1. James E. Lewis Jr., John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 2001), 106. On the background of the Congress of Panama, and Bolívar’s apprehension regarding US participation, see Germán A. de la Reza, “The Formative Platform of the Congress of Panama (1810–1826): The Pan-American Conjecture Revisited,” Revista Brasileira de Politíca Internacional 56, no. 1 (2013): esp. 15–16. See also Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965), 549.

2. James Traub, John Quincy Adams: Militant Spirit (New York: Basic Books, 2016), 345.

3. Mary W. M. Hargreaves, The Presidency of John Quincy Adams (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1985), 150.

4. Lewis, John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union, 107.

5. George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 162–163. On opposition in Congress to American participation at Panama, see Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy, 552–553.

6. Traub, John Quincy Adams: Militant Spirit, 346. See also Hargreaves, The Presidency of John Quincy Adams, 151–152; and William Earl Weeks, The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, vol. 1, Dimensions of the Early American Empire, 1754–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 205.

7. Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 163; Hargreaves, The Presidency of John Quincy Adams, 152. And see especially Charles N. Edel, Nation Builder: John Quincy Adams and the Grand Strategy of the Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 222–223.

8. David Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 257; Hargreaves, The Presidency of John Quincy Adams, 157–158. On the US Congress and the Congress of Panama, see Jeffrey J. Malanson, “The Congressional Debate over U.S. Participation in the Congress of Panama, 1825–1826: Washington’s Farewell Address, Monroe’s Doctrine, and the Fundamental Principles of U.S. Foreign Policy,” Diplomatic History 30, no. 5 (2006): 813–838.

9. Jorge Pacheco Quintero, El Congreso anfictiónico de Panamá y la política internacional de los Estados Unidos (Bogota: Editorial Kelly, 1971), 5 (author’s translation). See also Salvador Rivera, “Diplomats, Idealists, and Technocrats: The Long Quest for Latin American Integration” (PhD diss., University at Albany, State University of New York, 2003), 31–32; Germán A. de la Reza, El Congreso de Panamá de 1826 y otros ensayos de integración latinoamericana en el siglo XIX (Mexico City: Ediciones y Gráficos Eón, 2006), 29; and Caitlin Fitz, Our Sister Republics: The United States in an Age of American Revolutions (New York: Liveright, 2016), 226.

10. Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy, 561.

11. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).

12. Michael Zeuske, Sklaverei: Eine Menschheitsgeschichte von der Steinzeit bis Heute (Stuttgart: Reclam, 2018), 15 (author’s translation).

13. On this assertion of rights, and Britain’s response, see, e.g., the brief treatment in Andrew Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (New York: Alfred K. Knopf, 2012), 110–111.

14. On America’s early unilateralism, see especially Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), 39–56.

1. James Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting: Antislavery and the Coming of the Civil War (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014), 109. For the full text of article 7 of the Treaty of Paris, see Richard B. Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 464.

2. Morris, The Peacemakers, 535n156.

3. Woody Holton, “ ‘Rebel against Rebel’: Enslaved Virginians and the Coming of the American Revolution,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 105, no. 2 (1997): 161; Lord Dunmore, “Proclamation,” in George Livermore, An Historical Research Respecting the Opinions of the Founders of the Republic on Negroes as Slaves, as Citizens, and as Soldiers (Boston: John Wilson and Son, 1862), 135. See also Robert G. Parkinson, The Common Cause: Creating Race and Nation in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 153–154.

4. Declaration of the Virginia General Convention, December 13, 1775, in Livermore, An Historical Research, 138–139.

5. Washington to Joseph Reed, December 15, 1775, in Livermore, An Historical Research, 139.

6. Hamilton to Jay, March 14, 1779, in Livermore, An Historical Research, 170.

7. See Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 105–106; and Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 100.

8. Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 106; Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), 49.

9. Washington, quoted in Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 111. See also “Letters of George Washington Bearing on the Negro,” The Journal of Negro History 2, no. 4 (October 1917): 415.

10. “The Substance of the Conference between General Washington and Sir Guy Carleton at an Interview at Orange Town, May 6, 1783,” George Washington Papers, Library of Congress (emphasis in the original).

11. “The Substance of the Conference.”

12. Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 112–113.

13. See Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 113.

14. John Jay, “Office of Foreign Affairs,” October 13, 1786, in Journals of the Continental Congress 34v. (1774–1789) (hereafter JCC) 31:863–864 (emphasis in the original).

15. Jay, “Office of Foreign Affairs,” in JCC 1:863, 864–865 (emphasis in the original).

16. Jay, “Office of Foreign Affairs,” in JCC 31:865.

17. For a discussion of Jay and slavery, see Walter Stahr, John Jay: Founding Father (New York: Hambledon and London, 2005), 236–239.

18. Jay, “Office of Foreign Affairs,” in JCC 31:865 (emphasis in the original).

19. Jay, “Office of Foreign Affairs,” in JCC 31:866.

20. Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 115.

21. Jay to Randolph, September 13, 1794, in American State Papers: Foreign Affairs, 38 v. (hereafter ASP: FA) 1:485, 486.

22. Randolph to Jay, December 3, 1794, in ASP: FA 1:509.

23. Randolph to Jay, December 15, 1794, in ASP: FA 1:510.

24. Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 116–117.

25. Jay to Randolph, February 6, 1795, in ASP: FA 1:518.

26. Randolph to Jay, December 3, 1795, in ASP: FA 1:510.

27. On the vitriolic partisan battle over the treaty, see Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 67–68.

28. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 4th Congress, 1st Session (1796), 1004, 1005, 1006.

29. Annals of Congress, 4th Congress, 2nd Session (1796), 1027–1028.

30. Annals of Congress, 4th Congress, 2nd Session (1796), 1018.

31. Camillus [Alexander Hamilton], A Defence of the Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation (New York: Francis Childs, 1795), 12. For Hamilton’s remarks on the treaty, drafted for Washington on July 9–11, 1795, at Washington’s request, see “Remarks on the Treaty of Amity Commerce and Navigation lately made between the United States and Great Britain,” in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 18, ed. Harold C. Syrett (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973), esp. 415–418.

32. Camillus, A Defence of the Treaty, 15 (emphasis in the original).

33. Camillus, A Defence of the Treaty, 15 (emphasis in the original).

34. Camillus, A Defence of the Treaty, 16 (emphasis in the original).

35. Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 120, 122.

36. Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 132.

37. Jasper M. Trautsch, “The Causes of the War of 1812: 200 Years of Debate,” Journal of Military History 77, no. 1 (2013): 291. See also Nathaniel Millett, The Maroons of Prospect Bluff and Their Quest for Freedom in the Atlantic World (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013), 14.

38. See Gene Allen Smith, The Slaves Gamble: Choosing Sides in the War of 1812 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).

39. Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 133.

40. Monroe to Adams, May 11, 1815, in American State Papers: Foreign Relations, 38 v. (1789–1838) (hereafter ASP: FR) 4:106; Monroe to Baker, April 1, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:106.

41. Baker to Monroe, April 3, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:107–108.

42. American Commissioners to Clavelle, February 23, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:108–109.

43. Bayly to Clavelle, April 13, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:109; Clavelle to Bayly, April 15, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:109.

44. Extract of a letter, Spalding to Monroe, May 1815, in ASP: FR 4:113.

45. Spalding to Griffith, May 22, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:114.

46. Griffith to Spalding, May 23, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:115.

47. Adams to Castlereagh, August 9, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:115–116.

48. Adams to Monroe, August 22, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:117.

49. Adams to Monroe, August 22, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:117.

50. Adams to Castlereagh, September 5, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:118; Adams to Monroe, September 21, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:118.

51. Monroe to Adams, November 16, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:121.

52. Monroe to Adams, November 20, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:121.

53. Adams summary of conversation with Castlereagh, in Adams to Monroe, February 8, 1816, in ASP: FR 4:121. For Bathurst’s letter, see Bathurst to Adams, October 24, 1815, in ASP: FR 4:119–121.

54. Monroe to Adams, May 21, 1816, and Adams to Castlereagh, September 17, 1816, in British and Foreign State Papers 71 v. (1812–1814 to 1959–1960) (hereafter BFSP), 4:320; John Bew, Castlereagh: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 423 (and regarding Castlereagh’s exhausting schedule in the spring and summer of 1816, see 422–423).

55. Castlereagh to Adams, September 28, 1816, in BFSP 4:320–321.

56. See Harold Edward Bergquist Jr., “Russian-American Relations, 1820–1830: The Diplomacy of Henry Middleton, American Minister at St. Petersburg” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1970), 62; and Norman E. Saul, Distant Friends: The United States and Russia, 1763–1867 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991), 93.

57. Bergquist, “Russian-American Relations,” 62; Saul, Distant Friends, 93–94.

58. Adams’s instructions to Middleton are treated extensively in Bergquist, “Russian-American Relations”; see esp. 84–102.

59. Harold Edward Bergquist Jr., “Henry Middleton and the Arbitrament of the Anglo-American Slave Controversy by Tsar Alexander I,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 82, no. 1 (1981): 21.

60. Adams to Middleton, July 5, 1820, Diplomatic Instructions of the Department of State (hereafter DI: DS), 1801–1906, All Countries, vol. 99 (February 10, 1820–July 15, 1823), no. 77, roll 4, p. 27, National Archives, College Park, MD.

61. Adams to Middleton, July 5, 1820, DI: DS, vol. 99, no. 77, roll 4, p. 28 (emphasis in the original).

62. Adams to Middleton, July 5, 1820, DI: DS, vol. 99, no. 77, roll 4, p. 29.

63. Adams to Middleton, July 5, 1820, DI: DS, vol. 99, no. 77, roll 4, p. 30 (emphasis in the original).

64. Adams to Middleton, September 15, 1820, DI: DS, vol. 99, no. 77, roll 4, p. 47.

65. Adams to Middleton, November 4, 1820, DI: DS, vol. 99, no. 77, roll 4, p. 59 (emphasis in the original).

66. Middleton to Adams, August 28, 1820, Diplomatic Despatches, Russia (hereafter DD: R), record group 59, microcopy 35, vol. 8, roll 8, National Archives, College Park, MD.

