Notes

ARCHIVAL ABBREVIATIONS

PREFACE

1. Memorandum by Ira J. Buckwalter, “Colored Workers Committee Notes 1947–1953,” EMM—Record Room, drawer: “Home Missions Locations and Other General 1956–1964.”

2. Janice Batts, Iowa City, IA, telephone, interview by the author, 2012.

3. A few outside groups did conduct at least partial studies of Fresh Air ventures through the years, but even these failed to introduce dependable means of quantifying the effects of the visits. See Loren C. Dunn, “Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Friendly Town Publicity Program of the Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund” (master’s thesis, Boston University, 1966); Robert M. Vanderbeck, “Inner-City Children, Country Summers: Narrating American Childhood and the Geographies of Whiteness,” Environment and Planning 40, no. 5 (2008): 1132–50; Christine Horace, “One Group’s Journey from Camp to College,” Social Work with Groups 27, no. 4 (2005): 31–50. In 1980 the Fresh Air Fund asked Dr. Michael Phillips of Fordham University to conduct a survey of hosts, sponsors, parents, and children about their opinions of the program. The “self-study” found overwhelming support for the program but did not offer evidence regarding its long-term effects. See the memorandum by Michael Phillips, “Report of the Fresh Air Fund Friendly Town Study Undertaken by the Long Range Planning Committee,” April 1980, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 31, folder 2: “Reports, Friendly Town Study, 1979–1980.”

4. Bartlett Hendricks, “Three Boys, Two Weeks and No Worries at All,” Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), August 4, 1956.

5. I echo the work of historian Thomas Sugrue, who follows a similar line of inquiry. He argues that an influential strand of activism in modern America has proposed that the solution to racial inequality lies in ridding individuals of their prejudices and convincing white people to respect black people as equals. In contrast to those who organized against racism in the systems of finance, law, and politics, Fresh Air promoters joined those who argued that changing individual beliefs and attitudes through education and the press came first. See Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), xxvi.

INTRODUCTION

1. Paul E. Warfield, “The Whole Story,” Bennington (VT) Banner, September 6, 1963.

2. Edith Simonds, “Letter to a Suburban Church,” Presbyterian Life, September 1, 1966, 19–21, 40.

3. Memorandum by Ted Dubinsky, “Minutes of the ‘Committee to Consider the Minority Group Male’s Self-Image’—8/21/67,” 3, CUA, HGR MS#1465, Series III: Hudson Guild Files, box 13, folder 21: “Committee to Consider the Minority Group Male’s Self-Image, 1967–1968.”

4. Rita J. Simon, Howard Altstein, and Marygold S. Melli, The Case for Transracial Adoption (Washington, DC: American University Press, 1994), 40.

5. Lynford Hershey to Leon Stauffer, July 18, 1971, AMC—IV-21–4, box 1, MBM, Minority Ministries Council, Data Files 1, A–K, folder: “Education Program 1970–72, Lynford Hershey”; Lacey Fosburgh, “Director of the Fresh Air Appeal Retiring after 25 Years in Post,” New York Times, August 1, 1971.

6. Ellen Delmonte, “An Editorial Feature,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), July 3, 1971.

7. Although the voices and perspectives of the suburban and rural children who assisted in hosting also appear in this narrative, the children who traveled from the city to the country as guests in the Fresh Air program figure most prominently because they served as the program’s raison d’être.

8. Author’s estimate based on available data.

9. Memorandum by Frederick Howell Lewis, “Iconography of a Wilderness,” 1962, copied from the CCAH, UTA.

10. Memorandum, “Registrar’s Interview—Duckworth—Trip A,” 1949, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 5: “Camp-Children’s Records (D–E), 1945–57”; Memorandum, “Camp Intake Form—Rupel, Eileen,” June 30, 1955, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 8: “Camp-Children’s Records (R), 1950–58.” Here and throughout the book, I place home and camp visits under the same analytical umbrella. Although I do note a recurring preference by children for camp stays over home visits and highlight the structural and programmatic differences between the two sub-models, I treat camp and home visits as two expressions of a single movement because Fresh Air participants and their supporters did the same.

11. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “What Am I Doing Here?: Remarks at Friendly Town Spring Planning Conference Held at Sharpe Reservation,” February 20, 1963, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12568: “Fresh Air Fund.”

12. “Narrow World Big Threat to ‘Fresh Air’ Children,” Huntingdon (PA) Daily News, May 19, 1973.

13. Eleanor Charles, “Apathy Endangers Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 20, 1979.

14. Robin Bernstein, Racial Innocence: Performing American Childhood and Race from Slavery to Civil Rights (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 41.

15. Jim Banman, “Integration Comes to Central Kansas as Mennonites Are Hosts to Negroes,” Hutchinson (KS) News, 27, in MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 123, Fresh Air, 1961.

16. Civil rights historians have failed to examine the off-street actions of the purportedly innocent children who ventured into the suburbs and the country. Despite the excellent, children-centered work of Robert Coles, few texts examine children’s participation in the civil rights movement. See Robert Coles, Children of Crisis: A Study of Courage and Fear (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967). The few that do include children in their civil rights narratives nonetheless miss the exploits of children in the confines of white homes and summer camps even though thousands more African American and Latino children participated in Fresh Air programs than marched in the streets. See Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954–63 (New York: Simon & Shuster, 1988); Branch, Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years 1963–65 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998); Branch, At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years 1965–68 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006); James Farmer, “The March on Washington: The Zenith of the Southern Movement,” in New Directions in Civil Rights Studies, ed. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, Carter G. Woodson Institute Series in Black Studies (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991), 30–37; David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Fawcett, 1998); Andrew B. Lewis, The Shadows of Youth: The Remarkable Journey of the Civil Rights Generation (New York: Hill and Wang, 2009); Robert J. Norrell, “One Thing We Did Right: Reflections on the Movement,” in New Directions in Civil Rights Studies, 65–80; Daniel Perlstein, “Teaching Freedom: SNCC and the Creation of the Mississippi Freedom Schools,” History of Education Quarterly 30, no. 3 (1990): 297–324; “Fresh Air Work Humor,” Fitchburg (MA) Daily Sentinel, July 27, 1907; Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003). Historians have also missed children’s contributions by stretching the notion of childhood. Matthew Delmont, Aldon Morris, and Charles Payne all speak of the prominent role that teenagers played in local civil rights campaigns, as do Anne Moody and Tracy Sugarman in their autobiographies, but there is no singular study of the role of preadolescent children in the movement. See Matthew F. Delmont, The Nicest Kids in Town: American Bandstand, Rock ‘n Roll, and the Struggle for Civil Rights in 1950s Philadelphia (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2012); Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi (New York: Dell, 1976); Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984); Charles M. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). Alisa Harrison begins to incorporate African American girls into her work but only inasmuch as they participated in public efforts led by African American women. See Alisa Y. Harrison, “Women’s and Girls’ Activism in 1960s Southwest Georgia: Rethinking History and Historiography,” in Women Shaping the South: Creating and Confronting Change, ed. Angela Boswell and Judith N. McArthur (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2006), 229–58. Even Wilma King’s treatment of the 1960 New Orleans school integration effort and the 1963 Birmingham children’s crusade depicts children like the iconic Ruby Bridges as innocents swept up by history, with little agency of their own. See Wilma King, African American Childhoods: Historical Perspectives from Slavery to Civil Rights (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).

17. A note on childhood: Although scholarly definitions of childhood vary widely, with some starting just after infancy and ending well after adolescence, the Fresh Air movement generally focused on the ages between four and twelve. See Marta Gutman and Ning De Coninck-Smith, “Introduction: Good to Think with—History, Space, and Modern Childhood,” in Designing Modern Childhoods: History, Space, and the Material Culture of Children, ed. Marta Gutman and Ning De Coninck-Smith (Newark, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008), 1–19. The latter time frame suits the purposes of this study well in that it separates adolescence as a distinct development phase that rarely bears the marks of innocence. Adolescents become sexually aware and enter the world of work; they begin to shoulder adult responsibility. I draw on the following works for my segmentation of adolescence from childhood in this study: Steven Mintz, Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 3–4; Jennifer Ritterhouse, Growing up Jim Crow: How Black and White Southern Children Learned Race (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 20–21; R. P. Neuman, “Masturbation, Madness, and the Modern Concepts of Childhood and Adolescence,” Journal of Social History 8, no. 3 (1975): 1–27. During the period of this study, adults structured programs based on the ready assumption that childhood ended in the teen years.

18. Joe R. Feagin, Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations (New York: Routledge, 2000); J. Morgan Kousser, Colorblind Injustice: Minority Voting Rights and the Undoing of the Second Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Joe Pettit, “The Persistence of Injustice: Challenging Some Dominant Explanations,” Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics 25, no. 1 (2005): 197–218.

19. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Renee Christine Romano, Race Mixing: Black-White Marriage in Postwar America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003); Ritterhouse, Growing up Jim Crow.

20. Sarah Burns, “Barefoot Boys and Other Country Children: Sentiment and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century American Art,” American Art Journal 20, no. 1 (1988): 25–50.

21. Ibid., 25, 48.

22. Memorandum by Richard F. Crandell, “Public Information: The Year a Landmark,” 1962, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12568: “Fresh Air Fund.”

23. Colin Heywood, A History of Childhood: Children and Childhood in the West from Medieval to Modern Times (Cambridge: Polity, 2002), 40, 170; Marina Warner, Six Myths of Our Time: Little Angels, Little Monsters, Beautiful Beasts, and More (New York: Vintage, 1994), 54–55.

24. The literature on interracial marriage is robust. See, for example, Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Fay Botham, Almighty God Created the Races: Christianity, Interracial Marriage, and American Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); Jane Dailey, “Sex, Segregation, and the Sacred after Brown,” Journal of American History 91, no. 1 (2004): 119–44; Charles F. Robinson, Dangerous Liaisons: Sex and Love in the Segregated South (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2003); Rachel F. Moran, Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and Romance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Maria P. P. Root, Love’s Revolution: Interracial Marriage (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001); Peter Wallenstein, Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). Historians have been particularly adept at parsing changes in law and social custom. Those texts have focused on efforts to keep white people separate from people of color. Much less has been written about the sexual dynamics of efforts to bring together white and black people, with even less attention given to interracial attraction among children. (For a notable exception, see King, African American Childhoods.) I argue that the control mechanisms instituted by Fresh Air administrators to reduce the possibility of interracial romance—most notably the right to choose the gender of the hosted child—were the single most important policy component of the Fresh Air model. If administrators could not guard against interracial sex, the program would collapse. Indeed, program administrators invested far more resources in ensuring that the children would not enter into romantic liaisons across racial lines than they did in protecting children from sexual and physical abuse by their hosts.

25. Stuart C. Aitken, Geographies of Young People: The Morally Contested Spaces of Identity, ed. Tracey Skelton and Gill Valentine (New York: Routledge, 2001), 94; Bernstein, Racial Innocence, 4.

26. Martin Luther King, Stride toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (New York: Harper, 1958), 207; Memorandum, “Host Parents Summary—1960,” MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 122: “Fresh Air, 1960.”

27. Memorandum, “The Church Facing the Race Crisis,” December 4, 1963, AMC, CESR papers I-3–7, box 5, folder 168.

28. David Sibbet, “City Children Visit Suburbs,” Chicago Tribune, July 14, 1968.

29. “The Project Is Sponsored by,” Daily Sentinel (Rome, NY), 1962.

30. Few historians—or scholars from other disciplines—have examined the Fresh Air movement at any length. This book provides a much more thorough and historically specific study of the initiatives and places them in the context of the story of race in America. Those who have addressed the movement in some form include Loren C. Dunn, “Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Friendly Town Publicity Program of the Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund” (master’s thesis, Boston University, 1966); Julia Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare, Enduring Beliefs about Childhood: The Fresh Air Fund, 1877–1926,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 11, no. 1 (2012): 27–70; David Hechler, The Battle and the Backlash: The Child Sexual Abuse War (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1988); Christine Horace, “One Group’s Journey from Camp to College,” Social Work with Groups 27, no. 4 (2005): 31–50.

31. A note on children’s agency: As numerous historians and other childhood scholars have shown, children shape the world around them. Historian Stephen Mintz asserts that children enter into “conflicts with adults who seek to regulate and direct kids’ activities.” See Steven Mintz, “The Changing Face of Children’s Culture,” in Reinventing Childhood after World War II, ed. Paula S. Fass and Michael Grossberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 38–50. Rather than passive recipients of adults’ machinations, children act on others even as others act on them. See Heywood, A History of Childhood, 3–4; Patrick J. Ryan, “How New Is the ‘New’ Social Study of Childhood? The Myth of a Paradigm Shift,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 38, no. 4 (2008): 553–76; Sharon Stephens, “Children and the Politics of Culture in ‘Late Capitalism,’” in Children and the Politics of Culture, ed. Sharon Stephens (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 3–48; Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, “‘Let the Children Come’ Revisited: Contemporary Feminist Theologians on Children,” in The Child in Christian Thought, ed. Marcia J. Bunge (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2000), 446–73. As employed in this book, agency then refers to the ability of the children to set adult agenda, influence their hosts’ worldview, and initiate action in an unfamiliar environment. Given that children entered dangerous territory, domestic environs that childhood historian John Gillis has called “the single most dangerous place for both women and children,” where adults could and did mistreat children with few repercussions, the actions chronicled in the chapters to follow prove all the more bold and incisive. See John R. Gillis, “Epilogue: The Islanding of Children—Reshaping the Mythical Landscapes of Childhood,” in Gutman and De Coninck-Smith, Designing Modern Childhoods, 316–30.

32. Even those texts that address themes similar to those found in the Fresh Air movement miss the breadth of children’s contributions. Already in 1969, Peter Schmitt included Fresh Air camps in his treatment of the Arcadian myth in U.S. history. See Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969). However, his analysis fails to include the children’s perspectives and treats them as passive recipients of adults’ largesse. Phyllis Palmer’s study of interracial camps sponsored by the National Conference of Christians and Jews in the post–World War II era again focuses on teens. See Phyllis M. Palmer, Living as Equals: How Three White Communities Struggled to Make Interracial Connections during the Civil Rights Era (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2008). Leslie Paris offers a masterful analysis of the racial and social dynamics of the camping experience and incorporates the perspectives of preadolescent children but fails to connect camp activities with social change movements, a link that Palmer establishes much more directly. See Leslie Paris, Children’s Nature: The Rise of the American Summer Camp (New York: New York University Press, 2008).

33. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Annual Report for 1968: A Reappraisal,” 11, copied from CCAH, UTA.

34. Martin Luther King Jr., “The Birth of a New Nation,” www.africanamericans.com/MLKjrBirthofANewNation.htm.

1. KNOWLEDGE, GIRL, NATURE

1. “Fresh Air Days,” Galveston (TX) Daily News, April 30, 1910.

2. Alexander Hynd-Lindsay, “A Memorial Address on the Life and Work of Rev. Willard Parsons, Founder of the Tribune Fresh-Air Work,” Sunday Afternoon, 1912, copied from the CCAH, UTA.

3. Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order: 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967); Kenneth Cmiel, “Destiny and Amnesia: The Vision of Modernity in Robert Wiebe’s The Search for Order,” Reviews in American History 21, no. 2 (1993): 352–68.

4. Julia Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare, Enduring Beliefs about Childhood: The Fresh Air Fund, 1877–1926,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 11, no. 1 (2012): 27–70.

5. LeRoy Ashby, Endangered Children: Dependency, Neglect, and Abuse in American History (New York: Twayne, 1997), 40.

6. Marilyn Irving Holt, “Adoption Reform, Orphan Trains, and Child-Saving, 1851–1929,” in Children and Youth in Adoption, Orphanages, and Foster Care: A Historical Handbook and Guide, ed. Miriam Foreman-Brunell (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006), 222.

7. Marilyn Irvin Holt, The Orphan Trains: Placing out in America (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 62.

8. Hugh D. Hindman, Child Labor: An American History (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2002), 37.

9. Sarah Burns, “Barefoot Boys and Other Country Children: Sentiment and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century American Art,” American Art Journal 20, no. 1 (1988): 25–50.

10. Chuck Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund” (1981), C9–2, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 22, folder 2: “Histories 1977.”

11. Loren C. Dunn, “Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Friendly Town Publicity Program of the Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund” (master’s thesis, Boston University, 1966), 8–9.

12. Michael B. Smith, “‘The Ego Ideal of the Good Camper’ and the Nature of Summer Camp,” Environmental History 11, no. 1 (2006): 70–101; James Marten, Childhood and Child Welfare in the Progressive Era: A Brief History with Documents (Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004), 3.

13. Dunn, “Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Friendly Town Publicity Program,” 20–22.

14. Steven Mintz, Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 215.

15. Dunn, “Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Friendly Town Publicity Program,” 10–11.

16. Norris Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865–1920 (Metchuen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1977), 61–62.

17. Kenneth L. Kusmer, “The Functions of Organized Charity in the Progressive Era: Chicago as a Case Study,” Journal of American History 60 (1973): 657–78.

18. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums, 62.

19. Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 97.

20. Ibid., xix.

21. Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare.”

22. Robert M. Vanderbeck, “Inner-City Children, Country Summers: Narrating American Childhood and the Geographies of Whiteness,” Environment and Planning 40, no. 5 (2008): 1132–50.

23. Memorandum by Robert Heasman, “Pearson’s Holiday Fund, 1892 to 1980, with a Summary from 1980 to 2000: Archive Research Undertaken (June 2000),” 2000, author’s personal collection.

24. C. Arthur Pearson, “An Old Country Appeal,” Manitoba Free Press (Winnipeg), April 7, 1913.

25. Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare.”

26. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums, 64–65.

27. “Fresh Air Fund,” Chicago Defender, July 9, 1927.

28. Ruth Hutchinson Crocker, “Making Charity Modern: Business and the Reform of Charities in Indianapolis, 1879–1930,” Business and Economic History 12 (1983): 158–70.

29. Vanderbeck, “Inner-City Children, Country Summers.”

30. Holt, The Orphan Trains, 5–6. Some of the earlier Fresh Air ventures, particularly those focused on camps, did include mothers of young children, and a few even focused on bringing the elderly to the country, but these efforts quickly died out as donors proved far more interested in supporting initiatives focused on children.

