Notes

Introduction

1. Harvey Swados, “When Black and White Live Together,” New York Times Magazine, November 13, 1966.

2. Abraham E. Kazan, “The Significance of Rochdale Village,” Co-op Contact 6, no. 11 (March 1964), 7–8. Co-op Contact was the magazine of the United Housing Foundation, distributed to cooperators in all member cooperatives.

3. Joshua Freeman, Working Class New York: Life and Labor since World War II (New York: New Press, 2002), 119.

4. Ibid.

5. “State Sets Loans for Queens Co-Op,” New York Times (hereafter NYT), February 17, 1960; James Gaynor to Robert Moses, February 18, 1960, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, New York State Archives.

6. Robert Moses to William Lebewohl, November 20, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Robert Moses Papers, New York Public Library.

7. For histories of the cooperative movement, see Johnston Birchall, Co-op: The People’s Business (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), and Johnston Birchall, The International Cooperative Movement (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997).

8. “Select Your Apt. Now,” advertisement, NYT, June 11, 1961.

9. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

10. Interview with Olga Lewis. For East New York in the 1960s, see Walter Thabit, How East New York Became a Ghetto (New York: New York University Press, 2003).

11. Interview with Jack and Sue Raskin.

12. Interview with Cal Jones.

13. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

14. Rochdale Forum [internet chatroom], June 1999.

15. Interview with Francesca Spero.

16. Interview with Helen White.

17. For Charlotte Street, see Jill Jonnes, South Bronx Rising: The Rise, Fall, and Resurrection of an American City (New York: Fordham University Press, 2003), 219–267.

18. Ibid., 220.

19. “The People,” Co-op Contact 4, no. 5 (1960).

20. Kenneth G. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan: The Story of the Amalgamated Houses and the United Housing Foundation,” master’s thesis, Columbia University, 1991, 46–47; Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, 514.

21. Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: A Study of Prejudice in Housing (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955), 317.

22. “Eye Tax-Abated All-White Sites,” New York Amsterdam News (hereafter NYAN), August 17, 1963.

23. “Cooperatives Build Socially and Economically Balanced Communities,” Co-op Contact 4, no. 2 (1960).

24. “Workshop on Successful Integrated Projects,” 3rd National Conference on Cooperative Housing (Washington, D.C.: National Conference on Cooperative Housing, 1960), 30–31.

25. United Housing Foundation (hereafter UHF) Minutes, April 8, 1960, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

26. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

27. UHF Minutes, August 10, 1960, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

28. “Enjoy Country Living in Rochdale Village,” advertisement in NYT, January 8, 1961. For advertisements in the New York Post see Harvey Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

29. UHF Minutes, August 10, 1960, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

30. Many large superblock projects, such as Stuyvesant Town, developed by the Metropolitan Life Company in the late 1940s, were advertised as a “suburb in the city”; see Samuel Zipp, Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 77.

31. “As Cooperative Housing Grows,” Co-Op Contact 5, no. 2 (January 1962). See also UHF, Rochdale Village: A New Concept in Community Living (New York, 1967), 7; advertisement in New York Post, October 22, 1961. See also advertisement, NYT, October 14, 1962.

32. “Here’s Why 4,000 Families Have Already Selected Their Apartments in Rochdale Village,” advertisement, NYT, October 14, 1962; “Rochdale Village Sales Exceed 5,000 Mark,” NYT, October 6, 1963; Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 514. An April 8, 1964, advertisement in the NYT announced, “Rochdale Village—A Self-help Community of 5860 Families…All Taken!”

33. Bernard Seeman, Inside Rochdale, September 25, 1967. Inside Rochdale began publication in 1965 with Eddie Abramson as editor and publisher until 1968. The publication went under a variety of different names, especially after it was sold by Abramson: Inside Rochdale, Inside Rochdale News, Inside Rochdale and the South Queens Star, the South Queens Star and Inside Rochdale News, and a few other permutations. It was generally known as Inside Rochdale, however, and I have referred to it as such throughout.

34. Harold Ostroff, speech at Princeton University, April 18, 1968. For testimonies that the attractiveness of the apartments and inexpensive prices were the main reasons for the move to Rochdale, see “Rochdale Tenants: New Home Is Okay,” Long Island Press (hereafter LIP), February 26, 1964; Anne Estock, “Big Boosters for Largest Co-Op,” LIP, March 29, 1964. In the informal survey I conducted with about twenty-five former Rochdale residents, economic reasons and the attractive houses (and, of course, central air-conditioning!) were the main reasons given by almost every respondent. (The Long Island Press was known as the Long Island Daily Press until 1967, and the Long Island Press thereafter, and until it ceased publication in 1977. The name change made official what had been the paper’s popular name for many years, and I have referred to it as the Long Island Press throughout.)

35. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan,” 50.

36. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

37. Jerome Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion,” New York Herald Tribune, March 14, 1965.

38. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.” Harold Ostroff agreed that there were a fair number of families who had second thoughts and backed out but disagreed with Swados’s characterization of the number as “thousands.” Interview with Harold Ostroff.

39. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion.”

40. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

41. Pat Patterson, “Long Island Sounds,” New Pittsburgh Courier, January 7, 1961; Olga Pierre Lytle, “Queens Private Line,” NYAN, March 30, 1963.

42. “Heydorn Realty Corp.,” advertisement, NYAN, November 17, 1963; “North Star at Rochdale,” advertisement, NYAN, November 20, 1965.

43. Interview with Harold Ostroff; photo in Co-op Contact 4, no. 5 (June–July 1960); UHF photograph collection 1/613.

44. Interview with Harold Ostroff. Two consequences of this were that section 5 (buildings 17–20) had a higher percentage of African Americans than sections 1–4, and the initial waiting list was also skewed toward African Americans, a development that would have profound consequences for the later history of Rochdale Village; see Zukovsky, Rochdale Village. Interview with Arthur Greene.

45. For the history of African American cooperatives see Mary Jenness, “A Negro Cooperative Makes Good,” in Twelve Negro Americans (1936; repr., Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1969), 69–84; John Hope II, “Rochdale Cooperation Among Negroes,” Phylon 1 (1940), 39–52. The 1930s was the heyday of African American cooperatives. In 1938 W. E. B. DuBois wrote that by developing cooperatives, “the Negro group in the United States can establish, for a large proportion of its members, a cooperative commonwealth.” “Dusk of Dawn,” in Writings, ed. Nathan Huggins (New York: Library of America, 1986), 708, and 706–715.

46. Eunice and George Grier argued in 1960 that the down payment, the memories of cooperative failures in Harlem in the 1930s, and reluctance to live in a primarily white environment were inhibiting black participation in limited-equity cooperatives in the late 1950s. Eunice Grier and George Grier, Privately Developed Interracial Housing: An Analysis of Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 16.

47. Interview with Juanita Watkins; Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

48. Interview with Hugh Williams; Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.” William Booth, who was a leader of the Jamaica Branch of the NAACP during the years Rochdale was under construction, was enthusiastic about the positive impact Rochdale would have on southeastern Queens and his mother was an original resident of building 2; interview with William Booth.

49. The Griers note that “Negroes, even when they hear that a development is open to them, are likely to be cautious and fearful of rebuff. Salesmen at one interracial tract report that whites are casual, self-assured, and regard the salesman as on hand to serve them. Negroes, on the other hand, pause at the door and ask permission to enter…. All these things create an inertia in the Negro market that must often be overcome by special effort.” Grier and Grier, Privately Developed Interracial Housing, 25.

50. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village.”

51. For a discussion of quotas to ensure racial balance in integrated housing, see Morris Milgram, Good Housing: The Challenge of Open Housing (New York: Norton, 1977), 89–95.

52. Florence Goodman to Kazan, June 5, 1961; Kazan to Goodman, June 7, 1961, UHF Papers. There were two articles in the Long Island Press in June 1961 that discussed the possibility of a quota in Rochdale; memo from “Rita” in Kazan files, June 14, 1961, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University. In a discussion with me, Harold Ostroff strongly denied that the UHF ever maintained a quota during the Rochdale application period; interview with Harold Ostroff.

53. For various discussions of possible minority “tipping points,” see Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors (311), suggesting somewhere between 5 percent and 30 percent; Walter Thabit, How East New York Became a Ghetto, 43 (between 17 and 30 percent); Morton Deutsch and Mary Evans Collins, Interracial Housing: A Psychological Evaluation of a Social Experiment (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1951), 15 (50 percent); Grier and Grier, Privately Developed Interracial Housing, 60–65, offer various “scare point” figures, between 20 and 40 percent.

54. Donald D. Martin, “Open Membership,” Co-op Contact 2, no. 8 (October 1957), 7.

55. Kazan wrote to a prospective Rochdale resident, “Our applications [from blacks] are not running anywhere near the percentage [40 percent] quoted [in the article].” Kazan to Mrs. Florence Goodman, June 7, 1961, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

56. “Rochdale Village, a Self-Help Community,” advertisement, NYT, April 8, 1964. Abraham Kazan, the president of the UHF, also gave a figure of 20 percent, in his oral history, Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 512–513.

57. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village.” William R. Mowat, An Experimental Ministry to a High-Rise Middle-Income Housing Complex (New York: Protestant Council of the City of New York, 1967), 3.

58. Steven Gregory, Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 116–121.

59. E-mail to Rochdale Forum, June 1999.

60. Mowat, An Experimental Ministry to a High-Rise Middle-Income Housing Complex, 3.

61. UHF, Rochdale Village: A New Concept in Community Living (New York, 1967), 9. The numbers add up to only 5,833. The percentages are calculated on the basis of the total number of apartments, 5,860. The survey does not make clear whether it was conducted when Rochdale opened or in 1967, but the population of Rochdale was very stable from its opening through 1967.

62. Inside Rochdale, October 7, 1966.

63. Sylvie Murray, The Progressive Housewife: Community Activism in Suburban Queens 1945–1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 39.

64. Thomas E. Ennis, “Low Rate Loans Held Housing Aid,” NYT, February 12, 1961.

65. UHF, “Construction Report on the World’s Largest Housing Cooperative: Rochdale Village, Inc.,” April 1963, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

66. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Population and Housing: General Characteristics of the Population, New York, 1970 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of the Census, 1972).

67. UHF, Rochdale Village: A New Concept in Community Living, 10.

68. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

69. UHF, Rochdale Village: A New Concept in Community Living, 10.

70. Interview with Cal Jones.

71. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Population and Housing: General Characteristics of the Population, New York, 1970.

72. UHF Minutes, April 8, 1960. There were 2,740 one-bedroom apartments in Rochdale, or about 47 percent of all available units, with 2,080 two-bedroom, and 1,040 three-bedroom apartments.

73. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

1. The Utopian

Epigraph. Horace M. Kallen, The Decline and Rise of the Consumer: A Philosophy of Consumer Cooperation (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 436–438.

1. “Abraham E. Kazan Dies at 82; Master Co-op Housing Builder,” NYT, December 22, 1971.

2.   Robert F. Wagner, “‘His Achievements Have Laid a Permanent Beneficent Kazan Stamp On Our Town…,’” in Amalgamated and Park Reservoir Housing Cooperatives, Story of a Co-op Community: The First 75 Years (New York: Herman Liebman Memorial Fund, 2002).

3.   Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, 1970, 3–4. The account of Kazan’s early life is drawn heavily from this source.

4.   For an approximate tally see Donald E. Pitzer, “America’s Communal Utopias Founded by 1965,” in Pitzer, ed., America’s Communal Utopias (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 471–473.

5.   Abraham Menes, “The Am Oylom Movement,” in YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science 4 (1949), 9–33. For anarchist influences on the early Jewish collective settlements in Palestine, see James Horrox, A Living Revolution: Anarchism in the Kibbutz Movement (Edinburgh: AK Press, 2009). For treatments of Jewish agricultural settlements in the United States, see Ellen Eisenberg, Jewish Agricultural Colonies in New Jersey, 1882–1920 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995); Joseph Brandes, Immigrants to Freedom: Jewish Communities in Rural New Jersey since 1882 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970); and Pearl Bartelt, “American Jewish Agricultural Colonies,” in Pitzer, ed., America’s Communal Utopias, 352–374.

6.  Brandes, Immigrants to Freedom, 63.

7.   Ibid., 63–64. The main principles of an 1889 agreement to collectively farm and market agriculture and agricultural related products are reproduced in Eisenberg, Jewish Agricultural Colonies in New Jersey, 109–110.

8.   Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 7–8.

9.  Ibid., 20–25; Emma Goldman, Living My Life (New York: Knopf, 1931), 262–264; Paul Avrich, Anarchist Portraits: An Oral History of Anarchism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 29–33. Goldman met Bell in Scotland during a speaking tour of Scotland in January 1900, and Bell lived briefly in Goldman’s apartment with his family after his arrival in New York in 1904; Candace Falk et al., Emma Goldman: A Documentary History of the American Years, vol. 1 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003–), 504; and vol. 2, 22–23.

The one problem with the identification of the Tom Bell in Kazan’s oral history with Thomas Hastie Bell is that Kazan describes Tom Bell as a “Scotsman, quite an elderly man” of about sixty years of age. Bell was born in 1867, and would have been about forty when he met Kazan, which certainly does not qualify as quite elderly. On the other hand, Kazan describes Bell as suffering from asthma, and that he moved to Arizona for health reasons. Marion Bell, Thomas Hastie Bell’s daughter, says her father suffered from asthma and moved to Arizona around 1910 (Anarchist Portraits, 29–33). Emma Goldman describes him as “a very sick man, suffering from asthma,” Goldman, Living My Life, 264. There can’t have been many Arizona-bound asthmatic Scottish anarchists named Tom Bell living in New York City in the first decade of the twentieth century, and perhaps the asthma made Bell appear older than he really was. In any event, the second half of his life was an advertisement for the restorative properties of Arizonan and Southern Californian air—he lived until 1942, into his late seventies.

10. Goldman, Living My Life, 264; “Revolutionary Portraits: Tom Bell,” in Organise for Revolutionary Anarchism, no. 66 (Spring 2006), http://flag.blackened.net/af/org/issue66/portraits.html. For Bell’s connection to Jewish anarchism and his friendship with Saul Yanovsky, the longtime editor of the well-known Yiddish language anarchist newspaper, the Fraye Arbeyter Shtime, see Avrich, Anarchist Portraits, 197–198.

11. For Bell’s connection to Morris, see Avrich, Anarchist Portraits, 29–33, 154.

12. Thomas Bell, Edward Carpenter: The English Tolstoi (Los Angeles: Libertarian Group, 1932); Bell, Oscar Wilde: sus amigos, sus adversarios, sus ideas (Buenos Aires: Editorial Americalee, 1946). This is a translation from Bell’s unpublished manuscript “Oscar Wilde Without Whitewash,” which probably is similar to Bell’s article, “Oscar Wilde’s Unwritten Play,” The Bookman 71 (April–May 1930), 139–150, an account of Bell’s interactions with Wilde while working as a secretary for the English publisher and author Frank Harris (1856–1931). According to the melodramatic account by Bell, his final encounter with Wilde took place when Harris sent him on a mission to deliver Wilde some badly needed funds, only to arrive at Wilde’s cheap Parisian hotel several hours after his death.

13. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 26–27.

14. Ibid., 53; Robert Parmet, The Master of Seventh Avenue: David Dubinsky and the American Labor Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 17.

15. Steven Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York: Free Press, 1991), 114–178.

16. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 32–34.

17. Fraser, Labor Will Rule.

18. Although the earliest credit unions were created in Germany in the 1860s, there were very few credit unions in the United States until 1910. Joseph Knapp, The Rise of American Cooperative Enterprise (Danville, IL: Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1969), 138–142.

19. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 71–72.

20. Fraser, Labor Will Rule, 153.

21. Ibid., 154. Fraser notes that despite Hillman’s enthusiasm for cooperatives, at the 1920 ACWA convention many felt the cooperative movement was “based on bourgeois principles” and that the “cooperative movement is a capitalist institution.”

22. Ibid.

23. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 77.

24. Kenneth G. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan: The Story of the Amalgamated Houses and the United Housing Foundation,” master’s thesis, Columbia University, 1991, 6; Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 71–72.

25. Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: Dwelling Type and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 151–159. See also Andrew Hazelton, “Garden Courts to Tower Blocks: The Architecture and Social History of the Labor Cooperative Housing Movement in New York, 1919–1950” and “Three Bronx Utopias: Pre-War Labor Housing Cooperatives and the Socialist Vision”; Tony Schuman, “Labor and Housing in New York City: Architect Herman Jessor and the Cooperative Housing Movement,” unpublished papers.

26. Edith Elmer Wood, Recent Trends in American Housing (New York: Macmillan, 1931), 180.

27. For philanthropic housing and John D. Rockefeller Jr., see Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City, 88–121, 155, 160. For the anarchist tradition in urban planning and its influence on urban planning as a whole see Peter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century (London: Blackwell, 1996), 3–9, 143–144, 241–272. For Peter Kropotkin’s views on urban planning see Fields, Factories, and Workshops (London: Thomas Nelson, 1898).

28. Abraham Kazan, “Our Latest Step Forward,” November 8, 1929, reprinted in Story of a Co-op Community: The First 75 Years (New York: Amalgamated and Park Reservoir Housing Cooperatives, 2002).

29. Leyla F. Vural, “Unionism as a Way of Life: The Community Orientation of the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union and the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America” (PhD diss., Rutgers University, 1994), 219, citing Abraham Kazan, “Building the Co-operative City of the Future,” Milwaukee Leader, May 10, 1930.

30. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

31. Avrich, Anarchist Portraits, 349–351, 435–439. In the 1960s, Pesotta moved into Penn South (a UHF cooperative) in part to be close to her anarchist colleagues, where in the words of her biographer “she joined a co-op credit union, supermarket, and pharmacy, always trying to live her anarchistic cooperative beliefs.” Elaine Leeder, The Gentle General: Rose Pesotta, Anarchist and Labor Organizer (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1993), 165. In the 1920s the ILGWU became the venue for one of the first and one of the most bitter fights for control of the labor movement between the Communist and non-Communist left, and the anarchists played an important, and by some accounts, crucial role in the decisive victory of the non-Communists, and many, like Rose Pesotta, rose in the hierarchy of the union. Parmet, The Master of Seventh Avenue, 31–53. Abe Bluestein told Paul Avrich that David Dubinsky acknowledged that without the support of the anarchists, the Communists would have won; Anarchist Portraits, 437.

32. Interview with Harold Ostroff; Avrich, Anarchist Portraits, 150, 439.

33. Rudolf Rocker, Nationalism and Culture (New York: Covici-Friede, 1937); interview with Harold Ostroff.

34. James Peter Warbasse, “Basic Principles of Cooperation,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 191 (May 1937), 14.

35. Kazan, “The Birth of the Amalgamated Housing Corporation,” in Story of a Co-op Community.

36. “As Cooperative Housing Grows,” Co-op Contact 5, no. 2 (January 1962); Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 510.

37. Kazan, “Our Latest Step Forward.”

38. “Visionaries Wanted,” Co-op Contact 4, no. 5 (June–July 1960).

39. Each of these cooperatives was independent, and had to be separately joined by its members. Anyone could shop in the Co-op Supermarket, but only members could participate in its management or receive a dividend computed as a percentage of their purchases. Persons in the surrounding community who did not live in Rochdale could, and did, join the Co-op Supermarket.

40. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 508.

41. “Plans for Groundbreaking Ceremonies,” January 1960, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

42. “6,318 Unit Housing Cooperative to be Built on the Site of the Jamaica Race Track,” Co-op Contact 4, no. 3 (February–March 1960).

43. “Governor and Mayor Help Launch Rochdale Village,” Co-op Contact 4, no. 4 (April–May 1960).

2. The Anti-Utopian

Epigraph. Robert Moses, A Tribute to Governor Smith (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962), 38.

