INTRODUCTION

Attorney General Edward Bates grew frustrated as he contemplated, in late 1862, what constituted citizenship in the United States. Despite the Supreme Court’s exclusionary Dred Scott v. Sandford ruling in 1857, Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase asked Bates for his official opinion as to whether the United States could recognize black men as citizens, making them eligible to command American ships, after a federal revenue cutter detained a schooner captained by a black man. Bates examined legal treatises and court rulings to find an explanation of what it meant to be a citizen of the United States in the first place, but his search proved exasperating and fruitless: “I find no such definition, no authoritative establishment of the meaning of the phrase,” the attorney general admitted. Bates concluded that “eighty years of practical enjoyment of citizenship, under the Constitution, have not sufficed to teach us either the exact meaning of the word, or the constituent elements of the thing we prize so highly.”1

Today, we feel as surprised as Bates likely did that national citizenship existed as such a vague concept prior to the Civil War. At that time national citizenship largely functioned to determine whether one owed allegiance and certain obligations to the United States in exchange for its protection but left to the states the definition of most of the rights and privileges now attached to it. The rights and privileges one enjoyed depended on a complicated network of factors, including whether one was a naturalized or native-born citizen, where one lived, and one’s race, slave status, gender, political office, job, position within a family, and membership in different associations.2

We hold a dramatically different understanding of citizenship today. American citizenship is now primarily national in character. Furthermore, as T. H. Marshall described in a definition that scholars continue to track in an American context, the modern Western ideal of citizenship contains three elements of rights bundled together: civil rights, political rights, and socioeconomic rights. Civil rights are “the rights necessary for individual freedom—liberty of the person, freedom of speech, thought and faith, the right to own property and to conclude valid contracts, and the right to justice,” which itself comprised “the right to defend and assert all one’s rights on terms of equality with others and by due process of law.” Political rights include “the right to participate in the exercise of political power, as a member of a body invested with political authority or as an elector of the members of such a body.” Socioeconomic rights “range from the right to a modicum of economic welfare and security to the right to share in the social heritage and to live the life of a civilised being according to the standards prevailing in the society.”3

Citizenship has several interrelated sides: it acts as a political creation and a legal concept, and it also operates on a social and cultural level. Citizenship proclaims that a self-governing society exists and it defines inclusion and exclusion in that community. Citizenship helps to distribute power, articulate rights and duties, and create an intersection between political participation by the people and formal governmental structures. Additionally, citizenship offers an identity that individuals can embrace and that often becomes essential to their personal perceptions, and it helps to forge a collective civic identity and culture as well. Citizenship affects real lives in official ways, such as helping to define the rights individuals enjoy and duties they owe to their country, but also in terms of personal identity and allegiance.4

The modern American vision of national citizenship began to develop as a result of the tumult of the Civil War. Events leading up to and occurring during the 1860s challenged Americans to think about national citizenship in definite terms for the first time and the concept emerged dramatically transformed. During the 1860s, a distinctly American citizenship crystallized into a form that eventually integrated national rights and duties along with notions of loyalty and the embrace of American ideals. Following the Civil War, the rapid nationalization of citizenship, its heightened importance, and its association with claims to rights represent a major break with prior history. This book explores how, amid the tempest of war, statesmen, soldiers, and ordinary people forged a more robust definition of citizenship. What one legal scholar identified as the “moral, political, and constitutional crisis” of antebellum America resolved after Americans undertook the most comprehensive reconsideration of the government, society, and laws of the United States since the constitutional convention in 1787. As New York Republican Daniel Morris announced in 1864 to his fellow congressmen, they faced a “moment of greater responsibility than has devolved upon a like body since the year 1776.”5

