 37. Omar’s USIS connection is gleaned from letter by James H. Robinson to Ismail El Azahry, December 13, 1965, box 63, folder “ALP-Sudan-Correspondence, etc., 1965–1967, 1978 Miscellaneous Item 63/28,” Operation Crossroads Africa collection, Amistad Research Center (hereafter ARC), Tulane University, New Orleans.

53.Fax, Through Black Eyes, 42.

54. Fax, Through Black Eyes, 42, 45–46.

55. Fax, Through Black Eyes, 46.

56. Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A Biography of the Short-Lived Third World (New Delhi: LeftWord Books, 2007), 49; Nic Cheeseman, Eloïse Bertrand, and Sa’eed Husaini, “Bandung Conference,” in A Dictionary of African Politics (Oxford University Press, 2019), Oxford Reference.

57. Jalāl Hāshim, To Be or Not to Be: Sudan at Crossroads, A Pan-African Perspective (Dar es Salaam: Mkuki Na Nyota, 2019), 85.

58. Hāshim, To Be or Not to Be, 86, 87.

59. Joseph Lagu, Sudan: Odyssey through a State: From Hope to Ruin (Omdurman: MOB Center for Sudanese Studies, Omdurman Ahlia University, 2006), 74.

60. “The Church in the World,” Tablet (London), September 18, 1965, 1045, A/96/8/47, Comboni Mission Archive (hereafter ACR).

61. For the information on the 1967 summit, see Richard A. Lobban Jr., Robert S. Kramer, and Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 3rd ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2002), 157; and David W. Lesch, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 215.

62. “Brief Report on the Life of the S. Refugees Bordering North-East Congo and North-West Uganda, 1971, p. 1, ACR.A/98/4/11, ACR; Natsios, Sudan South Sudan, and Darfur, 47; Hāshim, To Be or Not to Be, 87.

63. “Feed South Sudan Victims of Hostile Arab Majority,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 30, 1966, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

64. “Arabs,” New York Amsterdam News, November 2, 1968, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

65. “Black Americans Picket for Southern Sudanese,” New York Amsterdam News, January 22, 1972, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

66. “Sudan v. Christians,” Time, February 1, 1963, https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,829787,00.html.

67. Lawrence Fellows, “The Unknown War in the Sudan,” New York Times, September 22, 1968, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; C. C. Miniclier, “Death Toll Placed at 500,000 in Sudan’s Little-Noticed War,” Washington Post, August 7, 1969, ProQuest Historical Newspapers; “Sudan Trying to Surmount Poverty, War,” Los Angeles Times, January 11, 1970, ProQuest.

68.“Gaza: Why Are Israel and the Palestinians Fighting over Gaza?” BBC, February 20, 2015, https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/20436092; “The Arab-Israeli War of 1948,” Office of the Historian, US Department of State, accessed June 16, 2020, https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/arab-israeli-war; Joel Beinin and Lisa Hajjar, Palestine, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Primer (Washington, DC: Middle East Research and Information Project, 2014), https://merip.org/palestine-israel-primer; “Israel Profile—Timeline,” BBC, April 9, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29123668.

69. Beinin and Hajjar, “Palestine, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict”; “Israel Profile—Timeline”; “Gaza: Why Are Israel and the Palestinians Fighting over Gaza?”

70. Yossi Alpher, Periphery: Israel’s Search for Middle East Allies (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2015), 30; Lobban, Kramer, and Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 3rd ed., xlvi, 27–28, 157; Lesch, The Arab-Israeli Conflict, 215.

71. Alpher, Periphery, 35–36 (and 34 for further information on Israeli motivations); Joel Peters, Israel and Africa: The Problematic Relationship (London: British Academic Press, 1992), 9.

72. Alex Lubin, “Locating Palestine in pre-1948 Black Internationalism,” Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture and Society 9, no. 2 (2007): 97; Brenda Gayle Plummer, In Search of Power: African Americans in the Age of Decolonization, 1956–1974 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 45, 297; Salim Yaqub, “‘Our Declaration of Independence’: African Americans, Arab Americans, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1967–1979,” Mashriq and Majhar 3, no. 1 (2015): 12–14.

73. “Whitney M. Young, Jr.,” National Park Service, accessed June 11, 2020, https://www.nps.gov/people/whitney-young-jr.htm.

74. Whitney M. Young Jr., “To Be Equal,” Milwaukee Star, September 21, 1968, Readex.

75. “Get Israeli Arms,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 30, 1970, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

76. Veronica Johnson, “Sudan,” New York Amsterdam News, March 14, 1970, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

77. S. Norman Grouse, “Arabs, Jews, Us,” New York Amsterdam News, March 14, 1970, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

78. Stephen E. Appell, “Arabs-Israeli,” New York Amsterdam News, August 22, 1970, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

79. Richard Levinson, “Pulse of New York’s Public: Palestinians and Blacks,” New York Amsterdam News, October 3, 1970, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

80. James R. Lawson, “Planes to Israel?,” New York Amsterdam News, July 11, 1970, ProQuest Historical Newspapers.

81. Harold S. Rogers, “Imperialism in Africa,” Black Scholar 3, no. 5 (January 1972): 42.

82. Rogers, “Imperialism in Africa,” 41.

83.“Race War in the Sudan: Big White Lie,” SOBU Newsletter, May 1, 1971, African American Periodicals; and Ibram H. Rogers, “From Black to African: Identity Shifts and Pan-African Activism in the Black Campus Movement, 1965–1972,” in Historical and Contemporary Pan-Africanism and the Quest for African Renaissance, edited by Njoki Wane and Francis Adyanga Akena (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2019), 32–33.

84. “Race War in the Sudan”; and Robert S. Kramer, Richard A. Lobban Jr., and Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013), 78.

85. “Race War in the Sudan.”

86. “Race War in the Sudan.”

87. Harold D. Nelson, Margarita Dobert, Gordon C. McDonald, James McLaughlin, Barbara J. Marvin, and Philip W. Moeller, Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of Sudan (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1973), 214; Kwame Essien and Toyin Falola, Culture and Customs of Sudan (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2009), 95; William A. Rugh, Arab Mass Media: Newspapers, Radio, and Television in Arab Politics (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 53.