1.  Robert Moses, “Rochdale: Master Planner Moses Views A Master Housing Plan,” LIP, December 1, 1963. Until otherwise indicated, all subsequent quotations are from this article.

2.  Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, 1970, 493.

3.  Moses expressed similar sentiments at the dedication ceremonies for Penn South in May, 1962: “And when the World’s Fair opens at Flushing Meadow in 1964 we shall be able to show visitors from abroad Rochdale Village, the finest achievement of labor in the cooperative field. This will surely be an example to the whole world of what we can do for industrious, self-respecting people of moderate income.” “Remarks of Commissioner Robert Moses at Penn South Dedication,” Co-Op Contact 5, no. 10 (Summer 1962).

4.  Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus, OH; Ohio University Press, 1993), 135.

5.  Robert Moses, “Remarks of Robert Moses, City Construction Co-ordinator and Chairman of the Slum Clearance Committee, at Seward Park, October 11, 1956,” Speeches—1956, Robert Moses Papers, New York Public Library (hereafter Moses Papers).

6.  For the biography of Moses, see, of course, Robert Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (New York: Random House, 1974), though Caro needs to be supplemented with Hilary Ballon and Kenneth T. Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City: The Transformation of New York (New York: Norton, 2007) and Timothy Mennel’s meticulously researched “Everything Must Go: A Novel of Robert Moses’s New York” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 2007).

7. “Talk by Robert Moses to Affiliated Young Democrats,” Speeches—1960, Moses Papers.

8.  For Moses on “the fallacy of expertizing,” see Robert Moses, Working for the People: Promise and Performance in Public Service (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956), 39–40.

9.   Robert Moses, “Plan and Performance,” in A Century of Social Thought (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1939), 128, 139.

10. Robert Moses, Public Works: A Dangerous Trade (New York: McGraw Hill, 1970), 493–494; Moses, Working for the People, 49–59; Robert Moses, “A Salute to Chicago,” May 14, 1959, Speeches—1959, Moses Papers.

11.  Moses, “A Salute to Chicago.”

12.  Alfred E. Smith, Up to Now: An Autobiography (New York: Viking Press, 1929), 274–275.

13. Joshua Freeman, Working Class New York: Life and Labor since World War II (New York: New Press, 2002), 111; “Thirty Years of Amalgamated Cooperative Housing,” in Amalgamated and Park Reservoir Housing Cooperatives, Story of a Co-op Community: The First 75 Years (New York: Herman Liebman Memorial Fund, 2002).

14. Kenneth G. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan: The Story of the Amalgamated Houses and the United Housing Foundation” (master’s thesis, Columbia University, 1991).

15. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan,” 15–19.

16. Robert Moses, “Rochdale.” For Moses and Stuyvesant Town, see Schwartz, The New York Approach, 84–107.

17. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan,” 16.

18. Ibid., 16–18; Freeman, Working Class New York, 111–112.

19. For the best account of Moses and Title I, see Hilary Ballon, “Robert Moses and Urban Renewal: The Title I Program,” in Ballon and Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City, 94–115; Freeman, Working Class New York, 114–119.

20. “Mr. Moses Dissects the ‘Long-Haired Planners,’” NYT, June 25, 1944.

21. Freeman, Working Class New York, 114–115.

22. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan,” 22.

23. The best account of the founding of the UHF is Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan,” 22–29.

24. Hilary Ann Botein, “‘Solid Testimony of Labor’s Present Status’: Unions and Housing in Postwar New York City” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2005), 74.

25. “Remarks of Commissioner Robert Moses at Penn South Dedication,” Co-Op Contact 5, no. 10 (Summer 1962); Freeman, Working Class New York, 105.

26. At the time Rochdale was proposed, in 1960, the UHF 19 union members included the Amalgamated Clothing Workers Union; Local 802 of the musicians union; the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and Paperhangers; the Building Service Employees; Department Store Workers Union; International Association of Machinists; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; New York City Central Labor Council; and the Hatters, Cap and Millinery Workers. There were also nonunion members, including several secular Jewish organizations: the Farband Labor Zionist Order and the Workmen’s Circle, as well as the University Settlement and Hudson Guild, and the Society for Ethical Culture. Rochdale Village: A Cooperative Housing Development (New York: United Housing Foundation, 1960), 2.

27. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan,” 22–29.

28. Ibid., 27–29.

29. Ibid., 30–63.

30. Moses, “Rochdale.”

31. Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan,” 12–14, argues that one reason no cooperatives were built by the Amalgamated Housing Corporation after 1931 was Hillman’s lack of interest.

32. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

33. Moses, Working for the People, 111–112.

34. Moses, “Remarks of Commissioner Robert Moses at Penn South Dedication,” Co-Op Contact 5, no. 10 (Summer 1962).

3. The Birth of a Suburb, the Growth of a Ghetto

Epigraph. Langston Hughes, “Simple Does Some Talking About Dogs, Cars, Houses, and Lots,” Chicago Defender, September 3, 1949.

1. Elias Loomis, “Notice of the Hail-Storm Which Passed Over New York on the First of July,” NYT, August 1, 1853.

2. “Shooting of Robin Leads to Game Warden’s Murder,” Washington Post, September 30, 1929.

3. James H. Hubert, “James H. Hubert Writes Interestingly on Long Island Town Now Holding Attention of Entire Countryside,” NYAN, October 7, 1925.

4. “South Queens Grows,” NYT, September 8, 1929; Vincent Seyfried, “South Jamaica,” Kenneth T. Jackson, ed., The Encyclopedia of New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).

5. William F. Russell, “From ‘Trouble Area’ to Neighborhood,” NYT, April 13, 1947.

6.  Federal Writers’ Project, WPA Guide to New York City: The Federal Writers’ Project Guide to 1930s New York (1939 repr.; New York: Pantheon, 1982), 588.

7.  Carleton Mabee, Black Education in New York State: From Colonial to Modern Times (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1979), 227–237; Lynda R. Day, Making a Way to Freedom: A History of African Americans on Long Island (Interlaken, NY: Empire State Books, 1997), 61–62. A loophole allowed segregated schools in some rural hamlets, which persisted until 1943, when the last formally segregated school was closed, in Rockland County; see “Hillburn,” in Peter Eisenstadt, ed., The Encyclopedia of New York State (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005).

8.  For other black neighborhoods, see Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890–1930 (New York: Harper and Row, 1971); Harold X. Connolly, A Ghetto Grows in Brooklyn (New York: New York University Press, 1977).

9.  Charles Grutzner Jr., “Clergymen Join Civic Workers in Fight to ‘Save’ South Jamaica,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, June 24, 1935.

10. Hubert, “James H. Hubert Writes Interestingly on Long Island Town.” This was at the site of the future South Jamaica Houses.

11. “L.I. Lumber Merchant to Build Homes for Colored People in Jamaica,” NYAN, November 25, 1925.

12. Pearl Grissom, Some Factors Affecting the Lives of Negroes in South Jamaica (New York: Family Welfare Society of Queens, 1932).

13. “L.I. Lumber Merchant to Build Homes for Colored People in Jamaica”; “Fifty-Two Plots Secured by Milla-Cohn Company to Erect Homes for Negroes,” NYAN, November 25, 1925; “Negroes and Jews Combine to Serve Interests of Home Buyers This Spring,” NYAN, February 3, 1926.

14.  Hubert, “James H. Hubert Writes Interestingly on Long Island Town.”

15. “Residents of Long Island Should Beware Many Things,” NYAN, October 21, 1925.

16. Hubert, “James H. Hubert Writes Interestingly on Long Island Town.”

17. Artie Simpson, “Jamaica L.I. in Spotlight Because of Rapid Growth,” NYAN, July 21, 1926.

18. “Negroes in Queens Doubled in Decade,” NYAN, September 30, 1930.

19. Grissom, Some Factors Affecting the Lives of Negroes in South Jamaica.

20. “Property Owners Up in Arms,” NYAN, December 15, 1926.

21. “NAACP Branch Gets Good Start,” NYAN, April 13, 1927; Jamaica NAACP, Fifty Years of Service (Queens, NY: Jamaica NAACP, 1977).

22. “Jamaica Branch N.A.A.C.P. Brings Membership Drive to Successful Close,” NYAN, May 23, 1928.

23. For the Communist left in South Jamaica, see “Press Plans for National Race Congress,” Chicago Defender, January 11, 1936; “Woman Runs for Lt. Governor on Communist Ticket in N.Y.,” NYT, September 22, 1934. On later Communist activity in Jamaica see “Communist Rally in Jamaica Town Hall Is Barred by Harvey in Attack on Party,” NYT, September 9, 1945.

24. “Threaten Jamaica Resident’s Life,” NYAN, October 5, 1927; “Home Painted Red,” October 12, 1923, Chicago Defender; George S. Schuyler, “Insurance: Another Kind That Pays,” NYAN, February 19, 1930.

25. “Jewish Congress Wins Job Rights for Negroes,” Chicago Defender, August 24, 1946.

26. “Bilbo Refuses Apology to Brooklyn Woman for Addressing Her as ‘My Dear Dago,’” NYT, July 24, 1945; “Demand for Ouster of Bilbo Growing,” Chicago Defender, August 11, 1945.

27. Jamaica NAACP, Fifty Years of Service; “Insulting Label on Polish Stocked by A & P Stores,” Chicago Defender, August 16, 1941.

28. “Two Fascisti Die in Bronx, Klansmen Riot in Queens, in Memorial Day Clashes,” NYT, May 31, 1927; “The Klan and the Police in Queens,” Chicago Defender, June 18, 1927.

29. “Smith Is Invited to Talk to Klan,” NYT, July 2, 1928; “90-Foot Cross Burned in Jamaica,” NYT, July 9, 1928.

30. “Klan Plans Jamaica Lodge,” NYT, July 8, 1928.

31. For the Klan in St. Albans in the 1930s, see “Klan Cross Is Set Up,” NYT, May 31, 1936; “War Pall Clouds Honor to Our Dead,” NYT, May 31, 1940.

32. “FBI Acts on Klan in Seven States,” NYT, August 1, 1946.

33. Russell, “From ‘Trouble Area’ to Neighborhood.”

34. Grutzner Jr., “Clergymen Join Civic Workers in Fight to ‘Save’ South Jamaica”; Warren Bennett, “South Jamaica Terrorized for Years by Guinzberg Gang of Young Toughs,” NYT, January 9, 1940.

35. “3 Shot as Cops Fear Digit War,” NYAN, May 3, 1933; “Jamaica Cops Nip Terrors,” NYAN, March 18, 1939. “Jamaica Vice Drive Opened,” NYAN, August 11, 1934.

36. “Jamaicans Demand Police Protection,” NYAN, March 11, 1939; “South Jamaica Residents Protest Lawlessness; Demand More Police,” NYAN, April 4, 1941.

37. “One Dead, Seven Injured in Fight Over Parking Cars,” Chicago Defender, January 29, 1938; “NAACP Charges Bias in NY Parking Riot,” Chicago Defender, February 5, 1938.

38. “NAACP Meeting to Protest Increasing ‘Police Brutality,’” NYAN, October 9, 1949; “Seek Dismissal of Cop in LI Arrest,” NYT, December 24, 1949.

39. “South Jamaica Gets New Welfare Group,” NYAN, June 1, 1935; “Merchants Join Fight on Slum Area,” NYAN, June 22, 1935; “Jamaicans Continue Fight for Slum Clearance,” NYAN, August 3, 1935.

40. “South Side Community Work Head Quits Job,” NYAN, January 31, 1935. “South Side” was a term used to describe South Jamaica, perhaps borrowed from Chicago’s South Side. The term had some currency in the interwar years but seems to have been little used subsequently.

41. “Queens, New York,” Home Owners’ Loan Corporation, Home Owners City Survey Files, 1938, National Archives, RG 195.3.

42. “Open Two Playgrounds,” NYT, October 16, 1937; “Playground Opened in South Jamaica,” NYT, July 1, 1939.

43. Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: Dwelling Type and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 240. I am grateful to Catherine Manning Flamenbaum for sharing her paper with me, “Interracial Public Housing by Default in South Jamaica: Promises, Problems, and Processes,” presented at Researching New York, Albany, NY, November 2005.

44. “Charge Racial Bias at Project,” NYAN, May 18, 1940; “South Jamaica Houses,” editorial, NYAN, July 13, 1940.

45. “N.Y. Housing Project Proves Races Can Live in Harmony,” Christian Science Monitor, March 4, 1942; Thomas F. Farrell, “Object Lessons in Race Relations,” NYT, February 12, 1950; Morton Deutsch and Mary Evans Collins, Interracial Housing: A Psychological Evaluation of a Social Experiment (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1951).

46. New York City Market Analysis (New York: News Syndicate Company, 1943).

47. Harold Cruse, “My Jewish Problem and Theirs,” in Nat Hentoff, ed., Black Anti-Semitism and Jewish Racism (New York: Shocken Books, 1969), 149. When he moved to Harlem in the mid-1930s Cruse lamented that “gone were the green fields and the pure air and space of Jamaica, and I profoundly missed the atmosphere of the Jamaica public schools” (150).

48. “Whites Bar Andy Kirk From Prospective Home,” Chicago Defender, May 9, 1942; “Ban on House Sale to Negro Upheld,” NYT, December 23, 1947; “Wins 2-Year Fight for Home,” Chicago Defender, July 21, 1948; Olivia Frost et al., Aspects of Negro Life in the Borough of Queens (New York: New York Urban League, 1947), 31; “Hugo R. Heydorn Is Dead at 66; Promoted Mixed Communities,” NYT, February 2, 1963.

49. Interview with Olga Lewis.

50. Interview with Hugh Williams.

51. Interview with Omar Barbour.

52. Frost, Aspect of Negro Life in Queens, 89.

53. Milton Bracker, “Gaps in Queens are Filling Up: In Idlewild Area Future Is Most Dramatically Close to Present,” NYT, August 8, 1955; Edward Carpenter and Jacquelyn Peterson, South Jamaica: A Community Study (New York: Queens College Children and Parents Center, 1966), 11, 15.

54. Carpenter and Peterson, South Jamaica, 63.

55. “Housing Project Fought in Queens,” NYT, June 23, 1955.

4. From Horses to Housing

Epigraph. “Mayor Denounces Gambling in State,” NYT, April 16, 1940.

1. “Racing on Jamaica Track Opened,” NYT, November 8, 1903. The article relates that Big Tim Sullivan had a winning horse in the opening meet of the fall session. Sullivan and his partners purchased the 107-acre site for $89,352.75 and planned to spend almost as much to build the one-mile track, grandstand, and stables. The Long Island Railroad was planning to build a spur to the new track. “Deed for New Track Filed: Transfer Recorded of Jamaica Land for Sullivan’s Race Course,” NYT, August 24, 1901. According to the track’s builders, the start-up costs were $1,000,000; Metropolitan Jockey Club, Official Souvenir of the Inaugural Meeting of the Metropolitan Jockey Club (Jamaica, N.Y.?, 1903).

2.  William R. Conklin, “Final Racing Card at Jamaica Stirs Memories of 56-year Old Track,” NYT, August 3, 1959.

3.  Ibid.

4.  Ibid.

5.  “Progress Noses Out Sentiment at Jamaica,” LIP, September 7, 1960.

6.  Jamaica had almost 2 million paying customers in 1953; by contrast the New York Giants had a home attendance of 811,518; the Brooklyn Dodgers 1,163,419; and the New York Yankees 1,537,665; Arthur Daley, “What’s That, John?,” NYT, December 20, 1953; Stanley Levey, “Racing Now Virtual King of Sports, Topping Baseball in Gate Appeal,” NYT, April 30, 1953; John Thorn et al., Total Baseball (New York: Sportclassic Books, 1999), 107–108.

7.  Metropolitan Jockey Club, Official Souvenir.

8.  For locating Jamaica Racetrack within South Jamaica, see “Four Arrested at Races,” NYT, May 19, 1916; “Official Racing Dates,” NYT, May 10, 1916.

9.   New York City Market Analysis (New York: News Syndicate Company, 1943). This study, which had Foch Boulevard as the demarcation between South Jamaica and Springfield, had the racetrack about four blocks over on the Springfield side.

10. “54% of Our Wealth Is in Real Estate,” NYT, January 31, 1926; “Racing Men Study Pari-Mutuel Plan,” NYT, February 7, 1932. The latter article mentions a plan afoot in the 1920s to sell the tracks at Jamaica and Aqueduct and establish a new track at Long Beach, Long Island.

11.  Charles Hall, “Track Pays $25,735 City Tax; Homes Would Pay $170,000,” Long Island Star, May 21, 1940.

12.  Levey, “Racing Now Virtual King of Sports.”

13.  “Threat of Seizure Faces Race Tracks,” NYT, February 25, 1953; “Council Bill Asks Race Track Razing,” NYT, March 25, 1953.

14.  James Roach, “Jockey Club Gives $100,000,0000 Plan for State Tracks,” NYT, September 21, 1954.

15.  Alexander Feinberg, “State Racing Unit Aids Supertrack,” NYT, June 22, 1955.

16.  Leo Egan, “Strong Opposition to ‘Dream’ Race Track Here Develops at Albany,” NYT, March 26, 1955; Warren Weaver Jr., “Flat Track Bill Passes and Goes to Gov. Harriman,” NYT, April 3, 1955; “Governor Approves 3 Bills for Belmont ‘Dream Track,’” NYT, May 2, 1955.

17. “Aqueduct Group to Sell Shares,” NYT, September 8, 1955. The stock of Aqueduct and Belmont were acquired for $9.1 million each, and that of Saratoga for $4.1 million.

18. Robert Moses to Robert Wagner, July 6, 1955, Correspondence—1955, Robert Moses Papers, New York Public Library (hereafter Moses Papers).

19. Robert Moses to William Lebewohl, May 1, 1957, Correspondence—1955, Moses Papers.

20. For the best account of the constraints on Moses’s power, see Hilary Ballon, “Robert Moses and Urban Renewal: The Title I Program,” in Hilary Ballon and Kenneth T. Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City: The Transformation of New York (New York: Norton, 2007), 94–115.

21. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, 1970, 493.

22. Robert Moses to Robert Wagner, July 6, 1955, Correspondence—1955, Moses Papers.

23. Robert Moses to F. M. Flynn, August 22, 1955, Correspondence—1955, Moses Papers.

24. Robert Moses to William Lebewohl, March 24, 1956, Correspondence—1956, Moses Papers.

25. Robert Moses to F. M. Flynn, August 22, 1955, Correspondence—1955, Moses Papers. Robert Moses to John Cashmore, August 26, 1955, Correspondence—1955, Moses Papers.

26. For accounts of the Dodgers that blame Moses for their exit, see Michael Shapiro, The Last Good Season: Brooklyn, the Dodgers, and Their Final Pennant Race Together (New York: Doubleday, 2003), and Neil J. Sullivan, The Dodgers Move West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987). The blame is properly replaced on O’Malley in Henry D. Fetter, Taking on the Yankees: Winning and Losing in the Business of Baseball, 1903–2003 (New York: Norton, 2003), 210–253.

27. Robert Moses to F. M. Flynn, August 22, 1955, Correspondence—1955, Moses Papers.

28. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 493.

29. Robert Moses, “The Role of Housing Cooperatives in Urban Development,” Co-op Contact 1, no. 2 (November 1956); Homer Bigart, “Moses Plans Deal on Jamaica Track,” NYT, October 5, 1956.

30. Warren Weaver Jr., “Jockey Club Urges Harriman to Join Move to Close Tracks,” NYT, February 1, 1955; “Role for Jamaica in Racing Hinted,” NYT, April 25, 1956.