In official terms, the most obvious manifestation of legal changes came in the form of constitutional amendments that emancipated the slaves (the Thirteenth), defined American citizens as all persons born or naturalized in the United States and ensured that they were entitled to “equal protection of the laws” and “due process of law” (the Fourteenth), and granted black men voting rights (the Fifteenth). Each of these amendments also empowered Congress to enforce them with “appropriate legislation.” Congress augmented these amendments with the first national civil rights statutes in American history and, in 1870, creation of the Department of Justice to help enforce them. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 defined for the first time some rights associated with national citizenship and, along with the Enforcement acts of 1870–72, conferred on federal courts jurisdiction to enforce these rights. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 went even further, desegregating public accommodations and outlawing racial discrimination in inns, public conveyances, and theaters, before the Supreme Court nullified it in 1883. Additionally, the Fourteenth Amendment sanctified the idea that the same rights and protections enjoyed by native-born Americans applied to naturalized citizens in the United States. The Act of July 27, 1868, extended this concept when naturalized citizens traveled abroad. By upholding the right of individuals to expatriate and choose a new allegiance without the assent of their native country, the Act of July 27, 1868, also affirmed the voluntary and consensual nature of citizenship.6

These statutes and amendments went beyond engraving the Union’s battlefield victory onto the law. Reconstruction legislation and constitutional revision strengthened the American nation-state by establishing the primacy of national citizenship, defining the body of national citizens and marking out some of the rights associated with that status. Moreover, the Fifteenth Amendment linked voting, which comprised not just a political act but one also signifying inclusion in the community, to national citizenship for men. The Civil War amendments and associated legislation created a new order not only by recognizing nearly 4.5 million blacks as national citizens, and freedmen as voters, within years of the Dred Scott case, but also by removing many rights from their traditional keepers (the states) and associating them with national citizenship. While states could continue to determine local variations under which civil and political rights could be enjoyed based on categories such as age, sex, and education, they could do so only so long as their legislation did not conflict with federal law.

Attorney General Bates thus stood at the vanguard of a broader cultural and legal shift when in 1862 he held that free native-born blacks were U.S. citizens. Bates extracted race and held birth and allegiance as the paramount sources of American citizenship. Citing the Constitution’s supremacy clause, Bates further held, “Every citizen of the United States is a component member of the nation, with rights and duties, under the Constitution and laws of the United States, which cannot be destroyed or abridged by the laws of any particular State.” Other people concurred in this stronger conception of the nation, as well as the meaning of citizenship in it. German American political philosopher Francis Lieber argued that the United States formed, “and ought to form, a Nation,” and he called for the American people “to provide constitutionally for a national expression on the necessity of the integrity of our country, on allegiance, the treasonable character of elevating so-called State sovereignty above the National Government, and for the extinction of the Dred Scott principle.”7

To accomplish what Bates, Lieber, and others contemplated, Americans had to define national citizenship and imbue it with priority over state citizenship, wrestling with and revising long-held doctrines of federalism along the way. Similar to the way in which emancipation demanded discussion of what freedom actually encompassed, the task would remain incomplete if national citizens were designated without a determination of what this meant in practical terms. As the Philadelphia American argued in support of the Fourteenth Amendment, “If there be one lesson written in bloody letters by the [Civil] War, it is that the national citizenship must be paramount to that of the State,” while in October 1866 Presbyterian minister Samuel T. Spear asked, “Ought not the word [citizen] to have the same meaning throughout the whole country?”8

The military served as a primary site of this rethinking of what citizenship meant in terms of identity and allegiance, rights, status, and protection. The Union armed forces mobilized Americans from different classes, ethnicities, races, and states in unprecedented ways, on a national scale. Wartime experiences cut across people’s different backgrounds and created stronger links between the federal government and the people. Politics pervaded the armed forces during the Civil War, turning the military into an institution that raised political consciousness within soldiers and sailors in the ranks. After the war, the experiences and leadership of veterans stood at the center of the clarification of American citizenship that took place. The federal military operated as a nation-building tool not only by reconstituting the country but by unleashing forces that helped to shape the emergence of a stronger concept of national citizenship.