31. Vanderbeck, “Inner-City Children, Country Summers.”

32. Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare.”

33. Walter Shephard Ufford, Fresh Air Charity in the United States (New York: Bonnell, Silver & Co., 1897), 11–12.

34. “The New York Tribune and Fresh Air Fund,” Christian Recorder (Philadelphia), August 10, 1882.

35. “England and America Have Had Their John Browns …,” Christian Recorder (Philadelphia), April 26, 1883; “Spring Is at Hand; Summer Will Soon Be Here …,” Christian Recorder (Philadelphia), March 27, 1884.

36. Holt, The Orphan Trains, 71.

37. “‘All the Milk You Want’ Turns Camp into Paradise for Urchin,” Telegram (Bridgeport, CT), August 3, 1937.

38. Susan D. Carle, Defining the Struggle: National Organizing for Racial Justice, 1880–1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 2.

39. William Johnson, “Wanted—A Fresh Air Guild,” Freeman (Indianapolis), August 11, 1896.

40. “African Orthodox Church,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 2, 1924; “Fresh Air Fund Workers Busy,” Chicago Defender, March 1, 1924; “Fresh Air Fund.”

41. Abigail A. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness: Summer Camps and the Shaping of American Youth, 1890–1960 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), xxvi.

42. “Weekly Comment,” Chicago Defender, July 5, 1919.

43. Ibid.

44. Darrell Michael Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880–1996 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 2.

45. Mintz, Huck’s Raft, 3.

46. Marten, Childhood and Child Welfare in the Progressive Era, 13.

47. David Glassberg, “Restoring a ‘Forgotten Childhood’: American Play and the Progressive Era’s Elizabethan Past,” American Quarterly 32, no. 4 (1980): 351–68.

48. Peter N. Stearns, Childhood in World History (New York: Routledge, 2006), 93–94.

49. Colin Heywood, A History of Childhood: Children and Childhood in the West from Medieval to Modern Times (Cambridge: Polity, 2002), 171.

50. “Only Six Days More to Help 200 Poor Kiddies; Church Players to Aid,” Trenton (NJ) Evening Times, May 26, 1914; Alan Dawley, Struggles for Justice: Social Responsibility and the Liberal State (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1991), 160; Wiebe, The Search for Order; Marten, Childhood and Child Welfare in the Progressive Era, 2–3.

51. “80 Children to Spend Two Weeks at Girls’ Camp,” Hammond (IN) Times, August 3, 1937; “Fresh Air Children Leave Local Hosts,” Hagerstown (MD) Morning Herald, August 3, 1945.

52. C. A. Holton, “Camp Endeavor, Belair, MD,” in Eleventh Annual Report of the Children’s Fresh Air Society of Baltimore City (Baltimore, MD: Children’s Fresh Air Society, 1901), 15.

53. Mintz, Huck’s Raft, 219.

54. Marta Gutman and Ning De Coninck-Smith, “Introduction: Good to Think with—History, Space, and Modern Childhood,” in Designing Modern Childhoods: History, Space, and the Material Culture of Children, ed. Marta Gutman and Ning De Coninck-Smith (Newark, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008), 1–19.

55. “150 Kiddies Frolic in Park at Fund Outing,” Lima (OH) News, July 15, 1937.

56. “Fresh Air Kiddies Will Be Cared for This Year,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), June 13, 1934.

57. Rebecca Stiles Onion, “Picturing Nature and Childhood at the American Museum of Natural History and the Brooklyn Children’s Museum, 1899–1930,” Journal of the History of Childood and Youth 4, no. 3 (2011): 434–69.

58. “City Children in the Country,” American Citizen (Kansas City, KS), February 3, 1899.

59. “Fresh Air Work Humor,” Fitchburg (MA) Daily Sentinel, July 27, 1907.

60. “32 New York City Children Arrive for Farm Holiday,” Syracuse Herald, July 17, 1935.

61. “12 Tenement Children Here: Brought from New York Slums for Vacation in Frederick County,” Frederick (MD) Post, July 17, 1934.

62. Herbert Allan, “Harlem Runs Night (and Day) Club for Youngsters in Own Backyard,” 1935, in NYHS, Children’s Aid Society Collection, volume 489, 1935–1941, and addendum 1929–1937; “They Won’t Forget This Day: Hudson Trip Spells Joy,” Evening Journal and American (New York, NY), July 24, 1937.

63. “Fresh Air Fund Representative Arrives,” Portsmouth (NH) Herald, June 1, 1933; “Seek Home for Summer Camp for Poor Kiddies,” Chicago Defender, February 4, 1928.

64. “Harlem Ready to Play Santa Role for Needy,” New York Amsterdam News, December 20, 1933.

65. Isaac S. Field, “President’s Report,” in Eleventh Annual Report of the Children’s Fresh Air Society of Baltimore City (Baltimore, MD: 1901), 7–10; C. Arthur Pearson, “Help Wanted for Children: An Appeal for the English Fresh Air Fund,” Gleaner (Kingston, Jamaica), June 18, 1906; Pearson, “An Old Country Appeal.”

66. Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare.”

67. Vanderbeck, “Inner-City Children, Country Summers.”

68. All of the following sources refer only to girls as re-invited guests: “Fourteen Will Have Vacation from Big City,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), August 1, 1932; “Homes Opened to Youngsters: 71 Fresh Air Kiddies Arrive for Vacation in Ontario County,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), July 27, 1933; “Appeals Made for Children,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), July 12, 1935; “14 Children to Arrive Tuesday,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), July 25, 1935.

69. “Fresh Air Children Return to Homes,” Newport (RI) Mercury and Weekly News, August 5, 1932; “12 Tenement Children Here.”

70. “12 Tenement Children Here.”

71. “Blue Coats Will Be in Charge of Outing for 200 Boys on Thursday,” Lima (OH) News, July 26, 1937.

72. “Brooklyn Notes,” Chicago Defender, August 7, 1926.

73. “Boys’ Camp Registration Now on,” Chicago Defender, June 28, 1919.

74. “League Youths Back from Camp,” New York Amsterdam News, September 17, 1938.

75. Steven L. Schlossman, “G. Stanley Hall and the Boys’ Club: Conservative Applications of Recapitulation Theory,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 9, no. 2 (1973): 140–47.

76. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, 8–9.

77. Gail Bederman, Manliness & Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 106; Thomas Fallace, “Recapitulation Theory and the New Education: Race, Culture, Imperialism, and Pedagogy, 1894–1916,” Curriculum Inquiry 42, no. 4 (2012): 510–33.

78. Pamela Riney-Kehrberg, The Nature of Childhood: An Environmental History of Growing up in America since 1865 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2014), 74.

79. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, xxiii, xxiv.

80. Glassberg, “Restoring a ‘Forgotten Childhood.’”

81. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, 99.

82. “Negro Children in New York,” Nation, May 25, 1933.

83. S. R. Briggs, Dot: A Story of the Fresh Air Fund (Toronto, Ontario: Toronto Willard Tract Depository, 1883), 13.

84. Vanderbeck, “Inner-City Children, Country Summers.”

85. Field, “President’s Report,” 8.

86. Lulu Johnson, “Fresh Air Fund,” Denton (MD) Journal, September 19, 1908.

87. “The Thrill of a Lifetime,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 10, 1924.

88. Evan Berry, Devoted to Nature: The Religious Roots of American Environmentalism (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015), 2–3, 5, 21.

89. Marten, Childhood and Child Welfare in the Progressive Era, 4.

90. Kusmer, “The Functions of Organized Charity in the Progressive Era.”

91. Leslie Paris, Children’s Nature: The Rise of the American Summer Camp (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 9; Onion, “Picturing Nature and Childhood.”

92. Briggs, Dot, 13.

93. Epes W. Sargent, “Perkins’ Fresh Air Fund,” Daily Northwestern (Oshkosh, WI), June 29, 1904; Johnson, “Fresh Air Fund”; “Fresh Air Fund Needs More Money,” Afro-American (Baltimore), July 17, 1909; “Fresh Air Funds Glorious Career,” Lincoln (NE) Evening News, December 27, 1917.

94. “Club Arranges Card Tourney,” New York Amsterdam News, June 22, 1935.

95. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and at Play (New York: Anchor, 1985), 9.

96. Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789–1860 (New York: Knopf, 1986), 10.

97. Paul S. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 240; Marten, Childhood and Child Welfare in the Progressive Era, 3.

98. “The Thrill of a Lifetime.”

99. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, xxiii.

100. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 181.

101. “Seeks La Guardia Aid for Children’s Camp,” New York Amsterdam News, February 2, 1935.

102. Lloyd Burgess Sharp, Education and the Summer Camp: An Experiment (New York: Teacher’s College, Columbia University, 1930), 7–8.

103. “The Tribune Fresh-Air Fund Society: Articles of Incorporation Filed with the Secretary of State at Albany,” New York Herald Tribune, December 13, 1888; Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie (New York: Penguin, 2007), 292–93.

104. Stuart M. Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760–1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

105. Vanderbeck, “Inner-City Children, Country Summers.”

106. Ufford, Fresh Air Charity in the United States, 50.

107. Ibid.

108. “Will Help the Kiddies: Rotary Club Back Movement to Secure Hosts for Tribune Fresh Air Fund Children—When a Fellow Needs a Friend,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 22, 1922; “Rotarians Seek Homes Here for Underprivileged Children of N.Y.,” Gettysburg (PA) Times, July 7, 1925; “Will Seek Homes for N.Y. Children in This County: Lions Club Fostering Plan to Give Youngsters Fresh Air Outing,” Frederick (MD) Post, July 24, 1925; “Plan Vacation for Children: 10 Applications Received for New York Fresh Air Kiddies,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), June 21, 1934; “Chairman of Group Named,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), May 20, 1937.

109. Paris, Children’s Nature, 123; Mrs. Clayton Shaub, “An Unfinished Story,” Missionary Messenger, June 1965, 14–15; “2 Boys Go to Camp and Keep 6 Puppies,” New York Times, August 21, 1937.

110. “The World’s Healthiest Kids—on the Sidewalks of New York!” Sunday Mirror Magazine, 1936.

111. “Child Convalescents Go to the Country: Where It’s Quiet and Pleasant with Fresh Air,” New York Sun, August 22, 1937.

112. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, 45.

113. Marten, Childhood and Child Welfare in the Progressive Era, 14.

114. Eleanor I. Lovett, “One Summer’s Work” ([reprinted from Sunday Afternoon], 1878), 7.

115. “Your Money Will Send Undernourished Kiddies to This Fresh Air Home,” Des Moines News, June 20, 1913.

116. Lovett, “One Summer’s Work”; F. R. Chandler, The Story of Lake Geneva or, Summer Homes for City People (Lake Geneva, WI: Lake Geneva Villa Association, 1898); Sargent, “Perkins’ Fresh Air Fund”; “Your Money Will Send Undernourished Kiddies to This Fresh Air Home”; “Fresh Air Fund for Kiddies,” Chicago Defender, June 27, 1925; “Camp Algonquin Putting Zip into Underfed Bodies,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 23, 1935.

117. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums, 66.

118. Deborah Valenze, Milk: A Local and Global History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 253.

119. C. Arthur Pearson, “The Fresh Air Fund,” Manitoba Free Press (Winnipeg), March 31, 1909.

120. William Allen, “Fresh Air Work,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 23 (1904): 464–71; Johnson, “Fresh Air Fund”; Hynd-Lindsay, “A Memorial Address on the Life and Work of Rev. Willard Parsons”; “Fresh Air for Mothers,” Waukesha (WI) Daily Freeman, August 4, 1922; “Mission to Hold Fund Campaign,” Charleston (WV) Gazette, June 4, 1924; Altair, “Sunshine for the Slums.”

121. Briggs, Dot, 21.

122. Untitled news item, Freeman (Indianapolis), August 5, 1905.

123. Hynd-Lindsay, “A Memorial Address on the Life and Work of Rev. Willard Parsons.”

124. Briggs, Dot, 2; Holt, The Orphan Trains, 15.

125. Briggs, Dot, 21; Hynd-Lindsay, “A Memorial Address on the Life and Work of Rev. Willard Parsons.”

126. “Fresh Air Fund Representative Arrives”; “Camp Algonquin Putting Zip into Underfed Bodies”; Virginia Gardner, “Algonquin Set for Season of Happy Outings,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 16, 1937.

127. “Plan Vacation for Children”; “Fresh Air Kiddies Will Be Cared for This Year.”

128. C. A. Holton, “Camp Endeavor—Belair, Md,” in Eleventh Annual Report of the Children’s Fresh Air Society of Baltimore City (Baltimore, MD: 1901), 12–17.

129. “Salvation Army to Open in $20,000 Drive: City Canvass for Fresh Air Camp Fund Will Be Started Today,” Indianapolis Star, May 7, 1923; Paris, Children’s Nature, 184–85.

130. Gardner, “Algonquin Set for Season of Happy Outings,” 17.

131. Dunn, “Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Friendly Town Publicity Program,” 11–12.

132. “Fresh Air Work Humor.”

133. “Plan Vacation for Children.”

134. Ibid.

135. “The Thrill of a Lifetime.”

136. Hynd-Lindsay, “A Memorial Address on the Life and Work of Rev. Willard Parsons.”

137. Viviana A. Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 10;“Harlem Ready to Play Santa Role for Needy,” New York Amsterdam News, December 20, 1933; Sandra M. O’Donnell, “The Care of Dependent African-American Children in Chicago: The Struggle between Black Self-Help and Professionalism,” Journal of Social History 27, no. 4 (1994): 763–76; “Harlem Ready to Play Santa Role for Needy.”

138. Sadie Van Veen, “Give City Kids a Break,” N.Y.C. Daily Worker, August 15, 1937.

2. CHURCH, CONCRETE, POND

1. Childhood historian Howard Chudacoff notes that children have historically created play spaces in three settings: nature, public space, and the home. Notably, these three spaces roughly correspond to this chapter’s three themes: nature as found in ponds, public space as found in cities, and church instruction in the home. See Howard P. Chudacoff, Children at Play: An American History (New York: New York University Press, 2007), 4.

2. Lloyd deMause, “The Evolution of Childhood,” in The History of Childhood, ed. Lloyd deMause (New York: Psychohistory Press, 1974), 1–73.

3. Colin Heywood, A History of Childhood: Children and Childhood in the West from Medieval to Modern Times (Cambridge: Polity, 2002), 33.

4. Keith Graber Miller, “Complex Innocence, Obligatory Nurturance, and Parental Vigilance: ‘The Child’ in the Work of Menno Simons,” in The Child in Christian Thought, ed. Marcia J. Bunge (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2000), 194–226.

5. Henry Louis Gates Jr., “(Annotations),” in The Annotated Uncle Tom’s Cabin, ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007); Stuart C. Aitken, Geographies of Young People: The Morally Contested Spaces of Identity, ed. Tracey Skelton and Gill Valentine (New York: Routledge, 2001), 31.

6. John Wall, “Fatherhood, Childism, and the Creation of Society,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 75, no. 1 (2007): 52–76.

7. Linda A. Pollock, Forgotten Children: Parent-Child Relations from 1500 to 1900 (Cambridge University Press, 1984), 140; Bonnie Miller-McLemore, “Whither the Children? Childhood in Religious Education,” Journal of Religion 86, no. 4 (2006): 635–57; John R. Gillis, “Epilogue: The Islanding of Children—Reshaping the Mythical Landscapes of Childhood,” in Designing Modern Childhoods: History, Space, and the Material Culture of Children, ed. Marta Gutman and Ning De Coninck-Smith (Newark, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008), 316–30; Aitken, Geographies of Young People, 33.

8. Sara M. Keily to Sylvia Leshowitz, July 21, 1948, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 5: “Camp-Children’s Records (D–E), 1945–57.”

9. Norman G. Shenk to Lancaster Conference Mission Superintendents, June 27, 1956, EMM Record Room, folder: “MCVP—1956.”

10. Margie Middleton and Ruth Y. Wenger, “Fresh Air Reminiscences,” Missionary Messenger, July 1977, 12–13, 21; Luis Diaz, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, May 4, 2010; Cindy Vanderkodde, Grand Rapids, MI, telephone interview by the author, March 7, 2010.

11. “Fresh Air Kids to Vacation Here This Year,” Wellsboro (PA) Gazette, June 7, 1951.

12. Richard F. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children (New York: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund, 1962), 23; “Sermon Inspired Fresh Air Fund,” New York Amsterdam News, June 24, 1967.

13. Representative accounts referring to Parsons include “Tablet to Willard Parsons Unveiled at Franklin,” Middletown (NY) Daily Times-Press, September 26, 1912; “Fresh Air Funds Glorious Career,” Lincoln (NE) Evening News, December 27, 1917; “Fresh Air Fund: Rev. Dr. H. L. G. Keiffer Refers to Vacation of Tenement Children,” Frederick (MD) Post, June 10, 1929; Lloyd Burgess Sharp, Education and the Summer Camp: An Experiment (New York: Teacher’s College, Columbia University, 1930); “Franklin Native Originated Idea of Rural Vacations for Fresh Airs: Rev. Parsons Memorialized for Program,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 29, 1949; “District Homes Needed for Fresh Air Children,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), May 18, 1959; John Kord Lagemann, “Something Special in Vacations: A Reader’s Digest Reprint,” Reader’s Digest, June 1963; Linda Vosburgh, “Religion, ‘Street’ Meet in ‘Fresh Air,’” Sunday Herald (Chicago), September 16, 1979.

14. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and at Play (New York: Anchor, 1985), 138–43; Norris Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865–1920 (Metchuen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1977).

15. Julia Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare, Enduring Beliefs about Childhood: The Fresh Air Fund, 1877–1926,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 11, no. 1 (2012): 27–70.

16. Memorandum, “A Recreational and Educational Project through Churches to Help Meet Youth Needs in Brooklyn,” March 1945, 2–3, PNHA, NCC, Home Missions Council of North America, 1903–1951, RG26, box 16, folder 11: “Negro Work Brooklyn Project, March 1945–June 1949.”