67. Middleton to Adams, September 15, 1820, DD: R, record group 59, microcopy 35, vol. 8, roll 8.

68. Middleton to Adams, September 15, 1820. For the formal joint statement on the last of these points, see DD: R, record group 59, microcopy 35, vol. 8, roll 8, document (F).

69. Middleton to Adams, September 15, 1820. A copy of the projet can be found appended to the letter as document (E).

70. Middleton to Adams, June 20, 1821, DD: R, record group 59, microcopy 35, vol. 8, roll 8. (All dates regarding the tsar’s activity in this period given NS.) On Alexander’s foreign policy during this period, and Kapodistrias’s departure from the foreign ministry, see Barbara Jelavich, St. Petersburg to Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974), 51.

71. Middleton to Nesselrode, June 21, 1821, DD: R, record group 59, microcopy 35, vol. 8, roll 8.

72. Bergquist, “Henry Middleton,” 29.

73. Convention Signed at St. Petersburg, July 12, 1822, in BFSP 11:773.

74. Bergquist, “Russian-American Relations,” 163; N. N. Bolkhovitinov, Doktrina Monro: Proiskhozhdenie i Kharakter (Moscow: Institut Mezhdunarodnykh Otnoshenii, 1959), 204n321.

75. Bergquist, “Russian-American Relations,” 185.

76. Charles Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 1815–1822: Britain and the European Alliance (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1963), 445; Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 141–142.

77. Bergquist, “Russian-American Relations,” 167.

78. Oakes, The Scorpion’s Sting, 142.

79. Bergquist, “Russian-American Relations,” 188–189.

80. Bemis, John Quincy Adams, 293.

81. On American fears during the War of 1812, see Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 140–141.

82. On the arming of escaped slaves by Great Britain, see Frank Lawrence Owsley Jr. and Gene A. Smith, Filibusters and Expansionists: Jeffersonian Manifest Destiny, 1800–1821 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1997), 103–104. On the fear of a slave uprising like Haiti’s, see 105.

83. Crawford to Jackson, March 15, 1816, in Letter from the Secretary of War Transmitting […] Information Relating to the Destruction of the Negro Fort in East Florida (1819), 5.

84. Jackson to the Governor of Pensacola, April 23, 1816, in Letter from the Secretary of War, 8. On the “national self-defense” rationale for attacking Blacks in Florida, see Deborah A. Rosen, Border Law: The First Seminole War and American Nationhood (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 158.

85. Jackson to Maj. Gen. E. P. Gaines, April 8, 1816, in Letter from the Secretary of War, 10–11.

86. Patterson to the Secretary of the Navy, August 15, 1816, in Letter from the Secretary of the Navy […] Transmitting […] Documents Relating to the Destruction of the Negro Fort in East Florida (1819), 13–14.

87. William Earl Weeks, John Quincy Adams and American Global Empire (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1992), 107. On escaped slaves in Florida after the Battle of Negro Fort, see Aline Helg, Slave No More: Self-Liberation before Abolitionism in the Americas, trans. Lara Vergnaud (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), 223.

88. On the continued flight of slaves to Florida after the Adams-Onís Treaty, see Larry Eugene Rivers, Slavery in Florida: Territorial Days to Emancipation (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), 199.

89. Millett, The Maroons, 247.

90. Matthew J. Clavin, The Battle of Negro Fort: The Rise and Fall of a Fugitive Slave Community (New York: New York University Press, 2019), 158.

1. Alyssa Goldstein Sepinwall, “The Specter of Saint-Domingue: American and French Reactions to the Haitian Revolution,” in The World of the Haitian Revolution, ed. David Patrick Geggus and Norman Fiering (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 319.

2. Michael Zeuske, Sklavereien, Emanzipationen und atlantische Weltgeschichte. Essays über Mikrogechichten, Sklaven, Globalisierung und Rassismus (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2002), 174–175 (author’s translation); Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Yves Auguste, “Jefferson et Haïti (1804–1810),” Revue D’Histoire Diplomatique 86, no. 4 (1972): 333 (author’s translation).

3. See, e.g., Caitlin Fitz, Our Sister Republics: The United States in an Age of American Revolutions (New York: W. W. Norton, 2016), 2–3, 205.

4. Sidney Mintz, Three Ancient Colonies: Caribbean Themes and Variations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2010), 94 (emphasis in the original).

5. See, e.g., Edward B. Rugemer, Slave Law and the Politics of Resistance in the Early Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 214.

6. Zeuske, Sklavereien, 183; Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2004), 1. On slave resistance in Saint-Domingue prior to the revolution, see especially Philippe Girard, Toussaint Louverture: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Basic Books, 2016), chap. 4. On the universality of the enslaved Dominguans’ claims, see especially Jean-Pierre Le Glaunec, L’armée indigène: Le défaite de Napoléon en Haïti (n.p. [Port-au-Prince?]: Éditions de l’Université d’État d’Haïti, 2014), 46–47. See also Ashli White, Encountering Revolution: Haiti and the Making of the Early Republic (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010) 2–3.

7. Dubois, Avengers, 94. See also Ada Ferrer, “Cuba en la sombra de Haití: Noticias, sociedad, y esclavitud,” in Dolores González-Ripoll, Consuelo Naranjo, Ada Ferrer, Gloria García, and Josef Opatrný, El rumor de Haití en Cuba: Temor, raza y rebeldía, 1789–1844 (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2004), 179 (author’s translation). For information on the opening stages of the rebellion, see Thomas O. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 1789–1804 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973), 47–51.

8. Timothy M. Matthewson, “George Washington’s Policy toward the Haitian Revolution,” Diplomatic History 3, no. 3 (1979): 322. For statistics on trade, see Donald R. Hickey, “American Responses to the Slave Revolt in Haiti, 1791–1806,” Journal of the Early Republic 2, no. 4 (1982): 363.

9. Pinckney to Washington, September 20, 1791, quoted in Matthewson, “George Washington’s Policy,” 324.

10. Washington to Ternant, September 24, 1791, in The Papers of George Washington: Presidential Series, vol. 9 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1956–1987), 15; Ternant to Washington, September 24, 1791, in The Papers of George Washington 9:16; Timothy M. Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy: Haitian-American Relations during the Early Republic (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 25.

11. Jefferson to William Short, November 24, 1791, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 45 vols., vol. 22 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1950), 330; Rayford Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 36; Ternant to Count de Montmorin, September 28, 1791, in Frederick Jackson Turner, ed., Correspondence of the French Ministers to the United States: Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1903 (Washington, DC: Government Publishing Office, 1904), 47 (author’s translation). See also Gordon S. Brown, Toussaint’s Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), 54.

12. Ternant to Hamilton, September 21, 1791, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, 27 vols., vol. 9 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961–1979), 219; Hamilton to Ternant, September 21, 1791, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 9:220; Hamilton to Washington, September 22, 1791, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 9:225; Washington to Hamilton, September 24, 1791, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 9:238. See also Ternant to Montmorin, September 28, 1791, in Turner, Correspondence of the French Ministers, 48–49.

13. Jefferson to William Short, January 5, 1792, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 23:26; Jefferson to Washington, January 4, 1792, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 23:24; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 39; Joseph Fauchet, quoted in Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 44.

14. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 55; Ternant to Lessart, March 26, 1792, in Turner, Correspondence of the French Ministers, 101. On US aid to France, see Hickey, “American Responses,” 364.

15. Hamilton to Washington, November 19, 1792, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 13:169–170.

16. Hamilton to Washington, November 19, 1792, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 13:169, 170, 171, 173 (emphasis in the original). On events in France, see Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution (London: Routledge Classics, 2001), especially 230–232; and William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), chap. 8.

17. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 57 (and see, generally, 56–57); Dubois, Avengers, 128.

18. Girard, Toussaint Louverture, 138 (and see, generally, 134–138); Dubois, Avengers, 154–164.

19. Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy, 48; White, Encountering Revolution, 124, 126. On southerners’ fears of slave rebellion spreading to the United States, see especially Joseph A. Fry, Dixie Looks Abroad: The South and U.S. Foreign Relations, 1789–1973 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2002), 27–28.

20. See, e.g., Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 53; Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy, 22, 32; and Dubois, Avengers, 304.

21. Dubois, Avengers, 225; Arthur Scherr, Thomas Jefferson’s Haitian Policy: Myths and Realities (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011), 34 (see also 61).

22. David Patrick Geggus, Slavery, War, and Revolution: The British Occupation of Saint Domingue, 1793–1798 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 79, 87; Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 76.

23. Morris to Jefferson, February 13, 1793, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 25:189, all spelling in the original.

24. Lawrence S. Kaplan, Alexander Hamilton: Ambivalent Anglophile (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002), 119. A useful analysis of Jay’s Treaty, and especially Hamilton’s key role in the framing and ratification of the pact, can be found in Kaplan, Alexander Hamilton, 117–121, 125–130. On the benefits of the treaty for American trade and security, see Samuel Flagg Bemis, Jay’s Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1962), 371–373.

25. See Geggus, Slavery, War, and Revolution, 140–141, 153–154; and Charles Callan Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo, 1798–1873: A Chapter in Caribbean Diplomacy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1938), 19.

26. See Geggus, Slavery, War, and Revolution, chap. 13.

27. Geggus, Slavery, War, and Revolution, 116. On Toussaint’s volte-face, see Girard, Toussaint Louverture, 141–145.

28. Philippe R. Girard, “Black Talleyrand: Toussaint Louverture’s Diplomacy, 1798–1802,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 66, no. 1 (2009): 93.