Two groups, African Americans and Irish Americans, greatly influenced the more modern understanding of citizenship that emerged out of the crucible of war. The identity component of African American and Irish American citizenship changed during the 1860s. These changes, and the expectations they created, merged with and influenced a broader movement to redefine the legal meaning and political practices of American citizenship. Veterans and civilians of both groups articulated demands for change on the basis of service to the Union and asserted views on how the federal victory should affect what it meant to be an American citizen. Through separate but simultaneous efforts, African Americans and Irish Americans in the 1860s helped solidify three principles in the law: the primacy of a national citizenship that incorporated certain rights; the concept that individuals had the right to change their birth citizenship and allegiance; and the doctrine that all citizens, whether by birth of naturalization, stood equal in rights and protections regardless of race or prior status as a slave or alien.

American constitutionalism encompasses more than legislation and judicial interpretation, it also relies on the acceptance of official pronouncements by the people. The people hold power to challenge official practice and to move it into conformity with their vision, often by use of moral suasion and the ballot (for example, see the Republican Party’s growth in response to Dred Scott). Episodes of public disagreement can resolve to create new accords on constitutional issues. Public deliberation thus makes up a critical, nongovernmental aspect of constitutional development. Because popular sovereignty forms the bedrock of American constitutionalism, the issues of who comprise “the people,” how they may act, what they believe, and what rights they enjoy, remain fundamental. Moreover, citizenship as an identity often comes into being as a result of both political practices and personal experiences. These circumstances render the popular constitutionalism of African Americans and Irish Americans in the 1860s all the more important. Members of both groups not only helped to change citizenship as a legal concept, they acted as citizens in the process.9

Participation in the Civil War dramatically increased the political awareness of African Americans and Irish Americans. Members of both groups fought in America’s prior conflicts, but the unprecedented numbers in which they served during the Civil War allowed them to assert, more powerfully than ever before, their American identity and vision of how they should fit into the United States. Even where their specific goals differed, members of both groups used the long-held understanding in America that military service particularly entitled and schooled individuals to be citizens. Both Irish Americans and African Americans sought to bring to fruition George B. Loring’s ideal, announced at the 1866 dedication of a Massachusetts town’s monument to its fallen Civil War soldiers (including an ex-slave who died in the black Fifth Massachusetts Cavalry’s training camp): “To do service on the battle field today, and to perform the part of an educated American citizen tomorrow, is the highest ideal of a citizen soldier.”10

African Americans and Irish Americans challenged racial and ethnic views, and contested legal assumptions, in order to participate in the recrafting of American citizenship. Both groups weighed in with their expectations and supported the emerging, nationalized view of citizenship in this process. Military service allowed African Americans to argue that loyalty trumped race, and Irish Americans to argue that loyalty trumped ethnicity, as a mark of citizenship. Blacks used the contrast between their allegiance and the treason committed by white Confederates, for example, to demand and obtain recognition of their status as national citizens, a more expansive definition of the rights and protections associated with that status, and the vote for men (all in the law, if not always actual practice), while the Fourteenth Amendment allowed the states to disfranchise white ex-Confederates due to their breach of allegiance (and, some Southern states did so). Moreover, Irish Americans and African Americans joined other proponents of legal change by invoking the patriots of 1776, who validated their own actions by claiming to offer a true interpretation of British constitutionalism in the face of its perceived betrayal by Parliament and the crown.11

For blacks, military service shattered the old order, helped end slavery, and fueled expectations for inclusion and broadened citizenship rights. Frederick Douglass recognized that a racial point of no return had been crossed during the Civil War, arguing in mid-1863 that arming blacks not only guaranteed a war of emancipation but confirmed for them national citizenship: “Once let the black man get upon his person the brass letters U.S.; let him get an eagle on his button, and a musket on his shoulder, and bullets in his pocket, and there is no power on the earth or under the earth which can deny that he has earned the right of citizenship in the United States.”12