17. Carol Van Horn, “The Inner City: Elective in Understanding,” Presbyterian Life, October 15, 1963, 25–27.

18. Fresh Air programs also made sure that religious instruction was done by adherents. For example, promotional materials from Camp Nathan Hale, a New York settlement house Fresh Air retreat, indicated that counselors should be persons “of religious convictions”: Memorandum, “Union Settlement Camp Nathan Hale Counselor’s Informant,” May 23, 1944, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 40, folder 11: “Camp-Film, 1944–49.”

19. “Boro to Host 20 Fresh Air Fund Children,” Wellsboro (PA) Gazette, May 27, 1948; “Yates to Invite City Children for Vacation,” Chronicle-Express (Penn Yan, NY), May 26, 1949; “Chinatown Youngsters to Come Here,” Cumberland (MD) Sunday Times, May 31, 1959; George Cornell, “Get Acquainted Process New Phase of Relationship of Negroes, Whites,” Post-Crescent (Appleton, WI), August 9, 1965; Joan Monaco, “City Kids Get Chance for Some Friendly Adventures,” Lowell (MA) Sunday, August 22, 1971.

20. Jo Cullson, “Fire Threatens ‘Friendly Town’ Visit,” Coshocton (OH) Tribune, June 16, 1968.

21. “Revive Friendly Town Program,” Lowell (MA) Sunday, April 22, 1966; “100 Inner City Kids to Visit in Glen Ellyn,” Chicago Tribune, April 25, 1966; “Children from Waterloo in Ames Program,” Waterloo (IA) Sunday Courier, June 27, 1971.

22. “June Means Vacation to City Children Too,” Olean (NY) Times Herald, June 11, 1948.

23. “Wellsboro Is Friendly Town: Twenty Children to Be Invited Here for Two Weeks,” Wellsboro (PA) Agitator, May 26, 1948; “Kingston Included as Friendly Town to Aid Children,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, June 8, 1949; “Will Hear of Air Plan,” Troy (NY) Record, June 12, 1969.

24. Memorandum, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund 81st Year Annual Report,” 1957, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

25. Elizabeth Douvan, “The Age of Narcissism, 1963–1982,” in American Childhood: A Research Guide and Historical Handbook, ed. Joseph M. Hawes and N. Ray Hiner (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985), 587–617.

26. Walter I. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America (New York: The Free Press, 1984), 257.

27. Shirley Maye Tillotson, Contributing Citizens: Modern Charitable Fundraising and the Making of the Welfare State, 1920–66 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2008), 7; Alice O’Connor, “Neither Charity nor Relief: The War on Poverty and the Effort to Redefine the Basis of Social Provision,” in With Us Always: A History of Private Charity and Public Welfare, ed. Donald T. Critchlow and Charles H. Parker (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), 191–210.

28. “Friendly Town Program in This Area Explained,” Derrick (Oil City, PA), April 27, 1970.

29. “Bring Children to New Homes,” Chicago Tribune, July 14, 1963; “1,100 Deprived Children Go on Trip Today,” Chicago Tribune, July 16, 1966.

30. “Storefront Churches Organize for Youth,” New York Amsterdam News, August 1, 1970, 31.

31. “Camping Is Fun,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), July 3, 1971.

32. Pete Mekeel, “Local Mennonite Missionaries Run 5 Churches in Slums of N.Y.,” New Era (Lancaster, PA), May 25, 1976; Paul N. Kraybill to John H. Garber, June 25, 1952, EMM Record Room, folder: “F–J.”

33. Bob Zanic, “Friendly Town Works 2 Ways,” Palatine (IL) Herald, June 10, 1969.

34. “More Hosts Needed to Keep Our Community on ‘Friendly List,’” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, June 7, 1946.

35. “Martinsburg,” Altoona (PA) Mirror, June 16, 1955.

36. Jo McMeen, “Along the Juniata: Wanted: Homes for Fresh Air Kids,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), April 18, 1962.

37. “In Brief …,” Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), June 6, 1975.

38. “Friendly Town Program Seeks Homes for Youths,” Evening Observer (Dunkirk, NY), May 4, 1965; “Chicago Core Children Visiting at Whitehall,” Eau-Claire (WI) Leader, July 20, 1967; Eleanor Charles, “Apathy Endangers Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 20, 1979.

39. Edna K. Wenger, “Children Are People Too,” Missionary Messenger, March 9, 1941, 2.

40. Memorandum, “Through Decisive Years: New York Protestant Episcopal City Mission Society One-Hundred-Thirtieth Anniversary Report 1831–1961,” 1961, EDNY, Episcopal Missional Society Mission News 1923–1976: “Misc. loose reports & pamphlets.”

41. “Friendly Town Time Once Again in the Oneonta Area,” Oneonta (NY) Star, May 25, 1955.

42. Lacey Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Homes for Boys Needed,” New York Times, June 27, 1971.

43. Lee Edwards, “All Their World Is Asphalt and Farms Are Only in Stories,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 12, 1971.

44. “Rotary Backs Friendly Town,” Wellsboro (PA) Agitator, May 11, 1949.

45. “Churches Will Sponsor Friendly Town Program,” Fitchburg (MA) Sentinel, April 30, 1966.

46. “1,000 Inner-City Youths to Vacation in Suburbs,” Chicago Tribune, June 2, 1968.

47. Joan Skidmore, “Fresh Air Fund: Give a Child a Chance,” Delaware County Daily Times (Chester, PA), June 7, 1974.

48. “New York Youngster Adjusts Rapidly to Life in the Country,” Daily News-Record (Harrisonburg, VA), August 2, 1973; Leslie Maitland, “Rural Vacations a Joy to Children,” New York Times, July 27, 1975.

49. Johanna M. Lindlof et al., Adventures in Camping (New York: Johanna M. Lindlof Camp Committee for Public School Children, 1943), 18; Memorandum, “Union Settlement Camp Nathan Hale Counselor’s Informant”; Memorandum, “Camp Manakiki,” 1953, ELAA, UMN, United Way of Minneapolis records (SW 70), box 74, folder 1: “Camps-Study 1953, 1958”; Memorandum, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund Annual Report on Camping,” 1954, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12560: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1953–54”; Memorandum, “Camp Information for Parents,” [n.d.], ELAA, UMN, United Way of Minneapolis records (SW 70), box 72, folder 5: “Camps General 1953–55.”

50. “Friendly Town Project Set Again by Fredonians,” Dunkirk (NY) Evening Observer, April 19, 1956; “17 Fresh Air Visitors Arrive and Get Acquainted in County,” Lock Haven (PA) Express, July 1, 1958; Anna Buckwalter, “Johnny Says,” What’s in the Air, Spring 1965; Jo Cullson, “52 Cleveland Youngsters Will Find Coshocton ‘Friendly Town,’” Coshocton (OH) Tribune, June 12, 1968; “Narrow World Big Threat to ‘Fresh Air’ Children,” Huntingdon (PA) Daily News, May 19, 1973; Maitland, “Rural Vacations a Joy to Children”; Janice Batts, “Discovering Me,” http://themommastrikesback.blogspot.com.

51. “Lancaster Helps Needy Children,” New York Times, June 13, 1976; Maitland, “Rural Vacations a Joy to Children.”

52. “Narrow World Big Threat to ‘Fresh Air’ Children”; “New York Youngster Adjusts Rapidly to Life in the Country”; Rachel [no surname listed in source] to Alice Trissel, October 28, 1975, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 21, folder 1: “Correspondence—FAF children—1959–1984.”

53. “Narrow World Big Threat to ‘Fresh Air’ Children.”

54. Sara Ann Freed, “Mennonites in the Fresh Air Program: An Early Expression of the Mennonite Social Conscience” (research paper, Goshen College, 1967), 14.

55. J. Lester Brubaker, “Editorial,” Missionary Messenger, October 1950, 3.

56. Orlo Kaufman to Erwin Krehbiel, April 28, 1959, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 1, folder 28: “Correspondence—misc.”

57. John H. Kraybill, “The Mission Field Brought to You,” Missionary Messenger, July 1956, 5.

58. Barbara L. Little, “Helps New York City Children to a Vacation in the Country,” Lancaster (PA) Intelligencer-Journal, July 31, 1958; Frederick Howell Lewis, “Tribute to Fresh-Air Worker,” Daily Intelligencer Journal (Lancaster, PA), January 16, 1959.

59. “Lancaster Holds Film Premier,” What’s in the Air, fall 1964.

60. Fred W. Miller, “What about Fresh Air Host Families,” Valley Mennonite Messenger, July 7, 1966; Ronald L. Trissel, “The Fresh Air Child’s Urban Influence on Rural Shenandoah and Rockingham County” (term paper, Eastern Mennonite College, 1967), 4–5; Renee M. Savits, “A Guide to the Fresh Air Fund Records, 1949–1999” (Richmond, VA: Library of Virginia, 2002); Laurel Wissinger, “Fields and Dreams,” Curio 14, no. 1 (1991): 40–42.

61. “Fresh Idea in ’77 Becomes Fun Fund for City Children,” New York Times, May 23, 1976; Jennifer Dunning, “Last Day to Register for Fresh Air Fund Camp Is a Big Day for Little Ones,” New York Times, June 18, 1978.

62. Unattributed article clipping, June 1976; Jane Blanksteen, “A Refreshing Experience,” New York Times, June 19, 1977; “Lancaster Helps Needy Children.”

63. “Deputy Police Chief Aids Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 15, 1977; “12,000 Families Aid the Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, June 25, 1978.

64. Julia Spicher Kasdorf, “‘Why We Fear the Amish’: Whiter Than White Figures in Contemporary American Poetry,” in The Amish and the Media, ed. Diane Zimmerman Umble and David Weaver-Zercher (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 2008), 67–90.

65. Ami Regier, “Revising the Plainness of Whiteness,” Mennonite Life 57, no. 2 (2002); Kasdorf, “Why We Fear the Amish,” 69.

66. Memorandum, “Host Parents Summary—1960,” [1], MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11, Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 122: “Fresh Air, 1960.”

67. Middleton and Wenger, “Fresh Air Reminiscences.”

68. Memorandum, “Host Parents Summary—1960.”

69. “Lancaster Helps Needy Children.”

70. Lawrence Wright, City Children, Country Summer (New York: Scribner, 1979), 80.

71. Middleton and Wenger, “Fresh Air Reminiscences.”

72. Norman G. Shenk, Salunga, PA, telephone interview by the author, March 22, 2005; Peggy Curry, Harrisonburg, VA, interview by the author, March 29, 2005; Thomas W. Brock, Harrisonburg, VA, telephone interview by the author, May 17, 2005.

73. Janice Batts, Iowa City, IA, telephone interview by the author, February 15, 2012; Paul N. Kraybill to Robert R. Bender, M.D., February 13, 1957, EMM Record Room, folder: “Mission Children’s Visitation Program—1957.”

74. Laurie Johnston, “Fresh Air Fund Launches Drive,” New York Times, May 14, 1972.

75. Ari L. Goldman, “Fresh Air: A Together Atmosphere,” New York Times, June 27, 1976.

76. For a few examples of the dozens of references to children getting homesick, see: “7 Fresh Air Children Write of Newport Visit,” Newport (RI) News, January 19, 1950; “Fresh Air Girl Wants Sister Here,” Oneonta (NY) Star, June 4, 1954; Bill Draves Jr., “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents,” Commonwealth Reporter (Fond du Lac, WI), 1968; Monaco, “City Kids Get Chance for Some Friendly Adventures”; Lynne Ames, “The Fresh Air Fund: Summers of Sharing,” New York Times, May 20, 1979.

77. “21 More Fresh Air Fund Children Arrive,” Salisbury (MD) Times, July 28, 1957.

78. Chudacoff, Children at Play, 107; Maude Hines, “Playing with Children: What the ‘Child’ Is Doing in American Studies,” American Quarterly 61, no. 1 (2009): 151–61.

79. Abigail A. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness: Summer Camps and the Shaping of American Youth, 1890–1960 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 49; Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), xvi.

80. Robert A. Orsi, “Introduction: Crossing the City Line,” in Gods of the City: Religion and the American Urban Landscape, ed. Robert A. Orsi (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 1–78.

81. Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare, Enduring Beliefs about Childhood.”

82. Orsi, “Introduction: Crossing the City Line,” 11.

83. “Friendly Town Program in This Area Explained”; Cornell, “Get Acquainted Process New Phase of Relationship of Negroes, Whites.” The only exception I can find to the urban origination pattern in the Fresh Air movement is the program run by General Conference Mennonites that brought children from the relatively small town of Gulfport, Mississippi, to rural towns in Kansas, South Dakota, and Michigan. Interestingly, the originators of the Gulfport program based their initiative on a Mennonite program that was centered in Chicago. In this instance the Gulfport administrator substituted racial idioms for urban ones in describing the program. See Delton Franz to Orlo Kaufman, February 1, 1960, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 1, folder 4: “Correspondence—General Conf. 1960”; Orlo Kaufman, “A New Venture,” Gulfbreeze, July–August, 1960, 1.

84. “Fresh Air Kids to Vacation Here This Year”; “Fresh Air Kids,” Evening Banner (Bennington, VT), July 6, 1955; “Kiwanis Club Sponsors Friendly Town Program,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), June 14, 1954; “Ticket to Happiness,” New York Times, May 20, 1973; “Funding Fresh Air,” New York Times, July 4, 1969; “… And a Greater Need,” New York Times, June 1, 1975; “Summer in the City? No Fun!” Daily News (Huntingdon, Mount Union, and Saxton, PA) News, May 12, 1978.

85. “‘Friendly Town’ Needs 32 Homes,” Buffalo Grove (IL) Herald, July 7, 1970; “Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, June 9, 1949; “Their Yard Is Concrete,” Oneonta (NY) Star, May 14, 1953.

86. Shelby M. Howatt, “From Concrete to Country,” Bulletin, May 1960, 4–6, EPNY, Episcopal Missional Society, Publications et al., 1930s–1970s; James M. Markham, “Hunts Point Youths Draw Gang Battle Lines,” New York Times, September 2, 1971; “Seek Families for Friendly Town Program,” Rock Valley (IA) Bee, July 9, 1975.

87. Howatt, “From Concrete to Country”; “Wide-Open Spaces,” Aiken (SC) Standard and Review, October 14, 1964; “Mrs. Motley Offers Her Tribute to Fresh Air’s Friendly Towns,” New York Herald Tribune, February 18, 1966; “A Fresh Air Child, Now 30, Returns to Settle in His ‘Friendly Town,’” New York Times, July 23, 1978; Jerry Kelly, “Hosts Are Sought for Fresh Air Vacationists,” Salisbury (MD) Times, May 20, 1959; “City Youngsters Will Need Homes,” Hagerstown (MD) Morning Herald, May 29, 1945; Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children; “Summer Camping Lures Young of All Ages,” Episcopal New Yorker, May 1969.

88. “Read Story of Fresh Air Fund—Then Be Host to City Youngsters,” Huntingdon (PA) Daily News, June 21, 1945; “Your Help Is Needed for Fresh Air Vacations,” Portsmouth (NH) Herald, July 29, 1954.

89. Memorandum, “Fresh Air Fund’s Newest Unit, Camp Hayden for Boys, Joins Group at Sharpe Reservation,” July 6, 1962, copied from the CCAH, UTA; “A Special Appeal to Depression Babies Who Made Good,” Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund, 1962.

90. Trissel, “The Fresh Air Child’s Urban Influence on Rural Shenandhoah and Rockingham County,” 2.

91. Witold Rybczynski, City Life: Urban Expectations in the New World (New York: Scribner, 1995), 160–61.

92. Howard P. Chudacoff and Judith E. Smith, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000), 268–69.

93. Rybczynski, City Life, 166; Katharine G. Bristol, “The Pruitt-Igoe Myth,” in American Architectural History: A Contemporary Reader, ed. Keith L. Eggener (New York: Routledge, 2004), 352–64.

94. “Everybody Wins,” New York Amsterdam News, June 21, 1952; Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Executive Director’s Annual Report to the Board of Directors, for the Fiscal Year 1963–1964,” 1964, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12572: “The Fresh Air Fund 1965”; “‘Poor Kid,’” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, May 28, 1974.

95. Leo J. Heffernan, “By Bus to a New World” (New York: Union Settlement Association, 1944).

96. Bruce Kenrick, Come Out the Wilderness: The Story of East Harlem Protestant Parish (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1962), 70.

97. Nathan Manning to Howard Kaplan, 1952, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 41, folder 3: “Camp-Reports, 1948–53.”

98. Lacey Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund’s Children Dazzled by Rural Marvels,” New York Times, July 4, 1971.

99. Stephen H. Goldstein, “Jacqueline’s Back for Summer Fun,” Times Record (Troy, NY), July 3, 1975.

100. Jane Blanksteen, “Summer Visitors from the City,” New York Times, June 12, 1977; “A Fresh Air Child, Now 30, Returns to Settle in His ‘Friendly Town,’” 31; Diaz interview.

101. Marjorie Miller, 1956, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 19, folder 6: “Contest Entries—1956, Essays (Contest #2).”

102. Helen Busuttil Regenbogen, Bainbridge, NY, telephone interview by the author, March 10, 2010.

103. “Fund Pal Revisits Md. Site,” New York Herald Tribune, September 13, 1966.

104. Anne Mancuso, “Boy from Brooklyn Is at Home in Croton,” New York Times, May 14, 1978.

105. Diaz interview; Melody M. Pannell, Harrisonburg, VA, interview by the author, January 20, 2016.

106. Marjorie Miller, 1956.

107. Middleton and Wenger, “Fresh Air Reminiscences.”

108. Darrell Michael Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880–1996 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), xiii, 190–91; Edith Simonds, “Letter to a Suburban Church,” Presbyterian Life, September 1, 1966, 19–21, 40; Lacey Fosburgh, “Director of the Fresh Air Appeal Retiring after 25 Years in Post,” New York Times, August 1, 1971; Lynford Hershey to Leon Stauffer, July 18, 1971, AMC—IV-21–4, box 1, MBM, Minority Ministries Council, Data Files #1, A–K, folder: “Education Program 1970–72, Lynford Hershey.”