29. Girard, “Black Talleyrand,” 91. For a brief but useful summary of the context of Toussaint’s demarche to Adams, see Franklin Jameson, ed., “Letters of Toussaint Louverture and Edward Stevens, 1798–1800,” American Historical Review 16, no. 1 (1910): 64–65.

30. Toussaint to Adams, November 6, 1798, in Jameson, “Letters of Toussaint Louverture and Edward Stevens,” 66–67.

31. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 73. On Toussaint’s choice of Bunel and the controversy that ensued, see especially Girard, Toussaint Louverture, 178. For an excellent and readable treatment of the early days of the Adams administration’s flirtations with Dominguan independence, see Ronald Angelo Johnson, Diplomacy in Black and White: John Adams, Toussaint Louverture, and Their Atlantic World Alliance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2014), 23–29.

32. Pickering to Jacob Mayer, November 30, 1798, Timothy Pickering Papers, reel 9, 671, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston; Gerard H. Clarfield, Timothy Pickering and American Diplomacy, 1795–1800 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1969), 148.

33. King to Pickering, December 7, 1798, in The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, 6 vols., vol. 2 (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1894–1900), 477 (emphasis in the original); King to Pickering, July 14, 1798, in The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, 368–369 (emphasis in the original).

34. Girard, Toussaint Louverture, 175; Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo, 67. A translation of the agreement, from which the quotes herein are taken, can be found in Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 65–66.

35. Johnson, Diplomacy in Black and White, 83–84.

36. Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 133; Pickering to King, March 12, 1799, Thomas Pickering Papers, reel 10, 476; Pickering to King, November 7, 1799, Thomas Pickering Papers, reel 12, 315A; Pickering to John Quincy Adams, April 24, 1799, Thomas Pickering Papers, reel 10, 632A; Pickering to King, March 12, 1799, quoted in Hickey, “American Responses,” 365. On John Quincy Adams’s support for independence, see, e.g., Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 89.

37. Adams to Pickering, July 2, 1799, in Naval Documents Related to the Quasi-War Between the United States and France, 7 vols., vol. 3 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1935–38), 453.

38. Adams to Pickering, July 2, 1799, in Naval Documents 3:453; Adams to Stoddard, June 7, 1799, in Naval Documents 3:312–313. See also Scherr, Thomas Jefferson’s Haitian Policy, 79.

39. Pickering to Stevens, April 20, 1799, in Naval Documents 3:70, 71, 72.

40. Toussaint’s Clause, quoted in Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 138.

41. Albert Gallatin, quoted in Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 141. On the clause’s career in Congress, see especially Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 138–143.

42. Arthur Scherr, John Adams, Slavery, and Race: Ideas, Politics, and Diplomacy in an Age of Crisis (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2018), 47.

43. Stevens to Pickering, May 3, 1799, in Jameson, “Letters of Toussaint Louverture and Edward Stevens,” 67; Stevens to Pickering, June 24, 1799, Jameson, “Letters of Toussaint Louverture and Edward Stevens,” 77; Johnson, Diplomacy in Black and White, 96.

44. Brown, Toussaint’s Clause, 157; Stevens to Pickering, June 23, 1799, in Jameson, “Letters of Toussaint Louverture and Edward Stevens,” 74; convention quoted in Johnson, Diplomacy in Black and White, 99; Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo, 70; for Adams’s proclamation of June 26, 1799, See Naval Documents 3:408–409.

45. Stevens to Pickering, Naval Documents 3:389, 390, 391, 392.

46. Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo, 74 (and, for an early treatment of this episode, see 73–74).

47. Wolcott to Adams, November 18, 1799, in Naval Documents 3:418; Pickering to King, March 12, 1799, Thomas Pickering Papers, reel 10, 476.

48. Logan, The United States and Santo Domingo, 112; Marshall to Toussaint, November 26, 1800, in The Papers of John Marshall, 12 vols., vol. 6 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1974–2006), 22.

49. Dubois, Avengers, 225; Johnson, Diplomacy in Black and White, 164.

50. Scherr, Thomas Jefferson’s Haitian Policy, 161; Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy, 97.

51. Jefferson to Madison, February 5, 1799, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson 31:9–10 (lowercasing in the original).

52. Edward Thornton, quoted in Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo, 78.

53. Lear to Madison, July 17, 1801, The Papers of James Madison: Secretary of State Series, 9 Vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1962–), 427.

54. Lear to Madison, July 17, 1801, The Papers of James Madison: Secretary of State Series, 9 Vols., vol. 1 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1962–), 427–428.

55. See, e.g., Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy, 101–102.

56. The summary herein is based on Ott, Haitian Revolution, 139–141 (quote on 140).

57. Girard, Toussaint Louverture, 230–231.

58. Pichon conversation with Jefferson, July 19, 1801, quoted in Tansill, United States and Santo Domingo, 81. On the Jefferson-Pichon discussion generally, see Tansill, United States and Santo Domingo, 80–81; and Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy, 100.

59. Scherr, Thomas Jefferson’s Haitian Policy, 166–167.

60. Madison to Lear, January 8, 1802, in The Papers of James Madison 2:373–374.

61. Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo, 85. On the Gabriel Rebellion and Jefferson’s policy toward Saint-Domingue, see especially Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy, 101–102.

62. Thomas Jefferson, quoted in Francis D. Cogliano, Emperor of Liberty: Thomas Jefferson’s Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 189.

63. Coxe to Madison, ca. November 28, 1801, in The Papers of James Madison 2:281, 282, 283 (emphasis in the original); Madison to Livingston, September 28, 1801, in The Papers of James Madison 2:144.

64. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 144; Philippe R. Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, 1801–1804 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2011), 63. On Toussaint’s preparations for war in late 1801 to early 1802, see especially Dubois, Avengers, 262.

65. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 144–145.

66. King to Madison, October 31, 1801, in The Papers of James Madison 2:214; summary of Lear to Madison, February 12, 1802, in The Papers of James Madison 2:463 (emphasis in the original). On Madison’s fears that the Leclerc expedition was destined for Louisiana, see, e.g., Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 135.

67. Matthewson, A Proslavery Foreign Policy, 105.

68. Leclerc to the Minister of the Marine (Denis Decrès), February 9, 1802, in Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc, Lettres du Général Leclerc: Commandant en chef de l’armée de Saint Domingue en 1802, ed. Paul Roussier (Paris: Société de L’Histoire des Colonies Françaises, 1937), 82; Pichon to Madison, March 17, 1802, in The Papers of James Madison 3:41–42.

69. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 170. On French death and disease statistics, see Girard, Toussaint Louverture, 242.

70. Dubois, Avengers, 298.

71. On the durability of this fear, see Edward B. Rugemer, “Slave Rebels and Abolitionists: The Black Atlantic and the Coming of the Civil War,” Journal of the Civil War Era 2, no. 2 (2012): 194.

72. Manuel Barcia, “From Revolution to Recognition: Haiti’s Place in the Post-1804 Atlantic World,” American Historical Review 125, no. 3 (2020): 901.

73. Herbert S. Klein and Ben Vinson III, Hístoria Minima de la Esclavitud en América Latina y in el Caribe (Mexico City: El Colegio de Mexico, 2013), 295 (author’s translation).

1. Brenda E. Stevenson, What Is Slavery? (Cambridge: Polity, 2015), 40. For contemporaneous comparisons of various slave systems, see, e.g., Roland T. Ely, Cuando reinaba su majestad el azucar: Estudio histórico-sociológico de una tragedia latinoamericana (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1963), 473–487.

2. For a brief treatment of the Middle Passage, see Egon Flaig, Weltgeschichte der Sklaverei, rev. ed. (Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck, 2018), 176–178.

3. Francis D. Cogliano, Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006), 200.

4. Brian Schoen, The Fragile Fabric of Union: Cotton, Federal Politics, and the Global Origins of the Civil War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 68.

5. See, e.g., Edward B. Rugemer, “The Southern Response to British Abolitionism: The Maturation of Proslavery Apologetics,” Journal of Southern History 50, no. 2 (2004): 227.

6. See Steven Deyle, “The Irony of Liberty: Origins of the Domestic Slave Trade,” Journal of the Early Republic 12, no. 1 (1992): 43–46; Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–1877 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2003), 96; and Steven Deyle, Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 21–22. For background on the issue, see Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil: The Slavery Question in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), esp. 27–30.

7. Abridgment of the Debates of Congress, 16 Vols., vol. 3 (New York: D. Appleton, 1857) (hereafter ADC), 131.

8. ADC 3:142.

9. Matthew E. Mason, “Slavery Overshadowed: Congress Debates Prohibiting the Atlantic Slave Trade to the United States,” Journal of the Early Republic 20, no. 1 (2000): 63.

10. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 136–137.

11. On this last point, see Hugh G. Soulsby, The Right of Search and the Slave Trade in Anglo-American Relations, 1814–1862 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1933), 10–11.

12. R[eginald] Coupland, The British Anti-Slavery Movement (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1933), 153.

13. Coupland, The British Anti-Slavery Movement, 153; Paul Michael Kielstra, The Politics of Slave Trade Suppression in Britain and France, 1814–1848: Diplomacy, Morality and Economics (New York: St. Martin’s, 2000), 6.

14. Jeremy Black, “Suppressing the Slave Trade,” in British Abolitionism and the Question of Moral Progress in History, ed. Donald A. Yerxa (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2012), 29.

15. Harold Nicolson, The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1974), 211; Kielstra, The Politics of Slave Trade Suppression, 52.

16. See Flaig, Weltgeschichte der Sklaverei, 206–207.

17. Coupland, The British Anti-Slavery Movement, 160 (emphasis in the original); Kielstra, The Politics of Slave Trade Suppression, 61–62.

18. Gaston Martin, Histoire de l’Esclavage dans les Colonies Françaises (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948), 254 (author’s translation).

19. Denver Brunsman, The Evil Necessity: British Naval Impressment in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 248. See also Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 428.

20. “Message of the President of the United States, on the Opening of Congress,” December 3, 1816, in BFSP 4:13.