Fighting under the American flag caused many former slaves to recognize, probably for the first time, an allegiance to the United States. Black soldiers further situated themselves as citizens by opposing discrimination and policies that failed to acknowledge their equality and by actively asserting their interpretation of legal meanings and practices. Unexpected wartime experiences, such as the surprising level of due process enjoyed by black defendants tried by general courts-martial, helped inform the African American definition of citizenship. During and after the war, blacks demanded more than simple emancipation in name, they called for broad changes so as to secure for themselves an enduring freedom and real meaning behind the legal title of national citizen. Blacks used a vigorous national and statewide convention movement, including across the South almost immediately on the close of the war, to force whites to acknowledge their new citizenship status. Black organizations helped shape the contours of that status and foster legal change by lobbying legislators, showing that blacks could rationally engage with constitutional questions, and challenging all Americans, white and black, Republican and Democrat, to live up to the egalitarianism of the Declaration of Independence.13

Irish Americans argued for different objectives, although their expectations and tactics sometimes paralleled those of African Americans in unintentional ways. Instead of fighting in the Irish revolutionary movement, many Irish in America struck their blow for Ireland by protecting what they perceived as the global bastion of republicanism, the United States. Through the war, and as a part of the transatlantic upheavals of the mid nineteenth century, a sense of American allegiance strengthened within many Irish Americans, even in the face of continuing devotion to Irish nationalism. As African Americans did, Irish Americans not only relied on their support for the Union to situate themselves within the American people, they linked themselves with the Founding generation by virtue of their defense of the Constitution. In contrast to the political position of African Americans, many Irish Americans remained loyal to the Democratic Party during the war and sought restoration of the Union as it was before the war. Nonetheless, events during the 1860s also energized certain radical currents within this ethnic community, and led many of its members to support a more broadly defined national citizenship that included both naturalized and native-born Americans on equal status.

Regardless of party affiliation, Irish Americans forced a rethinking of who could be part of “the people” by arguing that the choice to embrace American principles formed the basis of citizenship as much as native birth. Irish Americans took up Massachusetts governor John A. Andrew’s August 1862 assurance that, “whether born upon our soil or in other lands and wandering here, you are citizens of this united government, equally sharing in the heritage of freedom. Its opportunities and blessings belong to you all.” The demands of Irish Americans, with their Civil War veterans in the lead, caused the United States to resolve important differences in treatment between native-born and naturalized citizens. Taking place against the backdrop of the Fourteenth Amendment’s ratification debates, this pressure compelled the United States to link the right to change one’s allegiance to the inalienable rights described in the Declaration of Independence, pursuant to a statute still in force today. Moreover, American diplomatic pressure, generated by Irish American activism, obliged Britain to abandon its long-established doctrine of perpetual allegiance, which held that one could never disclaim birth allegiance, not even by swearing an oath of loyalty to another country. Irish Americans in this way not only influenced foreign policy, they stood at the vanguard of a movement that expanded the right of human mobility, choice, and freedom.14

In this book, I look at changes in how Irish Americans and African Americans felt about belonging to the American people, and the rights to which they felt entitled. I also consider the native-born white population’s idea of whether these groups should be included in the American people, and the rights to which they were entitled. Finally, I examine how this dialogue resulted in a newly defined concept of citizenship embodied in the laws and the Constitution of the United States. I have not written a comparative history of the African Americans and Irish Americans during the 1860s, even though this study operates that way in places. Instead, this book tells the complicated story of how two separate groups, acting in pursuit of different goals yet operating at the same time and incited by military participation in the same event, helped to change American citizenship in practice and as a legal doctrine.