109. Memorandum by Ted Dubinsky, “Minutes of the ‘Committee to Consider the Minority Group Male’s Self-Image’—8/21/67,” CUA, HGR MS#1465, Series III: Hudson Guild Files, box 13, folder 21: “Committee to Consider the Minority Group Male’s Self-Image, 1967–1968”; Simonds, “Letter to a Suburban Church”; Paul E. Warfield, “The Whole Story,” Bennington (VT) Banner, September 6, 1963.

110. “100 Inner City Kids to Visit in Glen Ellyn.”

111. “Welcome Inner City Child,” Arlington Heights (IL) Herald, August 17, 1971.

112. Fosburgh, “Director of the Fresh Air Appeal Retiring after 25 Years in Post.”

113. Memorandum by Michael Phillips, “Report of the Fresh Air Fund Friendly Town Study Undertaken by the Long Range Planning Committee,” April 1980, 8, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 31, folder 2: “Reports, Friendly Town Study, 1979–1980.”

114. Lena Williams, “Full of Fresh Air, They Return Home,” New York Times, August 7, 1977.

115. Goldman, “Fresh Air: A Together Atmosphere.”

116. “Friendly Town Is Set up by Pennsylvania Couple,” New York Times, August 19, 1979.

117. “The Fresh Air Fund Focuses on Culture,” New York Times, June 12, 1977.

118. (Untitled Photo of Two Boys—One White, One Black—in Relay Race in Playground of a School—Circa Mid-1970s) (Grosvenor Neighborhood House, [n.d.]), CUA, GNHR, 1916–1990s MS# 1433, Series IV: Photographs, folder 27643–27655: “Children Outdoors, 1960s–1970s.”

119. “East Side Hikers Climb Stair Mountains …,” PM’s Weekly, September 1, 1940.

120. Joe A. Pissarro, (Untitled Photo of Young African American Boys Walking Past Graffiti on Building Which Says Summer in the City Is Fun), NYCPL-SC: “Children, 13–487.”

121. “Two Who Make Fresh Air Fund Campers Happy,” New York Times, May 6, 1979.

122. “A Fresh Air Fund Vacation Delights a Child,” New York Times, May 14, 1978; David Stewart Hudson, “Family Hosts Enjoyed ‘Fresh Air’ Visits, Too,” Daily News-Record (Harrisonburg, VA), May 10, 1973.

123. “To Kids from Kids,” New York Amsterdam News, May 27, 1978.

124. Memorandum by Agnes Louard, “Summer Day Camp—Report 1953,” August 26, 1953, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 41, folder 3: “Camp-Reports, 1948–53”; The Merry Mermaids, “The Merry Mermaids,” Day Camp News 1957, 2, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 42, folder 2: “Day Camp, 1955–62”; Freddy Mercer, “The Lions,” Day Camp News 1957, 2, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 42, folder 2: “Day Camp, 1955–62.”

125. Mary Cole, Summer in the City (New York: P. J. Kenedy and Sons, 1968), 56.

126. Ibid., 56, 72, 96.

127. Chudacoff and Smith, The Evolution of American Urban Society, 289.

128. Frederick H. Lewis, “Time to Blow … Not to Pull in Our Horns: Welcoming Observations by Frederick H. Lewis, Executive Director of the Fresh Air Fund, at Opening of Friendly Town Planning Conference, February 16, 1970, Brotherhood-in-Action Building, New York City” (Washington, D.C., 1970), LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12576: “The Fresh Air Fund 1968–70.”

129. Johnston, “Fresh Air Fund Launches Drive.”

130. Chuck Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund” (1981), C9–2, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 22, folder 2: “Histories 1977.”

131. “How Friendly Is This Country?” Daily News (Huntingdon, Saxton, and Mount Union, PA), June 7, 1979.

132. George J. Gordodensky, “Fresh Air Children, Co-Hope,” Daily News Record (Harrisonburg, VA), April 12, 1979.

133. Gene Rondinaro, “A Change of Pace in the Sun,” New York Times, June 3, 1979.

134. Robert M. Vanderbeck, “Inner-City Children, Country Summers: Narrating American Childhood and the Geographies of Whiteness,” Environment and Planning 40, no. 5 (2008): 1132–50. A 2010 ad by the Fresh Air Fund in Vanity Fair magazine continued the theme by noting that children in the city were deprived of “a safe, fun summer.” See “The Only Thing More Fleeting Than Summer Is Childhood,” Vanity Fair, June 2010.

135. Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 351; Simon Wendt, “The Roots of Black Power? Armed Resistance and the Radicalization of the Civil Rights Movement,” in The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights-Black Power Era, ed. Peniel E. Joseph (New York: Routledge, 2006), 145–65; Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting ‘Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Holt Paperbacks, 2007), 289.

136. “Friendly Towns Play Host to the Fresh Air Needy,” New York Times, July 8, 1979.

137. Linda Punch, “Friendly Town: A Family Affair,” Arlington Heights (IL) Herald, August 20, 1971.

138. Jeff Wiltse, Contested Waters: A Social History of Swimming Pools in America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 2–5.

139. Ibid., 158.

140. Ibid., 182.

141. Ibid.

142. Ibid., 199–201.

143. Wilbert Marcellus Leonard II, A Sociological Perspective of Sport (Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing Company, 1980), 173, 180; John J. Gnida, “Teaching ‘Nature Versus Nurture’: The Case of African-American Athletic Success,” Teaching Sociology 23, no. 4 (1995): 389–95; David W. Hunter, “Race and Athletic Performance: A Physiological Review,” in African Americans in Sport, ed. Gary A. Sailes (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1989), 85–101; Gary A. Sailes, “The African American Athlete: Social Myths and Stereotypes,” in African Americans in Sport, 183–98.

144. Wiltse, Contested Waters, 141.

145. Ibid., 188.

146. Blanksteen, “A Refreshing Experience,” 401.

147. Dee Wedemeyer, “Farm Plan Extends Fresh Air Program,” New York Times, July 31, 1977.

148. Draves, “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents”; Glenda Adams, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, March 28, 2010; “Fresh Air Fund Summer Offers Widened Outlook,” New York Times, June 3, 1979; “Inquiring Photographer,” Evening Banner (Bennington, VT), July 18, 1959; “Journey into Another World,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), August 2, 1969.

149. Vanderkodde interview; Joseph Gibbons, Tallahassee, FL, telephone interview by the author, March 17, 2010.

150. “A Friendly Note—to Some of the Friendliest People in the World” (New York, 1953 [circa]), LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12560: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1953–54.”

151. Kathleen Floyd, October 14, 1969, Mansucripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, NYCPL-SC, Robert & Anita Stein Papers, SCM 87–20, box 2, folder 19: “Summer Programs—1971, Proposals, Children’s Letters, etc.”

152. “Fund Camp Is Family Tradition for 2 Boys,” New York Times, June 24, 1979.

153. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors by the Executive Director of the Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” January 28, 1949, 16, LOC, PRF D222, HRR, file 12557: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1950–51.”

154. “Camp Inquiry,” Camp Nathan Hale Echo, August 12, 1948, 5, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 41, folder 2: “Camp-Publications, 1948–49.”

155. Memorandum by Ellen Marvin, “Brescia, Anthony, Age: 5,” 1951, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 3, “Camp-Children’s Records (A-B), 1945–57.”

156. Wiltse, Contested Waters, 29, 34.

157. “Little Fresh Air Girl Won’t Be Here but Her Brother Will,” Oneonta (NY) Star, June 3, 1953.

158. Arlene Feinstein, “The Athlete’s Feet,” Echo, 1944, ELAA, UMN, HSSR (SW0058), Activities Reports, 1941, box 49, folder 3: “Camps and Camping—Echo Hill Farm, Newsletter—The Echo—1944”; Beverly Glasser, Harriet Gleich, and Ida Sokoloff, “Suggestion Box,” Echo, 1944, 11, ELAA, UMN, HSSR (SW0058), Activities Reports, 1941, box 49, folder 3: “Camps and Camping—Echo Hill Farm, Newsletter—The Echo—1944”; Phyllis M. Palmer, Living as Equals: How Three White Communities Struggled to Make Interracial Connections during the Civil Rights Era (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2008), 230, 255–56, 278.

159. Lacey Fosburgh, “18,000 Plan on Fresh Air Vacations,” New York Times, May 23, 1971.

160. “Fresh Air Fund Giving Children Country Holiday,” New York Herald Tribune, November 22, 1966.

161. Lena Williams, “Disabled Enjoy Fresh Air Camp,” New York Times, July 10, 1977.

162. “Fresh Air Fund Presses Appeal,” New York Times, May 10, 1970.

163. Williams, “Disabled Enjoy Fresh Air Camp.”

164. Memorandum, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors,” 1951, 10, LOC, PRF, HRR, file 12558: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1951”; Memorandum by Ralph B. Dwinell, “Friendly Towns,” 1962, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12568: “The Fresh Air Fund”; Memorandum by Richard F. Crandell, “Report on the Death of Genevieve Turner, Fresh Air Child, 6, in Columbia Lake, Near Hale Eddy, Delaware County, New York, Sunday Afternoon, July 28, 1963,” 1963, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12569: “The Fresh Air Fund 1963”; Memorandum by Ralph B. Dwinell, “Friendly Town, Summer 1967,” 1967, [2], NYCPL-BRARR, Series I—Grant Files, box 2, folder: “Fresh Air Fund 1962,” Whitney North Seymour Papers, 1930–1983, box 114—Subject Files: “Fresh Air Fund, 1962–1983, January 1965–June 1967.”

165. “Accidental Drowning,” Statistical Bulletin—Metropolitan Life 53 (1972): 6–8.

166. Leanna Kauffman, 1956, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 19, folder 6: “Contest Entries—1956, Essays (Contest #2).”

167. Vanderkodde interview.

168. Donald W. Hastings, Sammy Zahran, and Sherry Cable, “Drowning in Inequalities: Swimming and Social Justice,” Journal of Black Studies 36, no. 6 (2006): 894–917.

169. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, 94–95; Memorandum by Dr. R. N. Barr, “How We Keep Camps Healthy,” 1950, ELAA, UMN, United Way of Minneapolis records (SW 70), box 72, folder 1: “Camps—general 1950.”

170. Memorandum by Mary E. Smith, “Minutes 1964 Friendly Town Planning Conference, February 18, 19, 20,” 1964, 9, UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund, University of IL at Chicago Special Collection.”

171. Memorandum by Dwinell, “Friendly Town, Summer 1967,” [2].

172. Gerald (Gunny) Gunthrup, “The Gunny Sack,” Oneonta (NY) Star, June 9, 1954; Betty Joyce, “York County Towns Welcome Fresh Airs and Lewises,” York County Coast Star (Kennebunk, ME), August 3, 1966; David Sibbet, “City Children Visit Suburbs,” Chicago Tribune, July 14, 1968; Draves, “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents”; “Young Campers in Fresh Air Fund Learning Canoeing,” New York Times, August 21, 1970; Lacey Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund Puts 2,800 in Camp,” New York Times, July 11, 1971; “Swimming Key Part of Fresh Air Camps,” New York Times, July 24, 1977; Carol Rabasca, “Speaking Personally,” New York Times, June 26, 1977; Joan Bastel, “Portrait of a ‘Fresh Air’ Family,” Daily Intelligencer (Doylestown, PA), July 9, 1979; “Fresh Air Fund Is Magic Carpet for Urban Children,” New York Times, July 1, 1979; “City Youngsters Planned Summer Vacations,” Daily News Record (Harrisonburg, VA), June 14, 1979; Adams interview; Diaz interview.

173. “Fresh Air Fund Camp Buses Liberate 750 City Youths,” New York Times, July 2, 1978.

174. Wiltse, Contested Waters, 3–4.

175. James C. Lont, Meeting to Discuss “Friendly Town” Project in the 60’s, Graafschap, MI: 2010.

176. Cornell, “Get Acquainted Process New Phase of Relationship of Negroes, Whites”; Rabasca, “Speaking Personally”; Batts interview.

177. Joe R. Feagin, “The Continuing Significance of Race: Antiblack Discrimination in Public Places,” American Sociological Review 56, no. 1 (1991): 101–16.

178. Paul Parker, (Untitled Photo of Integrated Groups of Elko Lake Campers at Lakeside before or after Swimming) ([1949–1958]), EDNY, Episcopal Missional Society, Summer Camp Photos, 1940’s–1960’s, folder: “Elko Lake Boys Camp—1949–1958”; Memorandum, “1952 Annual Report [proof],” 1953, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12559: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1952”; Memorandum, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund 81st Year Annual Report”; Memorandum, “Annual Report—Reviewing 1958,” 1959, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund”; Mrs. Gerald Steger, “Enlightening Summer,” What’s in the Air, 1963; Cornell, “Get Acquainted Process New Phase of Relationship of Negroes, Whites”; Memorandum, “Eighty-Ninth Annual Report: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” 1967, [5], copied from the CCAH, UTA; Memorandum, “1971 Annual Report,” 1971, NYHS, F128HV 938.N5 F74.

179. Robert Goldstein, (unlabeled contact sheet) ([circa 1953]), EDNY, Episcopal Missional Society, Summer Camp Photos, 1940’s–1960’s (2922–2951—from folder “Elko Lake Camps—1950s,’60s & ’70s”); “The Experience of Beauty” in Coatesville, Pa. (What’s in the Air: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund, 1965), 3, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12568: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

180. Wiltse, Contested Waters, 201; “Fresh Air,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), June 28, 1968.

181. Fosburgh, “18,000 Plan on Fresh Air Vacations”; Monaco, “City Kids Get Chance for Some Friendly Adventures”; Randy Wynn, “Children Find New Homes during Week in Ashland,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), July 4, 1971; Edward Hudson, “City Youths Find Country Delight,” New York Times, July 22, 1973; Joan Cook, “Fresh Air Fund Gets Helping Hand,” New York Times, August 7, 1977; Wedemeyer, “Farm Plan Extends Fresh Air Program,” 33; Peg Hurd, “Tony Campano Picks Upper Bald Eagle over the Bronx,” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, July 22, 1978; “Two Young Brothers Are Ready for a Fresh Air Fund Adventure,” New York Times, May 21, 1978; “How Friendly Is This Country?”

182. Marie Winn, Children without Childhood (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 114.

183. Thomas A. P. van Leeuwen and Helen Searing, The Springboard in the Pond: An Intimate History of the Swimming Pool (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).

184. “Be a Host Family to an Inner City Child,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), March 26, 1977; Rabasca, “Speaking Personally”; “Community Activities,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), March 24, 1979, 12A.

185. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State, 293, 294.

186. “Fresh Air.”

187. Hudson, “City Youths Find Country Delight.”

188. Cook, “Fresh Air Fund Gets Helping Hand.”

189. “Country Life New World to City Boy,” New York Herald Tribune, November 29, 1966; “Fresh Air Fund Notes,” Bennington (VT) Banner, June 4, 1976; Rondinaro, “A Change of Pace in the Sun.”

190. “First Woman Executive Director Takes Helm for Fresh Air Fund Tomorrow,” New York Times, October 26, 1975.

191. “Ticket to Happiness”; Michael Burns et al., Fresh Air Don’t Smell Like That (Boyd Malloy, 1973), [34]; “Fresh Air Fund Enables 14,000 to Enjoy Fresh Air,” New York Amsterdam News, August 14, 1976; Anne-Gerard Flynn, “Breath of Fresh Air for Everyone,” New York Times, May 21, 1978; Rondinaro, “A Change of Pace in the Sun”; James C. Lont to Tobin Miller Shearer, July 24, 2010, paper copy in author’s personal collection.

192. “Fresh Air Fund Is a Ticket for a Real Vacation,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, May 10, 1948.

193. Goldman, “Fresh Air: A Together Atmosphere.”

194. Kenrick, Come Out the Wilderness, 106–07.

195. “Many Offer Help to Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, July 28, 1974.

196. Wiltse, Contested Waters, 185–88.

197. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York: Routledge, 1966), 2, 5, 44.

3. GRASS, COLOR, SASS

1. Lacey Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund Puts 2,800 in Camp,” New York Times, July 11, 1971.

2. “Friendly Town Offers Suburban Vacation for Inner City Kids,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), June 26, 1971; Sally Mulligan, “Subtle Racism,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), May 16, 1970; Eleanor Charles, “Apathy Endangers Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 20, 1979.

3. Memorandum, “Annual Report—Reviewing 1958,” 1959, 9, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

4. Richard F. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children (New York: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund, 1962), 19.

5. “Turn Kids on to Real Grass,” Forbes, July 1, 1974, 81.

6. “They’re Off!” Turning Points, May, 1956, EDNY, box—Episcopal Missional Society, Turning Points Publ. 1950s–1970s, folder: “Turning Points, 1952, 1966–’68.”

7. Robert Messia, “Lawns as Artifacts: The Evolution of Social and Environmental Implications of Suburban Residential Land Use,” Suburban Sprawl: Culture, Theory, and Politics, ed. Matthew J. Lindstrom and Hugh Bartling (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 69–83.

8. Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia (New York: Basic Books, 1987), 147; Messia, “Lawns as Artifacts.”

9. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 59.

10. Messia, “Lawns as Artifacts”; Adam Rome, The Bulldozer in the Countryside: Suburban Sprawl and the Rise of American Environmentalism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 13.

11. Messia, “Lawns as Artifacts.”

12. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 133.

13. Ibid., 208.

14. Michael J. Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 261; Wendy Plotkin, “‘Hemmed In’: The Struggle against Racial Restrictive Covenants and Deed Restrictions in Post–WWII Chicago,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (1998–) 94, no. 1 (2001): 39–69.

15. “Will You Do Me a Favor?” Oneonta (NY) Star, June 10, 1954.

16. “Children Source of Entertainment,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, August 2, 1943; “As Fresh Air Special Arrives in the Area,” Daily News (Huntington and Mount Union, PA), July 15, 1953 (emphasis added).

17. “Friendly Town Is Set up by Pennsylvania Couple,” New York Times, August 19, 1979.

18. “Children Source of Entertainment.”

19. “38 Fresh Air Children Taken by Bradford, Area Residents,” Bradford (PA) Era, July 29, 1948; “The Goal: 100 Children,” Bennington (VT) Banner, May 8, 1963.