31. Robert Moses to Charles Preusse, February 4, 1957, Correspondence—1957, Moses Papers.

32. Robert Moses to William Lebewohl, March 4, 1957, Correspondence—1957, Moses Papers.

33. Charles Grutzner, “Moses Is Annoyed by a ‘Slow’ Track,” NYT, October 18, 1957.

34. Robert Moses to William Lebewohl, February 26, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

35. Robert Moses to John Cahill, April 10, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

36. New York Racing Association, A Report to the Public (New York, 1958).

37. Robert Moses to John Cahill, July 2, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers; New York Racing Association, A Report to the Public (New York, 1958).

38. Robert Moses to John Cahill, November 6, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

39. Robert Moses to Austin Tobin, October 23, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

40. Charles Grutzner, “Homes in City Far Too Few For Middle-Income Renters,” NYT, May 11, 1952; Ira S. Robbins, “City Program of Partial Tax Aid to Encourage Construction Urged,” letter, NYT, August 10, 1952; Lotte Doverman, letter, NYT, May 23, 1952.

41. “Wagner Offers Plan to Spur City Housing,” NYT, June 18, 1953.

42. Robert Moses, “Remarks at the Annual Dinner of Building Trades Employers Association,” January 11, 1956, Speeches—1956, Moses Papers. For Moses and Mitchell-Lama housing (and Warren Moscow’s claims that Moses stole the credit for the program), see Peter Eisenstadt, “Mitchell-Lama Housing,” in Ballon and Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City, 305–306.

43. Charles Grutzner to Robert Moses, February 18, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

44. New York State Division of Housing and Urban Renewal, The People Decide for Housing (Albany, NY, 1958).

45. “Select Your Apt. Now in Rochdale Village,” advertisement, NYT, June 11, 1961. See also Rochdale Village advertisement, October 14, 1962; “As Cooperative Housing Grows,” Co-Op Contact 5, no. 10 (January 1962).

46. “$21 Average Per Room Including Central Air Conditioning,” New York Post, October 22, 1961. In April 1960, Kazan spoke of a sliding scale for Rochdale, where the average carrying charge would range from $13 to $25 a room, but this plan evidently was never implemented, “Racetrack Housing Approved by City,” LIP, April 29, 1960.

47. Charles G. Bennett, “Jamaica Housing Meets Opposition,” NYT, April 14, 1960. For other efforts of the UHF to lower per room carrying charges, see Kenneth Wray, “Abraham E. Kazan: The Story of the Amalgamated Houses and the United Housing Foundation” (master’s thesis, Columbia University, 1991) 35, 39. Kazan fought for carrying charges of $18 per room at the Jamaica site, which Moses rejected; “Jamaica Project Pleases Moses,” NYT, May 18, 1959. For contemporary studies that place Rochdale Village on the very low end of middle-income housing, see Thomas E. Ennis, “Low Rate Loans Held Housing Aid,” NYT, February 12, 1961; George Auerbach, “Median Housing Is Found Scarce,” NYT, September 24, 1961.

48. Robert Moses to Charles Grutzner, February 22, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

49. “Remarks by Robert Moses at the Opening of the North Queensview Houses,” January 20, 1958, Speeches—1958, Moses Papers.

50. Ibid.

51. William Celzich to Nelson Rockefeller, March 30, 1959, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

52. New York State Division of Housing and Urban Renewal, The People Decide for Housing (Albany, NY, 1958).

53. MacNeil Mitchell to Robert Moses, June 22, 1956, Correspondence—1956, Moses Papers.

54. Robert Moses, “Remarks by Moses at Groundbreaking for Seward Park Extension,” October 11, 1958, Speeches—1958, Moses Papers.

55. Robert Moses to Roger Schafer, May 26, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

56. “Battista Lists Eight Government Actions Believed Harmful to Small Owners” (newspaper, ca. March 1960 source unidentified), UHF clipping file, Kheel Center Archives.

57. James J. Crisona to Robert Moses, March 27, 1958, Nelson Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives. Robert Moses to James Crisona, March 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

58. Robert Moses to J. Anthony Panuch, November 30, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

59. Amalgamated and Park Reservoir Housing Cooperatives, Story of a Co-op Community: The First 75 Years (New York: Herman Liebman Memorial Fund, 2002).

60. Eisenstadt, “Mitchell-Lama Housing,” 305–306.

61. Robert Moses to J. Anthony Panuch, November 30, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers; Abraham Kazan, “Thirty Years of Cooperative Housing,” in Story of a Co-op Community.

62. Robert Moses to Robert Wagner, July 6, 1955, Correspondence—1955, Moses Papers.

63. “Jamaica Project Pleases Moses,” NYT, May 18, 1959.

64. Robert Moses to J. Anthony Panuch, November 30, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

65. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 493.

66. For the history of the development (or really the lack of development) of the UHF proposal for the Seward Park extension, see UHF Annual Report 1963, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

67. Matthew Gordon Lassner, “Penn Station South Title I,” in Ballon and Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City, 293–295.

68. See Robert Owen Houses, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives. I thank Marci Reaven for sharing her research in this collection with me.

69. Grutzner, “Moses Is Annoyed by a ‘Slow’ Track.”

70. “Remarks by Robert Moses at Opening of North Queensview Houses.”

71. Robert Moses to Abraham Kazan, April 13, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

72. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 494.

73. Ibid.

74. Ibid., 495.

75. Ibid., 496.

76. Robert Moses to David Rockefeller, December 15, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

77. Robert Moses to Lebewohl, April 9, 1959, and Robert Moses to Lebewohl, April 13, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

78. Robert Moses to Robert Wagner, December 9, 1958, Correspondence—1958, Moses Papers.

79. Abraham Kazan to Robert Moses, July 29, 1959; Robert Moses to Robert Szold, August 4, 1959; and Robert Moses to John Cashmore, September 5, 1959; Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

80. Robert Moses to Abraham Kazan, July 29, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

81. Ibid., July 6, 1959.

82. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 504.

83. This was confirmed to me by Nicholas Gyory, who in the mid-1950s was a young leader of the Cap, Hat, and Milliner’s Union. Interview with Nicholas Gyory.

84. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 504.

85. Kazan defended Moses in a letter to the Times, an act that brought a grateful letter from Moses; Kazan to NYT, June 22, 1959; Moses to Kazan, June 25, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers. For Moses’s rough summer, see Robert Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (New York, Random House, 1974), 1040–1066.

86. See for instance “Huge Co-op Plan Favored by City,” NYT, August 21, 1959. In a memo of November 16, 1959, to Rockefeller, Moses placed Jamaica third on his to-do list, after a proposed state park proposition, and a report on atomic power plants, and in front of five other items. Robert Moses to Nelson Rockefeller, November 16, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

87. Robert Moses to Nelson Rockefeller, September 17, 1959, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

88. Robert Moses to Rockefeller, September 30, 1959, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

89. Ibid.

90. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 497.

91. “The city comptroller is providing the necessary real estate tax exemption,” Robert Moses to Nelson Rockefeller, December 7, 1959, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

92. Robert Moses to John Clancy, July 31, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers; Robert Moses to Robert Wagner, August 3, 1959, and Robert Moses to Robert Wagner, January 14, 1960, in Robert F. Wagner Papers, Subject Files—Housing, Rochdale Municipal Archives, New York City.

93. “Great Housing Opportunity,” editorial, NYT, December 4, 1959.

94. John Cahill to Robert Moses, October 19, 1959, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

95. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 497.

96. Robert Moses to Nelson Rockefeller, telegram, November 23, 1959, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

97. Investment Advisory Council of the NYS Employees Retirement System, undated, ca. January 1960, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

98. Edward T. Dickinson to Robert Moses, January 15, 1959, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

99. Robert Moses to Nelson Rockefeller, January 14, 1960, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

100. “State Sets Loans for Queens Co-op,” NYT, February 17, 1960; James Gaynor to Robert Moses, February 18, 1960, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

101. Charles G. Bennett, “Jamaica Housing Meets Opposition,” NYT, April 14, 1960.

102. “John J. Reynolds, 78, a Broker For Real Estate Transfers in City,” NYT, May 27, 1981.

103. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 507.

104. “Co-op Tax Exemption Brings New Protest,” LIP, April 20, 1960.

105. Charles G. Bennett, “Jamaica Housing Meets Opposition.”

106. The new borough president of Queens, John T. Clancy, was also balking at the last minute, much to the annoyance of Moses, but eventually voted for the project. John T. Clancy to Robert Moses December 23, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

107. Robert Moses to Nelson Rockefeller, September 30, 1959, Nelson A. Rockefeller Papers, Subject Files—Housing, New York State Archives.

5. Robert Moses and His Path to Integration

Epigraph. Robert Moses, “A Salute to Chicago,” May 14, 1959, Speeches—1959, Robert Moses Papers, New York Public Library (hereafter Moses Papers).

1.  Robert Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (Random House: New York, 1974), xvi.

2.  Ibid., 318–319, 578, 736.

3.  Michael Powell, “A Tale of Two Cities,” NYT, May 6, 2007.

4. “Powell Inquiry Set on Negroes at Fair,” NYT, March 12, 1962.

5.  Robert Moses, “Remarks of Robert Moses at Unveiling of Statue of George M. Cohan,” September 11, 1959, Speeches—1959, Moses Papers.

6.  Philip Kennecott, “A Builder Who Went to Town,” Washington Post, March 11, 2007.

7.  Robert Moses, Theory and Practice in Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939), 44; “The Absurd Effort to Make the World Over” in Robert C. Bannister, ed., On Liberty, Society, and Politics: The Essential Essays of William Graham Sumner (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1992), 252–262; Robert Moses, Working for the People: Promise and Performance in Public Service (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956), 38.

8.   Moses, Working for the People, 59. For example, Robert Moses, “Talk by Robert Moses to Affiliated Young Democrats,” April 21, 1960, Speeches—1960, Moses Papers. See also “Moses’ Philosophy of Government,” in Cleveland Rodgers, Robert Moses: Builder for Democracy (New York: Henry Holt, 1952), 204–219; Robert Moses, “Plan and Performance,” in A Century of Social Thought (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1939), 126–142.

9.  Rodgers, Robert Moses, 10; Caro, The Power Broker, 51–52. Both biographers were told the story by Moses, and Caro reports that Moses “told him the story with glee,” 1181.

10. Robert Moses, The Civil Service of Great Britain (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 64.

11. Ibid., 266. The quotation is from Alexander Pope’s “An Essay on Man” (1733) epistle 3, line 303. The same quotation from Pope appears in Moses, Theory and Practice in Politics, 37, and Robert Moses, Working for the People: Promise and Performance in Public Service (New York: Harpers, 1956), 38.

12. Moses, The Civil Service of Great Britain, 243–245. See his comments on his dissertation in Working for the People, 7–8.

13. On Moses’s lack of circumcision, see Caro, The Power Broker, 411. For his funeral see Timothy Mennel, “Everything Must Go: A Novel of Robert Moses’s New York” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 2007), 918.

14. For Moses’s dislike of being identified as a Jew, see Caro, The Power Broker, 411.

15.  Robert Moses, Public Works: A Dangerous Trade (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970), 778–789.

16.  “Fair Rejects Plea on Jordanian Mural,” NYT, April 26, 1964; “Wagner Says World’s Fair Will Remove Jordans Pavilion’s Controversial Mural,” NYT, April 30, 1964; Philip Benjamin, “Fair Bars Protest Over Mural; Moses Calls for Understanding,” NYT, May 19, 1964; Robert Moses, Public Works, 579–582; Robert Moses, “Harness the Jordan,” NYT, June 5, 1971. In the latter op-ed, Moses calls on Israel to return territory occupied in the Six Day War of 1967.

17. Leonard Sussman to Robert Moses, December 2, 1959; Robert Moses to Leonard Sussman, December 5, 1959, Correspondence—1959, Moses Papers.

18.  Caro, The Power Broker, 316–318; “Moses Uses Fists at a Park Meeting,” NYT, October 17, 1929.

19.  Robert Moses to Oscar Handlin, December 13, 1957, Correspondence—1957, Moses Papers; for Moses’s critique of Handlin’s portrait of Smith in Oscar Handlin, Al Smith and His America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1958) as a “waxwork,” see Robert Moses, A Tribute to Governor Smith (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962), 18–19.

20.  Paula Eldot, Governor Alfred E. Smith: The Politician as Reformer (New York: Garland, 1983), 391.

21. One episode with racial overtones that did occur during Moses’s time in the Smith administration is the well-known accusation that Moses kept low clearances on the bridges approaching Jones Beach on Long Island to keep out buses and the racially mixed urban riffraff. Caro, The Power Broker, 317–319. Caro made much of this, though the evidence is exiguous. To make the clearances two feet higher would have doubled the cost of the crossings, and despite the low clearances there was regular bus service to Jones Beach from the time it opened. Kenneth T. Jackson, “Robert Moses and the Planned Environment: A Re-evaluation,” in Robert Moses: Single-Minded Genius (Interlaken, NY: Heart of the Lakes Publishing, 1989), 26.

22. For an excellent account, see Jeff Wiltse, Contested Waters: A Social History of Swimming Pools in America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), esp. 121–153.

23. Caro, The Power Broker, 512–514. Caro’s charges that he refused to heat the pools in white neighborhoods to keep blacks away have been effectively countered by Marta Gutman. See Marta Gutman, “Equipping the Public Realm: Rethinking Robert Moses and Recreation,” and Marta Gutman and Benjamin Luke Marcus, “Pools,” in Ballon and Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City, 72–85, 135–157; Marta Gutman, “Race, Place, and Play: Robert Moses and the WPA Swimming Pools in NYC,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 86 (December 2008): 532–561.

24. Moses, Theory and Practice in Politics, 17–18.

25. In 1957, the well-publicized killing of Michael Farmer, a racially motivated killing in a fight between two gangs in Washington Heights over access to public swimming pools, would galvanize attention on the question of “juvenile delinquency.” Robert W. Snyder, “A Useless and Terrible Death: The Michael Farmer Case, ‘Hidden Violence,’ and New York City in the 1950s,” Journal of Urban History 36, no. 2 (March 2010): 226–250.

26. Moses, Theory and Practice in Politics, 17–18.

27. Ibid., 55.

28. “Negro Singers Out, Smith, Moses Quit,” NYT, July 3, 1941. On his fondness for barbershop quartet singing, Mennel, “Everything Must Go,” 915–916.

29. Moses, Public Works, 884.

30. “New Deal Policies Assailed by Moses,” NYT, October 8, 1935.

31. “Moses for Dewey, Listing 7 Reasons,” NYT, October 5, 1944.

32. For an overview of the 1938 constitution see Peter J. Galie, The New York State Constitution: A Reference Guide (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), 24–28. For Moses’s accounts of his role at the constitutional convention see Theory and Practice in Politics, 13–14; “What’s the Matter With New York?” NYT, August 1, 1943.

33. Moses, Theory and Practice in Politics, 15.

34. Ibid.

35. Ibid., 15–16.

36. Ibid., 17. Moses’s revision of the civil rights statute proved crucial in the New York State Court of Appeals 1949 decision upholding the right of Metropolitan Life to discriminate at Stuyvesant Town. See Galie, New York State Constitution, 56–58.

37. Moses, “What’s the Matter With New York?”

38. Ibid.

39. Cleveland Rodgers, Robert Moses: Builder for Democracy (New York: Henry Holt, 1952), 215–216. For Stuyvesant Town see Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003); Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals and Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1991), 84–107; Samuel Zipp, Manhattan Projects, 73–154.

40. Robert Moses, “Stuyvesant Town Defended,” letter to the Editor, NYT, June 3, 1943.

41. “New Era Held Near for City Housing,” NYT, February 5, 1944.

42. Moses is quoted in Rodgers, Robert Moses, as saying “insurance companies, fearing agitation, socialization, and nationalization, preferred to put funds in government securities, mortgages, and in other investments that did not involve them in agitation over the racial question,” 216.

43. For accounts of the passage of the Ives-Quinn Act, see Tod M. Ottman, “‘Government That Has Both a Heart and a Head’: The Growth of New York State Government during the World War II Era, 1930–1950” (PhD diss., SUNY Albany, 2001), and Anthony S. Chen, “‘The Hitlerian Rule of Quotas’: Racial Conservatism and the Politics of Fair Employment Legislation in New York State, 1941–1945,” Journal of American History 92, no. 4 (March 2006): 1238–1265.

44. Leo Egan, “Bias Bill Battle Waged at Hearing,” NYT, February 21, 1945.

45. Ibid.

46. Chen, “‘The Hitlerian Rule of Quotas,’”; Anthony S. Chen, letter to the editor, Journal of American History 93, no. 3 (December 2006): 1006–1009. For proportional hiring programs in New York State during the years of World War II, see Paul Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action: Fair Employment Law and Policy in America, 1933–1972 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 30–65. To give one example that Moses and most of his listeners would have been familiar with, in 1941 there was an agreement between the 5th Avenue Bus Company and the Transport Workers Union to hire blacks and whites in equal numbers until blacks were 17 percent of the skilled workforce. Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action, 54.

47. Oswald Garrison Villard, “Discrimination, It Is Held, Cannot Be Overcome by Legal Means,” letter, NYT, February 13, 1945; William H. Harbaugh, Lawyer’s Lawyer: The Life of John W. Davis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 494; Anthony S. Chen, “‘The Hitlerian Rule of Quotas.’”

48. Tod M. Ottman, “‘Government That Has Both a Heart and a Head,’” 88–189; Stephen Grant Meyer, As Long as They Don’t Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighborhoods (Latham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000), 158–161.

49. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and American Democracy (New York: Harper, 1944), 1021–1023.

50. Morton Deutsch and Mary Evans Collins, Interracial Housing: A Psychological Evaluation of a Social Experiment (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1951), 126.

51. Irving Ross, “Robert Moses,” New York Post, July 1, 1956.

52. Robert Moses to James Felt [chairman, City Planning Commission], August 20, 1956, Correspondence—1956, Moses Papers; Robert Moses to Herbert Bayard Swope, January 3, 1956, Correspondence—1956, Moses Papers. Moses made a similar argument in regard to Stuyvesant Town; Mennel, “Everything Must Go,” 980.

53. Robert Moses to James Felt, August 20, 1956, Correspondence—1956, Moses Papers.

54. Moses, Public Works, 431–433

55. Rodgers, Robert Moses, 215–216. In Public Works, Moses included an excerpt from a letter he wrote in July 1949 including similar criticisms of Metropolitan Life, 432–433. Still, it is worth noting with Martha Biondi that he said nothing of this sort when the controversy over Stuyvesant Town was raging, Martha Biondi, “Robert Moses, Race, and the Limits of an Activist State,” in Ballon and Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City (New York: Norton, 2007), 119.

56. Schwartz, The New York Approach, 139–142, 179–183.

57. Ross, “Robert Moses.”

58. Ibid.

59. Eleanor Roosevelt, “Housing for Everybody,” Co-op Contact 1, no. 7 (May 1956). See also Donald D. Martin, “Role of Cooperatives in the Social Revolution of 1963,” Co-op Contact 6, no. 8 (October 1963), 8.

60. Jack and Bea Moss, “One of Queensview’s Most Distinguished Families,” Co-op Contact 1, no. 5 (February 1956), 6.

61. Robert Moses, “Rochdale: Master Planner Moses Views a Master Housing Plan,” LIP, December 1, 1963.

62. Edith Isaacs, Love Affair with a City: The Story of Stanley M. Isaacs (New York: Random House, 1967), 99.

63. Robert Moses, Public Works, 469; Robert Moses, “Housing or Riots,” Newsday, January 27, 1968.

64. Robert Moses, Public Works, 467–469.

65. Rochdale and Co-op City were not the only interracial housing projects backed by Moses in the 1950s and ’60s. For other examples, see Schwartz, New York Approach, 136–143; Lawrence Kaplan and Carol Kaplan, Between Ocean and City: The Transformation of Rockaway, New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 88–89; Moses, Public Works, 468.