While other groups also influenced the development of American citizenship during the 1860s, the experience of African Americans and Irish Americans proves particularly revealing because both groups stood at the center of the crisis of American citizenship that took place in the 1850s. Both groups were excluded before the war, to differing extents, from the full enjoyment of what we today consider to be citizenship rights. Active participation in defense of the Union spurred both groups to demand inclusion in the American people at a time of fluidity and reform regarding the identity and legal components of citizenship.15

While examining these topics reveals unexpected similarities between the histories of both groups during this time period, it also underscores major distinctions. African Americans battled for inclusion as national citizens in the first place, whereas Irish Americans sought to remove distinction based on their status as naturalized ones. In light of continuing race-based strictures against them on a local level, African Americans sought definition of the rights associated with national citizenship. Irish Americans instead focused more simply on ensuring that native-born and naturalized citizens stood as equals in society and before the law, and that, as naturalized citizens, they received the same protection from the U.S. government when abroad.

Sometimes, the experiences and efforts of both groups intersected or at least ran parallel; other times, they were vastly different and even antagonistic. In some areas, the experiences of each group were so different that comparison is not fruitful, and for that reason, the narratives about each group cannot be intertwined in most of the chapters. Irish Americans never were slaves or had to deal with Black Codes or Klan violence against them, for example, and African Americans were generally unconcerned about what it meant to be a naturalized citizen. African American men were overwhelmingly disfranchised until the passage of the Reconstruction Act of March 2, 1867, and ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870. Irish American men, on the other hand, could and did vote. Enmity marred overall relations between both communities during the Civil War era. Many Irish Americans loathed the thought of African Americans exercising political and other rights and continued to define citizenship along racial lines, while some African American leaders appealed to lingering nativism to urge that their claim for rights had higher priority than that of immigrants.

Yet, while points of divergence and rivalry existed between Irish Americans and African Americans, the fact that striking similarities also existed in their histories during the 1860s has to date largely been lost to history. Irish Americans and African Americans separately claimed that the choice of loyalty to the United States trumped ethnicity or race, respectively. Members of both groups linked themselves to the Revolutionary generation in order to gain credibility, and as paradoxical as it initially appears, employed Irish or African nationalistic language as a tool of assimilation and a demand for acceptance. Both groups claimed their place among “the people” not only by defending the Union, but by challenging the United States, in far-reaching ways, to conform citizenship doctrine to the ideals they felt the Declaration of Independence articulated. Both groups used moral arguments built on their military service, and pragmatic arguments based on the lure of their votes, to persuade native-born whites (blacks used the benefit their ballots could provide the Republican Party to obtain the franchise in the first place). The experiences of Irish Americans and African Americans come together in that their sometimes complementary, but often separate, agendas helped to redefine the legal concept and practical meaning of American citizenship.

Moreover, startling moments of rapprochement between African Americans and Irish Americans show that insurmountable hostility did not wholly define relations between both groups, as some who study “whiteness” argue. African Americans and Irish Americans occasionally found themselves unexpected allies. When the delegates of a convention of Fenians, an organization of Irish nationalists in America, learned in September 1867 that several thousand black men of New Orleans offered to fight for Irish freedom, they swiftly resolved to “accept the services of every man who truly loves liberty, and is willing to fight for Ireland, without distinction of race, color, or nationality.” In the end, the Fenians had difficulty mustering even Irish Americans to fight, and the African American volunteers from New Orleans never grasped the green banner. Yet this dialogue between the two groups reveals an unexpected link between at least some of their members: the mutual goal of advancing liberty and promoting republicanism. The era of the Civil War and Reconstruction created a broader consciousness in both groups, and Americans as a whole, of the place the United States held as the worldwide beacon of republican values such as representative self-government and determination of political issues at the ballot box.16

Law, society, and politics inextricably mixed during the 1860s and set the development of American citizenship on a path that was not predetermined. Things now taken for granted—black citizenship, for example—could have had a far different history and outcome. The United States that ratified the Civil War amendments in 1865–70 stood in marked contrast to the United States of 1861. Congress in March 1861 approved and sent to the states a proposed thirteenth amendment that would have protected slavery from federal interference in the states. The idea of citizenship and suffrage for blacks had been unpopular within even the wartime Republican Party, despite its support for emancipation. Blacks relied on their military service to hasten their remarkably swift recognition by the law as citizens, even if recognition in practice was another story. African American arguments for inclusion, as well as the exigencies created by postwar white Southern resistance, led Republicans to make a profound shift during the 1860s to embrace the idea that blacks stood entitled not just to the rights of persons but to those of a broadened concept of citizenship as well.17