88. “From the Arabic Press,” Morning News (Khartoum), July 27, 1967.

5. Call to Brotherhood

1. Fiza Pirani, “Who Is Louis Farrakhan? 10 Things to Know about the Nation of Islam Leader, Black Activist,” Atlanta Journal Constitution, October 18, 2018, https://www.ajc.com/news/national/who-louis-farrakhan-things-know-about-the-nation-islam-leader-black-activist/1zUaxjihBLiqOKso5h262H; Louis Farrakhan and Henry Louis Gates Jr., “Farrakhan Speaks,” Transition 70 (1996): 140, 142; “What’s Next for the Nation of Islam?,” National Public Radio, February 26, 2007, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7601345; “Louis Farrakhan Fast Facts,” CNN, June 19, 2020, https://www.cnn.com/2013/05/24/us/louis-farrakhan-fast-facts/index.html.

2. S. Craig Watkins, “Framing Protest: News Media Frames of the Million Man March,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 18, no. 1 (2001): 85; Tim J. Brown and Rita L. Rahoi-Gilchrest, “Postmodern Personas in Combat: The NAACP and the Reverend Benjamin Chavis,” Howard Journal of Communication 10, no. 1 (1999): 30.

3. Maize Woodford, “A Chronology: Farrakhan’s ‘World Friendship Tour’ to Africa and the Middle East: January–February 1996,” Black Scholar 26, nos. 3–4 (1996): 35, 37; Steven A. Holmes, “Farrakhan’s Angry World Tour Brings Harsh Criticism at Home,” New York Times, February 22, 1996, ProQuest.

4. Noah Salomon, “Religion after the State: Secular Soteriologies at the Birth of South Sudan,” Journal of Law and Religion 29, no. 3 (2014): 450–452, 457; Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing God’s Children: The Unlikely Global Alliance for Global Human Rights (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), 239, 242; John Ashworth and Maura Ryan, “‘One Nation from Every Tribe, Tongue, and People’: The Church and Strategic Peacebuilding in South Sudan,” Journal of Catholic Social Thought 10 (2013): 48.

5. Steven A. Holmes, “Slavery Is an Issue Again as U.S. Looks to Sudan,” New York Times, March 24, 1996, ProQuest.

6. Amal Hassan Fadlalla, Branding Humanity: Competing Narratives of Rights, Violence, and Global Citizenship (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2018), 35.

7. Fadlalla, Branding Humanity; Hertzke, Freeing God’s Children; Melani McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders: A Global History of American Evangelicals (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).

8. “About Us,” Final Call, 2019, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/aboutus/aboutus.shtml; Farrakhan and Gates, “Farrakhan Speaks,” 142; Lawrence H. Mamiya, “From Black Muslim to Bilalian: The Evolution of a Movement,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 21, no. 2 (June 1982): 141; Martha F. Lee, The Nation of Islam: An American Millenarian Movement (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1996), 78.

9.Dawn-Marie Gibson, A History of the Nation of Islam: Race, Islam, and the Quest for Freedom (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2012), 1, 2, 11; Edward E. Curtis IV, Muslims in America: A Short History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 119; Zafar Ishaq Ansari, “Islam among African-Americans,” in Muslims’ Place in the American Public Square: Hope, Fears, and Aspirations, edited by Zahid H. Bukhari, Sulayman S. Nyang, Mumtaz Ahmad, and John L. Esposito (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), 235.

10. Patrick D. Bowen, “Satti Majid: A Sudanese Founder of American Islam,” Journal of Africana Religions 1, no. 2 (2013): 194–195, 200–201; Sally Howell, Old Islam in Detroit: Rediscovering the Muslim American Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 37; Rogaia Mustafa Abusharif, Wanderings: Sudanese Migrants and Exiles in North America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), 3, 22–23.

11. Howell, Old Islam in Detroit, 83; José Vittorio Pimienta-Bey, “Some ‘Myths’ of the Moorish Science Temple: An Afrocentric Historical Analysis” (PhD diss., Temple University, 1995), iv; Herbert Berg, “Mythmaking in the African American Muslim Context: The Moorish Science Temple, the Nation of Islam, and the American Society of Muslims,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 73, no. 3 (September 2005): 686, 689–690 (quote from 686).

12. Howell, Old Islam in Detroit, 83–84 (“errors” from 83); Bowen, “Satti Majid,” 197.

13. Michael A. Gomez, Reversing Sail: A History of the African Diaspora (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 174–175; Ansari, “Islam among African-Americans,” 237; E. U. Essian-Udom, Black Nationalism: A Search for an Identity in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 125–126.

14. Ansari, “Islam among African-Americans,” 243; C. Riches and J. Palmowski, “Civil Rights Movement,” in A Dictionary of Contemporary World History, 4th ed. (Oxford University Press, 2016), Oxford Reference; Essian-Udom, Black Nationalism, 321–322 (quote).

15. Robin D. G. Kelley, “Malcolm X,” in The Oxford Companion to United States History, ed. Paul S. Boyer (Oxford University Press, 2001), Oxford Reference; Dennis Wainstock, Malcolm X, African American Revolutionary (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009), 49–50; Emily O’Dell, “Following in the Footsteps of Malcolm X,” HuffPost, last updated December 6, 2017, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/emily-odell/following-in-the-footstep_3_b_6434534.html; Emily Jane O’Dell, “X Marks the Spot: Mapping Malcolm X’s Encounters with Sudan,” Journal of Africana Religions 3, no. 1 (2015): 96–97 (quotes from 97).

16. O’Dell, “X Marks the Spot,” 102, 104, 107.

17. Gutbi Mahdi Ahmed, “Muslim Organizations in the United States,” in The Muslims of America, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 21; Mattias Gardell, In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and The Nation of Islam (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 226; Ansari, “Islam among African-Americans,” 250; Wilson J. Moses, Black Messiahs and Uncle Toms: Social and Literary Manipulations of a Religious Myth, rev. ed. (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), x, 191 (quotes from 191).