6. The Fight at the Construction Site

Epigraph. Interview with Herman Ferguson (unless otherwise indicated, all references to Ferguson’s career are from this interview); “Rochdale Village Opens,” NYT, December 11, 1963.

1. City Commission on Human Rights, Bias in the Building Industry: An Updated Report, 1963–1967 (New York: New York City Commission on Human Rights, 1967).

2. Homer Bigart, “City Urges Unions to Favor Negroes,” NYT, August 15, 1963; Sidney H. Schamberg, “State Says Union Barred Negroes for Last 76 Years,” NYT, March 5, 1963. Joseph Mitchell, “The Mohawks in High Steel,” in Up in the Old Hotel and Other Stories (New York: Vintage Books, 1993).

3. “Beep’s Urban Committee Runs into Storm of Anger,” LIP, May 8, 1962.

4. Interview with Omar Barbour.

5. For an account of the importance of agitation against building trades discrimination in the growth of the civil rights movement see Thomas J. Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945–1969,” Journal of American History (June 2004): 145–173, which appears in expanded form in Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008). In his book, Sugrue, happily, takes note of the demonstrations at Rochdale (303, 313–314).

6. “Negroes Advised on Job Protests,” NYT, June 9, 1963; William G. Weart, “Negroes Win Jobs at Philadelphia,” NYT, June 1, 1963.

7. Joshua Freeman, Working Class New York: Life and Labor since World War II (New York: New Press, 2002), 189. For the demonstrations at Downstate Medical Center, see the excellent account by Brian Purnell, “A Movement Grows in Brooklyn: The Brooklyn Chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and the Northern Civil Rights Movement” (PhD diss., New York University, 2006), 335–395.

8. Peter Kihss, “Negroes to Push Picketing in City in Drive for Jobs,” NYT, July 29, 1963; Homer Bigart, “Negroes Call Off Brooklyn Pickets as Governor Acts,” NYT, August 7, 1963; Fred Powledge, “Rights Demonstrations Here Called Frustrating,” NYT, November 12, 1963.

9. Homer Bigart, “Near-Riot Flared in Race Protest at Project Here,” NYT, August 1, 1963.

10. “The ‘Revolution’ Spreads All over New York,” NYAN, July 27, 1963.

11. Peter Kihss, “200 Racial Pickets Seized at Building Projects Here,” NYT, July 23, 1963.

12. Charles Grutzner, “New York’s Racial Unrest: Whites Are of Two Minds,” NYT, August 13, 1963.

13. Hal Shapiro, “Why They Picket at Rochdale,” LIP, August 8, 1963.

14. Shapiro, “Why They Picket at Rochdale”; “Rochdale Fight Attracts Big Names, Little People,” NYAN, July 10, 1963.

15. William Booth, “Inside Story of the Rochdale Fight,” NYAN, August 3, 1963; Peter Kihss, “143 More Seized in Protests Here,” NYT, July 24, 1963.

16. On July 23, there were sixty-five protesters and eighty-five police officers. “143 More Seized in Protests Here,” NYT, July 24, 1963; Hal Shapiro, “Why They Picket at Rochdale”; Martin Arnold, “Rights Protests Cost City $15,000 a Day in Police Overtime,” NYT, August 6, 1963; William Booth, “Inside Story of Rochdale Fight.”

17. “Rochdale Fight Attracts Big Names, Little People.”

18. “No Go Slow,” NYAN, August 20, 1963.

19. Ibid.; “Project Picketing to End,” NYT, October 22, 1963.

20. Kihss, “143 More Seized in Protests Here.”

21. “Rochdale Fight Attracts Big Names, Little People”; “Rights Bill Not Enough, Say Five Negro Leaders,” Chicago Defender, July 23, 1963.

22. Jo Holly, “Long Island—Inside Out,” New Pittsburgh Courier (hereafter NPC), August 24, 1963.

23. Kihss, “Negroes to Push Picketing in City in Drive for Jobs”; interview with Herman Ferguson; “Rochdale Pickets to Rally Tonight,” LIP, September 8, 1963. For John Lewis, see Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 313–314.

24. Kihss, “Negroes to Push Picketing in City in Drive for Jobs”; “Ministers Give Call to Fight,” NYAN, July 27, 1963; “Rights Bill Not Enough, Say Five Negro Leaders.”

25. “No Go Slow.”

26. Jo Holly, “Long Island—Inside Out,” NPC, August 31, 1963.

27. Ibid., January 11, 1964.

28. Ibid., August 10, 1963.

29. “Rochdale Fight Attracts Big Names, Little People.”

30. Booth, “Inside Story of Rochdale Fight”; interview with Herman Ferguson.

31. Arnold, “Rights Protests Cost City $15,000 a Day in Police Overtime”; Homer Bigart, “City Urges Unions to Favor Negroes,” NYT, August 15, 1963.

32. Shapiro, “Why They Picket at Rochdale.”

33. Interview with Herman Ferguson.

34. Arnold, “Rights Protests Cost City $15,000 a Day in Police Overtime”; interview with Herman Ferguson.

35. Homer Bigart, “Wagner’s Panel on Hiring Negroes Notes Progress,” NYT, August 5, 1963; Grutzner, “New York’s Racial Unrest”; interview with Herman Ferguson.

36. Peter Kihss, “Pickets Arrested for Blocking Way to Mayor’s Office,” NYT, July 30, 1963.

37. Simon Anekwe, “Violence Flares at Rochdale While Picket Is Assaulted,” NYAN, September 23, 1963.

38. Peter Kihss, “Negroes to Push Picketing in City in Drive for Jobs”; Homer Bigart, “Wagner’s Panel on Hiring Negroes Notes Progress”; Peter Kihss, “Rockefeller Bars Negro Job Quota; Hails Union Plan,” NYT, July 26, 1963.

39. For the enforcement of Ives-Quinn and the 1964 Civil Rights Act see Paul Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action: Fair Employment Law and Policy in America, 1933–1972 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), 107–161; 199–230.

40. Booth, “Inside Story of Rochdale Fight.”

41. Martin Arnold, “23 Negroes on Job Quit at Co-Op Site,” NYT, July 31, 1963.

42. Kihss, “143 More Seized in Protests Here.” Another article placed the number of blacks at the Rochdale site at three hundred. Grutzner, “New York’s Racial Unrest.”

43. William Booth claimed there were 2,000 construction workers on the site; Kazan gave the figure of 1,350, though this appears to be the maximum on the site on any one day. Booth, “Inside Story of Rochdale Fight”; Kihss, “143 More Seized in Protest Here.” See also UHF Press Release, July 26, 1963, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

44. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, 1970, 511–512.

45. Kihss, “143 More Seized in Protests Here.”

46. Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below.”

47. “Ministers Give Call to Fight.”

48. Kihss, “Negroes to Push Picketing in City in Drive for Jobs.”

49. Bigart, “Wagner’s Panel on Hiring Negroes Notes Progress”; Khiss, “Rockefeller Bars Negro Job Quota; Hails Union Plan.”

50. “No Go Slow.”

51. Kihss, “Negroes to Push Picketing in City in Drive for Jobs.”

52. Homer Bigart, “Union Chief Sees Reverse Job Bias,” NYT, August 17, 1963; Damon Stetson, “Brennan’s Stand on Rights Hailed,” NYT, November 9, 1963.

53. Bigart, “Negroes Call Off Brooklyn Pickets as Governor Acts.”

54. “Accord Reached at White Castle,” NYT, August 9, 1963; Purnell, “A Movement Grows in Brooklyn.” The most plausible explanation for the differences between the Rochdale and Brooklyn demonstrations was that the large size and political influence of the Jamaica NAACP made an end run around it impossible, which is apparently what Rockefeller engineered against the much smaller Brooklyn chapter of CORE.

55. Clayton Knowles, “City Panel Gives Job Racial Plan,” NYT, July 12, 1963; Kihss, “Rockefeller Bars Negro Job Quota; Hails Union Plan”; Samuel Kaplan, “Unions Reject Racial Plan of Mayor’s ‘Action Panel,’” NYT, July 18, 1963; Emanuel Perlmutter, “Unionist Softens Stance on Negroes,” NYT, July 22, 1963; Stanley Levey, “Unions to Screen Negro Trainees,” NYT, August 24, 1963. Brennan at first angrily rejected the plan, on July 17, saying the building trades council would not accept outside dictation on whom to admit to membership, but accepted the mayor’s plan the following week.

56. Sydney H. Schanberg, “City Urged to Act on Building Bias,” NYT, December 28, 1963; Kihss, “143 More Seized in Protests Here”; Bigart, “Union Chief Sees Reverse Job Bias.”

57. Homer Bigart, “Governor Orders Aid to Centers That Help Negroes Enter Unions,” NYT, August 10, 1963.

58. Fred Powledge, “Rights Demonstrations Here Called Frustrating,” NYT, November 12, 1963; Martin Arnold, “City Aide Chides Building Unions,” NYT, September 30, 1963.

59. Powledge, “Rights Demonstrations Here Called Frustrating.”

60. Sydney H. Schanberg, “Preferment for Negroes Is Sought by Board Here,” NYT, October 28, 1963; Clayton Knowles, “Wagner Says City Has Not Discussed Negro Preferment,” NYT, October 29, 1963; Charles G. Bennett, “Job Preference on Racial Basis Barred by Law, Wagner Notes,” NYT, November 1, 1963.

61. “City Rights Chief Weighs Resigning, NYT, November 4, 1963; “Rights Unit Head Backs Job Stand,” NYT, November 18, 1963; “US Road Program Sets Job Equality,” NYT, August 7, 1963.

62. See the interviews and photographs of Shirley Artadi and Ida Timpone in Shapiro, “Why They Picket at Rochdale,” and photographs of Paul Gibson, collection of Peter Eisenstadt.

63. Dave Hepburn and Dera Bush, “Rochdale Village Opens as Community Watches,” NYAN, December 14, 1963.

64. Interview with Anita Starr; Kihss, “Pickets Arrested for Blocking Way to Mayor’s Office,” NYT, July 30, 1963.

65. Shapiro, “Why They Picket at Rochdale”; interview with William Henry Jones.

66. Dan Simmons, “A Message to Jamaicans from the Washington Freedom Marchers,” Jamaica Branch NAACP News Bulletin (hereafter JBNNB), September 1963; Dan Simmons, “The White Picket,” JBNNB, September 1963.

67. Dave Hepburn, “This Is the Week of Decision,” NYAN, August 20, 1963.

68. Simmons, “A Message to Jamaicans.”

69. Ibid. For the continuing importance of the Rochdale protests, see the fiftieth anniversary history of the branch, Jamaica Branch NAACP, Fifty Years of Service, ( Jamaica, Queens, 1977).

70. William Booth, “The President Speaks,” JBNNB, December 1963.

71. Thomas A. Johnson, “Long Islander Seeks to Enjoy New House—With a Shotgun,” NPC, February 16, 1963; Thomas A. Johnson, “Long Island—Inside Out,” NPC, May 11, 1963; “All’s Well That Ends Well in Housing Case,” NPC, March 9, 1963; Paul Gibson, “To Be Continued,” JBNNB, February 1963.

72. For Brewer and the Jamaica NAACP see Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), and Fifty Years of Service.

73. August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 151; “Long Island CORE Reviews a Year of Crises Met,” NYAN, January 11, 1964.

74. Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 198. Lynch was a flight operations officer for British Overseas Airways.

75. “Minister Writes Blazing ‘Open Letter’ to Three,” NYAN, August 24, 1963.

76. “Everybody’s Talkin’ Bout,” JBNNB, September 1963.

77. For Ferguson coming to New York City in 1943, see Shapiro, “Why They Picket at Rochdale.”

78. Gerald Horne, Red Seas: Ferdinand Smith and Radical Black Sailors in the United States and Jamaica (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 14.

79. Interview with Herman Ferguson.

80. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

81. Shapiro, “Why They Picket at Rochdale,” 63.

82. “What’s Happening?” JBNNB, August 20, 1963.

83. “No Go Slow”; “What’s Happening,” JBNNB, September 1963.

84. Will Lissner, “Pickets Chain Themselves to Cranes,” NYT, September 6, 1963.

85. Ibid.

86. Jo Holly, “Long Island—Inside Out,” NPC, September 14, 1963.

87. Simon Anekwe, “Rochdale Defendants Free in Picketing Trial,” NYAN, December 7, 1963.

88. Ibid.; Paul Gibson, “The Man on the Crane,” JBNNB, October 1963.

89. Kihss, “Negroes to Push Picketing in City in Drive for Jobs.”

90. See for instance the largely favorable review of Robert F. Williams’s Negroes with Guns in the JBNNB, October 1963.

91. Jo Holly, “Long Island—Inside Out,” NPC, September 21, 1963.

92. Interview with William Booth.

93. Jo Holly, “Long Island—Inside Out,” NPC, October 5, 1963.

94. “Jamaica Boycott Lags as Three Factions Disagree,” NYAN, October 12, 1963.

95. Interview with William Booth.

96. “Jamaica NAACP Calls ‘Battle Stations,’” NYAN, March 7, 1964.

97. “Small Business Falling in Line with Rochdale,” NYAN, October 19, 1963.

98. “Is Negro Revolution a Kind of Garveyism?” NPC, January 11, 1964; “Rights Fighter Sees Strength, Pride in ‘Black Nationalism,’” NPC, April 4, 1964.

99. “Malcolm X Endorses Boycott,” NYAN, December 7, 1963.

100. John Sibley, “Negroes Protest Mural at Bank Depicting Banjo-Playing Slave,” NYT, May 12, 1964; “CORE Again Pickets Bank Over Mural with a Negro,” NYT, May 26, 1964; “Portrayal of a Negro in Mural Argued at Hearing,” NYT, June 15, 1966; Alfred E. Clark, “Booth Warns Bank Over Banjo Billy,” NYT, October 6, 1966; “Banjo Billy,” editorial, NYT, October 13, 1966; “Offending Mural Removed by Bank,” NYT, August 28, 1967. Banjo Billy (1738–1826)—his last name is omitted in the sources I have consulted—was raised a slave of Thomas Bowne of Hempstead and was famous for making and playing an African-styled banjo made from a dried gourd. Though manumitted by the 1770s, when all Quakers in good standing had to free their human property, he continued to live with his former owners and their relatives until his death. Lynda R. Day, Making a Way to Freedom: A History of African Americans on Long Island (Interlaken, NY: Empire State Books, 1997), 27.

101. Jo Holly, “Long Island—Inside Out,” NPC, November 16, 1963; “Rochdale Leaders Seek Meeting with Chamber of Commerce,” NPC, January 18, 1964.

102. Interview with A. B. Spellman, March 19, 1964, reprinted in Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, ed. George Breitman (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970), 7.

103. Emanuel Perlmutter, “16 Negroes Seized; Plot to Kill Wilkins and Young Charged,” NYT, June 22, 1967. Ten rifles, a machine gun, three carbines, a shotgun, four knives, and three metal arrows were found by the police in Ferguson’s home.

104. M. A. Farber, “Brownsville Wants Death Plot Suspect as School Principal,” NYT, September 2, 1967.

105. Earl Caldwell, “Booth Gives View of I. S. 201 Dispute,” NYT, March 11, 1968.

106. Homer Bigart, “Ferguson Gives Plan for Schools,” NYT, March 14, 1968.

107. “Group Picks Spock for President,” NYT, June 3, 1968.

108. “Raw Meat for the Racists,” editorial, NYT, September 27, 1968; Fred M. Hechingher, “Racism and Anti-Semitism in the School Crisis,” NYT, September 16, 1968.

109. Tom Buckley, “Ferguson and Harris Sentenced to 3½ to 7 Years in Murder Plot,” NYT, October 4, 1968.

110. Michael T. Kaufman, “60s Militant to End Flight after 18 Years,” NYT, April 4, 1989; Joseph Fried, “60s Fugitive Returns to Start Conspiracy Sentence,” NYT, April 8, 1989.

111. Terence Smith, “New Rights Chief Criticizes Unions,” NYT, February 2, 1966. For similar comments from Roy Wilkins, see Roy Wilkins, “Rutgers Lays It on the Line,” NYAN, February 10, 1965.

112. City Commission on Human Rights, Bias in the Building Industry: An Updated Report, 1963–1967; Damon Stetson, “Trade Union Bias Found Unchecked,” NYT, June 1, 1967.

113. Rochdale Village 25th Anniversary Celebration, Sept 8th to 18th, 1988, program (Queens, NY: Rochdale Village, 1988), 2.

7. Creating Community

Epigraph. Quoted in Tony Schuman, “Labor and Housing in New York: Architect Herman Jessor and the Cooperative Movement,” unpublished paper, 5.

1. Abraham E. Kazan, “Cooperative Housing in the United States,” in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 191 (May 1937): 143.

2. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

3. “Too Much Governmental Assistance Can Be Detrimental to Cooperatives,” Co-op Contact 8, no. 3 (October–November 1964). See also Kazan, “Cooperative Housing in the United States.”

4. “Democratic Participation in Large Cooperatives: Some Cooperatives Must Cope with Problems Because They are Getting Too Big,” Co-op Contact 4, no. 3 (February–March 1960); interview with Harold Ostroff.

5. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

6. Harold Ostroff, “The Impact of Housing Cooperatives in Urban Areas,” speech delivered at National Association of Housing Cooperatives, Detroit, February 19, 1966 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt). Abraham Kazan, after a stroke, was granted a leave of absence from the presidency of the UHF in January 1966. Jacob S. Potofsky, president of the Amalagamated Clothing Workers of America, was named president in his stead, but the effective control of the UHF passed to Harold Ostroff, who was named executive vice president, “United Housing Group Fills Posts,” NYT, January 24, 1966.

7. “Debate on Vietnam at Community Center,” Inside Rochdale, November 4, 1966. See also Norman Thomas’s article in the first issue of Co-op Contact on the cooperative movement, “People’s Capitalism,” Co-op Contact 1, no. 1 (March 1956).

8. Donald Martin, “Open Membership,” Co-op Contact 2, no. 7 (October 1957).

9. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, 1970, 508.

10. Interview with Eddie Abramson.

11. Interview with Anita Starr; Larry Lapka, Rochdale Forum, June 29, 1999.

12. Ostroff, “The Impact of Housing Cooperatives in Urban Areas.”

13. “The Art of Cooperative Living,” Co-op Contact 8, no. 3 (October–November 1964).

14. “Rochdale Families Air Their Beefs,” LIP, February 2, 1964.

15. Ibid.; “Rochdale Protests Protested by Protestors’ Neighbors,” LIP, February 21, 1964; “Rochdale Tenants: New Home Is Okay,” LIP, February 26, 1964.

16. “Rochdale Tenants: New Home Is Okay.”

17. Harold Ostroff, “Labor Co-ops and the Housing Crisis,” AFL-CIO American Federationist, May 1969.

18. Interview with Harold Ostroff; Amalgamated and Park Reservoir Housing Cooperatives, Story of a Co-op Community: The First 75 Years (New York: Herman Liebman Memorial Fund, 2002).

19. “Report of the Rochdale Village House Congress, 1965–1969” (Queens, NY: Rochdale Village, 1969) (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

20. Interview with Hugh Williams.

21. Harvey Swados, “When Black and White Live Together,” New York Times Magazine, November 13, 1966.

22. Interviews with Herb Plever, Hugh Williams.

23. Maurice Cerrier, “Observations on House Congress,” Inside Rochdale, March 3, 1966.

24. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

25. Maurice Cerrier, “Observations on House Congress,” Inside Rochdale, November 4, 1966.

26. Maurice Cerrier, “Observations on House Congress,” Inside Rochdale, March 3, 1966.

27. Bernie Seaman, “Wave of Protest over Impending Rochdale Village Rent Increase,” Inside Rochdale, January 16, 1967.

28. “Tenants Council Formed,” Inside Rochdale, January 16, 1967; “Rent Protest Awakens Dormant Rochdalers,” Inside Rochdale, February 6, 1967.