20. Leo J. Heffernan, “Chariot to a New World” (New York: Union Settlement Association), 9, CUA, USAR 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 40, folder 11: “Camp-Film, 1944–49.”

21. Sarah Burns, “Barefoot Boys and Other Country Children: Sentiment and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century American Art,” American Art Journal 20, no. 1 (1988): 25–50; Hazel Bowers, “Fresh Air Boy,” What’s in the Air, autumn 1955.

22. George A. Edmonds, “Friendly Town Program Molds Young Lives,” Bennington (VT) Banner, July 27, 1963.

23. “Fresh-Air Families Recall ‘City Brothers,’” New York Times, August 6, 1978; “Fresh Air Fund Kids Have Picnic,” New York Herald Tribune, September 29, 1966; Dorothy Belle Pollack, “Pearl and Ebony,” What’s in the Air, summer vacation edition, 1963.

24. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children.

25. “A Child’s Look of Amazement,” New York Times, April 29, 1979.

26. Abigail A. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness: Summer Camps and the Shaping of American Youth, 1890–1960 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 45–49.

27. Fred W. Hohloch to Frederick H. Lewis, November 30, 1960, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12566: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1960”; Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children, 2; Richard F. Crandell, “Fresh Air Fund—Birth of an Idea,” New York Herald Tribune, October 30, 1966.

28. Burns, “Barefoot Boys and Other Country Children.”

29. Memorandum, “Eighty-Ninth Annual Report: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” 1967, [4], copied from the CCAH, UTA; Cathy Aldridge, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund Continues despite Long Strike,” New York Amsterdam News, August 13, 1966; Memorandum, “Eighty-Ninth Annual Report: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” [4]; Aldridge, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund Continues despite Long Strike”; Memorandum by Nelson A. Rockefeller, “On the Occasion of Dedicating a New Lake and Model Farm at Sharpe Reservation, East Fishkill, N.Y.,” 1967, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12575: “The Fresh Air Fund 1967.”

30. Aldridge, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund Continues despite Long Strike”; “Conservation Work at Fishkill Is Aided by Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, July 5, 1970.

31. Memorandum, “My Vacation in the Country,” November 28, 1947, LOC, PRF D222, HRR, file 12556: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1942–49.”

32. Helen Busuttil Regenbogen, Bainbridge, NY, telephone interview by the author, March 10, 2010.

33. “10 Children from New York’s East Harlem Visiting Leominster Homes for Two Weeks,” Fitchburg (MA) Sentinel, July 22, 1954.

34. Barbara L. Little, “Helps New York City Children to a Vacation in the Country,” Lancaster (PA) Intelligencer-Journal, July 31, 1958; “Trees and Open Spaces a Treat for Youngsters,” Emmetsburg (IA) Democrat, August 31, 1967; MaryBeth Wagner, “Manheim Couple Hosts Fifty Phila. Children,” Intelligencer Journal (Lancaster, PA), August 11, 1978; “A Small Harlem Boy and ‘All That Green Stuff,’” Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), July 31, 1956, 7.

35. “No Place to Play,” Bennington (VT) Evening Banner, June 22, 1957.

36. Paul S. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 236–37.

37. Ibid., 239–40, 279.

38. Wade Barnes, “Washington Square” (New York: Shelley Music Co., 1962), NYUA, Washington Square Association Activities, MC 94, Series 6, box 20, folder 7: “Fresh Air Fund: 1962”; Frederick Kelly, “Trees against Light Bryant Park” (1961), NYHS, Department of Prints, Photographs, and Architectural Collections, Frederick Kelly Photograph Collection, PR 246, box 1, folder 2: “Bryant Park”; Kelly, “Three Girls Washington Square” (1962), NYHS, Department of Prints, Photographs, and Architectural Collections, Frederick Kelly Photograph Collection, PR 246, box 2, folder 19: “Washington Square People.”

39. Ari L. Goldman, “Fresh Air: A Together Atmosphere,” New York Times, June 27, 1976.

40. Bartlett Hendricks, “Three Boys, Two Weeks and No Worries at All,” Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), August 4, 1956.

41. Leanna Kauffman, 1956, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 19, folder 6: “Contest Entries—1956, Essays (Contest #2)”; Memorandum by Ralph B. Dwinell, “Friendly Town,” 1966, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund”; Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund Puts 2,800 in Camp”; Edward Hudson, “Fresh Air Goal: 19,000 Vacations,” New York Times, May 20, 1973.

42. Mrs. Raymond E. Carr, 1956, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 19, folder 6: “Contest Entries—1956, Essays (Contest #2)”; Louise A. Sweeney, “Designed for Women,” Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), June 5, 1959.

43. Perfinax, “Experiment in Humanity,” Lowell (MA) Sun, July 26, 1961.

44. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children, 9.

45. Ibid., 5.

46. Anonymous Fresh Air participant, New York, NY, interview by the author, September 15, 1995.

47. “A Small Harlem Boy and ‘All That Green Stuff.’”

48. “Couple Recall Their Early Days as Fresh Air Fund Hosts,” New York Times, April 30, 1978; “Deadline Tonight for Fresh Air Guests,” Portsmouth (NH) Herald, July 9, 1956.

49. “Mrs. Pavlis Takes Her Fresh Air Footprint to the Royal Wedding,” What’s in the Air, fall 1964.

50. “Turn Kids on to Real Grass.”

51. Leon Dash, “Leaders Arrested in Camp Drug Raid,” Journal News (Hamilton, OH), August 25, 1972.

52. E. R. Braxton and R. J. Yonker, “Does Being Urban, Poor, Black, or Female Affect Youth’s Knowledge and/or Attitudes Relating to Drugs?” Journal of School Health 43 (1973): 185–88; Department of English, Current Slang (Vermillion, SD: University of South Dakota, 1966–1967); Stephen Dill and Donald Bebeau, Current Slang (Vermillion, SD: University of South Dakota, 1968–1970); Carry Cowherd, “The Following List Was Gathered from the Seven Male Black Undergraduates at the University of South Dakota,” Current Slang: A Quarterly Glossary of Slang Expressions Presently in Use 5, no. 2 (1970): 5–14; R. S. P. Weiner, Drugs and Schoolchildren (New York: Humanities Press, 1970), 62.

53. Frederick H. Lewis, “Integration, Then What?” American Unity: An Education Guide, September–October, 1954, 3–9, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 1562: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1954–55.”

54. Tom Jachimiec, “Suburbs’ War on Prejudice: Big Response to Friendly Town,” Bensenville (IL) Register, May 10, 1968.

55. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children; Jonathan R. Dwyer, “God and Cows,” Bennington (VT) Banner, April 30, 1968.

56. Mrs. Gerald Steger, “Enlightening Summer,” What’s in the Air, 1963.

57. Rita J. Simon, Howard Altstein, and Marygold S. Melli, The Case for Transracial Adoption (Washington, DC: American University Press, 1994), 41.

58. Julia Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare, Enduring Beliefs about Childhood: The Fresh Air Fund, 1877–1926,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 11, no. 1 (2012): 27–70; H. Addington Bruce, “The Story of the Great Fresh Air Movement,” Lowell (MA) Sun, August 14, 1903; “Fresh Air Work Humor,” Fitchburg (MA) Daily Sentinel, July 27, 1907; “Fresh Air Days,” Galveston (TX) Daily News, April 30, 1910.

59. Paul C. Mishler, Raising Reds: The Young Pioneers, Radical Summer Camps, and Communist Political Culture in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).

60. “Lions Launch Campaign for Fresh Air Camp,” Statesville (NC) Daily Record, May 28, 1946; “Florence Fresh Air Fund Group to Meet Tomorrow,” Florence (SC) Morning News, May 15, 1949.

61. Lillian Scott, “Gotham Kiddies Back after Summer Vacation,” Chicago Defender, September 13, 1947.

62. Memorandum, “A Recreational and Educational Project through Churches to Help Meet Youth Needs in Brooklyn,” March, 1945, PNHA, NCC, Home Missions Council of North America, 1903–1951, RG26, box 16, folder 11: “Negro Work Brooklyn Project, March 1945–June 1949”; Tarrance, Amateur Boxing Tournament Finalists (1949), NYCPL-SC, Children, 13–491; Friendship Frontiers 1949–1950: A Complete Listing of All Frontiers for Children and Young People (Presbyterian Church, USA, General Council, Youth Budget Office, 1949), PHS, PAM-FOL VB 2616, V6 F7 1949 UF33P Y87f.

63. Marian E. McKay, “Free Seaboard Camps Offer Summer Fun to Children of All Races,” Chicago Defender, September 18, 1948.

64. Steven Mintz, Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 257–58.

65. Ai-min Zhang, The Origins of the African American Civil Rights Movement, 1865–1956, ed. Graham Russell Hodges (New York: Routledge, 2002), 90.

66. Walter I. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America (New York: The Free Press, 1984), 298.

67. Howard P. Chudacoff and Judith E. Smith, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000), 270.

68. Leslie Paris, Children’s Nature: The Rise of the American Summer Camp (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 268.

69. Lewis, “Integration, Then What?”

70. Memorandum, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors,” 1951, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12558: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1951.”

71. Paris, Children’s Nature, 72–73.

72. “Improvement of Poor Integrates Fresh Air Camp,” Pittsburgh Courier, June 20, 1953, 5.

73. Memorandum, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors,” 1953, 4, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12560: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1953–54.”

74. “Seek County Homes for ‘Fresh Airs,’” Evening Banner (Bennington, VT), June 12, 1956; “Exchange Club Will Sponsor Fresh Air Fund Program Again,” Bridgeport (CT) Post, June 5, 1957; “20 Homes in Newtown on ‘Fresh Air’ List,” Bridgeport (CT) Sunday Post, June 22, 1958.

75. “Friendly Town Project Set Again by Fredonians,” Dunkirk (NY) Evening Observer, April 19, 1956.

76. Memorandum, “Friendly Town—1965—Summary of Children Sent,” 1965, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12568: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

77. “Spring Conference Reviews a Joyful Year,” What’s in the Air, spring 1966.

78. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Annual Report for 1968: A Reappraisal,” 1968, 5, copied from the CCAH, UTA.

79. Irvana Wilks, “Project Friendly Town Described as Coin with Two Sides,” Iowa City Press-Citizen, July 26, 1968; “Welcome Mat Out,” Arlington Heights (IL) Herald, April 17, 1969.

80. Aldridge, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund Continues despite Long Strike.”

81. “Journey into Another World,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), August 2, 1969.

82. Dwyer, “God and Cows.”

83. Blancke Noyes to Alan W. Betts, April 22, 1968, NYCPL-BRARR, Series I—Grant Files, box 14: “Grants Files, 1968, Fresh Air Fund.”

84. “Fresh Air for Sale,” New York Times, April 30, 1978; “Church Promotion Due in Onalaska Services,” Centralia (WA) Daily Chronicle, June 4, 1971; “Girl, 9, Learns New View of Life,” Chicago Tribune, August 4, 1971.

85. Marian Abbott, “Cultural Exchange Program,” Daily Inter Lake (Kalispell, MT), July 10, 1970; “Girl, 9, Learns New View of Life”; Excitement and Confusion …” (Ephrata Review, 1971), LMHS, Newspaper Clippings Collection: “Fresh Air Program”; “‘Fresh Air’ Welcome,” Bennington (VT) Banner, June 30, 1976; “Elko Lake Camps,” Episcopal New Yorker, spring 1976.

86. “‘Fresh Air’ Children Due Here on June 29,” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, June 14, 1978; “New York Youngsters Due,” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, June 28, 1978; “Give a Fresh Air Kid a Boost,” Progress (Clearfield, PA), May 25, 1978.

87. “Fresh Air Hosts May Not Specify Race, Religion,” Oneonta (NY) Star, April 20, 1971; “Fresh Air Fund Seeks Hosts Here,” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, April 13, 1976.

88. “Friendly Town Opens Drive,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), March 24, 1973; “Friendly Town Vacation Visits,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), May 4, 1974; “More Host Families Are Needed,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), May 8, 1976; Lynne Ames, “The Fresh Air Fund: Summers of Sharing,” New York Times, May 20, 1979.

89. Phyllis M. Palmer, Living as Equals: How Three White Communities Struggled to Make Interracial Connections during the Civil Rights Era (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2008), 6, 27.

90. Joseph Owens, “Little Town with a Big Heart,” Afro-American (Baltimore), July 30, 1955; Sweeney, “Designed for Women”; Edmonds, “Friendly Town Program Molds Young Lives”; Ethel Hanson Wood, “Adirondack Wood-Cuttings,” What’s in the Air, spring 1966.

91. Carr, 1956.

92. David Sibbet, “City Children Visit Suburbs,” Chicago Tribune, July 14, 1968; Edward Hudson, “City Youths Find Country Delight,” New York Times, July 22, 1973; Jane Blanksteen, “A Refreshing Experience,” New York Times, June 19, 1977.

93. Paris, Children’s Nature, 269.

94. J. Wayne Burrell, “Harlem Social Whirl,” Afro American (Baltimore), July 11, 1936.

95. “Fresh Air Fund Benefit,” New York Amsterdam Star-News, March 28, 1942; Gladys January Willis, Faith against the Odds: A Memoir of My Journey from Mississippi to the Ivy League and Beyond (Bloomington, IN: WestBow Press, 2014), 7–8.

96. Elwood Watson, “Camp Atwater (1921–),” BlackPast.Org, www.blackpast.org/aah/camp-atwater-1921; Henry M. Thomas, III, “Camp Atwater: Building Tomorrow’s Leaders,” Camping (1993), 29–31.

97. “Entertaining Guests from Wilmington, Nashville,” New York Age, September 9, 1939; “By Way of Mention,” New York Age, August 8, 1942; “Youthful Floridians to Attend College,” New York Age, September 14, 1946; “Welcoming Champion Camper,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 17, 1965; Hazel Garland, “Things to Talk About,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 29, 1977; William N. DeBerry, “Camp Atwater Offers Many Recreational Advantages,” Pittsburgh Courier, April 26, 1941; “Toki Types,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 18, 1951.

98. Toki Schalk Johnson, “Toki Types,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 7, 1954.

99. “Traditional Atwater: A Legend for Boys and Girls,” Pittsburgh Courier, June 3, 1961.

100. Johnson, “Toki Types,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 29, 1966; “Former Springfield Athlete in Camp Work,” Pittsburgh Courier, June 22, 1940; Toki Schalk Johnson, “Woman of the Week,” Pittsburgh Courier, February 3, 1951.

101. DeBerry, “Camp Atwater Offers Many Recreational Advantages”; Memorandum, “Camp Atwater for Boys and Girls,” 1948, Papers of the NAACP, Part 26: Selected branch files, 1940–1955, Ser. B: The Northeast, Reel 2 of 11, Micro E, 185.5. N273x Pt. 26 Ser. B. Reel 2.

102. Deberry, “Camp Atwater Offers Many Recreational Advantages”; “Apex Head Fetes Palmer Memorial Thanksgiving,” Pittsburgh Courier, November 28, 1942; David Johnson, “Teen Age,” New York Age, December 10, 1949; “Fifth Annual Reunion Finds Charles Hill Re-Elected Prexy,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 22, 1953; “Atwater Alumni Reunion in Picturesque Setting,” New York Age, August 13, 1955; Lucille Cromer, “Lucille Cromer’s Society Script,” New York Age, June 16, 1956; Al Dumore, “Toki Types,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 25, 1958; Toki Schalk Johnson, “Toki Types,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 11, 1958; “Traditional Atwater: A Legend for Boys and Girls”; Memorandum, “Camp Atwater for Boys and Girls.”

103. “Sunday Church Services,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, August 20, 1966; “Sunday Church Services,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, July 1, 1967; “Sunday Church Services,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, July 20, 1968; Lionel C. Herron, “Book—from Harlem to Broad St Hollow,” www.gofundme.com/campbrytonrock. First Emmanual held worship services at 105 West 130th Street in Harlem at least through 1950 but then appears to have relocated to 50 Abeel Street in Kingston from 1959 onward.

104. Lionel Herron, Cabo, Mexico, telephone interview by the author, June 9, 2015.

105. Herron, “Book—from Harlem to Broad St Hollow”; Herron interview; “Visit Sojourner Truth’s Birthplace,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, August 10, 1968.

106. Lionel Herron, “Life at the Camp,” http://campbrytonrock.com/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=53.

107. George S. Schyler, “Views and Reviews,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 16, 1965.

108. “Send Your Children to Camp Bryton Rock,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, July 1, 1960.

109. DeBerry, “Camp Atwater Offers Many Recreational Advantages”; “Traditional Atwater: A Legend for Boys and Girls.”

110. Memorandum, “Friendly Town—1965—Summary of Children Sent.”

111. “550 Children to Get Special Vacation Trip,” Chicago Tribune, July 9, 1965; George Cornell, “Get Acquainted Process New Phase of Relationship of Negroes, Whites,” Post-Crescent (Appleton, WI), August 9, 1965; Mrs. Clayton Shaub, “An Unfinished Story,” Missionary Messenger, June 1965, 14–15.

112. DeBerry, “Camp Atwater Offers Many Recreational Advantages”; Memorandum, “Camp Atwater for Boys and Girls”; “Traditional Atwater: A Legend for Boys and Girls.”

113. Johnson, “Toki Types,” January 29, 1966.

114. “Go to Friendly Town,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), July 1, 1967.

115. Frederick H. Lewis, “Amsterdam News Aids Fresh Air Fund,” New York Amsterdam News, June 17, 1967; “Sermon Inspired Fresh Air Fund,” New York Amsterdam News, June 24, 1967; “Presentation,” New York Amsterdam News, October 26, 1968; “Fresh Air Fund Sends over 2,000 to Camp,” New York Amsterdam News, July 13, 1968.

116. “Planning Evening,” New York Amsterdam News, July 12, 1969; Memorandum, “Minutes of Meeting of the Board of Directors of Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund Held April 21, 1966,” April 21, 1966, 5, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

117. “Negro Mother Cites Son’s Vermont Vacation from Brooklyn ‘Summer of Hate,’” Bennington (VT) Banner, September 14, 1964. In the midst of similar urban unrest, a host mother echoed Kirton’s comments when she explained her motives for hosting African American fourth-grader Lue Bertha by claiming in 1968, “I wanted the opportunity to show at least one Negro child that not all white people hate them.” See Kathy Begley, “Haverford Family to Welcome Two-Week ‘Fresh Air’ Visitor,” Delaware County Daily Times (Chester, PA), June 10, 1968.