18. Martina Könighofer, The New Ship of Zion: Dynamic Diaspora Dimensions of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction, 2008), 117; Michael Muhammad Knight, Metaphysical Africa: Truth and Blackness in the Ansaru Allah Community (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2020), 29.

19. Knight, Metaphysical Africa, 60.

20. Allen D. Hertzke, “African American Churches and U.S. Policy in Sudan,” Review of Faith and International Affairs 6, no. 1 (2008): 19; Robert O. Collins, “Civil Wars in the Sudan,” History Compass 5, no. 6 (2007): 1783–1784; Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, “Islamization in Sudan: A Critical Assessment,” Middle East Journal 44, no. 4 (1990): 619–620; John O. Voll, “The Sudan after Nimeiry,” Current History 85, no. 511 (1986): 214.

21. Andrew S. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), xxvi.

22. Amir Idris, “Slavery, Colonialism, and Political Violence: The Case of South Sudan,” in Sudan’s Killing Fields: Political Violence and Fragmentation, ed. Laura N. Beny and Sondra Hale (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2015), 71; Robert S. Kramer, Richard A. Lobban Jr., and Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013), 392.

23. Clarence Page, “How Can We Still Ignore Slavery in the Sudan?,” Chicago Tribune, June 23, 1996, https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1996-06-23-9606230177-story.html.

24.Holmes, “Slavery Is an Issue Again.”

25. Hertzke, Freeing God’s Children, 242.

26. Collins, “Civil Wars in the Sudan,” 1778, 1791; Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, xxvii; Kramer, Lobban, and Fluehr-Lobban, Historical Dictionary of the Sudan, 4th ed., liii–lv, lxiii; Hertzke, “African American Churches,” 19–20.

27. Fadlalla, Branding Humanity, 3, 17.

28. Hertzke, “African American Churches,” 21; Fadlalla, Branding Humanity, 32.

29. Hertzke, “African American Churches,” 21; Fadlalla, Branding Humanity, 30 (quote).

30. “The Abolitionist Black Clergy,” Washington Times, July 3, 2000, https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2000/jul/3/20000703-011710-8248r.

31. Kim Lawton, “Black Churches Taking Lead on Pressing Sudan Issue,” Religion News Service, August 23, 2005, https://religionnews.com/2005/08/23/black-churches-taking-lead-on-pressing-sudan-issue; Hertzke, “African American Churches,” 22–23; Peter Brown, “Joe Madison Witnesses the Horror of Slavery in Sudan,” Crisis, November–December 2000, 27; Richard Crockett, Sudan: The Failure and Division of an African State, 2nd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016), 152, 154; Kimberly Davis, “The Truth about Slavery in Sudan,” Ebony, August 2001, 37; Fadlalla, Branding Humanity, 33; “2 Goats Can Free a Slave in Sudan,” New York Times), June 29, 2001, ProQuest.

32. Crockett, Sudan, 153.

33. Fadlalla, Branding Humanity, 33.

34. Alice Bullard, “De la colonisation à la mondialisation. Les vicissitudes de l’esclavage en Mauritanie,” in “Esclavage moderne ou modernité de l’esclavage?,” special issue, Cahiers d’Études Africaines 45 (2005): 756; Walid Phares, The Coming Revolution: Struggle for Freedom in the Middle East (New York: Threshold Editions, 2010), 251; Charles Jacobs, “Farrakhan’s Secret Relationship,” Daily Californian, March 16, 2012, https://www.dailycal.org/2012/03/16/farrakhans-secret-relationship; Samuel Cotton, Silent Terror: A Journey into Contemporary Slavery (New York: Harlem River Press), vii, 2.

35. Bullard, “De la colonisation à la mondialisation,” 756; Cotton, Silent Terror, 61–62.

36. Cotton, Silent Terror, 62–63 (the press release Cotton reproduces is titled “One More Big Lie: America Accuses Libya of Enslaving Black People,” March 24, 1995).

37. Cotton, Silent Terror, 71.

38. Cotton, Silent Terror, 63.

39.Clarence Page, “Black on Black Crime,” Chicago Tribune, May 3, 1995, https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1995-05-03-9505030387-story.html.

40. McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders, 184 (quote); Judy Rakowsky, “Lawsuits Dropped, but Battles over Boston Mosque Continue,” Forward, June 27, 2007, https://forward.com/news/11052/lawsuits-dropped-but-battles-over-boston-mosque-c-00063. McAlister, The Kingdom of God Has No Borders, 184n38, cites Sam Dillon, “Columbia to Check Reports of Anti-Jewish Harassment,” New York Times, October 29, 2004, N. R. Kleinfield, “Mideast Tensions Are Getting Personal on Campus at Columbia,” New York Times, January 18, 2005, and Karen Arenson, “Panel’s Report on Faculty at Columbia Spurs Debate,” New York Times, April 1, 2005.

41. Rakowski, “Lawsuits Dropped”; and “About,” Forward, accessed September 20, 2022, https://forward.com/about-us.

42. JTA, “Once ‘Combative’ Pro-Israel Group Joins Hillel International,” Times of Israel, August 25, 2017, https://www.timesofisrael.com/once-combative-pro-israel-group-joins-hillel-international.

43. Saeed Shabazz, “In Harlem, a Discussion on the Sudan,” Final Call, last updated November 23, 2004, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/National_News_2/In_Harlem_a_discussion_on_the_Sudan_1636.shtml.

44. Shabazz, “In Harlem.”

45. Page, “How Can We Still Ignore Slavery in the Sudan?”; Tony Norman, “The Rev. Al Sharpton Has Begun Opening His Mind,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 13, 2001, http://old.post-gazette.com/columnists/20010413tony.asp; Holmes, “Slavery Is an Issue Again.”

46. Gilbert A. Lewthwaite, “‘Verify’ Sudan Slave reports, Farrakhan Urges; Nation of Islam Leader Condemns Slavery,” Baltimore Sun, July 17, 1996, https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1996-07-17-1996199064-story.html (quoting Final Call).