29. Editorial, Inside Rochdale, January 16, 1967; interview with Jack Raskin.

30. “Rochdale Assessment Cut By Over Six Million,” Inside Rochdale, February 27, 1967.

31. Bernard Seeman, “Reflections,” Inside Rochdale, February 27, 1967.

32. Ronald Sturman, “Inside Russia,” Inside Rochdale, September 1966.

33. For Communist and left-wing involvement in rent strikes, see Ronald Lawson, ed., The Tenant Movement in New York City, 1904–1984 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1984).

34. Interview with Herb Plever.

35. Interview with Jack Raskin.

36. Ibid.

37. Interviews with Cal Jones, Hugh Williams.

38. Interview with Hugh Williams. Rochdale was not the only UHF cooperative where new residents found management gruff and unsympathetic. In Penn South, a sister cooperative in Midtown Manhattan that opened in 1962, residents complained in 1964 that adamant critics were met with a response something along the lines of “if you don’t like it, get out” (and intimating that there were currently 6,700 families on the waiting list ready to move in). Natalie Jaffe, “Tenants of Co-op Seek ‘Ownership,’” NYT, November 29, 1964.

39. Jaffe, “Tenants of Co-op Seek ‘Ownership.’”

40. Eddie Abramson, “An Eddie-Torial,” Inside Rochdale, May 27, 1965.

41. Aaron Safirstein, “B’nai B’rith at Rochdale Village,” Inside Rochdale, March 19, 1965.

42. Interview with Cal Jones.

43. Abraham Kazan, “Union Cooperative Housing,” in J. B. S. Hardman and Maurice F. Neufeld, eds., The House of Labor: Internal Operations of American Unions (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1951), 320–326; Herman Liebman, “Social Activity in Cooperatives,” Co-op Contact, 1 no. 12 (December 1956).

44. Eddie Abramson, “An Eddie-Torial,” Inside Rochdale, November 14, 1965; Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

45. Swados, and various issues of Inside Rochdale.

46. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

47. For the bizarre story of Rochdale’s Muck n’ Futch Mystery Club, see Michael T. Kaufman, In Their Own Good Time (New York: Saturday Review Press, 1973), 32–49.

48. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

49. Interview with Cal Jones.

50. “Muddy Waters at Rochdale Village Community Center,” NYT, November 29, 1967; “Mischa Elman Comes to Rochdale Village,” NYT, February 6, 1967.

51. Alan Truscott, “Bridge: Woman Student Is Winner at Integrated Event in Queens,” NYT, July 13, 1967. For another integrated bridge tournament at Rochdale, see the bridge column in the NYT for January 31, 1968.

52. “Chorus Invites You to Come on Up,” Inside Rochdale, February 11, 1966; “Community Singers Concert,” Inside Rochdale, March 3, 1966; “Rochdale Village Community Singers,” Inside Rochdale, March 11, 1968; programs of Rochdale Community Singers (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

53. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

54. Harold Ostroff, “The Impact of Housing Cooperatives in Urban Areas.”

55. Ibid.; The utopian strain in the UHF continued until the end, As late as 1964, the UHF reprinted excerpts from Robert Owen’s classic utopian socialist tract, “A New System of Society,” in Co-op Contact 6, no. 2 (March 1964).

56. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961), 74–88.

57. Rochdale Forum, April 4, 2002.

58. Rochdale Forum, June 1999.

59. Rochdale Forum, April 21, 2002.

60. Interview with Adele Goret.

61. Rochdale Forum, April 21, 2002.

62. Rochdale Forum, April 4, 2002; Rochdale Forum, April 3, 2002

63. Rochdale Forum, April 2, 2002.

64. Interview with Vicki Perlman.

65. Neil Levine, Rochdale Forum, June 29, 2000.

66. Interview with Evlynne Braithwaithe.

67. Vicki Perlman, Rochdale Forum, April 21, 2002.

68. Rochdale Forum, April 4, 2002.

69. Rochdale Forum, April 7, 2002.

70. Ibid., April 4, 2002.

71. Interview with Olga Lewis.

72. Interview with Evlynne Braithwaithe.

73. “The Art of Cooperative Living,” Co-op Contact 8, no. 3 (October–November 1964).

74. Rochdale Forum, April 4, 2002; Rochdale Forum, April 4, 2002; Rochdale Forum, April 4, 2002.

75. For excellent overviews of some pre-Jacobs fights against Moses’s conception of urban planning, see Robert Fishman, “Revolt of the Urbs: Robert Moses and his Critics,” in Hilary Ballon and Kenneth T. Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City: The Transformation of New York (New York: Norton, 2007), 122–129, and Hilary Ballon, “Robert Moses and Urban Renewal: The Title I program,” in Ballon and Jackson, eds., Robert Moses and the Modern City, 112–113.

76. Alice Sparberg Alexiou, Jane Jacobs: Urban Visionary (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2006), 112.

77. For discussions of Jane Jacobs, see Alexiou, Jane Jacobs; Max Allen, ed., Ideas That Matter: The Worlds of Jane Jacobs (Owen Sound, ON: Ginger Press, 1997).

78. Jacobs, Death and Life of Great American Cities, 48, 71.

79. Ibid., 17.

80. This was an influential current of thought in the 1950s. For a work of popular sociology that criticized active “joiners” as basically shallow and vapid, see William H. Whyte, The Organization Man (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1957), 317–318.

81. Jacobs, Death and Life of Great American Cities, 72.

82. Abraham Kazan, “Fuzzy Thinking,” Co-Op Contact 5, no. 5 (June–July 1962), 8.

83. Roger Starr, “Adventures in Mooritania,” Co-op Contact 5, no. 1 (January 1962).

84. Abraham Kazan, “An Award to the President of the UHF, November 12, 1963,” Co-op Contact 6, no. 10 (December 1963); “Commission for Landmarks Preservation Established,” Co-op Contact 8, no. 10 (June 1965).

85. Kazan, “An Award to the President of the UHF, November 12, 1963.”

86. Schuman, “Labor and Housing in New York,” 5.

87. William E. Farrell, “Architects Score Co-op City Design,” NYT, February 20, 1965; Steven V. Roberts, “Planners Accept Bronx Co-op City,” NYT, May 13, 1965.

88. Ada Louise Huxtable, “A Singularly New York Product,” NYT, November 25, 1968.

89. “Co-op City Housing Chides Critics of Design,” NYT, February 24, 1965.

90. Peter Hellman, “Co-op City,” Apartment Ideas (Spring 1971), 98–101, 120.

91. Ibid.

92. Ibid.

93. Ada Louise Huxtable, “Co-op City’s Grounds: After 3 Years, a Success,” NYT, October 26, 1971.

94. Hellman, “Co-op City”; interview with Harold Ostroff.

95. Harold Ostroff, “Labor Co-ops and the Housing Crisis.”

96. For another account of the pleasures of growing up in high-rise developments, see Corinne Demas, Eleven Stories High: Growing Up in Stuyvesant Town, 1948–1968 (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2000). For a defense of the management and internal culture in New York City Housing Authority projects in the decades after World War II, see Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Public Housing That Worked: New York in the Twentieth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.)

97. Sharon Zukin, Naked City: The Death and Life of Authentic Urban Places (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010). For her trenchant comments on Jane Jacobs’s underestimation of the forces of gentrification, see 1–34.

98. “James Agee: The Anarchist Sublime,” in John H. Summers, Every Fury on Earth (Aurora, CO: Pen Mark Press, 2008), 55–56.

8. Integrated Living

Epigraph. Harold Ostroff, “Comments at Princeton University,” April 19, 1968 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

1. Abraham Kazan, “1964,” Co-op Contact 7, no. 5 (January 1965).

2. Ibid.

3. Jerome Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion,” New York Herald Tribune, March 14, 1965.

4. Ostroff, “Comments at Princeton University.”

5. Bernard Seeman, “Rochdale Village Must Set an Example,” Inside Rochdale, November 26, 1966.

6. Reprinted in Inside Rochdale, January 27, 1965.

7. Clarence D. Funnye, “Brooklyn Project Opposed,” letter, NYT, July 13, 1967; Steven V. Roberts, “Co-op City Blend of Races Sought,” NYT, April 30, 1967; Joseph P. Fried, “Debate Still Swirls Around Co-op City,” NYT, March 17, 1968.

8. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

9. E-mail to Rochdale Forum, June 1999.

10. “High Holy Day Services,” Inside Rochdale, July 10, 1966.

11. William R. Mowat, An Experimental Ministry to a High-Rise Middle-Income Housing Complex (New York: Protestant Council of the City of New York, 1967), 3.

12. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

13. Libby Kahane, Rabbi Meir Kahane: His Life and Thought, vol. 1 (unpublished ms., collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

14. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion.”

15. Harvey Swados, “When Black and White Live Together,” New York Times Magazine, November 13, 1966.

16. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion.”

17. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

18. Ibid.

19. Rochdale Forum, July 1999.

20. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion.”

21. Conversation with name withheld, December 2004.

22. Interview with Lloyd Lawrence.

23. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion.”

24. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

25. Interview with Cal Jones.

26. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.” This practice was prohibited by the Rochdale Village Management, which complained that it “defaced” the development, and instituted a fine per infraction. Rochdale Village Bulletin, November 1964.

27. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid.

30. Interview with Cal Jones.

31. Rochdale Forum, August 1999.

32. Interview with Robert Lipsky.

33. Interviews with Barbara Brandes Roth, Vicky Perlman, February 2005.

34. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

35. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion.”

36. “Antisemitism: It’s Not as Bad as It Sounds,” Inside Rochdale, February 1969.

37. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961), 72.

38. “The Following is a Copy of a Letter Sent to the Borough President by Richard Fisher, Building 14A, Apt 12E,” Inside Rochdale, April 15, 1965.

39. Reprinted in Inside Rochdale, March 26, 1965.

40. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion”; interview with Cal Jones, December 2004.

41. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion.”

42. “Rochdale Village Negro Cultural Society,” Inside Rochdale, March 19, 1965.

43. Zukovsky, “Rochdale Village—A Test of Race and Religion.” There were talks on such topics as poet Paul Lawrence Dunbar and W. E. B. Du Bois, Inside Rochdale June 30, 1966. In 1967 the noted black nationalist John Henrik Clarke gave a series of lectures on “Africa at the Dawn of History: The Grandeur of Kush and East Africa,” Inside Rochdale, October 15, 1967.

44. Interview with Cal Jones.

45. Inside Rochdale, June 30, 1966.

46. Interview with Cal Jones.

47. Ibid.

48. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, 1970, 508.

49. “23 Bathing Pools Planned by Robert Moses,” NYT, July 2, 1934. Only eleven of those twenty- three pools were ever built.

50. Marta Gutman, “Race, Place, and Play: Robert Moses and the WPA Swimming Pools in NYC,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 86 (December 2008), 31.

51. Jeff Wiltse, Contested Waters: A Social History of Swimming Pools in America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 184.

52. Other plots, one adjacent to the proposed park, had already been turned over to the city for the building of Rochdale’s three public schools.

53. “Hearing on Addition for Lincoln Center to be Held June 19,” NYT, June 6, 1963; Proposed Department of Parks Recreation Center: New York Blvd at 134th Ave (New York: New York City Department of Parks, 1963).

54. “Rochdale Pool Starts Protests Swirling,” LIP, May 1, 1963. Although the lack of a swimming pool had been a concern of Jamaica civic groups for many years, the Jamaica Swimming Pool Committee seems to have been a front organization of sorts for the Queens Democratic Party, with Queens Borough President John Clancy as honorary chairman and party regular Hyman J. Greenberg as president. Greenberg, who was probably Jewish, was a candidate for the state assembly in a bitterly contested primary in 1962 against Kenneth N. Browne. Greenberg’s efforts were presumably in part to give him a visible role supporting a popular issue among black Jamaicans; Marie L. Crichlow, “Long Island’s Social Swim,” NPC, October 13, 1962; Clayton Knowles, “Queens Party Picks Clancy for Surrogate Race,” NYT, June 5, 1962.

55. “Rochdale Pool Starts Protests Swirling,” LIP, May 1, 1964; “Residents Oppose Rochdale Pool Site,” LIP, May 4, 1964.

56. “Residents Oppose Rochdale Pool Site, LIP, May 4, 1964.

57. Queens Borough President Mario J. Cariello to Commissioner of Parks Newbold Morris, May 4, 1964, Rochdale Village File, Department of Parks and Recreation, Municipal Archives.

58. Anonymous letter, Rochdale Village File, Department of Parks and Recreation, Municipal Archives.

59. Letter from Morris and Jacqueline Bresh, July 25, 1964, Rochdale Village File, Department of Parks and Recreation, Municipal Archives.

60. Letter from Mr. and Mrs. Louis Abramowitz, May 3, 1964, Rochdale Village File, Department of Parks and Recreation, Municipal Archives.

61. Letter from Mrs. Jack Cooper, May 4, 1964, Rochdale Village File, Department of Parks and Recreation, Municipal Archives.

62. Letter from Mrs. Rochelle Bakesof, June 23, 1964, Rochdale Village File, Department of Parks and Recreation, Municipal Archives.

63. Abraham E. Kazan to Newbold Morris, May 8, 1964, Rochdale Village File, Department of Parks and Recreation, Municipal Archives.

64. Newbold Morris to Abraham E. Kazan, May 20, 1964, Rochdale Village File, Department of Parks and Recreation, Municipal Archives.

65. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, 511.

66. “IS 72 Lunchroom Funnies,” Rochdale Forum, July 1999.

67. “Rochdale Trivia,” Rochdale Forum, April 1999.

68. For Kazan’s opposition to Con Edison, see interview with Harold Ostroff.

69. C. W. Meyrott, “Con Edison Reveals Story Behind Rochdale Village’s Self-Generated Power,” Electric Power and Light (October 1963), 52–53.

70. John Sibley, “3 Projects May Fight Con Edison by Building Own Power Plants,” NYT, February 22, 1960.

71. William Robbins, “Generators Ease Blackout Plight,” NYT, November 14, 1965.

72. Rochdale Forum, July 26, 1999.

73. Joe Raskin, Rochdale Forum, July 23, 1999.

74. “Two Co-op’s Lighthouses in Blackout,” New York Post, November 12, 1965.

75. Ruth B. Krulik, “An Island of Light,” letter, LIP, November 13, 1965.

76. Rochdale Forum, June 19, 1999; Rochdale Forum, July 22, 2004; Paulette, Rochdale Forum, July 24, 1999.

77. Interview with Evlynne Braithwaithe.

78. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

79. Interview with Lloyd Lawrence.

80. Interview with Omar Barbour.

81. Joseph Raskin, Rochdale Forum, July 23, 1999.

82. Interview with Cal Jones.

83. Kazan, Reminsciences, 505. Interviews with Juanita Watkins, Eddie Abramson.

84. Interview with Cal Jones.

85. Myron Becker, “City Housing Project Plan Stirs Up Rochdale Village,” LIP, April 11, 1965.

86. “Whites Reject Low Rent Housing Apartments,” NYAN, April 17, 1965; “Whites Want Exclusive Rights to New School,” NYAN, May 1, 1965; Mary Redic, “School Letter” [letter], NYAN, May 22, 1964.

87. “Letter by Richard Fisher, sent to the Borough President,” Inside Rochdale, April 15, 1965; “Low Cost Housing Sharply Contested at Meeting with Borough President Cariello,” Inside Rochdale, May 13, 1965; Samuel Kaplan, “Queens Borough Head Accused of Balking Low-Income Housing,” NYT, April 6, 1965.

88. “Clearview Expressway Problem,” Inside Rochdale, March 3, 1966.

89. “Introducing the South Queens Star,” Inside Rochdale, October 1968.

90. “Negro Voters Defeat ‘Enemy,’” Chicago Defender, November 26, 1960.

91. For Guy Brewer’s political career, including his leadership of the decidedly left-wing Jamaica Branch of the NAACP in the early 1950s, see Martha Biondi To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 73, 74, 165, 166, 169, 218.

92. District leaders in New York City were elected on the basis of assembly districts. From the 1920s each district typically had a male and female co-leader. Large districts sometimes were divided into two pairs of district leaders, A and B sections. This was the case in South Jamaica, where Guy Brewer controlled one section of the district, and the Rochdale Regular Democrats the other. In 1949, the position of district leader became elective by registered Democratic voters in the Democratic primary. For a brief history of the evolution of the position of district leader, see John C. Walter, The Harlem Fox: J. Raymond Jones and Tammany, 1920–1970 (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1988), 57–59.

93. Diane H. Jones, “Rochdale Village: An Arena for Black Politics” (master’s thesis, Columbia School of Journalism, 1984), 7.

94. Ibid., 10.

95. Ibid.; interview with Eddie Abramson.

96. Ibid.

97. No politician ever impressed Abramson as much as the young John Lindsay. Upon meeting him in 1958 he told his wife, “I just met somebody who is going to be president,” and later told Lindsay that he should have stayed in Congress and run for president, advice that Lindsay later told Abramson he regretted not taking.

98. Kennedy spoke at Rochdale on October 8, 1968. Alicia E. Smith, “Focus on Queens,” NYAN, October 10, 1964.

99. Interview with Cal Jones.

100. After several years he charged a fee of $1 a year for its distribution.

101. Despite a tendency to overfeature himself in Inside Rochdale, Abramson was a good editor who generally tried to report the news fairly and in reasonable depth. After he sold Inside Rochdale in 1968, the paper rapidly deteriorated.

102. Comments on Jamaica Avenue from interview with Eddie Abramson.

103. Abramson lambasted Reform Democratic critics (who had briefly published Our Town, an alternative to Inside Rochdale) who had attacked his incessant self-promotion. Abramson, “Editorial,” Inside Rochdale 2, no. 25 (June 30, 1966).

104. The officers and members of the Rochdale Regular Democratic Association are listed in Inside Rochdale, May 27, 1965.

105. Interview with Juanita Watkins.

106. Jones, “Rochdale Village,” 9.

107. Interview with Juanita Watkins.

108. “AJC Poll Reveals Much Opposition to the War,” Inside Rochdale, June 1968.

109. “Bernard Berrly New Democratic District Leader,” Inside Rochdale, September 1968. Berrly, who had fought for open housing and against block busting as president of the Neighborhood Relations Committee of the Tri-Community Council of Rosedale, Laurelton, and Springfield Gardens, told Inside Rochdale after his election that while racial discord threatened much of the city, he thought that southeastern Queens was one place that it could be avoided, and stated emphatically that “integration can work.”

110. Juanita Watkins had been offered a run for district leader with another candidate besides Abramson but refused to do so, fearing it would destroy the club.

111. Watkins did not go into detail about the allegations against Abramson, but one of the issues apparently involved his pledging support of the club to candidates that the club had not approved. Interview with Juanita Watkins.

112. Interview with Juanita Watkins.

113. Jones, “Rochdale Village,” 11.

9. Going to School

1. Rochdale Village Committee for Public Schools, “A Program for Quality Integrated Education at Public Schools 30 and 80, Queens NY,” ca. 1965 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

2. The term “de facto segregation” first appeared in the New York Times on November 10, 1955. For a critique of the term, see Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 285.

3. For the fight against separate school systems in Jamaica see Carleton Mabee, Black Education in New York State: From Colonial to Modern Times (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1979), 227–237; Lynda R. Day, Making a Way to Freedom: A History of African Americans on Long Island (Interlaken, NY: Empire State Books, 1997), 61–62.

4. Mabee, Black Education in New York State, 249.

5. For a summary of the fight against segregated schools in New York City in the late 1940s and early 1950s, and the role of Kenneth Clark, see Biondi, To Stand and Fight, 241–246. For Kenneth Clark in the 1950s, see Gerald E. Markowitz and David Rosner, Children, Race, and Power: Kenneth and Mamie’s Clark’s Northside Center (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1996).