118. Palmer, Living as Equals, 29.

119. Joan McKinney, “When Kids Trade Places,” Oakland (CA) Tribune, May 17, 1971; E. J. Dionne Jr., “The Fresh Air Fund: 100 Years of Success,” New York Times, May 8, 1977.

120. Janet Shertzer, “Gift from the City,” Missionary Messenger, April 1968, 2–3; Orlo Kaufman, “Kansas Homes Become Mission Outposts,” Gulfbreeze, July–August, 1961, 2; Orlo Kaufman to Andrew Shelly, August 10, 1960, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 1, folder 4: “Correspondence—General Conf. 1960.”

121. (Photo of Boys Waving from inside of Bus) (New York: Union Settlement Association, 1949), CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VIII: Audio-Visual Materials, box 46, folder 3: “Camp Nathan Hale, ca., 1900, 1940s, 1990s”; (Photo of Boys Sitting out Front of Teepee Reading) (New York: Union Settlement Association, n.d.), CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VIII: Audio-Visual Materials, box 46, folder 3: “Camp Nathan Hale, ca., 1900, 1940s, 1990s”; (Photo of Boys Sitting in Cabin on Bunks) (New York: Union Settlement Association, n.d.), CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VIII: Audio-Visual Materials, box 46, folder 3: “Camp Nathan Hale, ca., 1900, 1940s, 1990s.”

122. “Staff of Fresh Air Camps Trained in Racial Amity,” Herald Tribune, July 6, 1954; Lewis, “Integration, Then What?”

123. Lewis, “Integration, Then What?”

124. Memorandum, “Report on Ponomok Community Center Day Camp—1954,” 1954, ELAA, UMN, United Neighborhood Houses of New York Records (SW0005), box 221, folder 442: “Pomonok Community Center Day Camp, Flushing, New York, 1954–1955.”

125. Camp discussions of race relations focused exclusively on white/black dynamics; the idea of Native American race relations were generally rendered moot as if the Native community was no longer present even at those camps that celebrated Native lore. See Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, 212–13. For evidence of publicity focusing on interracial contact, see Dancing at the Girls Camp (New York: Union Settlement Association, 1950), CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VIII: Audio-Visual Materials, box 46, folder 5: “Camp Gaylord White, ca., 1950”; Memorandum, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund 81st Year Annual Report,” 1957, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund”; “Boys and Girls Offered Vacation at Camp Incarnation,” Bulletin of the Diocese of New York, February 1959, 8–9; Memorandum, “Through Decisive Years: New York Protestant Episcopal City Mission Society One-Hundred-Thirtieth Anniversary Report 1831–1961,” 1961, EDNY, Episcopal Missional Society Mission News 1923–1976: “Misc. loose reports & pamphlets”; Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children; “Snapshot Winners,” What’s in the Air, Spring 1964; Cornell, “Get Acquainted Process New Phase of Relationship of Negroes, Whites”; Memorandum, “Eighty-Ninth Annual Report: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund.”

126. Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund Puts 2,800 in Camp”; “Former ‘Worst Kid’ Helps Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 20, 1979.

127. Paris, Children’s Nature, 186, 190–93, 196, 198–99, 203, 205, 207, 212, 219, 220, 224, 225.

128. Memorandum, “Camp Standards,” December 15, 1920, 10, ELAA, UMN, United Neighborhood Houses of New York Records (SW0005), box 223, folder 471: “Summer Camps, 1920–1923.”

129. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, 51.

130. Memorandum by Edd Lee, “Summer Camp Registrations and Placements,” October 1958, CUA, HGR MS#1465, Series I: Board of Directors, folder 7: “Committees—Hudson Guild Farm, 1948–1964.”

131. Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004).

132. Carol Van Horn, “The Inner City: Elective in Understanding,” Presbyterian Life, October 15, 1963, 25–27; Lee Edwards, “‘Friendly Town’ Chairman: Fresh Air Fund Matchmaker,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 14, 1971; “Ashland to Host City Teenagers,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), July 10, 1972; Joan Cook, “City Youths Discover Joy of Suburbs,” New York Times, May 9, 1976; Ames, “The Fresh Air Fund: Summers of Sharing.”

133. Ames, “The Fresh Air Fund: Summers of Sharing”; Stephen H. Goldstein, “Jacqueline’s Back for Summer Fun,” Times Record (Troy, NY), July 3, 1975.

134. Unattributed article clipping, June 1976, author’s personal collection.

135. “190 Inner-City Youngsters Go on a One-Week Vacation,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), July 20, 1974.

136. Wilma King, African American Childhoods: Historical Perspectives from Slavery to Civil Rights (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 123, 128.

137. Clare B. Wood to New York Times Publisher, August 3, 1979, NYCPL-BRARR, Series I—Grant Files, box 2—folder: “Fresh Air Fund 1962,” Whitney North Seymour Papers, 1930–1983, box 114—Subject Files—Fresh Air Fund, 1962–1983, folder: “Fresh Air Fund 1976 Life Director.”

138. See, for example, Thomas W. Brock, Harrisonburg, VA, telephone interview by the author, May 17, 2005; Janice Batts, Iowa City, IA, telephone interview by the author, February 15, 2012.

139. James C. Lont, Meeting to Discuss “Friendly Town” Project in the 60’s, Graafschap, MI: 2010.

140. Joan M. Jacobus, “Our Summer House Guests,” Redbook, July 1964.

141. Memorandum, “Hudson Guild Farm,” 1964, CUA, HGR MS#1465, Subseries IV.3: Hudson Guild Farm, box 24, folder 11: “Reports, 1963–1968 nd.”

142. Bill Draves Jr., “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents,” Commonwealth Reporter (Fond du Lac, WI), 1968; Memorandum by Marchand Chaney and Mimi Vernon,” Evaluation of Newberry-Dubuque Project for 1962,” 1962, UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund, University of IL at Chicago Special Collection”; Randy Wynn, “Children Find New Homes during Week in Ashland,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), July 4, 1971; Mary Ann Strawn, “Friend of Friendly Town,” Arlington Heights (IL) Herald, August 17, 1972, 6.

143. Glenda Adams, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, March 28, 2010; Luis Diaz, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, May 4, 2010; Nilson Diaz, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, May 12, 2010; Joseph Gibbons, Tallahassee, FL, telephone interview by the author, March 17, 2010.

144. “Quentin WCTU Has Guest Speaker,” Lebanon (PA) Daily News, July 31, 1957; “Haverford Family to Welcome Two-Week ‘Fresh Air’ Visitor,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), June 29, 1966; Draves, “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents.”

145. “Fresh Air Kiddies Arrive Tomorrow for Two-Week Visit,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), July 12, 1955; “Homes Opened to Fresh Air Children,” Oneonta (NY) Star, June 16, 1956; “Newark Valley Tourists,” Syracuse Herald-American, August 11, 1957; “Six Chinese Children Due to Visit Here: Fresh Air Kids from New York Sponsored by PETA,” Cumberland (MD) Evening Times, July 10, 1958; “24 Fresh Air Fund Children on Visit,” Lebanon (PA) Daily News, July 29, 1959; Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children, 9; “Host Snapshots,” review of LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12569: “The Fresh Air Fund 1963”; What’s in the Air, Spring 1963, 3; Memorandum by Mary E. Smith, “Minutes 1964 Friendly Town Planning Conference, February 18, 19, 20,” 1964, 7, UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund,” University of IL at Chicago Special Collection; “Friendly Town Children Coming,” North Adams (MA) Transcript, July 17, 1967.

146. For evidence of children’s separatist culture during the Cold War era, see Mintz, Huck’s Raft, 282. For evidence of children resisting adult supervision of their play, see Maude Hines, “Playing with Children: What the ‘Child’ Is Doing in American Studies,” American Quarterly 61, no. 1 (2009): 151–61. For discussion of “hidden transcripts” among oppressed groups, see James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990).

147. Perfinax, “Experiment in Humanity,” 7.

148. Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?” and Other Conversations about Race (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 32; Jennifer Ritterhouse, Growing up Jim Crow: How Black and White Southern Children Learned Race (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2006), 17.

149. Draves, “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents”; Cornell, “Get Acquainted Process New Phase of Relationship of Negroes, Whites.”

150. Betty Joyce, “York County Towns Welcome Fresh Airs and Lewises,” York County Coast Star (Kennebunk, ME), August 3, 1966.

151. Rebecca de Schweinitz, If We Could Change the World: Young People and America’s Long Struggle for Racial Equality (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 106; Pamela E. Klassen, “The Robes of Womanhood: Dress and Authenticity among African American Methodist Women in the Nineteenth Century,” Religion and American Culture 14, no. 1 (2004): 39–82; Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, “The Black Church: A Gender Perspective,” in African-American Religion: Interpretive Essays in History and Culture, ed. Timothy E. Fulop and Albert J. Raboteau (New York: Routledge, 1997), 202–25.

152. Marisa Chappell, Jenny Hutchinson, and Brian Ward, “‘Dress Modestly, Neatly … as if You Were Going to Church’: Respectability, Class and Gender in the Early Civil Rights Movement,” in Gender in the Civil Rights Movement, ed. Peter J. Ling and Sharon Monteith (New York: Garland, 1999), 69–100.

153. Bernie Greenfield, Newark, NJ, telephone interview by the author, April 13, 2010; “73 Chicago Children Quickly Make New Friends, See Fair,” Fond Du Lac (WI) Commonwealth Reporter, August 4, 1968, 14.

154. Mary Ullrich, “Friendly Towns Spur Tots’ Holiday,” Chicago Tribune, July 16, 1967; “Happiness Is a Beautiful Summer Day …,” Biddeford-Saco (ME) Journal, July 27, 1967.

155. Memorandum, “Camp Registrar’s Report 1957,” 1957, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 41, folder 3: “Camp-Reports, 1948–53.”

156. Hendricks, “Three Boys, Two Weeks and No Worries at All”; “Westport Seeks Fresh Air Hosts,” Bridgeport (CT) Sunday Post, June 1, 1958; Mrs. Charles M. Lucas, “Testimonial,” What’s in the Air, fall 1965; Draves, “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents”; Memorandum by Ronall Halloway, “Union Settlement Camps—Report on Camper—Ernest Hobbs,” August 28, 1956, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 7: “Camp-Children’s Records (H–M), 1955–57”; Memorandum by Dolores Lill and Mary Lill, “Yvette Airmis, Age 5,” n.d., CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 3: “Camp-Children’s Records (A–B), 1945–57.”

157. Wilks, “Project Friendly Town Described as Coin with Two Sides.”

158. Wood, “Adirondack Wood-Cuttings”; Joan K. Kahler, “Fresh Air Child Finds Real Home with Rome Family,” Daily Sentinel (Rome, NY), 1961; Shelby M. Howatt, “From Concrete to Country,” Bulletin, May 1960, 4–6, EDNY, Episcopal Missional Society, Publications et al., 1930s–1970s.

159. Sweeney, “Designed for Women.”

160. Draves, “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents”; John Green, “Friendly Town Afterthoughts: ‘Felt So Depressed after He Left,’” Fond du Lac (WI) Commonwealth Reporter, August 22, 1968.

161. Margie Middleton and Ruth Y. Wenger, “Fresh Air Reminiscences,” Missionary Messenger, July 1977, 12–13, 21.

162. Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 193.

163. A 1982 study found that a Fresh Air child did “not wish to talk about his/her life in the city until he/she knows the host well, believing that their comments will reflect badly on their own family.” See Michael Phillips, “Motivation and Expectation in Successful Volunteerism,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 11, no. 2–3 (1982): 118–25.

164. “Visitor, Seven, Gets Lost: ‘Fresh Air’ Boy Returned,” Syracuse Herald-Journal, July 10, 1965.

165. Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 62; Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995).

166. Jacobus, “Our Summer House Guests.”

167. Memorandum by Mary Rohrer and Anna Rohrer, “Mennonite Mission Children’s Visitation Program, Visitation Record,” 1951, EMM Record Room, folder: “F–J”; Harold Regier to Ervin P. Krehbiel, September 23, 1963, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 125: “Fresh Air, 1963”; Ervin Krehbiel and Melva Krehbiel to Harold Regier, October 27, 1964, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 2, folder 36: “Correspondence—non-conf, 1964”; Lawrence Wright, City Children, Country Summer (New York: Scribner, 1979), 45.

168. Krehbiel and Krehbiel.

169. Luis Diaz interview.

170. Molly Wiseman, “Kids Are Kids—‘Friendly Town’ Message,” Paddock Publications (Arlington Heights, IL), July 24, 1968.

171. Catherin M. Troost, Catskill Mountain Memories (Longwood, FL: Xulon Press, 2008), 16.

172. Melody M. Pannell, Harrisonburg, VA, interview by the author, January 20, 2016.

173. Robin Bernstein, Racial Innocence: Performing American Childhood and Race from Slavery to Civil Rights (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 63; Georgene Faulkner, Melindy’s Happy Summer (New York: Julian Messner, 1949).

174. Lewis, “Integration, Then What?”; Begley, “Haverford Family to Welcome Two-Week ‘Fresh Air’ Visitor”; Florence Steuerwald, “New York Children Coming to County for ‘Fresh Air,’” Delaware County Daily Times (Chester, PA), July 14, 1972; George Dugan, “Fresh Air Fund Begins 98th Summer of Taking City Youngsters to Country,” New York Times, June 8, 1975; Jane Blanksteen, “Summer Visitors from the City,” New York Times, June 12, 1977; “Fresh-Air Families Recall ‘City Brothers,’” 44; Memorandum by Michael Phillips, “Report of the Fresh Air Fund Friendly Town Study Undertaken by the Long Range Planning Committee,” April 1980, 9, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 31, folder 2: “Reports, Friendly Town Study, 1979–1980.”

175. “City Kids Visit Country Homes; Beneficial to All,” Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1965.

176. Vera M. Revoir, “Welcome Children for Summer Fun,” Post-Standard (Syracuse, NY), June 6, 1952; Lont, Meeting to Discuss “Friendly Town” Project in the 60’s; Horn, “The Inner City: Elective in Understanding”; John Kord Lagemann, “Something Special in Vacations: A Reader’s Digest Reprint,” Reader’s Digest, June 1963; Ronald L. Trissel, “The Fresh Air Child’s Urban Influence on Rural Shenandoah and Rockingham County” (term paper, Eastern Mennonite College, 1967); Wiseman, “Kids Are Kids—‘Friendly Town’ Message”; Jo Cullson, “52 Cleveland Youngsters Will Find Coshocton ‘Friendly Town,’” Coshocton (OH) Tribune, June 12, 1968; “Fresh Air Family in Bay State Finds Room despite 6 Children,” New York Times, August 5, 1970; Margie Clinger and Tom Clinger, “Public Letter,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), July 11, 1971.

177. Cathy Aldridge, “Wanted: Black Neighbors!” New York Amsterdam News, September 7, 1968.

178. Edith Simonds, “Letter to a Suburban Church,” Presbyterian Life, September 1, 1966, 19–21, 40.

179. Owens, “Little Town with a Big Heart”; Sweeney, “Designed for Women”; “State ‘Fresh Air Fund’ Chairmen Hear Reports on Future Plans,” Bennington (VT) Banner, May 2, 1966.

180. Memorandum by Eve Wiejec, “Rome Fresh Air Program Report,” 1963, 4, UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund, University of IL at Chicago Special Collection.”

181. Faulkner, Melindy’s Happy Summer, 13–14.

182. “Friendly Town Project Meeting Set for April 28,” Pontiac (IL) Daily Leader, April 15, 1969.

183. “Fresh Air Fund Enables 14,000 to Enjoy Fresh Air,” New York Amsterdam News, August 14, 1976.

184. “Ashland to Host City Teenagers.”

185. Walt Juhnke and Esther Juhnke to Orlo Kaufman, August 20, 1961, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 123: “Fresh Air, 1961.”

186. John Eby, Philadelphia, PA, telephone interview by the author, February 28, 2003.

187. Blanksteen, “A Refreshing Experience”; Lont, Meeting to Discuss “Friendly Town” Project in the 60’s; Rosella Regier, “Fourth Successful ‘Fresh Air’ Year Completed,” Gulfbreeze, September–October, 1963, 6.

188. “Athens Families Enrolled in ‘Friendly Town’ Program,” Messenger (Athens, OH), April 10, 1967.

189. Carol Rabasca, “Speaking Personally,” New York Times, June 26, 1977.

190. Regier, “Fourth Successful ‘Fresh Air’ Year Completed.”

191. Memorandum by Ted Dubinsky, “Minutes of the “Committee to Consider the Minority Group Male’s Self-Image 8/21/67,” August 21, 1967, CUA, HGR MS#1465, Series III: Hudson Guild Files, box 13, folder 21: “Committee to Consider the Minority Group Male’s Self-Image, 1967–1968.”

192. “Two Summer Projects Share Cathedral Grounds, Facilities,” Cathedral News, October 1966.

193. Frederick H. Lewis, “Where Do We Go from Here?” (New York: Fresh Air Fund, 1968), LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12576: “The Fresh Air Fund 1968–70.”

194. Memorandum by Lewis, “What Am I Doing Here?: Remarks at Friendly Town Spring Planning Conference Held at Sharpe Reservation,” February 20, 1963, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12568: “The Fresh Air Fund”; Ronald P. Formisano, Boston against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); “Narrow World Big Threat to ‘Fresh Air’ Children,” Huntingdon (PA) Daily News, May 19, 1973.

195. Memorandum by Smith, “Minutes 1964 Friendly Town Planning Conference, February 18, 19, 20,” 6; “Fund Pal Revists Md. Site,” New York Herald Tribune, September 13, 1966.

196. “1,000 Inner-City Youths to Vacation in Suburbs,” Chicago Tribune, June 2, 1968.