21. ADC 6:11.

22. ADC 6:12.

23. John Quincy Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848, vol. 5, ed. Charles Francis Adams (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1874–77), 182.

24. Adams, Memoirs 5:182.

25. John Quincy Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848, 12 vols., ed. Charles Francis Adams, vol. 5 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1874–77), 182–183.

26. Adams, Memoirs 5:183.

27. Canning to Castlereagh, October 3, 1820, quoted in Soulsby, The Right of Search, 22.

28. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 24; Castlereagh to Canning, August 7, 1820, in BFSP 8:393.

29. Adams, Memoirs 5:214; Canning to Castlereagh, December 30, 1820, in BFSP 8:395; Canning to Adams, December 20, 1820, in BFSP 8:396.

30. Adams to Canning, December 30, 1820, in BFSP 8:397, 399.

31. Adams, Memoirs 5:222.

32. Castlereagh to Lords Comm’rs. of the Admiralty, March 13, 1821, in BFSP 8:399; Adams, Memoirs 5:225–226.

33. Canning to Adams, June 1, 1821, in BFSP 9:78–79.

34. Adams to Canning, August 15, 1821, in BFSP 9:82 (and see, generally, 80–83).

35. Donald L. Canney, Africa Squadron: The U.S. Navy and the Slave Trade, 1842–1861 (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2006), 7. See also Judd Scott Harmon, “Suppress and Protect: The United States Navy, the African Slave Trade, and Maritime Commerce, 1798–1862” (PhD diss., College of William and Mary, 1977), 67–69.

36. Adams to Canning, August 20, 1821, in BFSP 9:83; Instructions to American Ships of War, in BFSP 9:83.

37. Adams, Memoirs 5:448–449.

38. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 25; Castlereagh to Canning, April 15, 1822, in BFSP 10:246–247.

39. Memorandum of Conversation, Castlereagh and Rush, April 1822, in BFSP 10:247–248.

40. Canning to Castlereagh, May 8, 1822, in BFSP 10:248; Soulsby, The Right of Search, 25–26.

41. Canning to Castlereagh, July 16, 1822, in BFSP 10:252.

42. George Canning to Stratford Canning, October 11, 1822, in BFSP 10:254–255.

43. Adams, Memoirs 6:84; Soulsby, The Right of Search, 23.

44. Stratford Canning to George Canning, January 1, 1823, in BFSP 10:256.

45. ADC 7:456; Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 159. See also Christopher Lloyd, The Navy and the Slave Trade: The Suppression of the African Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longmans, Green, 1949), xi.

46. Harmon, “Suppress and Protect,” 72–73.

47. Harmon, “Suppress and Protect,” 74; James E. Lewis Jr., John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2001), 83.

48. Adams, Memoirs 6:361–362, 366.

49. Adams, Memoirs 6:329. See also Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 160.

50. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 161; Soulsby, The Right of Search, 37–38.

51. Adams, Memoirs 6:37.

52. Thomas Jefferson, “Notes on the State of Virginia,” in Thomas Jefferson: Writings, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Library of America, 1984), 264.

53. See P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816–1865 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 2–3.

54. Eric Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution: A History of the American Colonization Society (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 10.

55. See, e.g., David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014), 83.

56. Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution, 12.

57. See, e.g., Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 8–9.

58. Lawrence C. Howard, American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara, 1800–1860 (New York: Garland, 1988), 163.

59. Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution, 14.

60. Slave Trade Act, quoted in Charles Henry Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, vol. 1 (New York: Central Book, 1947), 68.

61. Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution, 14.

62. Adams, Memoirs 4:293.

63. Adams, Memoirs 4:293–294.

64. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 53.

65. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 55; Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 68–69.

66. Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 69.

67. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 56.

68. Monroe’s Special Message to Congress, December 17, 1819, quoted in Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 70–71.

69. Howard, American Involvement, 187–188.

70. Thompson to Bacon, January 17, 1820, in Correspondence of the Secretary of the Navy Relating to African Colonization 1819–1844, 2 rolls (hereafter CSNAC), National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 45, M205. On Thompson’s instructions to Bacon, see Howard, American Involvement, 189–190.

71. Howard, American Involvement, 190–191.

72. Bacon to Thompson, March 20, 1820, quoted in Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 90.

73. See, e.g., Howard, American Involvement, 192.

74. Davis, The Problem of Slavery, 110.

75. Howard, American Involvement, 195–196.

76. Thompson to Winn, December 1, 1820, in CSNAC.

77. Winn to Thompson, April 19, 1821, quoted in Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 162.

78. Howard, American Involvement, 197.

79. Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 183–184.

80. Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 213.

81. See, e.g., Ayers to Southard, March 15, 1824, in CSNAC.

82. Howard, American Involvement, 212.

83. David F. Ericson, Slavery in the American Republic: Developing the Federal Government, 1791–1861 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2011), 53.

84. Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 258.

85. Nicholas P. Wood, “The Missouri Crisis and the ‘Changed Object’ of the American Colonization Society,” in New Directions in the Study of American Recolonization, ed. Beverly C. Tomek and Matthew J. Hetrick (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2017), 146–147.

86. Howard, American Involvement, 216–217.

87. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 92–93.

88. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 94–95, 97. For the new constitution, see “Documents Relating to the United States and Liberia,” American Journal of International Law 4, no. 3, supplement: official documents (1910): 193–198.

89. See, e.g., Southard to Ashmun, January 26, 1825, CSNAC.

90. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 174–175.

91. Report of the Fourth Auditor of the Treasury Department to the Secretary of the Navy, August 1830, quoted in Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 623, 627 (emphasis in the original).

92. Report of the Fourth Auditor, quoted in Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 621.

93. Howard, American Involvement, 230; Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 178. See also Penelope Campbell, Maryland in Africa: The Maryland State Colonization Society, 1831–1857 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 10.

94. Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution, 22.

95. Pennsylvania Colonization Society, Report of the Board of Managers of the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia: T. Kite, 1830), 3.

96. On this, see especially Edlie L. Wong, Neither Fugitive nor Free: Atlantic Slavery, Freedom Suits, and the Legal Culture of Travel (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 184.

97. See Alan F. January, “The First Nullification: The Negro Seamen Acts Controversy in South Carolina, 1822–1860” (PhD diss., University of Iowa, 1976), 106n24.

98. January, “The First Nullification,” 84, 88.

99. Carol Wilson, Freedom at Risk: The Kidnapping of Free Blacks in America, 1780–1865 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 59.

100. Philip M. Hamer, “Great Britain, the United States, and the Negro Seamen Acts, 1822–1848,” Journal of Southern History 1, no. 1 (1935): 3.

101. South Carolina legislature, “A Bill to prohibit the bringing of slaves into this state for sale, barter, or exchange and the better regulation and government of free Negroes and persons of color and for other purposes,” quoted in January, “The First Nullification,” 60.

102. Hamer, “Great Britain, the United States, and the Negro Seamen Acts,” 4. See also Michael Schoeppner, “Navigating the Dangerous Atlantic: Racial Quarantines, Black Sailors and United States Constitutionalism” (PhD diss., University of Florida, 2010), 59.

103. Hamer, “Great Britain, the United States, and the Negro Seamen Acts,” 4.

104. Alan F. January, “The South Carolina Association: An Agency for Race Control in Antebellum Charleston,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 78, no. 3 (1977): 195. See also Michael A. Schoeppner, Moral Contagion: Black Atlantic Sailors, Citizenship, and Diplomacy in Antebellum America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 38.

105. Michael Schoeppner, “Peculiar Quarantines: The Seamen Acts and Regulatory Authority in the Antebellum South,” Law and History Review 31, no. 3 (2013): 564, 566. On the legal difficulties presented by the contagion analogy, see Schoeppner, Moral Contagion, 45.

106. Hamer, “Great Britain, the United States, and the Negro Seamen Acts,” 8.

107. Schoeppner, “Navigating the Dangerous Atlantic,” 77.

108. Hamer, “Great Britain, the United States, and the Negro Seamen Acts,” 8.

109. The treatment of the diplomatic back-and-forth during these years in Hamer, “Great Britain, the United States, and the Negro Seamen Acts,” is detailed and comprehensive.

110. Philip M. Hamer, “British Consuls and the Negro Seamen Acts, 1850–1860,” Journal of Southern History 1, no. 2 (1935): 138–139.

111. Hamer, “British Consuls,” 140–141.

112. Hamer, “British Consuls,” 151.

113. Michael Schoeppner, “Legal Redress for Transatlantic Black Maritime Laborers in the Antebellum United States: A Case Study,” World History Bulletin 29, no. 1 (2013): 20.

114. Larry Eugene Rivers, Rebels and Runaways: Slave Resistance in Nineteenth-Century Florida (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2013), 79.

115. Irvin D. S. Winsboro and Joe Knetsch, “Florida Slaves, the ‘Saltwater Railroad’ to the Bahamas, and Anglo-American Diplomacy,” Journal of Southern History 79, no. 1 (2013): 51.

116. Winsboro and Knetsch, “Florida Slaves,” 54; Aberdeen to Edward Everett, April 18, 1842, in BFSP 31:701. See also Niles National Register, August 12, 1843, 374.

117. Winsboro and Knetsch, “Florida Slaves,” 56.

118. Arthur T. Downey, The Creole Affair: The Slave Rebellion That Led the U.S. and Great Britain to the Brink of War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014).

119. On the Amistad episode, see especially Howard Jones, Mutiny on the Amistad: The Saga of a Slave Revolt and Its Impact on American Abolition, Law, and Diplomacy, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

120. Everett to Aberdeen, March 1, 1842, in BFSP 31:646. For a thorough treatment of the episode and its consequences, see especially Edward D. Jervey and C. Harold Huber, “The Creole Affair,” Journal of Negro History 65, no. 3 (1980): 196–211.