The crisis that culminated in the Civil War necessitated and enabled this large-scale rethinking of American constitutionalism. Members of the Reconstruction generation came to realize that they could correct the error of slavery while continuing to respect the legitimacy of the Constitution and the basic vision of the Founders. As early as April 21, 1861, abolitionist Wendell Phillips announced to Bostonians that the Civil War would permit Americans to remold the Constitution so as to reclaim the ideals encapsulated in the Declaration of Independence. Phillips added his vision of a future America: “When the smoke of this conflict clears away, the world will see under our banner all tongues, all creeds, all races,—one brotherhood,—and on the banks of the Potomac, the Genius of Liberty, robed in light.” In the end, a radicalization of politics and fluidity of party, postwar conditions and white resistance in the South, and a “moral revolution” (at least in the North), transformed marginal abolitionist arguments into bedrock principles enshrined in corrective Civil War constitutional amendments.18

Those who advocated reordering society based on a more expansive view of rights argued that the nation could not render hollow the sacrifices at places like Antietam and Gettysburg. As Maryland congressman Henry Winter Davis argued in Philadelphia in September 1863, “Restore the soul to the soulless eyes of the thousands that have fallen martyrs upon the battle-field, and then you can restore the Union as it was.” Frederick Douglass and other blacks maintained that constitutional change would fulfill the true principles of the Founders, and many white Republicans agreed. Yet this crossing of the constitutional Rubicon did not mean breaking with the Founders, because Davis and others equated change with reclamation of the Constitution “as it came from the hands of George Washington, and Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison, not the wretched, crippled hump-back that has been presented before our eyes.” After identifying the fundamental paradox of the Founding, that a government could be “based in part upon the principle that ‘all men are created equal,’ and in part upon the principle that a certain portion of mankind have the right to hold a certain other portion in bondage,” Massachusetts Republican congressman George S. Boutwell challenged his audience in Weymouth, Massachusetts, as well as the Republic, in a July 4, 1865, speech to decide “whether you will reconstruct the nation upon the eternal principle of the Declaration of Independence, that ‘all men are created equal’” or “build upon injustice, upon wrong, upon distinctions of race, of color, or upon caste,” so as to “build upon the sand.”19

In this malleable constitutional moment during and after the war, African Americans and Irish Americans provided some of the most challenging visions of how American citizenship doctrine should be reformed. While social and cultural historians have considered the part African Americans played in the story of how American citizenship changed during the 1860s, the role played by Irish Americans has received less attention. Political and legal scholars mostly have focused elsewhere. Surprisingly, little has been written about the redefinition of American citizenship during the 1860s overall. Mitchell Snay’s recent book, Fenians, Freedmen, and Southern Whites: Race and Nationality in the Era of Reconstruction, does compare Irish nationalists in the United States, white racists in the South, and Southern black freedpeople during the 1860s and 1870s. Snay thus begins the process of restoring Irish Americans to the history of Reconstruction. Nonetheless, even Snay’s fine book largely ignores the impact of service in the Union army on the African American and Irish American communities, how both groups influenced the nationalization and increasing importance of American citizenship during Reconstruction, and how Fenianism brought to the forefront postwar discussions of Irish American citizenship status.20