6. “Some City Schools Held Segregated,” NYT, April 25, 1954; “Segregation Laid to Schools Here,” NYT, November 10, 1955; Leonard Buder, “City Schools Invite Inquiry of ‘Jim Crow’ Allegations,” NYT, July 14, 1954; Biondi, To Stand and Fight, 246; Clarence Taylor, Knocking at Our Own Door: Milton A. Galamison and the Struggle to Integrate New York City Schools (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 48–59.

7. For an overview of the Board of Education’s halting efforts at integration in the late 1950s and early 1960s, see David Rogers, 110 Livingston Street: Politics and Bureaucracy in the New York City Schools (New York: Random House, 1968), 15–35.

8. Kenneth Clark was quoted in May 1957 arguing that Superintendant Janesen was “deliberately confusing, delaying, distorting, and sidetracking the reports” of the commission established by the board to study integration, see Rogers, 110 Livingston Street, 20.

9. “Some Negroes Here Send Their Children to Schools in South,” NYT, August 30, 1959.

10. See Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origin of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996). For the Mason-Dixon Line in Queens, see Peggy Street, “Why They Fight for the P.A.T.,” NYT, September 20, 1964; Walter Woods, “The Tug of War,” Inside Rochdale, May 29, 1967.

11. State Education Commissioner’s Advisory Committee on Human Relations and Community Tensions, Desegregating the Public Schools of New York City (Albany, NY: New York State Department of Education, 1964), 3, 7.

12. To get into the Cold War spirit and name names (of some excellent and admirable historians), see Gerald Horne, Black and Red: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944–1963 (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1986), and Biondi, To Stand and Fight.

13. Jerald E. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 22.

14. For the definitive history of the 1964 boycott, see Taylor, Knocking at Our Own Door. For Malcolm X’s and Podhoretz’s (both admittedly lukewarm) support of the boycott, see Taylor, 147, 158. I am proud to say that I was one of the 464,000 schoolchildren who stayed home on February 3, 1964.

15. Leonard Buder, “School Boycott Called Certain,” NYT, January 28, 1961; Robert H. Terte, “Donovan Appeals to Local Boards to Fight Boycotts,” NYT, September 20, 1964.

16. For a summary of complaints about the education of minorities in New York City’s public schools in the mid-1950s, see Markowitz and Rosner, Children, Race, and Power, 90–98.

17. Taylor, Knocking at Our Own Door, 52.

18. “Some City Schools Held Segregated.”

19. State Education Commissioner’s Advisory Committee on Human Relations and Community Tensions, Desegregating the Public Schools of New York City.

20. Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in White and Black (New York: Random House, 1964), 304.

21. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

22. “One of Last 5 Wooden Schools in City to Be Closed Tomorrow,” NYT, April 9, 1964, on the closing of PS 161. It had been built in 1895. In 1964, three of the five remaining wooden school buildings in New York City were in the Jamaica-Springfield Gardens area, with the remaining two on Staten Island.

23. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

24. Interview with Juanita Watkins.

25. “To Teach Negro History Course,” New York Amsterdam News (hereafter NYAN), July 6, 1935; “Segregation Move Denied,” NYAN, January 26, 1935; “Rev. Imes to Speak at Victory Meeting,” NYAN, April 27, 1935.

26. “Probers Challenge Principal’s Answer,” NYAN, February 2, 1935; “Mother and Student Picket School in Transfer Protest,” NYAN, February 11, 1939; “End Jamaica School Strike,” NYAN, September 16, 1939.

27. “Big School Fight in Jamaica,” NYAN, November 10, 1945.

28. Leonard Buder, “City Schools Cleared in Segregation Study,” NYT, November 7, 1955; “Wagner Surveys Needs of Queens,” NYT, September 4, 1953; Biondi, To Stand and Fight, 240. There were fourteen wooden frame school buildings in Queens in 1953.

29. Peter Kihss, “Queens Is Growing, and So Are Its Troubles,” NYT, November 29, 1963.

30. Peter Kihss, “Jansen Will Face Critics in Queens,” NYT, March 23, 1957; Tillman Durdin, “Barriers for Negro Here Still High Despite Gains,” NYT, April 23, 1956.

31. “He Didn’t Talk to Negroes But Says We Don’t Want Integration,” NYAN, April 6, 1957.

32. Street, “Why They Fight for the P.A.T.” For PAT see, Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 23–30. The term “white backlash” first appeared in the New York Times on November 10, 1963, about a month before the first family moved into Rochdale.

33. For the development of the “neighborhood school” as an idée fixe within the school integration debate, see Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 21–47.

34. Rosemary Gunning, the leader of PAT, would be Buckley’s candidate for City Council president. William F. Buckley Jr., The Unmaking of a Mayor (New York: Viking Press, 1966), 205–206.

35. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 30.

36. “Civil Rights and Housing,” Co-op Contact 4, no. 3 (February–March 1960).

37. David Ser to Harold Ostroff, March 29, 1963, Rochdale Village File, Max Rubin Papers, New York City Board of Education Records, Municipal Archives.

38. Rogers, 110 Livingston Street, 510.

39. Interview with Herb Plever. The Board of Education announced plans to replace the two wooden elementary schools in South Jamaica in late 1958, but nothing further was heard of this until 1961, when plans were approved to build PS 80 (but not PS 30); Homer Bigart, “All Schools Here to Get Fire Check,” NYT, December 3, 1958; “23 New Schools Slated for 1961,” NYT, January 8, 1961. A year later PS 30 was still languishing in “advance planning” status; see Gene Currivan, “Schools Will Set Building Record,” NYT, January 8, 1962. By April 1963, PS 30 was among a group of four projects slated for “immediate construction,” pending Board of Estimate approval; Gene Currivan, “Mayor Will Urge School Building,” NYT, April 22, 1963. By November 1963, an article noted that “PS 80 is nearing completion on the site, and a contract was recently awarded by the school board for the construction of PS 30”; “Co-op to Include Classroom Space,” NYT, November 24, 1963.

40. Plever was a member of People’s Songs, a musical organization very close to the Communist Party, and said that Harvey Matusow, one of the most unscrupulous and least veracious of the prominent ex-Communist informants of the early 1950s, accused him of being the “commissar” of a party cell that included Pete Seeger, folk singer Betty Sanders, and bluesman Brownie McGhee; interview with Herb Plever. For People’s Songs, see Ronald D. Cohen and Dave Samuelson, Songs for Political Action: Folk Music, Topical Songs, and the American Left, 1926–1953, liner notes for Bear Family Records, BCD 15720 JL, 26–33.

41. As Martha Biondi has shown, the early fight for school integration in New York City was pressed by such diverse groups as the Teachers’ Union (expelled from the CIO for its Communist leanings), the NAACP, and the National Urban League. Biondi, To Stand and Fight, 241–249.

42. Interview with Herb Plever. Samuel Zipp writes of the emergence of a new breed of left/liberal neighborhood-based organizations and coalitions in New York City in the mid- to late 1950s, addressing such issues as educational and housing inequality that provided Jane Jacobs with her initial exposure to the sort of issues that would make her reputation. The Rochdale Village Public School Committee was similar to these new groups in many ways, though it was a grassroots organization that ultimately backed, rather than opposed, urban renewal. See Samuel Zipp, “Living for the City,” The Nation, April 5, 2010, and Samuel Taylor Zipp, “Manhattan Projects: Cold War Urbanism in the Age of Urban Renewal” (PhD diss., Yale University, 2006).

43. For Stein’s background see Taylor, Knocking at Our Own Door, 55–58.

44. Interview with Herb Plever.

45. Interview with Sue Raskin.

46. For the initial response of Harold Ostroff to the school protesters, see interviews with Herb Plever, Jack and Sue Raskin.

47. Interview with Herb Plever.

48. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

49. Sylvia Jaffee to Bernard Donovan, April 2, 1963, Rochdale Village File, Max Rubin Papers, New York City Board of Education Records, Municipal Archives; interview with Herb Plever.

50. Bernard Donovan to Harold Ostroff, April 4, 1963; Memo to Max Rubin, April 9, 1963; Rochdale Village File, Max Rubin Papers, New York City Board of Education Records, Municipal Archives.

51. Anonymous quotation in Rogers,  110 Livingston Street, 520.

52. “Special Bulletin by the Rochdale Village Temporary Committee for Public Schools,” ca. 1963 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

53. “Co-op to Include Classroom Space,” NYT, November 24, 1963.

54. “Fear Rochdale Will Swamp Local Schools,” LIP, November 8, 1963.

55. Interviews with Herb Plever, Sue Raskin.

56. David Ser to Harold Ostroff, March 29, 1963, Rochdale Village File, Max Rubin Papers, New York City Board of Education Records, Municipal Archives.

57. Interviews with Jack and Sue Raskin, Herb Plever.

58. Rochdale Village Committee for Public Schools, “Letter to Dr. Ryan, Werner, and Members of the Board,” December 5, 1963 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

59. Interview with Jack and Sue Raskin.

60. Rochdale Village Committee for Public Schools, “Letter to Dr. Ryan, Werner, and Members of the Board.”

61. “2 Rochdale Schools to Get Grant,” LIP, February 1, 1965.

62. Doxey Wilkerson, “Teacher Institute on Individualizing Instruction for Classroom Integration at PS 30 and PS 80, Queens, New York City: 1965–66” (handbook, collection of Peter Eisenstadt). In the words of the report, the primary purpose of the institute was to “further school integration by helping teachers to develop certain specified understandings, attitudes and abilities deemed important in adapting instruction to the varying needs of pupils who differ in racial and social-class background, academic achievement, social attitudes, and general patterns of conduct” (page a).

63. For a broader introduction to Wilkerson’s and Gordon’s educational thinking on integrated education and tracking at the time of the Rochdale study, see Edmund W. Gordon and Doxey A. Wilkerson, Compensatory Education for the Disadvantaged: Programs and Practices: Preschool through College (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1966).

64. Rochdale Village Committee for Public Schools, “Letter to Dr. Ryan, Werner, and Members of the Board.”

65. Interview with Jack Raskin. According to Raskin, a pamphlet was prepared proposing the Rochdale Educational Park by Stein and Wolff, but I have been unable to locate it. For Wolff’s writings on educational parks, see Max Wolff, Educational Park Development in the United States in 1967: A Survey of Current Development Plans, Educational Park Survey (New York: Center for Urban Education, 1967); Max Wolff with Alan Rinzler, The Educational Park: A Guide to Its Implementation (New York: Center for Urban Education, 1970).

66. Interviews with Herb Plever, Jack and Sue Raskin.

67. Wilkerson had been a well-known professor of education at Howard University before joining the Communist Party, leaving Howard, and becoming one of the most prominent African American Communists in the 1940s. For an important and widely circulated statement of his Communist beliefs, see Wilkerson, “Victory in War and Peace,” in Rayford Logan, ed., What the Negro Wants (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1944), 193–216. His commitment to Communism did not mean that he accepted unquestioningly all promulgations of the party line. In 1946, as a party member, he criticized the revival of the Communist Party’s far-fetched scheme for self-determination within a black homeland in the South, arguing that progress for black Americans was possible without the overthrow of capitalism. See Joseph R. Starobin, American Communism in Crisis, 1943–1957 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), 132–133. He left the Communist Party in 1958.

68. Interview with Herb Plever.

69. Interviews with Barbara Brandes Roth, Ursula Day.

70. “Queens Survey: White and Negro Parents Reveal Similar Aspirations,” NPC, August 14, 1965.

71. The area around JHS 8, according to a 1965 study of the school, had “the characteristics of a poorer section of the city,” with its population in private dwellings and low-rise apartment buildings. Its predecessor school, JHS 40, in the late 1950s, had had a transiency rate (students transferring in or out during the school year) of over 50 percent, the highest rate of any junior high school in Queens. Gertrude Downing et al., The Preparation of Teachers for Schools in Culturally Deprived Neighborhoods (Flushing, NY: Queens College, 1965), 16.

72. Richard S. Grossley (1885–1955), a prominent African American educator, served as president of Baton Rouge College (1914–1916) and Delaware State College (1923–1943). In 1948 he was appointed to the faculty of Long Island University and moved to Jamaica, where he would be active in educational issues in southeastern Queens.

73. “NAACP bows to Segregated Site,” NYAN, April 2, 1960; “Leadership??” editorial, NYAN, April 9, 1960; William Booth, “NAACP Head Clears Up School Stand,” letter to the editor, NYAN, April 23, 1960; interview with Kenneth Tewel; Juliette Burnett, “School Report by Parents for Educational Progress,” Inside Rochdale, April 27, 1967.

74. “Fear Rochdale Will Swamp Local Schools.”

75. For background on JHS 8, see Downing, The Preparation of Teachers for Schools in Culturally Deprived Neighborhoods, 16; interview with Kenneth Tewel.

76. See letter by Marion Stern, Inside Rochdale, April 29, 1965; “Eighteen More Schools in Pairing Named,” NYT, February 25, 1964; Rogers, 110 Livingston Street, 46–47.

77. “JHS 8 Utilization,” Inside Rochdale, September 1966.

78. See letter by Marion Stern, Inside Rochdale, April 29, 1965.

79. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

80. “Letter of Rochdale Village Committee for Public Schools to Cooperators,” November 10, 1963 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

81. Ibid.; Rochdale Committee for Public Schools, “To Dr. Ryan, Mr. Booth, and Members of the Local School Board of District 50,” November 1, 1963, Subject Files, Integration, James B. Donovan series 321, Board of Education Records, Municipal Archives.

82. Harvey Swados, “When Black and White Live Together,” New York Times Magazine, November 13, 1966.

83. Leonard Buder, “City to Transfer Pupils This Fall for Integration,” NYT, May 29, 1964; interview with Kenneth Tewel.

84. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.” An accelerated track that combined seventh, eight, and ninth grades into a two-year program was introduced in the New York City public schools in 1922. In 1960 a new three-year enriched program was introduced, which educators thought would reduce some of the maturity problems with accelerated programs. In 1962, of 190,000 students in the city’s junior high schools, 11,000 were in the accelerated programs, and 14,000 were in the enriched programs. Both these programs were universally known as the SPs, or the Special Programs. “Principals Back Enriched Studies” NYT, July 25, 1962.

85. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

86. Ibid.

87. Walter Woods, “The Tug of War,” Inside Rochdale, May 29, 1967.

88. Leonard Buder, “City to Transfer Pupils This Fall for Integration,” NYT, May 29, 1964; Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

89. “JHS 8 Utilization,” Inside Rochdale, September 1966.

90. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

91. Interview with George and Beryl Korot.

92. Interview with Susan and Jack Raskin.

93. Interview with George and Beryl Korot.

94. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

95. Interview with Adele Goret.

96. James F. Clarity, “Quality of Schools Varies Widely Under Local Boards,” NYT, February 21, 1971.

97. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

98. Marion Stern, Inside Rochdale, April 29, 1965.

99. Rochdale Forum, April 21, 2002.

100. Rochdale Forum, May 3, 1999.

101. Interview with Evlynne Braithwaite.

102. Interviews with Merrill Oliver Douglas, Joseph Raskin, Barbara Brandes Roth, Evlynne Braithwaite.

103. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

104. Interviews with James Klurfeld, Vicki Perlman.

105. Rochdale Forum, May 1, 1999.

106. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

107. Rogers, 110 Livingston Street, 511.

108. Larry Lapka, Rochdale Forum, August 2, 1999.

10. The Great Fear and the High-Crime Era

1. For a classic account of the Kitty Genovese murder see A. M. Rosenthal, Thirty-Eight Witnesses (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964). For a revisionist account of the reaction of the potential witnesses to the murder, see Jim Rasenberger, “Kitty, 40 Years Later,” NYT, February 8, 2004.

2. Eric H. Monkkonen, Murder in New York City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 8–9.

3. Joshua M. Zeitz, White Ethnic New York: Jews, Catholics, and the Shaping of Postwar Politics (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 144. Taxes, the rental market, schools, unemployment, the subways, welfare fraud, and traffic and parking all ranked higher. Race relations ranked tenth.

4. Vincent J. Cannato, The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and His Struggle to Save New York (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 59.

5. Robert W. Snyder, “Crime,” in Kenneth T. Jackson, ed., The Encyclopedia of New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995); Peter Eisenstadt, Charles Lidner, and Andrew Karmen, “Crime,” in Peter Eisenstadt, ed., The Encyclopedia of New York State (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005). For overviews of the high-crime era see Michael W. Flamm, Law and Order: Street Crime, Civil Unrest, and the Crisis of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005); Lawrence M. Friedman, Crime and Punishment in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 449–466.

6. For the debate over the Civilian Complaint Review Board see Marilynn S. Johnson, Street Justice: A History of Police Violence in New York City (Boston: Beacon Press, 2003), 232–251; Cannato, The Ungovernable City, 155–188.

7. Advertisements in Inside Rochdale, October 7, 1966.

8. “Jamaicans Demand Police Protection,” NYAN, March 11, 1939; “Jamaica Cops Nip Terrors,” NYAN, March 18, 1939; “South Jamaica Residents Protest Lawlessness: Demand More Police,” NYAN, April 4, 1941; “Negro Cops Are Assigned to South Jamaica Section,” NYAN, August 12, 1944; “NAACP Meeting to Protest Increasing ‘Police Brutality,’” NYAN, October 8, 1949.

9. Edward Carpenter and Jacquelyn Peterson, South Jamaica: A Community Study (New York: Queens College Children and Parents Center, 1966), 37. The rate increased in South Jamaica from 29.3 per 1,000 (juvenile delinquents identified per 1,000 persons aged 7 to 20) to 66.4. The rate for Queens as a whole was 29.6.

10. Reminiscences of Abraham E. Kazan, Oral History Collection, Columbia University, 1977, 504.

11. Harvey Swados, “When Black and White Live Together,” New York Times Magazine, November 13, 1966.

12. Interview with Anita Starr.

13. Inside Rochdale, September 1968.

14. The best-known work is Oscar Newman, Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through Urban Design (New York: Macmillan, 1972), and all this literature draws liberally on the insights of Jane Jacobs, for whom this was just one additional element in the design flaws of superblock housing. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961), 29–54.

15. Interview with Olga Lewis.

16. Rochdale Village Bulletin, June 1964, 1–2; “Rochdale Families Air Their Beefs,” LIP, February 16, 1964; “Rochdale Protests Protested by Protestors’ Neighbors,” LIP, February 21, 1964.

17. Inside Rochdale, April 15, 1965.

18. “SRO at Civic Ass’n Meeting,” Inside Rochdale, October 7, 1965.

19. “Petition to Mayor Wagner,” Inside Rochdale, November 15, 1965.

20. Maurice Cerrier, “Observations on House Congress,” Inside Rochdale, March 25, 1966.

21. “Boyers Outlines Plan to Halt Rochdale March of Crime,” LIP, March 23, 1966.

22. Ibid.; Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

23. Richard Patcher, “The Eye and Ear,” Inside Rochdale, December 18, 1967.

24. “The Star Poll,” Inside Rochdale, October 1968.

25. Anonymous letter, Inside Rochdale, February 1969.

26. Anonymous letter, Inside Rochdale, February 1972.

27. Eddie Abramson, “SOS,” Inside Rochdale, December 19, 1966.

28. Patcher, “The Eye and Ear.”

29. “Rapist Gets 25 Years,” NYT, January 28, 1972.

30. “Security Committee of the Board of Directors,” Rochdale Village Inc., March 9, 1972, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University.

31. “Stabbed Rochdaler Complains of Management Indifference,” Inside Rochdale, July 1969.

32. Helen Katz, “When Will the Madness End?” Inside Rochdale, November 26, 1966.

33. “How to Protect Your Car From Thieves,” Inside Rochdale, November 1966.