121. Christopher J. Leahy, President without a Party: The Life of John Tyler (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2020), 259. On the “Hidden Atlantic,” see Michael Zeuske and Orlando García Martínez, “ ‘La Amistad’ de Cuba: Ramón Ferrer, contraband de esclavos, captividad y modernidad atlántica,” Caribbean Studies 37, no. 1 (2009), 148; and Dorothea Fischer-Hornung, “The Hidden Atlantic: Michael Zeuske Reflects on His Recent Research,” Atlantic Studies 15, no. 1 (2018): 137.

122. Matthew Mason, Apostle of Union: A Political Biography of Edward Everett (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 126.

123. Winsboro and Knetsch, “Florida Slaves,” 61; Mason, Apostle of Union, 134.

124. Everett to Aberdeen, March 1, 1842, in BFSP 31:679–680.

125. Everett to Aberdeen, March 1, 1842, in BFSP 31:680, 683.

126. Everett to Aberdeen, March 1, 1842, in BFSP 31:684–685.

127. Mason, Apostle of Union, 141, 142.

128. Aberdeen to Everett, April 18, 1842, in Great Britain. Parliament. House of Lords. Sessional Papers, session 1843, vol. 16, 196.

129. Leahy, President without a Party, 260–261; Winsboro and Knetsch, “Florida Slaves,” 63.

130. See Jervey and Huber, “The Creole Affair,” 207–208. See also Wilbur Devereux Jones, “The Influence of Slavery on the Webster-Ashburton Negotiations,” Journal of Southern History 22, no. 1 (1956): 52–53; and Winsboro and Knetsch, “Florida Slaves,” 60.

1. On Nat Turner’s Rebellion and its significance, see. e.g., Edward B. Rugemer, Slave Law and the Politics of Resistance in the Early Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 297–298; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 178–181; and especially Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil: The Slavery Question in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 361–389.

2. See Eric Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution: A History of the American Colonization Society (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 24; and Lawrence C. Howard, American Involvement in Africa South of the Sahara, 1800–1860 (New York: Garland, 1988), 231.

3. Howard, American Involvement, 233.

4. See Penelope Campbell, Maryland in Africa: The Maryland State Colonization Society, 1831–1857 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 235–237.

5. Howard, American Involvement, 235–237.

6. Report of the Committee of Commerce on African Colonization, 27th Congress, 3rd Session, House of Representatives Report No. 283 (February 28, 1843), in “Documents Relating to the United States and Liberia,” American Journal of International Law 4, no. 3, supplement: official documents (1910): 203.

7. Report of the Committee of Commerce on African Colonization, 205.

8. Report of the Committee of Commerce on African Colonization, 205–206.

9. Fox to Upshur, August 9, 1843, in “Documents Relating to the United States and Liberia,” 211–212.

10. Upshur to Fox, September 25, 1843, in “Documents Relating to the United States and Liberia,” 214.

11. Report of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 28th Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives Report 469 (May 4, 1844), quoted in Charles Henry Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, vol. 1 (New York: Central Book, 1947), 270.

12. Statement of the Board of Managers, Massachusetts Colonization Society, quoted in Huberich, The Political and Legislative History of Liberia, 1:272–273.

13. See, e.g., Howard, American Involvement, 258.

14. George W. Brown, The Economic History of Liberia (Washington, DC: Associated, 1941), 130.

15. Ronald P. Falkner, “The United States and Liberia,” American Journal of International Law 4, no. 3 (1910): 536.

16. Howard, American Involvement, 261.

17. On this point, see especially Falkner, “The United States and Liberia,” 539.

18. See “Extract from Report of R. R. Gurley to the Secretary of State,” February 15, 1850, in “Documents Relating to the United States and Liberia,” 215–217.

19. See Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 125–127.

20. Adams to Canning, June 24, 1823, in BFSP 11:419.

21. Kenneth Morgan, Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 169, 171.

22. Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012), 41, 51–52.

23. John Quincy Adams, quoted in James E. Lewis Jr., John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2001), 90.

24. Hugh G. Soulsby, The Right of Search and the Slave Trade in Anglo-American Relations, 1814–1862 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1933), 41.

25. Vaughn to Palmerston, March 28, 1831, in BFSP 19:591–593.

26. Vaughn to Palmerston, December 12, 1833, in BFSP 23:135–136.

27. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 44–45.

28. Vaughn to Palmerston, December 12, 1833.

29. Vaughn to McLane, December 10, 1833, in BFSP 23:137. See also Vaughn to McLane, December 25, 1833, in BFSP 23:138.

30. McLane to Vaughn, March 24, 1834, in BFSP 23:139–140.

31. Palmerston to Vaughn, July 7, 1834, in BFSP 23:140–141.

32. Forsyth to Vaughn, October 4, 1834, in BFSP 23:146, 147.

33. Jeremy Black, The Atlantic Slave Trade in World History (New York: Routledge, 2015), 122.

34. Herbert S. Klein, The Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 192.

35. Bishop Don Félix Varela, “Memoria que demuestra la necesidad de extinguir la esclavitud de los negros en la isla Cuba,” quoted in Eduardo Torres-Cuevas and Eusebio Reyes, Esclavitud y sociedad: Notas y documentos para la historia de la esclavitud negra en Cuba (Havana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1986), 149 (author’s translation).

36. Mario Hernández y Sánchez-Barba, “David Turnbull y el problem de la esclavitud en Cuba,” Anuario de estudios Americanos 14 (1957): 272 (author’s translation).

37. Philip S. Foner, A History of Cuba and Its Relations with the United States, vol. 1, 1492–1845: From the Conquest of Cuba to La Escalera (New York: International, 1962), 202–203; Hernández y Sánchez-Barba, “David Turnbull,” 273.

38. Foner, A History of Cuba 1:205.

39. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 63.

40. Arthur F. Corwin, Spain and the Abolition of Slavery in Cuba, 1817–1886 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967), 71.

41. Corwin, Spain and the Abolition of Slavery, 70.

42. Palmerston to Stevenson, December 14, 1836, in BFSP 25:348–349; Stevenson to Palmerston, December 19, 1836, in BFSP 25:349.

43. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 164.

44. Palmerston to Fox, April 16, 1839, in BFSP 27:758.

45. Palmerston to Fox, July 2, 1839, in BFSP 28:912.

46. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 164–165; Stevenson to Palmerston, February 7, 1840, in BFSP 28:937.

47. Fox to Forsyth, October 29, 1839, in BFSP 28:923–924.

48. Stevenson to Palmerston, February 5, 1840, in BFSP 28:933.

49. Forsyth to Fox, February 12, 1840, in BFSP 28:942.

50. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 51.

51. Stevenson to Palmerston, November 13, 1840, in BFSP 29:644, 645; Palmerston to Stevenson, November 19, 1840, in BFSP 29:646.

52. Christopher Lloyd, The Navy and the Slave Trade: The Suppression of the African Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longmans, Green, 1949), 53; Mark C. Hunter, Policing the Seas: Anglo-American Relations and the Equatorial Atlantic, 1819–1865 (St. John’s, NL: International Maritime Economic History Association, 2008), 128–129.

53. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 166.

54. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 107–108.

55. An American [Lewis Cass], An Examination of the Question, Now in Discussion between the American and British Governments Concerning the Right of Search (Detroit: n.p., January 1842), 7–8, 13, 21, 77; Willard Carl Klunder, Lewis Cass and the Politics of Moderation (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1996), 106.

56. An Englishman [Sir William Gore Ouseley], Reply to an “American’s Examination” (London: n.p., April 1842), 7–9.

57. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 167–168; Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 26–27.

58. Keith Hamilton and Farida Shaikh, “Introduction,” in Slavery, Diplomacy, and Empire: Britain and the Suppression of the Slave Trade, 1807–1975, ed. Keith Hamilton and Patrick Salmon (Portland, OR: Sussex Academic, 2009), 10; Andrew Lambert, “Slavery, Free Trade and Naval Strategy, 1840–1860,” in Hamilton and Salmon, eds., Slavery, Diplomacy, and Empire, 66.

59. Stevenson to Webster, September 18, 1841, in Daniel Webster, The Papers of Daniel Webster: Diplomatic Papers, vol. 1, 1841–1843, ed. Kenneth E. Shewmaker, Kenneth R. Stevens, and Anita McGurn (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College Press, 1983), 122–123.

60. Ashburton to Aberdeen, April 25, 1842, in BFSP 31:708–709; Donald L. Canney, Africa Squadron: The U.S. Navy and the Slave Trade, 1842–1861 (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2006), 31; Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 169.

61. Thomas Hart Benton, quoted in Earl E. McNeilly, “The United States Navy and the Suppression of the West African Slave Trade, 1819–1862” (PhD diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1973), 128.

62. Cass to Webster, October 3, 1842, in Webster, The Papers of Daniel Webster 1:717–721; Webster to Cass, December 20, 1842, quoted in Soulsby, The Right of Search, 113.

63. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 114.

64. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 118.

65. Canney, Africa Squadron, 222–223. See also Gerald Horne, The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade (New York: New York University Press, 2007), 139–142.

66. Pakenham to Calhoun, August 5, 1844, in BFSP 33:657.

67. Canney, Africa Squadron, 224. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 176, makes this point.

68. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 173, 174.

69. Palmerston to Pakenham, May 13, 1847, in BFSP 36:738; Palmerston to Pakenham, June 22, 1847, in BFSP 36:738–739.

70. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 73, 75, 80.

71. Henry A. Wise, quoted in Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 74. For a thorough treatment of Wise and the Brazilian slave trade, see Horne, The Deepest South, 67–84.

72. John F. Crampton to Palmerston, June 13, 1847, in BFSP 36:740.

73. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 180.

74. Henry Bulwer quoted in Corwin, Spain and the Abolition of Slavery, 97.

75. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 183.

76. Corwin, Spain and the Abolition of Slavery, 112–113.

77. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 140.