197. “100 Inner City Kids to Visit in Glen Ellyn,” Chicago Tribune, April 25, 1966; “1,000 Inner-City Youths to Vacation in Suburbs.”

198. Aldridge, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund Continues despite Long Strike”; Lagemann, “Something Special in Vacations: A Reader’s Digest Reprint.”

199. Cindy Vanderkodde, Grand Rapids, MI, telephone interview by the author, March 7, 2010.

200. Sel Yackley, “Wheaton, Glen Ellyn Participate in Program for Integration,” Chicago Tribune, April 27, 1967.

201. Lynford Hershey to Leon Stauffer, July 18, 1971, AMC—IV-21–4 box 1, MBM, Minority Ministries Council, Data Files #1, A–K, folder: “Education Program 1970–72, Lynford Hershey.”

202. Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund Puts 2,800 in Camp.”

203. Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 132; Deborah Gray White, Ar’n’t I a Woman: Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: W.W. Norton, 1985), 76; Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 188; Annelise Orleck, Storming Caesar’s Palace: How Black Mothers Fought Their Own War on Poverty (Boston, MA: Beacon, 2005), 96.

204. Daniel J. Monti Jr., The American City: A Social and Cultural History (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999), 190.

205. Charles E. Strickland and Andrew M. Ambrose, “The Changing Worlds of Children, 1945–1963,” in American Childhood: A Research Guide and Historical Handbook, ed. Joseph M. Hawes and N. Ray Hiner (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985), 533–85; Mintz, Huck’s Raft, 214.

206. Strickland and Ambrose, “The Changing Worlds of Children, 1945–1963,” 566.

207. Monti, The American City, 191.

208. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State, 299.

209. Mintz, Huck’s Raft, 340.

210. “Tribune Fresh Air Fund Appeals to Kind, Friendly People Here,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, June 15, 1948.

211. Paula S. Fass, Children of a New World: Society, Culture, and Globalization (New York: New York University Press, 2007), 178; “Groton Hosts Youngsters from Boston,” Fitchburg (MA) Sentinel, July 12, 1966.

212. Charles, “Apathy Endangers Fresh Air Fund.”

213. Bob Zanic, “Friendly Town Works 2 Ways,” Palatine (IL) Herald, June 10, 1969.

214. Memorandum, “32,391 Turning Points,” 1950, EDNY, Episcopal Missional Society Mission News 1923–1976: “Misc. loose reports & pamphlets.”

215. C. A. Cooper, “Child Delinquency,” Missionary Messenger, July 1950, 2.

216. Jack Tait, “1,000-Acre Fresh Air Campsite Is Dedicated,” New York Herald Tribune, July 26, 1953; “Juvenile Delinquency Going up,” Galveston (TX) News, July 28, 1953.

217. Frederick H. Lewis to Brown Reid, July 5, 1955, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12561: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1954–55.”

218. William J. Colmey, “Help Yourself to Joy,” Daily Sentinel (Rome, NY), 1960.

219. Frederick H. Lewis to A. W. Betts, May 18, 1962, NYCPL-BRARR, Series I—Grant Files, box 2—folder: “Fresh Air Fund 1962”; Memorandum, “A Report Prepared for the Vincent Astor Foundation on the 1962 Activities of the Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” 1962, NYCPL-BRARR, Series I—Grant Files, box 2—folder: “Fresh Air Fund 1962.”

220. Memorandum by Lewis, “Executive Director’s Annual Report to the Board of Directors, for the Fiscal Year 1963–1964,” 1964, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12572: “The Fresh Air Fund 1965”; “3 Churches to Sponsor Friendly Town Program,” Nashua (NH) Telegraph, May 2, 1966.

221. “Detective Helps Fresh Air Camp,” New York Times, September 10, 1972.

222. “First Woman Executive Director Takes Helm for Fresh Air Fund Tomorrow,” New York Times, October 26, 1975; “Fresh Air Fund Camp Buses Liberate 750 City Youths,” New York Times, July 2, 1978.

223. Mathew L. Wald, “Need for Fresh Air Fund Increases with Inflation,” New York Times, August 21, 1977.

224. “73 Chicago Children Quickly Make New Friends, See Fair.”

225. Higginbotham, “The Black Church: A Gender Perspective,” 216; Klassen, “The Robes of Womanhood: Dress and Authenticity among African American Methodist Women in the Nineteenth Century”; Schweinitz, If We Could Change the World, 19; Kahler, “Fresh Air Child Finds Real Home with Rome Family”; Howatt, “From Concrete to Country”; Wood, “Adirondack Wood-Cuttings.”

226. Memorandum by Antoinette Grighto, “(Day Camp Report),” 1958, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 54, folder 1: “Day Camp-Reports, 1958”; Memorandum by Dorothy Michael, “(Day Camp Report),” 1958, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 54, folder 1: “Day Camp-Reports, 1958”; Memorandum by Donald Moeser, “(Day Camp Report),” 1958, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 54, folder 1: “Day Camp-Reports, 1958”; Memorandum by Yoichi Nishimoto, “(Day Camp Report),” 1958, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 54, folder 1: “Day Camp-Reports, 1958”; Memorandum by Margaret Williams, “(Day Camp Report),” 1958, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 54, folder 1: “Day Camp-Reports, 1958.”

227. Memorandum, “Camp Intake Form—Denise Duckworth,” May 1, 1956, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 5: “Camp-Children’s Records (D–E), 1945–57.”

228. Mrs. Raymond E. Carr, 1956, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 19, folder 6: “Contest Entries—1956, Essays (Contest #2)”; James A. Murray to Alice Trissel, March 26, 1976, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 21, folder 1: “Correspondence—FAF children—1959–1984.”

229. Memorandum by Ellen Marvin, “Duckworth, Dierdre,” 1951, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 5: “Camp-Children’s Records (D–E), 1945–57”; Sara M. Keily to Sylvia Leshowitz, July 21, 1948, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 5: “Camp-Children’s Records (D–E), 1945–57”; Memorandum by W. Rivera, “Camp Nathan Hale—Fernandez, John,” 1950, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, Camp-Children’s Records (F), 1950–56, box 53, folder 6.

230. Paris, Children’s Nature, 135, 144, 145, 146, 148.

231. Juhnke and Juhnke.

232. Cook, “City Youths Discover Joy of Suburbs.”

233. “Fresh Air Children Will Arrive at Station Tuesday, July 23rd,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, July 18, 1946.

234. “Your Help Is Needed for Fresh Air Vacations,” Portsmouth (NH) Herald, July 29, 1954.

235. Lont, Meeting to Discuss “Friendly Town” Project in the 60’s.

236. Lagemann, “Something Special in Vacations: A Reader’s Digest Reprint.”

237. Luis Diaz interview.

238. Regier, “Fourth Successful ‘Fresh Air’ Year Completed”; Orlo Kaufman to Elva Schrag and Ellen Schrag, February 24, 1961, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 2, folder 32: “Correspondence—non-conf, 1961.”

239. Memorandum by Lewis, “What Am I Doing Here?” 2–3.

240. Sol Padlibsky, “Of All Things: Camp Discipline Big Woe,” Charleston (WV) Daily Mail, September 8, 1964.

241. “Whitewashed,” Times Herald Record (Middleton, NY), November 30, 1971.

242. “Lehmans Directing Penna. Youth Camp,” Daily News Record (Harrisonburg, VA), June 25, 1955.

243. Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund Puts 2,800 in Camp.”

244. Lacey Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund Camp Improved Vastly over Years,” New York Times, June 20, 1971.

245. “Fresh Air Fund Aides Training; First Campers to Arrive Friday,” New York Times, June 22, 1969.

246. “A Fresh-Air Camp Gears for Season,” New York Times, June 24, 1973.

247. Faulkner, Melindy’s Happy Summer, 16; “More Host Families Are Needed.”

248. H. D. Forbes, Ethnic Conflict: Commerce, Culture, and the Contact Hypothesis (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 112.

4. SEX, SEVEN, SICK

1. Lawrence Wright, City Children, Country Summer (New York: Scribner, 1979), 23.

2. R. P. Neuman, “Masturbation, Madness, and the Modern Concepts of Childhood and Adolescence,” Journal of Social History 8, no. 3 (1975): 1–27.

3. Sterling Fishman, “The History of Childhood Sexuality,” Journal of Contemporary History 17, no. 2 (1982): 269–83.

4. James A. Morone, Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 17.

5. Stephen Lassonde, “Ten Is the New Fourteen: Age Compression and ‘Real’ Childhood,” in Reinventing Childhood after World War II, ed. Paula S. Fass and Michael Grossberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 51–67.

6. Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002), 16.

7. Fishman, “The History of Childhood Sexuality.”

8. John Cleverley and D. C. Phillips, From Locke to Spock: Influence Models of the Child in Modern Western Thought (Carlton: Melbourne University Press, 1976), 52–53.

9. Fishman, “The History of Childhood Sexuality”; Margaret Lamberts Bendroth, Growing up Protestant: Parents, Children, and Mainline Churches (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 5.

10. Bendroth, Growing up Protestant, 5.

11. Steven Mintz, Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 3–4.

12. Morone, Hellfire Nation, 17.

13. Wilma King, African American Childhoods: Historical Perspectives from Slavery to Civil Rights (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 149.

14. Rebecca de Schweinitz, If We Could Change the World: Young People and America’s Long Struggle for Racial Equality (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 125–26; Neil R. McMillen, The Citizens’ Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–64 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 185.

15. George Lewis, Massive Resistance: The White Response to the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 4, 12; Jason Sokol, There Goes My Everything: White Southerners in the Age of Civil Rights, 1945–1975 (New York: Knopf, 2006), 14.

16. Jane Dailey, “Sex, Segregation, and the Sacred after Brown,” Journal of American History 91, no. 1 (2004): 119–44.

17. Ronald P. Formisano, Boston against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 119.

18. “Summer Vacation,” Cleveland Call and Post, March 17, 1956; “14 Share Children Guests of Honor at Manlius Picnic,” Post-Standard (Syracuse, NY), July 21, 1953; “Fresh Air Kids Come for Visits on Shore,” Salisbury (MD) Times, July 11, 1957.

19. Perfinax, “Experiment in Humanity,” Lowell (MA) Sun, July 26, 1961; George A. Edmonds, “Friendly Town Program Molds Young Lives,” Bennington (VT) Banner, July 27, 1963; Kathy Begley, “Haverford Family to Welcome Two-Week ‘Fresh Air’ Visitor,” Delaware County Daily Times (Chester, PA), June 10, 1968.

20. “Guest Meets Hosts: First-Timers,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), June 28, 1968; Molly Wiseman, “Kids Are Kids—‘Friendly Town’ Message,” Paddock Publications (Arlington Heights, IL), July 24, 1968; “Inner City Youths Enjoy Two Weeks of Suburban Life,” Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1969.

21. “Holiday Begins,” Daily News Record (Harrisonburg, VA), July 14, 1978; Eleanor Charles, “Apathy Endangers Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 20, 1979; “Former ‘Fresh Air Kid’ Remembers Happy Summer,” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, June 28, 1979.

22. Jerry Thornton, “Visitors Find Warmth in West Side Ghetto,” Chicago Tribune, August 10, 1972.

23. “In Interest of Fresh Air Fund,” Newport (RI) Mercury and Weekly News, June 27, 1930; “Fresh Air Group Registers Hosts for N.Y. Kiddies,” Altoona (PA) Mirror, June 24, 1940; Memorandum by Paul N. Kraybill, “Mennonite Mission Children Visitation Program, Report of the Director,” 1951, 2, EMM Record Room, folder: “Committee Action”; “Kiwanis Club Sponsors Friendly Town Program,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), June 14, 1954; “Fresh Air Chairman Is Named,” Daily Sentinel (Rome, NY), 1960; Joan Skidmore, “Fresh Air Fund: Give a Child a Chance,” Delaware County Daily Times (Chester, PA), June 7, 1974; Sheila Behrend, Tami Hall, and Margo Behrend, “‘Friendly Town,’” Muscatine, Iowa, Journal, January 9, 1976; “How Friendly Is This Country?” Daily News (Huntingdon, Saxton, and Mount Union, PA), June 7, 1979.

24. Memorandum by Esther Eby Glass, “Report of Mission Fresh Air Sponsors’ Meeting,” March 27, 1962, EMM Record Room, folder: “Eastern Mennonite Board, Fresh Air Program 1962–1963”; Memorandum by Paul N. Kraybill, “Mennonite Mission Children Visitation Program,” 1950, EMM Record Room, folder: “testimonies and Misc.”

25. “Shaftsbury Couple Honored for Aid to Fresh Air Program,” Bennington (VT) Banner, April 6, 1965.

26. Lacey Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Homes for Boys Needed,” New York Times, June 27, 1971.

27. M. Arlene Mellinger, “200 Children Are Hoping …,” Missionary Messenger, May 1972, 12–13; Anita Duhe, “Westminster Woman Has Hopes for Boosting Fresh Air Fund,” Sentinel-Enterprise (Fitchburg, MA), August 29, 1975.

28. Maria P. P. Root, Love’s Revolution: Interracial Marriage (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 34, 180; Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 9; Anita Jones Thomas, Karen McCurtis Witherspoon, and Suzette L. Speight, “Toward the Development of the Stereotypic Roles for Black Women Scale,” Journal of Black Psychology 30, no. 3 (2004): 426–42.

29. Memorandum, “Host Parents Summary—1960,” 1960, [2], MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 122: “Fresh Air, 1960”; George E. Kroecker and Mrs. George E. Kroecker to Orlo Kaufman, August 20, 1961, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 123: “Fresh Air, 1961.”

30. Rev. Arnold Nickel to Orlo Kaufman, February 27, 1961, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 2, folder 32: “Correspondence—non-conf, 1961.”

31. Luis Diaz, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, May 4, 2010.

32. Wright, City Children, Country Summer, 13.

33. Julie Bettie, “Class Dismissed?: Roseanne and the Changing Face of Working-Class Iconography,” Social Text 14, no. 4 (1995): 125–49.

34. Jean Ait Belkhir, “The Sexual Boundaries of Race and Class in Working-Class Novels: Marrying up and Living It down/Marrying down and Living It up,” Race, Gender & Class 9, no. 3 (2002): 101–20; Lori Ouellette, “Ship of Dreams: Cross-Class Romance and the Cultural Fantasy of Titantic,” in Titanic: Anatomy of a Blockbuster, ed. Kevin S. Sandler and Galen Sandler (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1999), 169–88.

35. Bill Babel, “Off the Beaten Track …,” Oneonta (NY) Star, November 30, 1949.

36. “A Friendly Note—to Some of the Friendliest People in the World” (New York, NY: 1953 [circa]), LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12560: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1953–54.”

37. Luis Diaz interview.

38. John D’Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 293.

39. Janice Batts, Iowa City, IA, telephone interview by the author, February 15, 2012.

40. Marcia J. Bunge, “The Child, Religion, and the Academy: Developing Robust Theological and Religious Understandings of Children and Childhood,” Journal of Religion 86, no. 4 (2006): 549–79.

41. David Hechler, The Battle and the Backlash: The Child Sexual Abuse War (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1988), 35–36.

42. Mrs. Raymond E. Carr, 1956, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 19, folder 6: “Contest Entries—1956, Essays (Contest #2)”; Batts interview.

43. Hechler, The Battle and the Backlash, 31.

44. Ibid., 29.

45. For examples of Fresh Air children who did relocate, see “Young Woman Returns Home to Fresh Air Fund ‘Parents,’” New York Times, May 28, 1978; Cindy Vanderkodde, Grand Rapids, MI, telephone interview by the author, March 7, 2010.

46. Unattributed article clipping, June 1976, author’s personal collection; “Former ‘Fresh Air Kid’ Remembers Happy Summer”; William E. Haskell, “Olean a Fresh Air Town Sixty-Six Years,” Olean (NY) Times Herald, December 22, 1947; “Lives Brightened by Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, August 15, 1976.

47. Margaret L. Hunter, Race, Gender, and the Politics of Skin Tone (New York: Routledge, 2005), 7.

48. Laurence Mickolic, “The ‘Big Plus’ in Programming for 1960,” Annual Report—1960, 1960, 4–5, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund”; Lacey Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund Puts 2,800 in Camp,” New York Times, July 11, 1971.

49. “Fresh Air Fund Camp Buses Liberate 750 City Youths,” New York Times, July 2, 1978.

50. Leslie Paris, Children’s Nature: The Rise of the American Summer Camp (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 157.

51. Walter Shephard Ufford, Fresh Air Charity in the United States (New York: Bonnell, Silver & Co., 1897), 86–87.

52. Memorandum by Mary Jane Gooley, “Camper’s Name—Marilyn Hobbs,” [n.d.], CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 7: “Camp-Children’s Records (H–M), 1955–57.”

53. “Homes Are Needed for ‘Friendly’ Kids,” Waterloo (IA) Sunday Courier, June 27, 1972.

54. “20 Fresh Air Boys and Girls Start Vacations in the Area,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, July 7, 1949; “Fresh Air Fund Is Magic Carpet for Urban Children,” New York Times, July 1, 1979.

55. “‘Friendly Town’ Topic for Kittery Meeting,” Portsmouth (NH) Herald, May 21, 1968.

56. Ufford, Fresh Air Charity in the United States, 69.

57. “Will Help the Kiddies: Rotary Club Back Movement to Secure Hosts for Tribune Fresh Air Fund Children—When a Fellow Needs a Friend,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 22, 1922; “Fresh Air Children to Visit Area,” Troy (NY) Record, June 7, 1963. By comparison, the oldest children involved in the “placing out” program of the Children’s Aid Society—also known as the orphan trains—were also twelve or thirteen by 1920. See Marilyn Irvin Holt, The Orphan Trains: Placing out in America (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 140.

58. I have found only one instance in which a local hosting committee affiliated with the Fresh Air Fund raised the upper age limit: A Friendly Town committee in Coatesville, Pennsylvania, raised the cap to thirteen in 1958. See Etta Stroud, “‘Fresh Air Children’ of NYC Are Guests in Chester County,” Afro-American (Baltimore), July 26, 1958.

59. “Ashland to Host City Teenagers,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), July 10, 1972.