47. Louis Farrakhan, “Reconnecting the International Struggles of Black people,” Final Call, excerpts from Open Line broadcast of May 7, 2006, last updated July 26, 2006, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Minister_Louis_Farrakhan_9/Reconnecting_the_international_struggles_of_Black__2793.shtml.

48. Page, “How Can We Still Ignore Slavery in the Sudan?” See also Jacobs, “Farrakhan’s Secret Relationship” (for information on the press conference and Farrakhan’s comments there).

49. Page, “How Can We Still Ignore Slavery in the Sudan?”; Donald Altschiller, “American Anti-Slavery Group (AASG),” in Slavery in the Modern World: A History of Political, Social, and Economic Oppression, vol. 1: A–N, ed. Junius P. Rodriguez (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011), 106; Jacobs, “Farrakhan’s Secret Relationship.”; Lewthwaite, “Verify Sudan Slave Reports.”

50. Lewthwaite, “Verify Sudan Slave Reports.”

51. “Minister Farrakhan’s Q&A with the Sudan Media,” Final Call, last updated September 30, 2004, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Minister_Louis_Farrakhan_9/Minister_Farrakhan_s_Q_amp_A_with_the_Sudan_Media_1589.shtml.

52. Farrakhan, “Reconnecting the International Struggles.”

53. Askia Muhammad, “Sudanese President Answers Questions on Darfur,” Final Call, last updated May 14, 2007, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/World_News_3/Sudanese_president_answers_questions_on_Darfur_3474.shtml [coverage reprinted from Final Call 26, no. 22] (quotes); “Sudanese President Addresses Nation of Islam Members in US,” Sudan Tribune, February 23, 2007, https://sudantribune.com/spip.php?article20411.

54.Muhammad, “Sudanese President Answers Questions on Darfur.”

55. Page, “Black on Black Crime”; for Page’s African American identity, see Eric Asher, “Clarence Page Credits ADHD with Making Him a Better Journalist,” Respect Ability, February 11, 2018, https://www.respectability.org/2018/02/clarence-page-credits-adhd-with-making-him-a-better-journalist.

56. Cotton, Silent Terror, 151.

57. Holmes, “Slavery Is an Issue Again”; “TransAfrica Forum,” Linktank, accessed August 17, 2023, https://linktank.com/organization/transafrica-forum/about (from which information on TransAfrica Forum was used). The “40 million” number, to be sure, was certainly exaggerated; one estimate puts the US Muslim population to have been around six million people in 2001. See Houssain Kettani, “Muslim Population in the Americas: 1950–2020,” International Journal of Environmental Science and Development 1, no. 2 (June 2010): 129.

58. “South Sudan: Rebel with a Cause,” Embassy, accessed September 23, 2020, https://embassymagazine.com/south-sudan.

59. Sabit Abbe Alley, “Genocide and Slavery in the Sudan: The Farrakhan Connection,” City Sun (Brooklyn), June 6–11, 1996, in Abolish (American Anti-Slavery Group), https://www.iabolish.org/genocide-and-slavery-in-the-sudan-the-farrakhan-connection.

60. Alley, “Genocide and Slavery in the Sudan.”

61. Alley, “Genocide and Slavery in the Sudan.”

62. Alley, “Genocide and Slavery in the Sudan.”

63. Kuyok Abol Kuyok, South Sudan: The Notable Firsts (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2015), 481–482, 484.

64. “The Annual Bayard Rustin Lecture,” Sudan Democratic Gazette 10, no. 113 (October 1999); 14; “Our History,” A. Philip Randolph Institute, accessed September 25, 2020, http://www.apri.org/our-history.html.

65. “The Annual Bayard Rustin Lecture,” 14.

66. “The Annual Bayard Rustin Lecture,” 14–15.

67. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, xxvi–xxvii; “Origins of the Darfur Crisis,” PBS News Hour, July 3, 2008, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/africa-july-dec08-origins_07-03; Abdullah Osman El-Tom, “Darfur People: Too Black for the Arab-Islamic Project of Sudan,” in Darfur and the Crisis of Governance in Sudan: A Critical Reader, ed. Salah Hassan and Carina Ray (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2009), 85, 90; Scott Baldauf, “Sudan 101: Is the Darfur Conflict a Fight between Arabs and Africans?,” Christian Science Monitor, April 26, 2010, https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2010/0426/Sudan-101-Is-the-Darfur-conflict-a-fight-between-Arabs-and-Africans; Mohanad Hashim, “A Step Towards Peace?” BBC, February 11, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51462613.

68. Phares, The Coming Revolution, 261. Farrakhan’s pointing to oil occurs in Louis Farrakhan, “Reconnecting the International Struggles of Black People,” Final Call, last updated July 26, 2006, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Minister_Louis_Farrakhan_9/Reconnecting_the_international_struggles_of_Black__2793.shtml. For information on the protest and Lantos, see Matthew O’Rourke, “5 Lawmakers Arrested Protesting Darfur Violence,” Los Angeles Times, April 29, 2006, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-apr-29-na-darfur29-story.html; “Tom Lantos,” Lantos Foundation for Human Rights & Justice, accessed September 23, 2020, https://www.lantosfoundation.org/about-tom-lantos.

69.Farrakhan, “Reconnecting the International Struggles.”

70. Farrakhan, “Reconnecting the International Struggles.” For another instance in which Farrakhan alluded to the role of oil in America’s interest in Sudan, see Louis Farrakhan, “Is Oil the Motive for War?,” Final Call, September 13, 2002, http://www.finalcall.com/columns/mlf/mlf_iraq09-17-2002.html.

71. Farrakhan, “Reconnecting the International Struggles.”

72. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 56; Areig Elhag, “Sudan-Israel Relations: Ensuring Civilian Buy-In during a Democratic Transition,” Washington Institute Fikra Forum, August 26, 2020, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/fikraforum/view/sudan-israel-relations-democratic-transition-normalization.