34. Harold Ostroff to Executive Committee of Rochdale Village, Inc., February 17, 1971, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives.

35. For organized crime at Kennedy Airport, see James B. Jacobs, Gotham Unbound: How New York City Was Liberated from the Grip of Organized Crime (New York: New York University Press, 1999). For the ubiquity of professional car thieves in South Jamaica and Rochdale, see interview with Omar Barbour.

36. Harold Ostroff to Executive Committee of Rochdale Village, Inc.

37. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

38. Inside Rochdale, October 1968; Mrs. S. Gordon, “Takes Exception,” letter, March 18, 1972, Inside Rochdale; Rochdale Village Board of Directors, minutes from the Board of Directors meeting on April 18, 1972.

39. “Crime Plagues Local Stores,” Inside Rochdale, January 1970.

40. Ibid.

41. “Can Decay Be Stopped?” Inside Rochdale, July 25, 1970.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid. For Victor Gruen, see M. Jeffrey Hardwick, Mall Maker: Victor Gruen, Architect of an American Dream (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003).

44. “Can Decay Be Stopped?”

45. “Crime: Rochdale Answers,” Inside Rochdale, May 1972.

46. Security Department, news release, April 1971, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives. The report spoke of some serious incidents including eight involving thirteen- and fourteen-year-olds (six of whom were residents of Rochdale) who rode on the top of elevators pouring oil down the shafts, wanting to see sparks.

47. Security Department, news release, April 1971, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives. According to one report, by January 1973, the per month cost of vandalism was $14,000. Hal Levenson to Jules Weinstein, Inside Rochdale, May 1973.

48. See papers of “Ad Hoc Committee Against Drug Abuse in Rochdale Village and Southeastern Queens” (collection of Peter Eisenstadt). The organization was founded in 1971 by Arthur Greene.

49. Interview with Omar Barbour.

50. Arthur Greene to Dorothy Brannum, June 8, 1971 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

51. Security Committee of the Board of Directors, March 9, 1972, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

52. February 1972 anonymous letter to Inside Rochdale.

53. “SRO at Civic Ass’n Meeting,” Inside Rochdale, October 17, 1965.

54. Security Department, news release, April 1971, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

55. Hal Levenson to Jules Weinstein, Inside Rochdale, May 1973. The NYPD statistics covered Rochdale and its immediate vicinity, a sector of the 113th precinct, an area about one and a third the size of Rochdale itself.

56. Inside Rochdale, September 1968.

57. “Crime Plagues Merchants,” Inside Rochdale, April 19, 1972. To the claims of the local police that Rochdale had “the lowest crime rate in the precinct,” a merchant responded, “That’s not much of a comfort when our precinct has one of the highest crime rates in the city.”

58. Jules Weinstein, “Message from the Manager,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, November 1971; Jules Weinstein, “Message from the Manager,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, May 1972; interviews with William Jones, Joe Raskin.

59. Citywide crime statistics for 1972 are available in Snyder, “Crime.”

60. Mrs. S. Gordon, “Takes Exception,” letter, Inside Rochdale, March 18, 1972.

61. Security Committee of the Board of Directors, Rochdale Village Inc., March 9, 1972, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives.

62. “SRO at Civic Ass’n Meeting,” Inside Rochdale, October 15, 1965.

63. “Boyers Outlines Plan to Halt Rochdale March of Crime,” LIP, March 23, 1966.

64. “103rd Precinct to Patrol Inside Rochdale,” Inside Rochdale, October 7, 1966.

65. Patcher, “The Eye and Ear.”

66. “Inquiring Photographer: This Month’s Question: What Would You Do to Increase Security at Rochdale and How Would You Suggest Improving Security?” Inside Rochdale, September 1968.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. Security Committee of the Board of Directors, Rochdale Village Inc., March 9, 1972, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

70. Rochdale Village Security Department, news release, April 1971, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

71. Security Committee of the Board of Directors, Rochdale Village Inc., March 9, 1972, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

72. Robert J. McCants, “Report on Security Department,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, March 1974.

73. “Co-operator Nabs Bicycle Suspect,” Inside Rochdale, October 15, 1965.

74. Sidney Rosenberg, letter, Inside Rochdale, January 15, 1968.

75. Interview with Adele Goret.

76. See papers of “Ad Hoc Committee Against Drug Abuse in Rochdale Village and Southeastern Queens.”

77. Interview with Cal Jones; “Black Dimensions,” Rochdale Black Society Newsletter, April 1972.

78. “Operation Blinker,” Inside Rochdale, June 27, 1967; “Operation Blinker,” Inside Rochdale, October 15, 1967; Jack Lehman, “A Partial Report on Operation Blinker,” Inside Rochdale, January 14, 1968.

79. Sidney Rosenberg, letter, Inside Rochdale, January 15, 1968.

80. Rochdale Board of Directors, “This Is Rochdale’s Situation,” Rochdale Board of Directors minutes, November 1970, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives.

81. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

82. “Co-operator Nabs Bicycle Suspect.”

83. “Boyers Outlines Plan to Halt Rochdale March of Crime.”

84. Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

85. Patcher, “The Eye and Ear.”

86. “Crime Plagues Local Stores.”

87. Interview with Eddie Abramson.

88. Security Department, news release, April 1971, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives.

89. Maurice Cerrier, “Observations on House Congress,” Inside Rochdale, December 11, 1966.

90. Inside Rochdale, February 1969.

91. Interview with Evlynne Braithwaithe; Rod Smith, “Auxiliary Police Corner,” Rochdale Black Society: Black Dimension, January–February 1973; Lindsey Gruson, “Killings in Rochdale Village Cause Neighbor to Fear Neighbor,” NYT, September 4, 1982.

92. “This Is Rochdale’s Situation.” There were proposals to charge residents or their children for the costs incurred by acts of vandalism; Lewis Lubka and David Stoloff to Board of Directors of Rochdale Village Inc., November 24, 1970, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives.

93. “To the Parents in Rochdale Village,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, April 1974.

94. Anonymous letter, Inside Rochdale, July 1969.

95. Tom McMorrow, “Rochdale Co-opers Charge No Cooperation in Crime Fight,” Daily News, July 5, 1969.

96. Inside Rochdale, November 21, 1970.

97. “New Tenants Group Formed,” Inside Rochdale, March 1970.

98. Rod Smith, “Auxiliary Police Corner.”

99. Ibid.

100. “To the Parents in Rochdale Village.”

101. Anonymous letter, Inside Rochdale, February 1972.

102. Beverly Epstein to Rochdale Village Board of Directors, July 11, 1972, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

103. Ibid.

104. Ibid.; Security Committee of the Board of Directors, Rochdale Village Inc., March 9, 1972, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives.

105. Anonymous letter, Inside Rochdale, February 1972.

106. “This Is Rochdale’s Situation.”

107. Oscar Trager, “Mans Best Friend???,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, September 1972.

108. Security Committee of the Board of Directors, March 9, 1972, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives.

109. Robert B. Kaufman to Jules I. Weinstein, re: dog cases, October 16, 1974, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

110. Eddie Abramson, “SOS!”

111. Eddie Abramson, editorial, Inside Rochdale, July 1969.

112. Eddie Abramson, “Why I am Supporting Mario A. Proccacino,” advertisement, Inside Rochdale, September 1969.

113. Inside Rochdale, October 1972.

114. Nathan Glazer, “When the Melting Pot Doesn’t Melt,” NYT, January 2, 1972.

115. Mario Cuomo, Forest Hills Diary: The Crisis of Low-Income Housing (New York: Random House, 1974), 93.

116. Barbara Brandes Roth, Rochdale Forum, February 24, 2002.

11. The 1968 Teachers’ Strike and the Implosion of Integration

1. The literature on the 1968 teachers strike is voluminous. The most comprehensive and evenhanded account is Jerald E. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York: Blacks, Whites, and the Ocean Hill–Brownsville Crisis (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003).

2. For Shanker’s membership on the UHF Board of Directors, see United Housing Foundation, Twenty Years of Accomplishment (New York: UHF, 1971), 30.

3. Interviews with Cal Jones, Jack Raskin.

4. Interview with Anita Starr.

5. Interview with Eddie Abramson.

6. Interview with Harold Ostroff.

7. Interview with Herb Plever.

8. Interviews with Anita Starr, Cal Jones.

9. Gene Currivan, “Parents Will Get City School Voice,” NYT, April 21, 1967.

10. For the difference between community control and decentralization, see Vincent J. Cannato, The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and His Struggle to Save New York (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 275–276; Joshua M. Zeitz, White Ethnic New York: Jews, Catholics and the Shaping of Postwar Politics (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 162.

11. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 23; David Rogers: 110 Livingston Street: Politics and Bureaucracy in the New York City Schools (New York: Random House, 1968), 266–323.

12. Rogers, 110 Livingston Street, 370–373.

13. Cannato, The Ungovernable City, 275–276.

14. For Parents and Taxpayers, see Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 23–30.

15. For a typical critique of the state of the city’s public schools by liberal integrationists, see Kenneth B. Clark, Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 111–153.

16. See Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 71–102.

17. Richard D. Kahlenberg, Tough Liberal: Albert Shanker and the Battles over Schools, Unions, Race, and Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 123. For similar accounts see Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 166; Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 37–38.

18. For attacks on Lindsay as a “limousine liberal” who “tolerated violence [and] explained away anti-Semitism,” see Kahlenberg, Tough Liberal, 112.

19. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 81.

20. Ibid., 42–47.

21. For the IS 201 controversy in 1966–67 see Cannato, The Ungovernable City, 272–275, and Kahlenberg, Tough Liberal, 68–71.

22. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 71–102.

23. Ibid., 1–9, 103–115.

24. Ibid., 115–152.

25. Interview with Cal Jones.

26. Howard Thurman, The Search for Common Ground: An Inquiry into the Basis of Man’s Experience of Community (1971; repr., Richmond, IN: United Friends Press, 1986).

27. Most accounts of the strike are exercises in dichotomization, see Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 159–168; Kahlenberg, Tough Liberal, 93–124; Tamar Jacoby, Someone Else’s House: America’s Unfinished Struggle for Integration (New York: Free Press, 1998), 175–220; Cannato, The Ungovernable City, 339–340. Even Podair underestimates the extent to which, in places like Rochdale, both strike supporters and opponents were deeply committed to the ideals of integrated schools.

28. For the African Teacher’s Association and the Ocean Hill–Brownsville controversy, see Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 153–174.

29. “The Perfect School, A Problem,” Inside Rochdale, September 25, 1967.

30. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 160–164.

31. Emanuel Perlmutter, “Booth Questions Teachers’ Motives,” NYT, October 1, 1967.

32. Rochdale Forum, May 1, 1999; Rochdale Forum, May 2, 1999; interviews with Vicki Perlman, Sue Raskin, Freddy Eisenstadt.

33. Rochdale Forum, May 1, 1999.

34. Ibid.; Rochdale Forum, May 2, 1999.

35. Interview with Cal Jones.

36. Lenny Vaughan, Inside Rochdale, April 1966.

37. Eddie Abramson, “Rochdale Supports JHS 8,” Inside Rochdale, September 1966.

38. Juliette Burnett [president, PTA 116], “School Report by Parents for Educational Progress,” Inside Rochdale, April 24, 1967.

39. “IS 72 Proposals Draw Large Crowds,” Inside Rochdale, February 27, 1967.

40. “IS 72,” Inside Rochdale, January 21, 1966.

41. Mary Redic, letter to the editor, Inside Rochdale, March 13, 1966.

42. Eddie Abramson, “Integrated Schools,” Inside Rochdale, February 27, 1967.

43. “School Pairing Controversy Continues,” Inside Rochdale, June 1968.

44. Eddie Abramson, “Bundy School Re-Districting Plan,” Inside Rochdale, April 5, 1968.

45. Sue Raskin remembers a strenuous argument with a black official of the Transport Workers Union about the strike, she opposing the strike, he supporting it. (Their argument, like many held between people on the opposite sides of the strike, had the effect of cooling their friendship); interview with Sue Raskin.

46. Interview with Cal Jones.

47. Ibid.

48. Interview with Sue Raskin.

49. See the advertisements in the NYT of September 20, 1968, “Why Don’t They Want Our Children to Learn?” and “The Freedom to Teach.” Dwight McDonald originally signed the latter advertisement but later changed sides and engaged in a prolonged polemic with Michael Harrington, reprinted in Maurice R. Berube and Marilyn Gittell, Confrontation at Ocean Hill–Brownsville: The New York School Strikes of 1968 (New York: Praeger, 1969), 222–246.

50. Interview with Anita Starr.

51. Interview with Cal Jones.

52. Interview with Herb Plever.

53. “The Star Poll,” Inside Rochdale, November 1968.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Interview with Cal Jones.

57. Interview with Anita Starr.

58. Interview with Herb Plever.

59. Interview with Cal Jones.

60. Interview with Francesca Spero.

61. Interview with Cal Jones.

62. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

63. Interview with Cal Jones.

64. Interview with Herb Plever.

65. “Local Election Results,” Inside Rochdale, November 1968.

66. “Lindsay in Rochdale,” Inside Rochdale, November 1969.

67. “Anti-Semitism: Not as Bad as It Sounds,” Inside Rochdale, February 1969.

68. Interview with Sue Raskin.

69. Interview with Anita Starr.

70. William H. Booth, “Racism and Human Rights,” in Nat Hentoff, ed., Black Anti-Semitism and Jewish Racism (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), 117–128.

71. Charles G. Bennett, “Booth Replaced in City Rights Job and Named Judge,” NYT, February 5, 1969.

72. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York, 171–182.

73. “Jamaica NAACP Supports PS 40 Principal,” NYAN, June 17, 1967.

74. Interview with Herman Ferguson.

75. Interviews with Cal Jones, Herb Plever.

76. Interview with Sue Raskin.

77. Interview with Cal Jones.

78. There is a voluminous literature on black-Jewish relations. See Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, Troubling the Waters: Black-Jewish Relations in the American Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006); Jack Salzman and Cornel West, Struggles in the Promised Land: Toward a History of Black-Jewish Relations in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Maurianne Adams and John H. Bracey, eds., Strangers and Neighbors: Relations between Blacks and Jews in the United States (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000).

79. “AJC Set to Launch Negro-Jewish Project,” Inside Rochdale, February 11, 1966; Harvey Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

80. Harvey Swados, “When Black and White Live Together.”

81. Bernard Seeman, “Reflections,” Inside Rochdale, September 25, 1967.

82. Samuel Mandell, “Ezra Tobias, Man of the Month,” Inside Rochdale, June 26, 1967.

83. Interview with Eddie Abramson. Kahane had already published a book calling on Jews to support the war in Vietnam.

84. “Forum on Anti-Semitism,” Inside Rochdale, February 1969.

85. “The Traditional Synagogue of Rochdale,” in Libby Kahane, Rabbi Meir Kahane: His Life and Thought, vol. 1, unpublished manuscript in the author’s possession (now published, see bibliography). This book, by Kahane’s widow, is the most thorough and carefully researched study of Meir Kahane, and while sympathetic to its subject, is not unduly polemical; Robert I. Friedman, The False Prophet: Rabbi Meir Kahane, from FBI Informant to Knesset Member (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1990), is, as the title indicates, rather polemical, and is a work of journalism but forms a necessary supplement to Libby Kahane’s biography.

86. Interview with Robert Lipsky.

87. Campbell had read the poem of a student that began “Jewboy, Jewboy, yarmulke on your head/Jewboy, Jewboy, I wish you were dead” on the Julius Lester program on WBAI on December 26, 1968, and not during the teachers’ strike, as is often assumed. Leonard Buder, “Board Is Asked to Oust Teacher over Poem Called Anti-Semitic,” NYT, January 18, 1969. Merton Chertoff claimed that the JDL, “by using violence…succeeded in denying” Leslie Campbell from speaking. Merton Chertoff, “Gertrude & JDL,” letter, NYAN, June 12, 1971.

88. Libby Kahane, “The JDL November 1968–June 1969,” in Rabbi Meir Kahane; “Members of the JDL Picket at P.S. 30, Rochdale Village,” LIP, January 17, 1969.

89. Libby Kahane, “The JDL November 1968–June 1969,” in Rabbi Meir Kahane.

90. “Decentralization Plan Rapped by Foes on Both Sides,” Inside Rochdale, January 1968.

91. M. A. Farber, “Suit Charges Bias in Queens Schools,” NYT, March 3, 1970.

92. Rochdale Village Black Society, Bulletin 1, no. 5, April 1972.

93. Public Education Association and the League of Women Voters, “Inventory of Candidates Views: School Board Elections District 28—March 19, 1970,” UFT Papers, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University.

94. Rochdale Village Black Society Bulletin 1, no. 5, April 1972.

95. James F. Clarity, “Quality of Schools Varies Widely Under Local Board,” NYT, February 21, 1971.

96. Jimmy Breslin, “Plantation Days in South Jamaica,” New York Magazine (n.d. [Spring 1971]); “17 Queens Teachers Win Reinstatement at JHS 142,” NYT, March 25, 1971; James F. Clarity, “Quality of Schools Varies Widely Under Local Board,” LIP (n.d.); article from the Daily News (Spring 1971), UFT Papers, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives.

97. Breslin, “Plantation Days in South Jamaica”; Rochdale Black Society Newsletter, February 1971.

98. “Chamber’s Essay Contest Defended by School Board,” LIP, March 3, 1972.

99. “The Perfect New School, A Problem,” Inside Rochdale, September 25, 1967.

100. Interview with Anita Starr.

101. Jerald Podair writes that IS 201, which opened in East Harlem in the fall of 1966, was “the last gasp of the integration impulse in the New York City public school system.” The Strike That Changed New York, 34. Perhaps this title might be more fairly awarded to IS 72, which opened a year later.

102. Anita Starr said that the racial balance was slightly majority white when it opened; Nancy Brandon said it was about 60 percent black, 40 percent white; interviews with Anita Starr, Nancy Brandon.

103. Interview with Sue Raskin.

104. Ibid.

105. Interview with Kenneth Tewel.

106. Interview with Anita Starr.

107. Interview with Ellen Page.

108. Ursula Day, the black principal of PS 30, worked to minimize the lingering bad feelings and said that in the end the strike’s long-term impact was minimal (interview with Ursula Day). At Springfield Gardens HS, Kenneth Tewel and Robert Couche, leaders of the two factions, met repeatedly during and after the strike to minimize the bad feelings and set up a school trip to Nixon’s inaugural in January 1969 to try to further bury the hatchet (interview with Kenneth Tewel).

109. Interview with Sue Raskin.

110. Interview with Anita Starr.

111. Interview with Nancy Brandon.

112. Ibid.

113. Interview with Anita Starr.

114. Ibid.

115. Interview with Lloyd Lawrence.

116. Interviews with Eric Eisenstadt, Freddy Eisenstadt.

117. Rochdale Forum, July 24, 1999.

118. Rochdale Forum, July 26, 1999.

119. Ibid.; Rochdale Forum, June 25, 1999.

120. Rochdale Forum, June 16, 2000.

121. Interview with Anita Starr.

122. Interview with Ellen Page.

123. Interview with Francesca Spero.

124. Ibid.

125. Interview with Nancy Brandon.

126. Rochdale Forum, July 26, 1999.

127. Rochdale Forum, July 3, 1999.

128. Interview with Lloyd Lawrence.

129. Interview with Francesca Spero.

130. Interview with Anita Starr.

131. Ibid.

132. Interview with Francesca Spero.

133. Rochdale Forum, June 27, 1999.

134. Interview with Francesca Spero.

135. Rochdale Forum, June 27, 1999.

136. Interview with Sue Raskin.

137. Rochdale Forum, August 25, 1999; interview with Anita Starr.

138. Rochdale Black Society, Newsletter, February 1971.

139. Susan Raskin to Mrs. Helene Lloyd, Board of Education, June 19, 1970 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt). The group called for school-based workshops with leading educators to improve the teaching levels, and called for the Board of Education to supply funds for these purposes.