78. Clarendon to Napier, September 26, 1857, in BFSP 48:1236.

79. Napier to Cass, December 24, 1857, in BFSP 48:1244.

80. Soulsby, The Right of Search, 140.

81. Cass to Dallas, February 23, 1859, in BFSP 49:1119, 1120, 1121.

82. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 187.

83. Lyons to the Earl of Malmsbury, April 30, 1859, in BFSP 50:971; Russell to Lyons, in BFSP 50:972.

84. Toucey to Inman, in BFSP 50:976.

85. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 187.

86. Lyons to Russell, April 5, 1860, in BFSP 51:1078–1079.

87. Cass to Lyons, April 8, 1860, in BFSP 51:1081.

88. Seward to Lyons, March 22, 1862, in BFSP 53:1425; Lyons to Seward, March 22, 1862, in BFSP 53:1426.

89. Lyons to Russell, March 28, 1862, in BFSP 53:1427; Lyons to Russell, March 31, 1863, in BFSP 53:1427–1428.

90. Russell to Lyons, April 17, 1862, in BFSP 53:1429; Lyons to Russell, April 25, 1862, in BFSP 53:1430.

91. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 189; Howard Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 122; Soulsby, The Right of Search, 175. See also Warren S. Howard, American Slavers and the Federal Law, 1837–1862 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 60–61.

92. R[eginald] Coupland, The British Anti-Slavery Movement (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1933), 187.

1. Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), xvi.

2. Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 705. On slaveholders and the “all-Mexico” movement, see Nugent, Habits of Empire, 208.

3. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 4.

4. Randolph B. Campbell, An Empire for Slavery: The Peculiar Institution in Texas, 1821–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 2–3; Randolph B. Campbell, Gone to Texas: A History of the Lone Star State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 132 (capitalization in the original). See also Lester D. Langley, “Slavery, Reform, and American Policy, 1823–1878,” Revista de Historia de América 65–66 (1968): 71.

5. Campbell, Gone to Texas, 162–164.

6. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 119.

7. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 120. See also Thomas R. Hietala, Manifest Design: Anxious Aggrandizement in Late Jacksonian America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 6.

8. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 120. On Tyler’s alienation from the Whig Party, see Norma Lois Peterson, The Presidencies of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989), 89–90.

9. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 120; Peterson, The Presidencies, 176.

10. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 86–87.

11. Lelia M. Roeckell, “Bonds over Bondage: British Opposition to American Annexation of Texas,” Journal of the Early Republic 19, no. 2 (1999): 262.

12. David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1973), 122.

13. Frederick Merk, Slavery and the Annexation of Texas (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), x.

14. Upshur to Everett, September 28, 1843, in Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Inter-American Affairs, 1831–1860, ed. William R. Manning, 12 vols., vol. 7 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1932–1939) (hereafter DCUS), 6, 7, 8.

15. John Niven, John Calhoun and the Price of Union: A Biography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 272.

16. Upshur to Everett, September 28, 1843, in DCUS 7:9.

17. Upshur to Everett, September 28, 1843, in DCUS 7:11–12.

18. See, e.g., Hietala, Manifest Design, 22.

19. See Merk, Slavery and the Annexation of Texas, 11.

20. Upshur to William S. Murphy, August 8, 1843, in DCUS 12:49.

21. Upshur to N. Beverley Tucker, August 7, 1841, quoted in Merk, Slavery and the Annexation of Texas, 18 (and see generally 17).

22. Merk, Slavery and the Annexation of Texas, 17.

23. Upshur to Van Zandt, October, 1843, quoted in The Letters and Times of the Tylers, vol. 2, ed. Lyon G. Tyler (New York: Da Capo Press, 1970), 284. See also Campbell, Gone to Texas, 183; and Peterson, The Presidencies, 193.

24. Aberdeen to Pakenham, December 26, 1843, in BFSP 33:232–233. The discussion of Tyler’s stance at this time relies on Peterson, The Presidencies, 191–193.

25. Tyler to Mary Tyler-Jones, in Tyler, Letters 2:289.

26. Peterson, The Presidencies, 205.

27. Niven, John Calhoun and the Price of Union, 269.

28. Calhoun to Pakenham, April 18, 1844, in BFSP 33: 237–238.

29. Peterson, The Presidencies, 205.

30. Calhoun to Pakenham, April 18, 1844, in BFSP 33:238, 239, 240.

31. Sydney Nathans, “The Southern Connection: Slaveholders and Antebellum Expansion,” Reviews in American History 1, no. 3 (1973): 394 (emphasis in the original); Pakenham to Calhoun, April 19, 1844, in BFSP 33:241. See also Christopher J. Leahy, President without a Party: The Life of John Tyler (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2020), 329–330.

32. William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, vol. 1, Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 410–411.

33. Thomas Hart Benton, Thirty Years’ View, or, A History of the Working of the American Government for Thirty Years, from 1820 to 1850, vol. 2 (New York: D. Appleton, 1856), 619–620.

34. Clay to the Editors of the National Intelligencer, April 17, 1844, in Letters of Messrs. Clay, Benton, and Barrow on the Subject of the Annexation of Texas to the United States (Pamphlet: n.p.), 1–5.

35. William S. Archer, quoted in Merk, Slavery and the Annexation of Texas, 80 (and see, generally, 77–82).

36. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 124.

37. Peterson, The Presidencies, 255.

38. William J. Cooper Jr., The South and the Politics of Slavery, 1826–1856 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), 221.

39. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 125; Campbell, Gone to Texas, 185–186.

40. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 118, 126.

41. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 100.

42. Philip S. Foner, A History of Cuba and Its Relations with the United States, vol. 1, 1492–1845: From the Conquest of Cuba to La Escalera (New York: International, 1962), 9.

43. Ofalia to Eaton, February 22, 1838, in DCUS 11:307–309; Eaton to Ofalia, in DCUS 11:310–313.

44. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 59.

45. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 128.

46. Foner, A History of Cuba 1:10.

47. Eduardo Torres-Cuevas and Eusebio Reyes, Esclavitud y Sociedad: Notas y documentos para la historia de la esclavitud negra en Cuba (Havana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1986), 202 (author’s translation).

48. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 66.

49. Webster to Robert B. Campbell, January 14, 1843, DCUS 11:26, 27, 28, 29 (emphasis in the original). See also Jerónimo Bécker, Historia de las relaciones exteriores de España durante el siglo XIX, vol. 2 (Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Jaimie Ratés, 1924), 56–57.

50. Robert L. Paquette, “The Everett–Del Monte Connection: A Study in the International Politics of Slavery,” Diplomatic History 11, no. 1 (1987): 13.

51. Bécker, Historia de las relaciones exteriores 2:71 (author’s translation).

52. James K. Polk, The Diary of James K. Polk, vol. 3, ed. Milo Milton Quaife (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1910), 446.

53. See, e.g., Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic, 128.

54. Buchanan to Robert B. Campbell, June 9, 1848, in DCUS 11:53.

55. Bécker, Historia de las relaciones exteriores 2:78 (author’s translation).

56. Robert E. May, Manifest Destiny’s Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 111.

57. George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 217.

58. Tom Chaffin, “ ‘Sons of Washington’: Narciso López, Filibustering, and U.S. Nationalism, 1848–1851,” Journal of the Early Republic 15, no. 1 (1995): 79–108; May, Manifest Destiny’s Underworld, 111.

59. Bécker, Historia de las relaciones exteriores 2:79 (author’s translation). See also Elbert B. Smith, The Presidencies of Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 86–89.

60. See Herminio Portell Vilá, Narciso López y su época, vol. 3 (Havana: Compañia Editora de Libros y Folletos O’Reilly, 1958), 37–38. For a more positive assessment of Fillmore’s policy toward Cuba and the filibusters, see Lester D. Langley, “The Whigs and the Lopez Expeditions to Cuba, 1849–1851: A Chapter in Frustrating Diplomacy,” Revista de Historia de América 71 (1971): 9–22.

61. See, e.g., H. Barrett Learned, “William Learned Marcy,” in American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy, vol. 6, ed. Samuel Flagg Bemis (New York: Pageant, 1958), 84–85. On Spain’s encouragement of a tripartite “abnegatory declaration,” see Howden to Earl Granville, January 9, 1852, in BFSP 44:114. On the connection of the proposed agreement with filibustering, see especially May, Manifest Destiny’s Underworld, 230. On the Whigs’ “gradualist strategy” regarding expansion at this time, see Douglas Arthur Ley, “Expansionists All? Southern Senators and American Foreign Policy, 1841–1860” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1990), 219; and, especially, Matthew Mason, Apostle of Union: A Political Biography of Edward Everett (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 189–192.

62. Government of Spain, Royal Decree [Real orden], September 16, 1851, quoted in Bécker, Historia de las relaciones exteriores 2:230 (author’s translation).

63. Piero Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba: The United States, Spain, and Britain, 1853–1855,” Journal of Latin American Studies 49, no. 2 (2016): 224; Herminio Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba en sus relaciones con los Estados Unidos y España, vol. 2 (Havana: Biblioteca de Historia Filosophía y Sociología, 1939), 9 (author’s translation).

64. Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), 9.

65. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 188.

66. Perry to Pierce, January 10, 1853, in DCUS 9:685–686. On France’s position regarding the transference of Cuba to another maritime power during Fillmore’s administration, see Bécker, Historia de las relaciones exteriores 2:229.

67. Perry to Pierce, January 10, 1853, in DCUS 9:690 (emphasis in the original).

68. Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba,” 224.

69. Learned, “William Learned Marcy,” 187. On Marcy’s selection for secretary of state, see Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 189. On Marcy’s policy preferences for Cuba, see Learned, “William Learned Marcy,” 184–187.

70. On this point, see Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 189.

71. Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:20 (author’s translation).

72. Jennifer R. Green and Patrick M. Kirkwood, “Reframing the Antebellum Democratic Mainstream: Transatlantic Diplomacy and the Career of Pierre Soulé,” Civil War History 61, no. 3 (2015): 218.