73. Louis Farrakhan, “The War of Armageddon—Part 3,” Final Call, last updated May 6, 2007, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Minister_Louis_Farrakhan_9/The_War_of_Armageddon_-Part_3_3451.shtml.

74. William Reed, “Take Another Look at the ‘Save Darfur’ Crowd,” Final Call, last updated January 4, 2008, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Perspectives_1/Take_another_look_at_the_Save_Darfur_crowd_4231.shtml.

75. Jehron Muhammad, “Black Media Delegation Returns from Darfur,” Final Call, last updated May 15, 2007, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/World_News_3/Black_media_delegation_returns_from_Darfur_3486.shtml.

76. Cotton, Silent Terror, 151.

6. A Worthy Cause

1. “Barack Obama,” White House, accessed June 1, 2021, https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/barack-obama; “President Barack Obama,” Barack Obama Presidential Library, accessed June 1, 2021, https://www.obamalibrary.gov/obamas/president-barack-obama; Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance (New York: Crown Publishers, 1995), 5, 62–63.

2. Obama, Dreams from My Father, 63–64.

3. “Barack Obama: The 44th President of the United States,” White House, accessed January 28, 2023, https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/barack-obama.

4. Mike Brand, “Obama’s Upsetting Decision to Lift Sanctions on Sudan,” The Hill, January 13, 2017, https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/314191-obamas-upsetting-decision-to-lift-sanctions-on-sudan; “Genocide in Darfur,” C-Span, April 30, 2006, https://www.c-span.org/video/?192217-1/genocide-darfur; Richard Williamson, “How Obama Betrayed Sudan,” Foreign Policy, November 11, 2010, https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/11/11/how-obama-betrayed-sudan; “Transcript: Obama Addresses U.N. General Assembly,” CNN, accessed January 20, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/09/23/obama.transcript/index.html; #teamEBONY, “Read President Obama’s Full Speech at DNC,” Ebony, September 7, 2012, https://www.ebony.com/news/full-text-president-obama-addresses-dnc.

5. Jesse Moore, “President Obama Marks the 50th Anniversary of the Marches from Selma to Montgomery,” White House–President Barack Obama, March 8, 2015, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2015/03/08/president-obama-marks-50th-anniversary-marches-selma-montgomery; #teamEBONY, “[WATCH]President Obama’s Moving #Selma50 Speech,” Ebony, March 9, 2015, https://www.ebony.com/news/watch-president-obamas-moving-selma50-speech-403.

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7.Ibrahim Sundiata, “Obama, African Americans, and Africans: The Double Vision,” in African Americans in U.S. Foreign Policy: From the Era of Frederick Douglass to the Age of Obama, ed. Linda Heywood, Allison Blakely, Charles Stith, and Joshua C. Yesnowitz (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015), 209–210 (quote from 210).

8. Andrew S. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 171.

9. Herman J. Cohen, “Sudan: American Policy towards the Land of Endless Conflict,” American Foreign Policy Interests 34, no. 6 (2012): 325.

10. Cohen, “Sudan,” 326; “U.S.-Sudan Relations,” U.S. Embassy in Sudan, accessed June 1, 2021, https://sd.usembassy.gov/our-relationship/policy-history/us-sudan-relations; Benjamin Talton, In This Land of Plenty: Mickey Leland and Africa in American Politics (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019), 210–211.

11. “Susan Rice”; Rebecca Hamilton, “Special Report: The Wonks Who Sold Washington on South Sudan,” Reuters, July 11, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-south-sudan-midwives/special-report-the-wonks-who-sold-washington-on-south-sudan-idUSBRE86A0GC20120711; Lorenzo Morris, “African American Representatives in the United Nations: From Ralph Bunche to Susan Rice,” in African Americans in U.S. Foreign Policy: From the Era of Frederick Douglass to the Age of Obama, ed. Linda Heywood, Allison Blakely, Charles Stith, and Joshua C. Yesnowitz (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015), 190.

12. Toyin Falola and Raphael Chijioke Njoku, United States and Africa Relations, 1400s to the Present (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2020), 299; Brand, “Obama’s Upsetting Decision”; “Genocide in Darfur”; untitled image of Kwesi Mfume, Barack Obama, Joe Madison, and Al Sharpton at a Save Darfur rally on the National Mall, April 30, 2006, box 3, Joe Madison Papers, 2008 addendum to the papers, ARC; Kevin Rector, “A Secret Vote Pushed Kweisi Mfume Out as NAACP Leader Amid ‘Growing Dissatisfaction’ with His Performance, Records Show,” Baltimore Sun, January 17, 2020, https://www.baltimoresun.com/politics/bs-md-pol-mfume-naacp-tenure-20200117-lqspcf54e5hfnp4z3weqw44un4-story.html; Joe Madison’s nametag: “Save Darfur Now: Rally to Stop Genocide (April 30, 2006),” program schedule, box 8, Joe Madison Papers.

13. Brand, “Obama’s Upsetting Decision.”

14. “Thousands Rally at Capitol for Immediate Aid to Darfur,” Jet, May 15, 2006, 8.

15. Stacy Gilliam, “Where Are the Black Voices in the Sudan Crisis?,” Crisis (July–August 2006), 8; “Aid and Action Urged for Darfur,” Jet, May 15, 2006, 12 (quote).

16. “Sen. Obama Visits Darfur Refugees in Chad,” National Public Radio, September 3, 2006, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5760323.

17. Falola and Njoku, United States and Africa Relations, 299; “Summary: H.R.3127—109th Congress (2005–2006),” Congress.gov, accessed June 1, 2021, https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/3127.

18. “Obama Launches Presidential Bid,” BBC News, February 10, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6349081.stm.

19. “Obama and Darfur,” Wall Street Journal, October 22, 2009, ProQuest.

20. Williamson, “How Obama Betrayed Sudan.”

21. Elise Labott, “Obama Is Asked to Focus on Darfur,” CNN, November 12, 2008, https://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/11/12/obama.darfur/index.html.