This book engages military, legal, social, political, and diplomatic history and, as a study about changing ideas of American citizenship, it encompasses evidence on a national scale. Additionally, the story of citizenship’s evolution during the era of the Civil War and Reconstruction investigates a phase in American political development. Americans considered during this time various, sometimes paradoxical interpretations about nationhood, especially as casualties mounted and as the federal government’s power expanded and increasingly required the people’s support for wartime measures such as emancipation, taxation, and conscription. According to historian Melinda Lawson, Civil War–era nation-builders articulated a “preeminent national loyalty,” revised the relationship individuals had with a formerly distant national government, and sanctified the nation-state so that “by war’s end, a ‘Union’ of states had become a ‘nation’ of Americans.”21

Irish Americans and African Americans played a key role in this development. For their own separate reasons, both groups helped to advance the priority of nationalized citizenship. In doing so, Irish Americans broke philosophically from a Democratic Party that continued to place primacy on state authority over citizenship. Moreover, both groups helped to bring about official pronouncements, such as the Fourteenth Amendment and Act of July 27, 1868, which affirmed the national government’s power to define and protect American citizens. Members of both groups worked to establish their place as full members in the polity based on their choice to embrace the same republican political values that loyal white, native-born American citizens maintained, even where they continued to celebrate their ethnic and racial identity. The Civil War thus became an important turning point in the discussion over who and what comprised the United States, especially as the meaning of American patriotism, and who could celebrate it, remained contested in the face of continuing nativism and racism.22

The nationalization of citizenship and the development of American nationalism mutually reinforced each other in institutional and personal ways. Citizenship involves more than rights claims, it encompasses matters of loyalty and American identity as well. The Civil War afforded Americans an opportunity to join in national life in unprecedented fashion. Irish Americans and African Americans participated in this moment not only in their demand for inclusion in “the people,” but as a function of genuinely intensified American identity and patriotism, generated through their experiences in the struggle for the Union.23

Similarly, nation-building occurred in official ways during the 1860s, but also through deeply personal individual experiences and choices. Soldiers, families, and communities interacted with the federal government and its armed forces, engaged with issues raised by the war, and considered, sometimes for the first time, the issues of individual allegiance and identity. Few slaves, for example, likely considered before the war whether they owed allegiance to any nation. Meanwhile, even free-born blacks in the North found themselves excluded, by Chief Justice Roger Taney’s decision in Dred Scott, from national citizenship. The choices involved in determining whether to volunteer for the federal armed forces, or to support the Union in other ways, forced individuals, including African Americans and Irish Americans, to confront and determine the issue of their personal allegiance. Such experiences helped many individuals work out what allegiance they held in the first place, as well as think about what this allegiance meant.

The story of American citizenship is not one of linear progression, and it did not end with the ratification of the Civil War amendments and the passage of associated legislation. Many African Americans and Irish Americans continued to lead challenging lives and struggled to make practical reality conform to these legal changes. Members of the Irish American working class, for example, experienced and participated in the turbulent realities of postwar industrial life and labor strife. African Americans first confronted powerful white supremacist groups, which operated outside the law to oppose the practices of a racially inclusive citizenship, and then the rise of Jim Crow after the Supreme Court slowly whittled away the impact of the Civil War amendments and legislation. Yet, even where initial expansions of citizenship and accompanying rights contracted for blacks beginning in the 1870s, painful but temporary defeat sowed the seeds for long-term success. The theoretical arguments made regarding citizenship during the 1860s, and the changes that took place in practice and in the law in the wake of the Civil War, set valuable precedents with far-reaching effects. These standards and doctrines influenced struggles over citizenship and rights into the twentieth century, when a new corrective moment, catalyzed this time by black service during the Second World War and in Korea, brought constitutional and citizenship doctrine in line with the ideals of the Founders of 1776, as well as those of the 1860s.

Throughout this book, I interchangeably use the term black as well as the modern phrase African American simply so as to avoid repetition. I use the phrase Irish Americans to refer both to Irish-born immigrants in the United States as well as American-born individuals of Irish parentage. I also use the terms United States and America interchangeably. I have silently added a period to some quotes where they end a sentence and occasionally changed capitalization where appropriate, although I have retained the original spelling.