73. May, The Southern Dream, 41–42.

74. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 4.

75. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 3.

76. May, The Southern Dream, 10–11 (and see, generally, 10–12).

77. May, The Southern Dream, 11; Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba,” 217.

78. Palmerston to Howden, July 18, 1851, quoted in Amos Aschbach Ettinger, The Mission to Spain of Pierre Soulé, 1853–1855: A Study in the Cuban Diplomacy of the United States (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1932), 43; Ettinger, The Mission to Spain, 4.

79. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 16.

80. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 185.

81. May, The Southern Dream, 22.

82. “Extract from the National Intelligencer, of November 25, 1852,” in BFSP 44:212.

83. The speech is analyzed in depth in Ettinger, The Mission to Spain, 98–100.

84. Catherine Chancerel, L’homme du Grand Fleuve (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2015), 320 (author’s translation).

85. Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:272–273.

86. This discussion relies upon Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:274–275. See also Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba,” 222.

87. Green and Kirkwood, “Reframing the Antebellum Democratic Mainstream,” 212–213.

88. For background on the Africanization scare, see, e.g., C. Stanley Urban, “The Africanization of Cuba Scare, 1853–1855,” Hispanic American Historical Review 37, no. 1 (1957): 30–32.

89. Russell to Howden, January 31, 1853, in BFSP 44:335.

90. Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:18 (author’s translation).

91. Philip S. Foner, A History of Cuba and Its Relations with the United States, vol. 2, 1845–1895: From the Era of Annexation to the Beginning of the Second War for Independence (New York: International, 1963), 76. See also Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba,” 225.

92. Foner, A History of Cuba 2:77.

93. Urban, “The Africanization of Cuba Scare,” 34.

94. “Latest Intelligence: England, France and Spain joined in the scheme to Africanize Cuba,” New York Daily Times, October 25, 1853, 1.

95. Soulé to Marcy, December 23, 1853, in DCUS 11:732–733.

96. Soulé to Marcy, January 20, 1854, in DCUS 11:735–736.

97. “Important from Cuba,” New York Daily Times, January 14, 1854, 2.

98. James Buchanan, “To Mr. Marcy (No. 14),” in The Works of James Buchanan, vol. 9, ed. John Bassett Moore (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1909), 84.

99. Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:35 (author’s translation).

100. See, e.g., Learned, William Learned Marcy,” 187.

101. Marcy to Soulé, April 3, 1854, in DCUS 11:175, 176.

102. Marcy to Soulé, April 3, 1854, DCUS 11:176–177.

103. May, The Southern Dream, 54.

104. See May, The Southern Dream, 54; and Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 193.

105. Marcy to Robertson, April 8, 1854, in DCUS 11:178.

106. May, The Southern Dream, 59.

107. Bécker, Historia de las relaciones exteriores 2:302 (author’s translation).

108. Marqués de Viluma to the Minister of State (Luis José Sartorius), April 20, 1854, quoted in Bécker, Historia de las relaciones exteriores 2:302 (author’s translation).

109. Alan Dowty, The Limits of American Isolation: The United States and the Crimean War (New York: New York University Press, 1971), 117.

110. Dowty, The Limits of American Isolation, 114.

111. Seibels to Marcy, December 13, 1854, quoted in Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:87 (author’s translation).

112. Dowty, The Limits of American Isolation, 118.

113. Robertson to Marcy, June 27, 1854, in DCUS 11:797.

114. For a discussion of the Black Warrior Affair in connection with the Crimean War, see Dowty, The Limits of American Isolation, 113–118; and Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba,” 228–229.

115. See Soulé to Marcy, July 15, 1854, in DCUS 11:798–799.

116. Foner, A History of Cuba 2:99.

117. Ettinger, The Mission to Spain, 342.

118. Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 197. The literature on the Ostend Conference is extensive. For a full treatment, see Ettinger, The Mission to Spain, 339–412; see also John Ashworth, Slavery, Capitalism, and Politics in the Antebellum Republic, vol. 2, The Coming of the Civil War, 1850–1861 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 395–398.

119. Ostend Manifesto, quoted in Ettinger, The Mission to Spain, 362, 363, 364.

120. See James Morton Callahan, Cuba in International Relations: A Historical Study in American Diplomacy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1899), 298. See also May, The Southern Dream, 72; and Ashworth, Slavery, Capitalism, and Politics, 398.

121. Foner, A History of Cuba 2:103–104. May, The Southern Dream, 70.

122. See Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:89.

123. Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba,” 229.

124. Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:96 (and see, generally, 96–98) (author’s translation). On Pezuela and the arming of Cuban Blacks, see especially Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba,” 226–227.

125. Gleijeses, “Clashing over Cuba,” 235–236.

126. Callahan, Cuba in International Relations, 304.

127. Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:119 (author’s translation).

128. Portell Vilá, Historía de Cuba 2:120 (author’s translation).

129. Congressional Globe, Senate, 35th Congress, 2nd Session (1859), 905.

130. Congressional Globe, Senate, 35th Congress, 2nd Session (1859), 904.

131. Congressional Globe, Senate, 35th Congress, 2nd Session (1859), 907.

132. Substance of a statement made by Gabriel García Tassara to Lewis Cass, December 11, 1858, in DCUS 11:961.

133. Langley, “Slavery, Reform, and American Policy,” 71.

1. Howard Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 2. On the “nation-bound” historiography of the American Civil War, see especially Don H. Doyle, “Introduction: The Atlantic World and the Crisis of the 1860s,” in American Civil Wars: The United States, Latin America, Europe, and the Crisis of the 1860s, ed. Don H. Doyle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 1.

2. R. J. M. Blackett, Divided Hearts: Britain and the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001).

3. See Stève Sainlaude, France and the American Civil War: A Diplomatic History, trans. Jessica Edwards (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019); Stève Sainlaude, La gouvernment imperial et la guerre de Sécession (1861–1865): L’action diplomatique (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2011), and Stève Sainlaude, La France et la Confédération sudiste (1861–1865): La question de la reconnaissance diplomatique pendant la guerre de Sécession (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2011).

4. Wayne H. Bowen, Spain and the American Civil War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011).

5. Howard Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).

6. See especially Don H. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (New York: Basic Books, 2015); and David T. Gleeson and Simon Lewis, eds., The Civil War as Global Conflict: Transnational Meanings of the American Civil War (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2014).

7. Jay Sexton, Debtor Diplomacy: Finance and American Foreign Relations in the Civil War Era 1837–1873 (Oxford: Clarendon, 2005).

8. See especially Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, vol. 2 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008). See also Joseph A. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations in the Civil War (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2019).

9. Allan Nevins, quoted in Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 3.

10. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 11.

11. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 53. On Seward’s early presumptuousness, see, e.g., Doyle, The Cause, 61–62. See also Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life 2:117–119.

12. Carl Schurz, quoted in Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 54.

13. Robert E. May, “Introduction,” in The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim, rev. ed., ed. Robert E. May (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013), 28.

14. Adams to Seward, January 17, 1862, in Message of the President of the United States to the Two Houses of Congress at the Commencement of the Thirty-Seventh Congress, 1862, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: G.P.O., 1862), 16.

15. Harriet Beecher Stowe, “A Reply,” in The Real War Will Never Get in the Books, ed. Louis P. Masur (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 239.

16. Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 132.

17. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 133.

18. Foner, The Fiery Trial, 144.

19. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 5.

20. Kinley J. Brauer, “The Slavery Problem in the Diplomacy of the American Civil War,” Pacific Historical Review 46, no. 3 (1977): 447.

21. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 53.

22. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 28–29.

23. Blackett, Divided Hearts, 75.

24. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 36. On this point, see also Martin Crawford, The Anglo-American Crisis of the Mid-Nineteenth Century: The Times and America, 1850–1862 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987), 126.

25. Charles S. Campbell, From Revolution to Rapprochement: The United States and Great Britain, 1783–1900 (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), 96.

26. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 54.

27. Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 15.

28. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 54.

29. Serge Gavronsky, The French Liberal Opposition and the American Civil War (New York: Humanities Press, 1968), 88–89.

30. George M. Blackburn, French Newspaper Opinion on the American Civil War (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997), 30.

31. Paul Pecquet du Bellet, The Diplomacy of the Confederate Cabinet of Richmond and Its Agents Abroad: Being Memorandum Notes Taken in Paris during the Rebellion of the Southern States from 1861–1865, ed. William Stanley Hoole (Tuscaloosa, AL: Confederate Publishing, 1963), 39–40. On efforts to found a newspaper supportive of the Confederacy, see, e.g., Sainlaude, France and the American Civil War, 81.

32. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 21.

33. Sainlaude, France and the American Civil War, xiii, 100.

34. Gavronsky, The French Liberal Opposition, 42.

35. Gavronsky, The French Liberal Opposition, 88.

36. On Davis’s inapt diplomatic appointments, see, e.g., Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 84–86.

37. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 12, 13.

38. Sainlaude, France and the American Civil War, 141.

39. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 12.

40. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 323.

41. Doyle, Cause of All Nations, 39. See also Crawford, The Anglo-American Crisis, 126–127.

42. Eli N. Evans, Judah P. Benjamin: The Jewish Confederate (New York: Free Press, 1988), 185.

43. Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life, vol. 1 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 701.

44. Foner, The Fiery Trial, 157–158.

45. Donald Jordan and Edwin J. Pratt, Europe and the American Civil War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931), 130.

46. Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 36–37.

47. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 48.

48. Sainlaude, La France et la Confédération sudiste, 109.

49. Sainlaude, France and the American Civil War, 107.

50. Sainlaude, France and the American Civil War, 107, 108.

51. Sainlaude, La France et la Confédération sudiste, 191 (author’s translation). On Franco-Confederate relations and Mexico, see Sainlaude, France and the American Civil War, 110–125.