22.Amie Parnes, “Move Over Oprah? Obama Sells books,” Politico, May 30, 2009, https://www.politico.com/story/2009/05/move-over-oprah-obama-sells-books-023114; Jesse A. Zink, Christianity and Catastrophe in South Sudan: Civil War, Migration, and the Rise of Dinka Anglicanism (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2017), 114 (citing Mark Bixler, The Lost Boys of Sudan: An American Story of the Refugee Experience. Atlanta: University of Georgia Press, 2005); Dave Eggers, “What Is the What Reader’s Guide,” Penguin Random House, accessed June 1, 2021, https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/45422/what-is-the-what-by-dave-eggers/9780307385901/readers-guide.

23. Parnes, “Move Over Oprah?”

24. Ayelet Golz, “Former UN Ambassador Susan Rice to Highlight Founders Day,” Colorado State University, December 18, 2019, https://source.colostate.edu/former-un-ambassador-susan-rice-to-highlight-founders-day; Morris, “African American Representatives,” 190.

25. Susan Rice, Tough Love: My Story of the Things Worth Fighting For (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2019), 272–273.

26. “Transcript: Obama Addresses U.N. General Assembly.”

27. Rice, Tough Love, 273.

28. Hamilton, “Special Report”; Rice, Tough Love, 273; Williamson, “How Obama Betrayed Sudan.”

29. “U.S. President Obama UN Speech on Sudan,” Chr. Michelsen Institute, October 6, 2010, https://www.cmi.no/news/718-u-s-president-obama-un-speech-on-sudan.

30. Rice, Tough Love, 273–274 (quote from 274).

31. Williamson, “How Obama Betrayed Sudan”; Hamilton, “Special Report”; “Obama Reaffirms US Support for South Sudan Referendum Vote,” Voice of America, December 22, 2010, https://www.voanews.com/africa/obama-reaffirms-us-support-south-sudan-referendum-vote.

32. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 213.

33. Zachariah Mampilly, “Witnessing the Birth of a Nation in Southern Sudan” The Root, January 10, 2011, https://www.theroot.com/witnessing-the-birth-of-a-nation-in-southern-sudan-1790862340. For information on The Root, see Shannon Bond, “Univision Buys African-American Focused Website; Media,” Financial Times, May 22, 2015, Nexis Uni.

34. Natsios, Sudan, South Sudan, and Darfur, 213; Hamilton, “Special Report.”

35. “Statement on the Southern Sudan Independence Referendum,” January 16, 2011, American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-southern-sudan-independence-referendum.

36. “Remarks by the President in State of Union Address,” White House Office of the Press Secretary, January 25, 2011, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/01/25/remarks-president-state-union-address.

37.“Statement of President Barack Obama Recognition of the Republic of South Sudan,” White House Office of the Press Secretary, July 9, 2011, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/07/09/statement-president-barack-obama-recognition-republic-south-sudan.

38. Martin Luther King Jr. to “Mr. Taban,” undated letter, King Center Digital Archive, accessed April 27, 2016, http://www.thekingcenter.org/archive/document/letter-mlk-mr-taban.

39. Ashley Makar, “Triumph of Liberation Repeats Itself,” Huntsville (AL) Times, July 17, 2011, NewsBank; Ashley Makar, “My Take: Why Egypt’s Christians Are Hopeful but Nervous,” CNN Belief Blog, accessed November 25, 2022, https://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2011/02/10/my-take-why-egypts-christians-are-excited-but-nervous.

40. “Statement of President Barack Obama.”

41. Houle, “An Interview with Susan D. Page”; “Exit Interview: Page Steps Down as U.S. Ambassador to South Sudan,” National Public Radio, August 22, 2014, https://www.npr.org/2014/08/22/342354105/exit-interview-page-steps-down-as-u-s-ambassador-to-south-sudan.

42. “Exit Interview.”

43. Susan Page, “Capital Download: Hopes, Then Civil War in South Sudan,” USA Today, September 2, 2014, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/09/02/capital-download-susan-page-ambassador-south-sudan/14970159; Hamilton, “Special Report.”

44. Page, “Capital Download.”

45. Houle, “An Interview with Susan D. Page.”

46. Doug Palmer, “U.S. Extends Trade Benefit Program to South Sudan,” Reuters, March 26, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-usa-southsudan-trade-idUKBRE82P14620120326; Denis Scopas, “Bound by Oil: How Petroleum Is Bringing Sudan and South Sudan Closer Together,” Middle East Eye, October 26, 2019, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/bound-oil-how-petroleum-bringing-sudan-and-south-sudan-closer-together; The Situation in South Sudan: Hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office, 2015), 28, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-113shrg93484/pdf/CHRG-113shrg93484.pdf.

47. Houle, “An Interview with Susan D. Page.”

48. James Copnall and David Smith, “Sudan and South Sudan Close to War,” Guardian, April 23, 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/23/sudan-south-sudan-war-close; Clement Sefa-Nyarko, “Civil War in South Sudan: Is It a Reflection of Historical Secessionist and Natural Resource Wars in ‘Greater Sudan’?,” African Security 9, no. 3 (2016): 209n63.

49. “Obama Urges Talks between Rival Sudans,” Al Jazeera, April 21, 2012, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2012/4/21/obama-urges-talks-between-rival-sudans.

50. Ulf Laessing, “Sudan, South Sudan Sign Deals to Restart Oil, Secure Border,” Reuters, September 27, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-south-talks/sudan-south-sudan-sign-deals-to-restart-oil-secure-border-idUSBRE88Q1R820120927.

51. “Statement on the Agreement between Sudan and South Sudan,” Administration of Barack Obama, 2012, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/DCPD-201200754/pdf/DCPD-201200754.pdf.

52. Dan Roberts, “Obama Appoints ‘Pragmatic’ Susan Rice as US National Security Adviser,” Guardian, June 5, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/05/obama-susan-rice-national-security-adviser.