140. Albert O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 30, 107.

141. Interview with Nancy Brandon.

12. As Integration Ebbed

Epigraph. Rochdale Bulletin 9, no. 8 (October 1974).

1. The 51st State was aired on WNET from 1972 through 1976, nightly through the middle of 1973, and weekly thereafter. For a history of The 51st State and to find extant segments (which does not include the program on Rochdale), see http://www.thirteen.org/the51stState/index.html.

2. The program’s contents are reconstructed from Inside Rochdale, April–May 1973, and the May 1973 Rochdale Village Bulletin, which also contains all the responses quoted.

3. Inside Rochdale, April–May 1973; Rochdale Village Bulletin, May 1973.

4. Hal Levenson, letter, Rochdale Village Bulletin, May 1973.

5. Inside Rochdale, April–May 1973; Rochdale Village Bulletin, May 1973.

6. Inside Rochdale, April–May 1973; Rochdale Village Bulletin, May 1973.

7. Rochdale Village Bulletin, April 1973.

8. Lewis Lachman to Commissioner Charles J. Urstadt, May 15, 1972, State Division of Housing and Urban Renewal, New York State Archives.

9. Some would date it somewhat earlier. Arthur Greene stated that “by 1965, 1966, families were beginning to leave” (interview with Arthur Greene). No doubt this was true, but it was a trickle and difficult to distinguish from the inevitable Brownian motion of move-ins and move-outs one would find in any development.

10. Numbers on the white exodus need to be pieced together from many sources. In 1970, 447 families, representing about 7.6 percent of the apartments, left Rochdale; see Leonard Bridges to Rochdale Village Board of Directors, December 15, 1970, UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives, Cornell University. By 1973, 1,800 families, or about 31 percent of the families, are reported as having moved out over the previous three years; “Cooperation Means Responsibility,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, May 1973. Estimates of the black population of Rochdale include 50 percent in 1974, “Rochdale Village Preparing for 10th Anniversary Dinner,” LIP, January 6, 1974; 60 percent, Morris Milgram, Good Neighborhood: The Challenge of Open Housing (New York: Norton, 1977), 178; 70 percent in 1977, Murray Schumach, “If It Really Takes All Kinds, Queens Certainly Takes All Kinds,” NYT, March 2, 1977; and 85 percent in 1979, “A Vision of Utopia Fading at Rochdale,” NYT, June 8, 1979. The white population continued to decline, and by the early 1990s, Rochdale Village was 98 percent nonwhite, Diana Shaman, “Queens Co-op Working Out Problems,” NYT, March 12, 1993. Rochdale’s population was 98 percent nonwhite in the U.S. 2000 census.

11. Rochdale Village Forum survey, 2002–2003.

12. Thomas A. Johnson, “Racial Change: Two Queens Areas, Addisleigh Park and ‘Black Flight,’” NYT, May 9, 1976.

13. Leonard S. Bridges to Rochdale Village Board of Directors, December 15, 1970, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

14. Interview with Jack Raskin.

15. Interview with Herb Plever.

16. Rochdale Village Forum Survey.

17. Larry L., Rochdale Forum, July 24, 1999.

18. Rochdale Village Forum Survey.

19. Interview with Cal Jones.

20. Rochdale Village Forum Survey.

21. Rochdale Village Forum Survey.

22. Interview with Herb Plever.

23. Rochdale Village Forum Survey.

24. Rochdale Village Forum Survey.

25. Rochdale Forum, June 1999.

26. Joe Raskin, Rochdale Forum, July 26, 1999.

27. David Bird, “Policy Against Park Fences Yields to Community Needs,” NYT, November 3, 1971; Michael Kaufman, “Residents Avoid Prize-Winning Park,” NYT, January 2, 1972; Benjamin Schlesinger Junior High School 72, minutes of conference held April 5, 1972, in UHF Papers, Kheel Center Archives. The security force complained immediately that the park was impossible to patrol.

28. Rochdale Forum, July 26, 1999.

29. Kaufman, “Residents Avoid Prize-Winning Park.”

30. Rochdale Village Forum Survey.

31. John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 18; Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 244; Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 189–195; Gerald Gamm, Urban Exodus: Why the Jews Left Boston and the Catholics Stayed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).

32. Rochdale Village Bulletin, September 1974.

33. Richard Rogin, “John Henry Howell Makes It,” NYT, June 24, 1973.

34. Rochdale Forum, March 6, 2002.

35. Interview with Cal Jones.

36. Vicki Perlman, Rochdale Village Forum Survey.

37. Interview with Cal Jones.

38. Interview with Barbara Brandes Roth.

39. Interview with Anita Starr.

40. Rochdale Black Society Newsletter, November–December 1971; interview with Cal Jones.

41. William E. Dunlap to John J. Iselin, Rochdale Village Bulletin, May 1973.

42. Inside Rochdale, October 1972.

43. Inside Rochdale, November 1972.

44. Interview with Jack Raskin.

45. Milgram, Good Neighborhood, 178. Starrett City, which opened in 1974, had a quota system, a “managed waiting list” that limited the numbers of black residents to 30 percent. This was eventually challenged in federal court and rejected as illegal in 1977, and the percentage of blacks, many of them on public assistance, rapidly increased, though some effort was made to retain an informal quota system. In 2006 Starrett City was 67 percent black, and 33 percent white; see Janny Scott, “A Sweeping Housing Plan Bedeviled by Racial Quotas,” NYT, December 1, 2006.

46. Milgram, Good Neighborhood, 178.

47. Rochdale Village Bulletin, April 1973.

48. Ibid., November 1973.

49. Interviews with Anita Starr, Sue Raskin, Harold Ostroff.

50. Rochdale Village Board of Directors, minutes from the meeting of June 22, 1971, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

51. Rochdale Bulletin 9, no. 8, October 1974.

52. Rochdale Black Society, Newsletter, November–December 1971.

53. Jules Weinstein, “From the Manager’s Desk,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, November 1971.

54. “A Vision of Utopia Fading at Rochdale,” NYT, June 8, 1979.

55. Interview with Juanita Watkins.

56. Jules Weinstein, “From the Manager’s Desk,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, November 1973; interviews with Cal Jones, Jack Raskin. Jack Raskin told me, “I don’t care what you heard elsewhere, I’m telling you, and I was on the Board of Directors for most of the 1970s, no one on welfare was ever admitted to Rochdale.” (As he explained further, this did not preclude individuals, perhaps because of a divorce or a reversal of economic fortunes, from going on welfare while living at the cooperative.) An extant memo from January 1971, as the white exodus was beginning its crescendo, shows no diminution in the care made in assigning apartments; see “Reuel Williams to Rochdale Village Board of Directors,” January 4, 1971, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

57. Interview with Lloyd Lawrence.

58. Jules Weinstein, “From the Manager’s Desk,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, November 1973.

59. Rochdale Village Board of Directors, minutes from the meeting of March 7, 1973, UHF Files, Kheel Center Archives.

60. Jules Weinstein, “From the Manager’s Desk,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, November 1973.

61. Inside Rochdale, November 1969

62. Interview with Jack Raskin.

63. “Tenant Group Gets Man: Brown Quits as Manager,” Inside Rochdale, February 14, 1970; “Board Election Underway to 15 Member Board of Directors,” Inside Rochdale, October 1970; New York State Department of Housing and Urban Renewal, Memo of John O’Rourke and Melvin Julie, Meeting with RV Tenants Council, April 28, 1969, New York State Archives.

64. New York State Department of Housing and Urban Renewal, Memo of John O’Rourke and Melvin Julie, Meeting with RV Tenants Council, April 28, 1969, New York State Archives. Rochdale Village management sometimes stopped political organizations from soliciting on its grounds, though it was inconsistent in this. In 1968 when the left-wing Peace and Freedom Party tried to collect signatures in the Rochdale Mall, it needed the help of the American Civil Liberties Union to do so; “Field Report on Rochdale Village,” September 1968, Department of Housing and Urban Renewal, New York State Archives.

65. Harry Lopatin, “The Sounding Board,” Inside Rochdale, June 26, 1967.

66. Inside Rochdale, December 1969, describing the December 1969 issue of Rochdale Bulletin, which is not extant.

67. Leon Hess, letter, Inside Rochdale, January 1971.

68. Interview with Hugh Williams. In looking back on it, Williams had a real sense that he had bitten off more than he could comfortably chew. “After I was elected to the board, it really scared me, because I felt that I was an X-ray technician, and my field was health, and I really didn’t know that much about housing.” To be fair, Williams was simply being more honest than most members of the board; relative ignorance of the intricacies of housing policy was not limited to members of the Tenants Council.

69. Interviews with Cal Jones, Harold Ostroff, Herb Plever, Arthur Greene; author of the “commies” remark withheld.

70. Interview with Cal Jones; interview with Herb Plever.

71. Interview with Arthur Greene.

72. Interview with Jack Raskin.

73. “The Financial Straits of the New York City Mitchell-Lama Program,” Report of the Economic Council of New York, January 1975; Joseph P. Fried, “Two Housing Projects Shaky Financially Levitt Says,” NYT, January 26, 1976.

74. Office of the State Comptroller, “Summary Results of Financial Operations for Nine Fiscal Years Ended March 31, 1974,” Audit Report on Special Review of Rochdale Village Financial Status (Albany, NY: Office of the Comptroller, 1974), appendix A.

75. “Rochdale Village Tenants Going to Albany to Protest Proposed 27.6% ‘Rent’ Increase,” NYT, April 14, 1974.

76. David Bird, “Rochdale Village Facing Cutoff of All Fuels by Thanksgiving,” NYT, November 14, 1973.

77. Audit Report on Special Review of Rochdale Village Financial Status.

78. Joseph P. Fried, “A New Court Battle at Rochdale Village,” NYT, November 17, 1974; “State Moves to Foreclose Mortgage on Co-op City,” NYT, August 5, 1974. The Co-op City residents arguably had a more substantial grievance than Rochdale residents, since average per-room carrying charges at Co-op City in 1974 rose to $53.50, in comparison to Rochdale’s per room average of $41.48, despite apartments that were very similar in layout and dimension.

79. Fried, “A New Court Battle at Rochdale Village.”

80. Joseph P. Fried, “Tenants Urged to Pay Arrears,” NYT, December 8, 1974.

81. Alfonso A. Navarez, “Cuomo Rejects Most Lobbyists,” NYT, March 11, 1975.

82. Joseph P. Fried, “Two Housing Projects Shaky Financially, Levitt Says,” NYT, January 26, 1976; “Rochdale Village Budget Balanced,” Rochdale Village Bulletin, February 1976.

83. Interview with Arthur Greene; “Rochdale’s Worst Threat,” Inside Rochdale, October 1975.

13. The Trouble with the Teamsters

Epigraph. Florence Reece (1900–1986), “Which Side Are You On?” 1931.

1. Interview with Jack Raskin. Although I have no reason to doubt Jack Raskin, who heard the story from the union negotiator, I should note that he was an opponent of the Tenants Council.

2. When this transition happened is not entirely clear. Jack Raskin indicated it was probably in the early 1970s, but a monthly report on Rochdale prepared by a staff member of the Department of Housing and Urban Renewal reported in May 1967 that a majority of the maintenance men had voted to join the Teamsters; Monthly Report on Rochdale, May 1967, Department of Housing and Urban Renewal, New York State Archives.

3. Rinker Buck, “The Death of a Dream: Rochdale vs. The Teamsters,” New York Magazine, August 6, 1978; Sam Roberts, “Ousted Teamster: A Brash Mistake,” NYT, April 19, 1993.

4. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

5. “Rochdale Village Strike,” NYT, December 11, 1976. Other estimates for the average wage of maintenance workers under the 1976 contract (none of them offered by partisans of the Teamsters’ cause) was $260 a week (annualized to $13,520), $270 (annualized to $14,040), and $294 (annualized to $15,288); Diane H. Jones, “Profile: The Committee to Save Rochdale Village,” source unknown; “Dollars and Sense,” flier by William Dunlap, ca. May 1979; Hassan Hakim and Major Robinson, “Rochdale Village: Long and Bitter Struggle,” NYAN, October 20, 1979. For background on Barry Feinstein, see Alan Finder, “A Union Chief Leaves Big Shoes to Fill,” NYT, April 13, 1993.

6. Arthur Greene and Frank McKanic to Joseph Goldman, deputy commissioner of housing, January 5, 1977 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

7. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

8. Office of the State Comptroller, “Summary Results of Financial Operations for Nine Fiscal Years Ended March 31, 1974,” Audit Report on Special Review of Rochdale Village Financial Status (Albany, NY: Office of the Comptroller, 1974), appendix A.

9. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

10. Leo Mossman was a member of the Transport Workers Union, and Ray Johnson, the treasurer, was active in the Postal Workers Union and was president of the postal workers credit union; Jack Raskin, the chief negotiator, was a longtime union activist. Interview with Jack Raskin.

11. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

12. Ibid.; interview with Jack Raskin.

13. Interview with Jack Raskin; Hakim and Robinson, “Rochdale Village Long and Bitter Struggle.”

14. Mel Tapley, “Violence at Rochdale Village,” NYAN, December 9, 1978.

15. William Butler, “Union Leader Gives Rochdale the Bird,” Daily News, November 23, 1978.

16. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

17. Interview with Jack Raskin; Buck, “The Death of a Dream”; “A Vision of Utopia Fading at Rochdale,” NYT, June 8, 1979.

18. Interview with Jack Raskin; “A Vision of Utopia Fading at Rochdale,” NYT, June 8, 1979.

19. Mel Tapley, “Rochdale ‘Under Siege,’” NYAN, April 14, 1979; Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

20. Jones, “Profile: The Committee to Save Rochdale Village.”

21. Interview with Joe Raskin; flier for December 10 rally (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

22. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

23. Tapley, “Violence at Rochdale Village.”

24. Interview with William Greenspan.

25. Interviews with Jack Raskin, Joe Raskin.

26. Interview with Jack Raskin.

27. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

28. Bulletin from Rochdale Village Board of Directors, June 11, 1979 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt); Edmund Newton, “Rochdale Village Striker Shot,” Newsday, June 6, 1979; interview with Cal Jones.

29. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

30. Ibid.

31. “Strange Bedfellows Local 80 and the United Shareholders,” April 1978, flier (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

32. Tapley, “Rochdale ‘Under Siege’”; interview with Jack Raskin.

33. Interview with Cal Jones.

34. Bernard Rabin, “Rochdale Directors Split on Replacing Striking Workers,” Daily News, January 4, 1979; Bernard Rabin, “Feud on Rochdale’s Board Headed for Court,” Daily News, n.d.; “We Walked Out Because,” Daily News, November 30, 1978; Greene and McKanic flier, November 1978; “Friends, Neighbors, and Stockholders of Rochdale Village,” notice of special meeting of stockholders, April 5, 1979; Tabulation of Special Election, minutes for Rochdale Village Board of Directors meetings, April 29, 1978, and November 27, 1978. Minutes and flier (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

35. United Shareholders flier, November 1978; Samuel Rosen to James Cohen, March 1, 1979 (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

36. Interview with Arthur Greene.

37. Interviews with Jack Raskin, Cal Jones.

38. Rabin, “Rochdale Directors Split on Replacing Striking Workers.”

39. Interview with Jack Raskin.

40. “A Vision of Utopia Fading at Rochdale.”

41. Hakim and Robinson, “Rochdale Village: Long and Bitter Struggle.”

42. “Peace in Rochdale,” Daily News, December 8, 1978, editorial and accompanying cartoon.

43. Fliers (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

44. “Demonstrate Now!! Sunday Dec 10,” flier (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

45. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

46. Bernard Rabin, “Rochdale Workers to Go to Court,” Daily News, May 23, 1979; Rochdale Board of Directors, April 6, 1979, flier (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

47. Rochdale Board of Directors, May 10, 1979, flier (collection of Peter Eisenstadt).

48. Bernard Rabin, “Slate, Rochdale Board to Talk,” Daily News, May 20, 1979.

49. Hakim and Robinson, “Rochdale Village Long and Bitter Struggle.”

50. “Rochdale Court Ruling,” NYAN, December 1, 1979.

51. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.”

52. Roberts, “Ousted Teamster: A Brash Mistake.”

53. Jones, “Profile: The Committee to Save Rochdale Village.”

54. Interviews with Cal Jones, Jack Raskin.

55. Tapley, “Rochdale ‘Under Siege.’” The extensive coverage of the strike in the Daily News was, in the opinion of the Concerned Cooperators, something of a mixed blessing, since Arthur Greene of the United Shareholders had a contact at the paper, and some thought the coverage was too favorable to Greene’s position and to that of the Teamsters; interviews with Arthur Greene, Jack Raskin.

56. Buck, “The Death of a Dream.” Hakim and Major Robinson, “Rochdale Village: Long and Bitter Struggle.”

57. Hakim and Robinson, “Rochdale Village Long and Bitter Struggle.”

58. Interview with Sue Raskin.

Epilogue: Looking Backward

1. Betti Logan, “Tenants Question Rochdale Firings,” Newsday, November 28, 1981.

2. Interview with William Greenspan.

3. Interviews with Hugh Williams, William Greenspan.

4. Louis Winnick, “When an Apartment Fulfilled an Ideal,” NYT, July 22, 2000.

5. Rinker Buck, “The Death of a Dream: Rochdale vs. the Teamsters,” New York Magazine, August 6, 1979; Ari L. Goldman, “Aid for Troubled Housing Project Voted as Legislature Ends Session,” NYT, November 24, 1980; interview with William Greenspan.

6. Mary Reinholz, “Rochdale Village in Renaissance after Years of Social, Fiscal Ills,” Newsday, May 30, 1997.

7. According to the 1987 agreement, there were scheduled carrying-charge increases of 18 percent in April 1987, 16 percent in April 1989, and 9.85 percent in April 1991; Diana Shaman, “Queens Co-op Working Out Problems,” NYT, March 12, 1993.

8. Interview with William Greenspan.

9. Ibid.

10. Shaman, “Queens Co-op Working Out Problems.”

11. The roof repairs cost $1.8 million, and repairing the underground pipes cost $10.57 million; Shaman, “Queens Co-op Working Out Problems”; interview with William Greenspan.

12. “Youth, 18, Charged with Slaying of a Queens Woman and Her Son,” NYT, April 26, 1980.

13. Lindsey Gruson, “Killings in Rochdale Village Cause Neighbor to Fear Neighbor,” NYT, October 4, 1982.

14. Glen Fowler, “Queens 9-Year-Old Raped and Stabbed While in Her Home,” NYT, May 14, 1986; “Two Arrested in Slaying of Two Security Guards,” NYT, November 19, 1989; Robert D. McFadden, “On a Bus in Queens, Three Bandits Stage a Frontier Robbery,” NYT, July 31, 1993.

15. Peter Kerr, “Submachine Guns and Unpredictability Are Hallmarks of Crack’s Violence,” NYT, March 8, 1988.

16. George James, “Murders in Queens Rise 25%; Crack Is Key Factor,” NYT, April 20, 1988.

17. George James, “49 Get Transfers in Police Bias Case in Queens Precinct,” NYT, November 1, 1988.

18. Josh Barbanel, “More Students Are Violent at Young Age,” NYT, December 4, 1993.

19. Corey Kilgannon, “For Deliveryman, Another Day of Low Pay and High Risk,” NYT, February 22, 2004.

20. Interview with Jack Raskin.

21. Interviews with Jack Raskin, William Greenspan.

22. Interviews with Ursula Day, Herb Plever, Hugh Williams.

23. Interview with Hugh Williams.

24. Ibid.

25. Reinholz, “Rochdale Village in Renaissance.”