52. Sainlaude, La France et la Confédération sudiste, 195 (author’s translation).

53. R. M. T. Hunter, quoted in Bowen, Spain and the American Civil War, 78.

54. Doyle, Cause of All Nations, 113.

55. Bowen, Spain and the American Civil War, 63.

56. Bowen, Spain and the American Civil War, 140.

57. Duncan Andrew Campbell, English Public Opinion and the American Civil War (Woodbridge, UK: Royal Historical Society / Boydell, 2003), 28–29; D. P. Crook, The North, the South, and the Powers, 1861–1865 (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), 35. See also Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 22.

58. Blackett, Divided Hearts, 168.

59. Jay Sexton, “Sexton on Campbell, ‘English Public Opinion and the American Civil War’ ” (review), January 2005, https://networks.h-net.org/node/4113/reviews/4639/sexton-campbell-english-public-opinion-and-american-civil-war.

60. David Brown, Palmerston: A Biography (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010), 451 (emphasis in the original).

61. Campbell, English Public Opinion, 10.

62. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations, 61–62.

63. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 41.

64. On this point, see, e.g., Dean B. Mahin, One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1999), 7–8.

65. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 24.

66. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 24; Mahin, One War at a Time, 8; Campbell, English Public Opinion, 31. On Seward’s strategy as brinkmanship, see Crook, The North, the South, and the Powers, 63.

67. Crook, The North, the South, and the Powers, 63.

68. This summary of the Trent Affair follows the brief treatment in Howard Jones, “The Trent Affair,” in Encyclopedia of U.S. Foreign Relations, vol. 4, ed. Bruce W. Jentleson, Thomas G. Paterson, and Nicholas X. Rizopoulos (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 206–207. For an extended discussion, see Howard Jones, Union in Peril: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997); and Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 66–77.

69. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 75.

70. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations, 81.

71. Jordan and Pratt, Europe and the American Civil War, 43.

72. Blackett Divided Hearts, 61, 21, 18.

73. Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 39.

74. Carl Schurz, quoted in Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life 2:333.

75. Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life 2:351.

76. “Thunderer,” Times (London), April 16, 1862, quoted in Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life 2:346.

77. For a useful, if overly literary, treatment of Clay’s conversion to abolitionism, see H. Edward Richardson, Cassius Marcellus Clay: Firebrand of Freedom (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1976), 21–24.

78. Richardson, Cassius Marcellus Clay, 91; R. F. Ivanov, Diplomatiia Avraama Linkol’na (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnie Otnosheniia, 1987), 167–168 (author’s translation); John Motley, quoted in Walter Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 346.

79. Seward to Adams, October 18, 1862, in Message of the President 1:212.

80. Howard Jones, “History and Mythology: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War,” in May, ed., The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim, 57.

81. Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 234, 235.

82. James M. McPherson, Crossroads of Freedom: Antietam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 143.

83. See, e.g., Jones, Blue and Gray Diplomacy, 49; and Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 48.

84. Joseph P. Reidy, “Armed Slaves and the Struggle for Republican Liberty in the U.S. Civil War,” in Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age, ed. Christopher Leslie Brown and Philip D. Morgan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 274.

85. J. A. Hobson, Richard Cobden: The International Man (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1918), 377.

86. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 107.

87. Quoted in Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 116.

88. Quoted in Campbell, English Public Opinion, 131.

89. Fry, Lincoln, Seward, and US Foreign Relations, 107.

90. Lincoln to Speed, August 24, 1855, in Abraham Lincoln, Speeches and Writings: 1832–1858, ed. Don E. Fehrenbacher (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1989), 363.

91. Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, January 12, 1863.

92. Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, January 12, 1863.

93. See Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 69.

94. Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, January 12, 1863.

95. Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, January 12, 1863.

96. Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, April 6, 1863, 1.

97. For a brief but insightful contrast of the liberation the American slaves and the Russian serfs, see Peter Kolchin, Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1987), 373–375. On Sovremennik and the liberation of the serfs, see Roxanne Easley, The Emancipation of the Serfs in Russia: The Peace Arbitrators and Civil Society (New York: Routledge, 2009), 159.

98. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 333.

99. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 336.

100. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 338.

101. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 340.

102. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 341.

103. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 343.

104. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 347.

105. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 348.

106. Édouard de Stoeckl to Alexander Gorchakov, February 10, 1863, Stoeckl Correspondence, Records of the Ministerstva Inostrannykh del, 1783–1868, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

107. For a brief treatment of this subject, see Ivanov, Diplomatiia Avraama Linkol’na, 204–205.

108. Sovremennik 44, no. 2 (1863): 349.

109. See Howard Jones, “Wrapping the World in Fire: The Interventionist Crisis in the Civil War,” in Doyle, ed., American Civil Wars, 51.

110. See Michael J. Douma, “The Lincoln Administration’s Negotiations to Colonize African Americans in Dutch Suriname,” Civil War History 61, no. 2 (2015): 111–137; Robert E. May, Slavery, Race, and Conquest in the Tropics: Lincoln, Douglas, and the Future of Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), esp. 268; and Phillip W. Magness and Sebastian N. Page, Colonization after Emancipation: Lincoln and the Movement for Black Resettlement (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011).

111. See especially Allen C. Guelzo, review of Magness and Page, Colonization after Emancipation, Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 34, no. 1 (2013): 78–87.

112. For an extended treatment of Lincoln and the Panama scheme, see Paul J. Scheips, “Lincoln and the Chiriqi Colonization Project,” Journal of Negro History 37, no. 4 (1952): 418–453; and May, Slavery, Race, and Conquest, esp. 255–267.

113. Magness and Page, Colonization after Emancipation, 4–5.

114. Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life 2:396.

115. May, Slavery, Race, and Conquest, 270.

116. May, Slavery, Race, and Conquest, 10.

117. Lyons to Russell, December 26, 1862, in The American Civil War through British Eyes: Dispatches from British Diplomats, vol. 2, April 1862–February 1863, ed. James J. Barnes and Patience P. Barnes (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2005), 277–278. On Seward’s distaste for colonization, see Magness and Page, Colonization after Emancipation, 15–16; and May, Slavery, Race, and Conquest, 261. See also Paul D. Escott, Lincoln’s Dilemma: Blair, Sumner, and the Struggle over Racism and Equality in the Civil War Era (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2014), 190.

118. Sumner to John Bright, October 28, 1862, in Charles Sumner, The Selected Letters of Charles Sumner, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 128.

119. Seward to Lyons in Barnes and Barnes, ed., The American Civil War, 278–279.

120. Lyons to Russell in Barnes and Barnes, ed., The American Civil War, 280.

121. Magness and Page, Colonization after Emancipation, 21–22.

122. See J. P. Siwpersad, De Nederlandse regering en de afschaffing van de Surinaamse slavernij, 1833–1863 (Groningen, Netherlands: Bouma’s Boekhuis, 1979), 268.

123. Karwan Fatah-Black, Eigendomsstrijd: De geschiedenis van slavernij en emancipatie in Suriname (Amsterdam: Ambo/Anthos, 2018), 163–164.

124. Douma, “The Lincoln Administration’s Negotiations,” 118.

125. G. H. Uhlenbeck to Sombreff, June 25, 1862, in Michael Douma, “Archival Sources Relating to the U.S.-Dutch Negotiations to Colonize Freed African Americans in Suriname, 1860–1866” (unpublished manuscript). Douma has shared his transcriptions and translations of these documents with me, and I gratefully acknowledge his generosity. Any changes from his translations, and thus any errors, are my own. For the published documents, see Michael J. Douma, The Colonization of Freed African Americans in Suriname: Archival Sources Relating to the U.S.-Dutch Negotiations, 1860–1866 (Leiden: Leiden University Press, 2019).

126. Sombreff to Roest van Limburg, July 1, 1862, and Roest van Limburg to Seward, July 19, 1862, in Douma, “Archival Sources” (manuscript).

127. Seward to Roest van Limburg, July 22, 1862, in Douma, “Archival Sources” (manuscript). See also Robert Franklin Durden, James Shepherd Pike: Republicanism and the American Negro, 1850–1882 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1957), 87.

128. Roest Van Limburg to Caleb Smith, September 19, 1862, and Roest van Limburg to Sombreff, September 25, 1862, in Douma, “Archival Sources” (manuscript).

129. Pike to Sombreff, October 31, 1862, in Douma, “Archival Sources” (manuscript).

130. Van Limburg to Sombreff, June 22, 1863, in Douma, “Archival Sources” (manuscript).

131. Seward to Pike, February 15, 1864, in Douma, “Archival Sources” (manuscript).

132. Durden, James Shepherd Pike, 92.

133. Magness and Page, 34, 37.

134. Durden, James Shepherd Pike, 93.

135. Douma, “The Lincoln Administration’s Negotiations,” 135.

136. Guelzo, review of Magness and Page, 87.

1. On Adams’s complicated relationship with slavery, see Charles N. Edel, Nation Builder: John Quincy Adams and the Grand Strategy of the Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 155–159.

2. Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 133.

3. George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 264–265, 271.

4. On this point, see Daniel Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire: A Short History of the Greater United States (New York: Picador, 2019), 11–12; and Walter LaFeber, The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, vol. 2, The American Search for Opportunity, 1865–1913 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 48. For an analysis of the role of definitions of race in the shaping of American foreign relations, see especially Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 46–91.

5. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 48 (and see, generally, 46–91).

6. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 91.

7. See, e.g., Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 91.

8. Woodrow Wilson, quoted in John Milton Cooper Jr., Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (New York: Vintage Books, 2009), 25.

9. Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2002), 317.

10. Japanese delegation to Versailles, quoted in MacMillan, Paris 1919, 317–318.

11. Lloyd Ambrosius, Woodrow Wilson and American Internationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 111.

12. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 320.

13. Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire, 120.

14. William R. Nestor, Power across the Pacific: A Diplomatic History of American Relations with Japan (New York: New York University Press, 1996), 92.

15. See, e.g., MacMillan, Paris 1919, 321.

16. MacMillan, Paris 1919, 319.