53. Rice, Tough Love, 395.

54. Jennifer Williams, “The Conflict in South Sudan, Explained,” Vox, updated January 9, 2017, https://www.vox.com/world/2016/12/8/13817072/south-sudan-crisis-explained-ethnic-cleansing-genocide; “South Sudan Profile—Timeline,” BBC, August 6, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14019202; and Daniel Howden, “South Sudan: The State That Fell Apart in a Week,” Guardian, December 23, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/23/south-sudan-state-that-fell-apart-in-a-week; and “Untold Suffering in South Sudan as Conflict Enters Fifth Year,” Amnesty International, accessed September 6, 2022, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/12/end-the-suffering-of-south-sudanese-people-now.

55. Øystein H. Rolandsen, “Another Civil War in South Sudan: The Failure of Guerrilla Government?,” Journal of Eastern African Studies, 9, no. 1 (2015): 164–165.

56. Sefa-Nyarko, “Civil War in South Sudan,” 189, 194 (quote from 194).

57. For a deep dive into the causes of the civil war, see Alex De Waal’s “When Kleptocracy Becomes Insolvent: Brute Causes of the Civil War in South Sudan,” African Affairs 113, no. 452 (2014): 347–369.

58. Page, “Capital Download.”

59. “Statement by President Barack Obama on South Sudan (December 20, 2013),” U.S. Embassy and Consulate in Nigeria, accessed July 25, 2023, https://web.archive.org/web/20210413113018/https://ng.usembassy.gov/statement-president-barack-obama-south-sudan-december-20-2013.

60. Rice, Tough Love, 395.

61. Rice, Tough Love, 396.

62. Jose Delreal and Philip Ewing, “State Calls Back South Sudan Staff,” Politico, January 3, 2014, https://www.politico.com/story/2014/01/south-sudan-embassy-staff-exit-101722.

63. Bill Fletcher Jr., “A Civil War Looming in South Sudan,” Washington Informer, December 30, 2013, https://www.washingtoninformer.com/a-civil-war-looming-in-south-sudan. For information on the Washington Informer, see Sherrie Flynt Wallington, Bridget Oppong, Marquita Iddirisu, and Lucile L. Adams-Campbell, “Developing a Mass Media Campaign to Promote Mammography Awareness in African American Women in the Nation’s Capital,” Journal of Community Health 43, no. 4 (2018): 634.

64. Breanna Edwards, “Joe Madison Arrested in NY Protest against Injustice in South Sudan,” The Root, April 14, 2014, https://www.theroot.com/joe-madison-arrested-in-ny-protest-against-injustice-in-1790875331.

65. “Exit Interview.”

66. John F. Kerry and Susan E. Rice, “John Kerry and Susan Rice: South Sudan’s Leaders Need to Set Aside their Dispute: Officials in South Sudan Must Finally Take Responsibility and End the Fighting there,” Washington Post, December 15, 2014, ProQuest.

67. “South Sudan Events of 2015,” Human Rights Watch, accessed November 20, 2020, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/south-sudan.

68. “‘Help Has Not Reached Me Here’: Donors Must Step Up Support for South Sudanese Refugees in Uganda,” Amnesty International, June 18, 2017, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr59/6422/2017/en.

69. “Timeline of International Response to the Conflict in South Sudan,” Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, accessed July 26, 2023, https://web.archive.org/web/20221003080404/https://s156658.gridserver.com/media/files/timeline-of-international-response-to-the-situation-in-south-sudan.pdf ; “US and France Press UN for S Sudan Sanctions,” Al Jazeera, April 24, 2014, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2014/4/24/us-and-france-press-un-for-s-sudan-sanctions; “South Sudan Events of 2015”; Carole Landry, “UN Imposes First Sanctions on Six South Sudan Commanders,” Times of Israel, July 2, 2015, https://www.timesofisrael.com/un-imposes-first-sanctions-on-six-south-sudan-commanders.

70. “Obama Pushes for Peace in Sudan,” Jet, July 27, 2015, https://www.jetmag.com/news/obama-pushes-for-peace-in-sudan.

71. “Obama Pushes for Peace in Sudan”; Michelle Kosinski, “Obama, African leaders Meet to End South Sudan’s Civil War,” CNN, July 27, 2015, https://www.cnn.com/2015/07/27/politics/south-sudan-obama-ethiopia-meeting/index.html.

72. “Remarks by President Obama to the People of Africa,” White House Office of the Press Secretary, July 28, 2015, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/07/28/remarks-president-obama-people-africa.

73. “South Sudan President Salva Kiir Signs Peace Deal,” BBC News, August 26, 2015, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-34066511; “U.S. Pushes U.N. to Level Sanctions on South Sudan Unless It Signs Peace Deal,” Japan Times, August 19, 2015, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/08/19/world/politics-diplomacy-world/u-s-pushes-u-n-level-sanctions-south-sudan-unless-signs-peace-deal/#.XeaAMy2ZOqA.

74. “Security Advisor Susan Rice: Together, We Must Help South Sudan Implement the Peace Agreement,” U.S. Mission to International Organizations in Geneva, August 27, 2015, https://geneva.usmission.gov/2015/08/27/security-advisor-susan-rice-together-we-must-help-south-sudan-implement-the-peace-agreement.

75. Karin Zeitvogel, “US Cancels Meeting with South Sudan Officials,” Voice of America, October 7, 2015, https://www.voanews.com/archive/us-cancels-meeting-south-sudan-officials.

76. “‘Both Sides Are at Fault’: Susan Rice on South Sudan’s Civil War,” National Public Radio, March 8, 2016, https://www.npr.org/2016/03/08/469692236/both-sides-are-at-fault-susan-rice-on-south-sudans-civil-war.

77. “Civil War in South Sudan,” Council on Foreign Relations, last modified November 19, 2020, https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/civil-war-south-sudan.

78. Jason Beaubien, “U.N. Report Addresses Gang Rape of Aid Workers in South Sudan,” National Public Radio, August 23, 2016, https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/08/23/491057541/gang-rape-of-aid-workers-in-south-sudan-is-a-turning-point.

79. UN News, “South Sudan: Security Council Condemns Killing of Civilians, Peacekeepers at UN Compound,” Africa Renewal, accessed September 6, 2022, https://www.un.org/africarenewal/news/south-sudan-security-council-condemns-killing-civilians-peacekeepers-un-compound; Akshaya Jumar, “UN Peacekeepers Turn Blind Eye To Rape in South Sudan,” Human Rights Watch, November 3, 2016, https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/11/03/un-peacekeepers-turn-blind-eye-rape-south-sudan; “Untold Suffering in South Sudan.”

80. “‘They Burned It All’: Destruction of Villages, Killings, and Sexual Violence in Unity State South Sudan,” Human Rights Watch, July 22, 2015, https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/07/22/they-burned-it-all/destruction-villages-killings-and-sexual-violence-unity-state#_ftn63.

81. Lesley Wroughton, “Exclusive: U.S. to Impose Arms Embargo on South Sudan to End Conflict—Sources,” Reuters, February 2, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-southsudan-arms-exclusive/exclusive-u-s-to-impose-arms-embargo-on-south-sudan-to-end-conflict-sources-idUSKBN1FM0ZE; “Obama Pushes for Peace in Sudan.”

82. Rice, Tough Love, 397; “Samantha Power,” Harvard Kennedy School, accessed July 3, 2023, https://web.archive.org/web/20210228220923/https://www.hks.harvard.edu/faculty/samantha-power.

83. Rice, Tough Love, 397; Jonathan Pedneault, “Starving under the Bullets in South Sudan,” Human Rights Watch, April 11, 2017, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/04/11/starving-under-bullets-south-sudan#.

84. Lorenzo Morris, “The United Nations and the African American Presence: From Ralph Bunche to Susan Rice,” in Charting the Range of Black Politics: National Political Science Review, vol. 14, ed. Michael Mitchell and David Covin (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2012), 52, 54, 55 (quotes from 55).

Conclusion

1. “Black Lives Should Matter in South Sudan Too” (Nykhor Paul interview), BBC, July 27, 2016, https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-36893134.

2. “Black Lives Should Matter in South Sudan Too”; Keshia N. Blain, “Civil Rights International: The Fight against Racism Has Always Been Global,” Foreign Affairs 99, no. 5 (September/October 2020), https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-08-11/racism-civil-rights-international.

3. “Black lives Should Matter in South Sudan Too.”

4. Patrick Strickland, “US: Are ‘Anti-Sharia’ Bills Legalising Islamophobia?” Al Jazeera, October 1, 2017, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/1/us-are-anti-sharia-bills-legalising-islamophobia; Elsadig Elsheikh, Basima Sisemore, Natalia Ramirez Lee, “Legalizing Othering: The United States of Islamophobia,” University of Berkeley Haas Institute for a Fair and Inclusive Society, September 2017, https://belonging.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/haas_institute_legalizing_othering_the_united_states_of_islamophobia.pdf.

5. For more on Hansberry at Howard, see “Editorial: A New Course in History at Howard University,” Howard University Record 17, no. 5 (March 1923): 237–239.

6. Misha Cornelius, “Two Howard University Students Named 2019 Boren Scholar and Fellow,” Howard University Office of University Communications, June 5, 2019, https://newsroom.howard.edu/newsroom/static/10666/two-howard-university-students-named-2019-boren-scholar-and-fellow; Adrian Wojnarowski, “Sources: Howard Star Freshman Makur Maker Entering NBA Draft,” ESPN, May 28, 2021, https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/31528054/sources-howard-star-freshman-makur-maker-entering-nba-draft.

7. Lekan Oguntoyinbo, “Forging Leaders: HBCUs Produce Leaders Not Only Domestically, but Also Abroad,” Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, February 28, 2013, 16; Steve D. Mobley Jr. and Jennifer M. Johnson, “The Role of HBCUs in Addressing the Unique Needs of LGBT Students,” New Directions for Higher Education, no. 170 (2015): 79.

8. Robert Trent Vinson, The Americans Are Coming! Dreams of African American Liberation in Segregationist South Africa (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2012); Brian G. Shellum, African American Officers in Liberia: A Pestiferous Rotation, 1910–1942 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2018); Ira Dworkin, Congo Love Song: African American Culture and the Crisis of the Colonial State (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017).

9. “Black Lives Matter Skirts North Africa Despite Everyday Racism,” France 24, July 20, 2020, https://www.aol.com/news/black-lives-matter-skirts-north-africa-despite-everyday-021102728.html.

10. Blain, “Civil Rights International.”

11. Brooke Auxier, “Social Media Continue to Be Important Political Outlets for Black Americans,” Pew Research Center, December 11, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/12/11/social-media-continue-to-be-important-political-outlets-for-black-americans.

12. David Pilling, “All Eyes on America,” Financial Times, June 22, 2020, Nexis Uni; “In 2020, Protests Spread Across the Globe with a Similar Message: Black Lives Matter,” National Public Radio, December 30, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/12/30/950053607/in-2020-protests-spread-across-the-globe-with-a-similar-message-black-lives-matt; Blain, “Civil Rights International.”

13. Erum Salam, “Black Lives Matter Protesters Make Palestinian Struggle Their Own,” Guardian, June 16, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/16/black-lives-matter-palestinian-struggle-us-left.

14. Corey Williams, “Some Blacks Applaud Castro Legacy of Racial Equality,” Associated Press, November 28, 2016, https://apnews.com/article/4ad817d973a742dfbe69bfabedae0916.

15. Armando Salguero, “Unrepentant Hypocrite Colin Kaepernick Defends Fidel Castro,” Miami Herald, November 25, 2016, https://www.miamiherald.com/sports/spt-columns-blogs/armando-salguero/article117033883.html.

16. Salguero, “Unrepentant Hypocrite.”

17. David Zurawik, “Rewriting History; Harvard Professor Henry Louis Gates Jr. Is Determined to Unearth the ‘Wonders of the African World’ and Bury the Lies of Colonizers. His Efforts Make for Fascinating TV,” Baltimore Sun, October 25, 1999, https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1999-10-25-9910250195-story.html.

18. James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 19.