60. Joan Monaco, “City Kids Get Chance for Some Friendly Adventures,” Lowell (MA) Sunday, August 22, 1971; “Friendly Town Program Next Month,” Winona (MN) Daily News, June 30, 1971; “L.H. Streich Chairman of ‘Friendly Town,’” Oelwein (IA) Daily Register, June 14, 1972; Judy Russell, “Another ‘Friendly Town’ Year Is Just Ahead for Families in Area,” Daily Northwestern (Oshkosh, WI), May 5, 1970.

61. Betty Pobanz, “‘Friendly Towns’ Offer Summer Vacations to Underprivileged New York Children,” Barnard (NY) Bulletin, April 14, 1947; “Yates to Invite City Children for Vacation,” Chronicle-Express (Penn Yan, NY), May 26, 1949; “The Goal: 100 Children,” Bennington (VT) Banner, May 8, 1963; Lee Edwards, “Fresh Air Fund Workers Give Free Time, Effort,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 13, 1971.

62. “Fresh Air Fund Work in Bronx a Challenge,” New York Times, May 7, 1978.

63. “More Fresh Air Children Here; Others Want to Come if Hosts Can Be Found,” Lebanon (PA) Daily News, July 14, 1960, 23.

64. Phyllis M. Palmer, Living as Equals: How Three White Communities Struggled to Make Interracial Connections during the Civil Rights Era (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2008), 4, 27.

65. Mrs. E. K. Bruckhart to Paul N. Kraybill, May 31, 1954, EMM Record Room, folder: “A–E.”

66. “Fresh Air Kids Get Late Start on Country Visit,” Progress (Clearfield, PA), July 27, 1978.

67. “Former ‘Fresh Air Kid’ Remembers Happy Summer.”

68. Memorandum, “Camping,” November, 1950, ELAA, UMN, United Way of Minneapolis records (SW 70), box 72, folder 2: “Camps General 1950.”

69. Carey Winfrey, “Blackout a Problem for Fresh Air Group,” New York Times, July 17, 1977.

70. Mary Ann Strawn, “Friend of Friendly Town,” Arlington Heights (IL) Herald, August 17, 1972, 6.

71. Leslie Paris, “‘Please Let Me Come Home’: Homesickness and Family Ties at Early-Twentieth-Century Summer Camps,” in The American Child: A Cultural Studies Reader, ed. Carolyn F. Levander and Carol J. Singley (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003), 246–61.

72. “7 Fresh Air Children Write of Newport Visit,” Newport (RI) News, January 19, 1950; “Fresh Air Kids Come for Visits on Shore.”

73. Lee Edwards, “‘Friendly Town’ Chairman: Fresh Air Fund Matchmaker,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 14, 1971; “A Homesick Girl Yearns for 1980 Fresh Air Trip,” New York Times, August 26, 1979; Bill Draves Jr., “Inner-City Children from Chicago Bring Surprises to ‘Friendly Town’ Parents,” Commonwealth Reporter (Fond du Lac, WI), 1968.

74. Memorandum, “Minutes of the Meeting of the Camp Committee, Friday, March 23, 1945, Lecture Room, Citizens’ and Building—2:00 P.M.,” 1945, ELAA, UMN, United Way of Minneapolis records (SW 70), box 38, folder 2: “Group Work and Relief Division 1945.”

75. “Fresh Air,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), June 28, 1968.

76. Edwards, “‘Friendly Town’ Chairman: Fresh Air Fund Matchmaker.”

77. Memorandum by Marchand Chaney and Mimi Vernon, “Evaluation of Newberry-Dubuque Project for 1962,” 1962, UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund, University of IL at Chicago Special Collection”; Monaco, “City Kids Get Chance for Some Friendly Adventures”; Lynne Ames, “The Fresh Air Fund: Summers of Sharing,” New York Times, May 20, 1979; “Country Homes Sought for City Kids,” Daily Intelligencer (Doylestown, PA), May 21, 1979, 9.

78. Edwards, “‘Friendly Town’ Chairman”; Norman G. Shenk, Salunga, PA, telephone interview by the author, March 22, 2005.

79. Monaco, “City Kids Get Chance for Some Friendly Adventures”; Edwards, “‘Friendly Town’ Chairman”; Joan Brown, “Program Offers Chance to Give Child a Memorable Vacation,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), April 4, 1970.

80. Martha Fellows, “Hosts Needed,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), June 3, 1976; “June 3rd Marks 100th Anniversary of Fresh Air Fund,” Wellsboro (PA) Gazette, June 1, 1977, 6.

81. “Friendly Town Couple Enrich Deaf Boy’s Life,” New York Times, August 5, 1979; Chester H. Thomas to Paul N. Kraybill, March 25, 1951, EMM Record Room, folder: “testimonies and misc.”

82. Thomas to Kraybill.

83. John Kord Lagemann, “Something Special in Vacations: A Reader’s Digest Reprint,” Reader’s Digest, June 1963; Memorandum by Chaney and Vernon, “Evaluation of Newberry-Dubuque Project for 1962”; “The Open Door,” Portsmouth (NH) Herald, June 29, 1951.

84. “Summer in the City? No Fun!” Daily News (Huntingdon, Mount Union, and Saxton, PA), May 12, 1978.

85. “Friendly Towns Play Host to the Fresh Air Needy,” New York Times, July 8, 1979; Linda Vosburgh, “Religion, ‘Street’ Meet in ‘Fresh Air,’” Sunday Herald (Chicago), September 16, 1979.

86. “Friendly Town Is Set up by Pennsylvania Couple,” New York Times, August 19, 1979. Other Fresh Air hosts likewise referred to the “sophisticated” children. See Chuck Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund,” (1981), C12–10, 13, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 22, folder 2: “Histories 1977.”

87. Memorandum by Mary E. Smith, “Minutes 1964 Friendly Town Planning Conference, February 18, 19, 20,” 1964, 1, 8–9, UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund, University of IL at Chicago Special Collection.”

88. Ibid., 4.

89. Nan Ickeringill, “Good or Bad?: A Dialogue on Children’s Camps,” Nashua (NH) Telegraph, June 28, 1969, 14.

90. Memorandum by Smith, “Minutes 1964 Friendly Town Planning Conference, February 18, 19, 20.”

91. “Children’s Aid Society to Find out How Tenant District Boys Will Make out in ‘Pioneer’ Camp,” New York Age, July 6, 1940; Peter Kihss, “Girls Have Busy Time at Maple Knoll Camp,” New York World Telegram, July 23, 1941; Memorandum, “The East Harlem Protestant Parish: Report to the Administrative Board,” April 12, 1950, PNHA, NCC, Home Missions Council of North America, 1903–1951, RG26 box 4, folder 17: “East Harlem Protestant Parish, Aug 1949–Dec 1950”; Patricia Henchie, “Howell House Aids Planning Camp Season,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 27, 1951.

92. Kihss, “Girls Have Busy Time at Maple Knoll Camp”; Frederick H. Lewis to Ralph Hayes, 1951, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12558: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1951.”

93. Carol Van Horn, “The Inner City: Elective in Understanding,” Presbyterian Life, October 15, 1963, 25–27; “Parental Check on Youths Asked: Rector on Lower East Side to Work with Adults on Program for Young,” New York Times, August 31, 1959; Ray Bonda and Ben Silber [n.d.], ELAA, UMN, HSSR (SW0058), General, box 48, folder 16: “1951–1961.”

94. “A Fresh-Air Camp Gears for Season,” New York Times, June 24, 1973; Henchie, “Howell House Aids Planning Camp Season.”

95. “Children of Manhattan’s Slums Spend Happy Christmas in County,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, December 28, 1946; Joseph Owens, “Little Town with a Big Heart,” Afro-American (Baltimore), July 30, 1955; Joan K. Kahler, “Fresh Air Child Finds Real Home with Rome Family,” Daily Sentinel (Rome, NY), 1961; Charles, “Apathy Endangers Fresh Air Fund”; Ames, “The Fresh Air Fund: Summers of Sharing”; Peg Hurd, “Tony Campano Picks Upper Bald Eagle over the Bronx,” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, July 22, 1978; Gene Rondinaro, “A Change of Pace in the Sun,” New York Times, June 3, 1979.

96. Dave Shaw, “Dateline: Fulton,” Syracuse Herald-Journal, June 24, 1976; “Fresh Air Tots Get Oneonta Home,” Syracuse Herald-American, December 31, 1950; “Area Family ‘Adopts’ Two Fresh Airs Brought Here for Christmas Vacation,” Oneonta (NY) Star, December 27, 1950.

97. Pobanz, “‘Friendly Towns’ Offer Summer Vacations to Underprivileged New York Children.”

98. George Goodman Jr., “Chance for a Child to Get out of the City,” New York Times, May 16, 1976.

99. Memorandum, “The Fresh Air Fund at a Glance,” 1969, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12576: “The Fresh Air Fund 1968–70.”

100. “Fresh Air Children off to Country,” New York Times, June 26, 1977.

101. “Fresh Air Vacation Registering Ends; Many Disappointed,” New York Times, June 17, 1979.

102. “Planetarium Put in Fresh Air Camp,” New York Times, July 23, 1972; George Dugan, “Fresh Air Camp Adds Attraction,” New York Times, June 4, 1972.

103. “A Camp Designed for Summer Fun,” Architectural Forum, July 1962.

104. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Executive Director’s Report to December 21, 1967 Meeting of the Board of Directors,” 1967, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12575: “The Fresh Air Fund 1967.”

105. Memorandum, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors,” 1951, 16, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12558: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1951.”

106. Memorandum, “1952 Annual Report [proof],” 1953, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12559: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1952.”

107. “Vacation Homes Needed for N.Y. Needy Children,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), May 1, 1964.

108. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Annual Report for 1968: A Reappraisal,” 1968, 11, copied from the CCAH, UTA.

109. “Handicapped Campers,” New York Times, August 7, 1974; “… And a Greater Need,” New York Times, June 1, 1975; unattributed article clipping, 13; “Swimming Key Part of Fresh Air Camps,” New York Times, July 24, 1977; “Fresh Air Camp Helps Disabled to Gain in Health and Confidence,” New York Times, June 4, 1978; “Fund Camp Is Family Tradition for 2 Boys,” New York Times, June 24, 1979.

110. Abigail A. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness: Summer Camps and the Shaping of American Youth, 1890–1960 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 38–39.

111. Unattributed article clipping, 13.

112. Lena Williams, “Disabled Enjoy Fresh Air Camp,” New York Times, July 10, 1977.

113. “Fresh Air Hosts Cited by Speaker at Dinner,” Lebanon (PA) Daily News, April 28, 1973.

114. “Friendly Town Couple Enrich Deaf Boy’s Life.”

115. Edward Hudson, “Fresh Air Fund Opens 97th Year,” New York Times, May 19, 1974.

116. “Here and There,” Bridgeport (CT) Post, June 24, 1958; “Fund Camp Is Family Tradition for 2 Boys”; “Fresh Air Fund Summer Offers Widened Outlook,” New York Times, June 3, 1979.

117. Jill Smolowe, “Giving the Gift of Fresh Air,” New York Times, May 7, 1978.

118. “Host of Two Fresh Air Fund Boys to Pay Their Fare to California,” New York Times, June 15, 1969; “A Homesick Girl Yearns for 1980 Fresh Air Trip”; “400 Poor Children Leave for Fresh Air Fund Vacations in Cape Cod Homes,” New York Times, July 25, 1969; “W. Side Kids to Country,” Chicago Daily Defender, July 8, 1971.

119. Luis Diaz interview; Nilson Diaz, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, May 12, 2010.

120. Mae Schrag, “Mennonite Prejudice,” Gulfbreeze, May–June 1963, 5.

121. James A. Murray to Alice Trissel, April 15, 1976, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 21, folder 1: “Correspondence—FAF children—1959–1984.”

122. Paul E. Warfield, “The Whole Story,” Bennington (VT) Banner, September 6, 1963.

123. Vanderkodde interview.

124. Glenda Adams, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, March 28, 2010.

125. Peggy Curry, Harrisonburg, VA, interview by the author, March 29, 2005.

126. See, for example: Marion L. Osborne to Mr. and Mrs. Trissel, 1976, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 21, folder 1: “Correspondence—FAF children—1959–1984”; Batts interview; James C. Lont, Meeting to Discuss “Friendly Town” Project in the 60’s, Graafschap, MI: 2010.

127. Anne-Marie Châtelet, “A Breath of Fresh Air: Open-Air Schools in Europe,” in Designing Modern Childhoods: History, Space, and the Material Culture of Children, ed. Marta Gutman and Ning De Coninck-Smith (Newark, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008), 107–27.

128. “Mrs. Harry May Is Tribune Host for Eight Consecutive Years,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, July 27, 1946; “Final Contingent on Vacation at Fresh Air Home,” Troy (NY) Times Record, August 5, 1947; Owens, “Little Town with a Big Heart.”

129. “1948 Fresh Air Fund Campaign Begins Tomorrow; $6,000 Is Goal Established,” Florence (SC) Morning News, June 6, 1948.

130. “Fresh Air Guests Express Enthusiasm: Hosts Report Not One Child Has Had to Leave,” Newport (RI) News, July 20, 1950.

131. “Fresh Air Fund Campaign Sent,” Bridgeport (CT) Telegram, May 30, 1958; “Friendly Town Sends 20 Children to Area,” Chronicle-Telegram (Elyria, OH), June 13, 1964; “Inner-City Protestant Parish Work Described,” Chronicle-Telegram (Elyria, OH), February 4, 1968; “Fresh Air Fund Campaign Sent”; “Friendly Town Sends 20 Children to Area.”

132. “Trouble Shooters,” What’s in the Air, Spring 1966.

133. Robert A. Orsi, “Introduction: Crossing the City Line,” in Gods of the City: Religion and the American Urban Landscape, ed. Robert A. Orsi (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 1–78.

134. Paris, Children’s Nature, 123.

135. Paul N. Kraybill to Frederick Howell Lewis, June 25, 1952, EMM Record Room, folder: “F–J.”

136. Ibid.

137. “Fresh Air Fund Helps to Honor Doctor Who Gave Tests Free,” New York Times, June 29, 1969.

138. Randy Wynn, “Children Find New Homes during Week in Ashland,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), July 4, 1971.

139. Lacey Fosburgh, “Medical Aid Given by Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, June 6, 1971.

140. “District Homes Needed for Fresh Air Children,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), May 18, 1959; Marilou Hedlund, “‘4 Chance to Yell and Scream and Look at Things,’” Chicago Tribune, July 26, 1964.

141. “Trouble Shooters”; Mary Childers, Welfare Brat: A Memoir (New York: Bloomsbury, 2005), 5; Richard F. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children (New York: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund, 1962).

142. “Fresh Air Youngsters Arrive in Geneva Friday Night,” Chronicle-Express (Penn Yan, NY), July 24, 1952.

143. “$22,197 Settlement Approved for Five Injured Children,” Post-Standard (Syracuse, NY), January 4, 1952.

144. Memorandum, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors”; Memorandum by Ralph B. Dwinell, “Friendly Town, Summer 1967,” 1967, NYCPL-BRARR, Series I—Grant Files, box 2, folder: “Fresh Air Fund 1962,” Whitney North Seymour Papers, 1930–1983, box 114—Subject Files: “Fresh Air Fund, 1962–1983, January 1965–June 1967.”

145. “Sheboygan Girl Dies in Tractor Accident,” Fond Du Lac Commonwealth Reporter, August 4, 1968; “Tractor Iron Rim Hits Dunstable Boy in Face,” Lowell (MA) Sunday, May 6, 1968.

146. Wright, City Children, Country Summer, 46.

147. Memorandum by Ralph B. Dwinell, “Friendly Town,” 1966, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

148. Ufford, Fresh Air Charity in the United States, 50.

149. “Trouble Shooters.”

150. Fosburgh, “Medical Aid Given by Fresh Air Fund.”

151. Ibid.

152. E. Melanie DuPuis, Nature’s Perfect Food: How Milk Became America’s Drink (New York: New York University Press, 2002), 10.

153. Lee Edwards, “All Their World Is Asphalt and Farms Are Only in Stories,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 12, 1971.

154. Memorandum by Ted Dubinsky, “Minutes of the Committee to Consider the Minority Group Male’s Self-Image, 10/30/67,” October 30, 1967, CUA, HGR MS#1465, Series III: Hudson Guild Files, box 13, folder 21: “Committee to Consider the Minority Group Male’s Self-Image, 1967–1968.”

5. MILK, MONEY, POWER

1. Milking Time (1950), NYCPL-SC, Children, 23–012.

2. Jan Albers, Hands on the Land: A History of the Vermont Landscape (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 274.

3. Barbara F. Agnew et al., Look Around Hinesburg and Charlotte, Vermont (Burlington, VT: Chittenden County Historical Society, 1973).

4. Andrea S. Wiley, “‘Drink Milk for Fitness’: The Cultural Politics of Human Biological Variation and Milk Consumption in the United States,” American Anthropologist 106, no. 3 (2004): 506–17; Deborah Valenze, Milk: A Local and Global History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 253.

5. E. Melanie DuPuis, Nature’s Perfect Food: How Milk Became America’s Drink (New York: New York University Press, 2002), 97–98.

6. Laurie Winn Carlson, Cattle: An Informal Social History (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2001), 46–47.

7. Loren C. Dunn, “Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Friendly Town Publicity Program of the Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund” (master’s thesis, Boston University, 1966), 23.

8. Steven Mintz, Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 255.

9. Ibid., 258.

10. “Children Leave for Vacation,” Troy (NY) Record, July 10, 1946; “Final Contingent on Vacation at Fresh Air Home,” Times Record (Troy, NY), August 5, 1947; DuPuis, Nature’s Perfect Food, 5.

11. Memorandum, “Meeting of Camp Standards Committee of the Group Work and Recreation Division Held on April 3 and 5, 1945, at 2 P.M. in Room 1 of Citizens Aid Building,” 1945, ELAA, UMN, United Way of Minneapolis records (SW 70), box 38, folder 2: “Group Work and Relief Division 1945”; DuPuis, Nature’s Perfect Food, 6.

12. Marian E. McKay, “Free Seaboard Camps Offer Summer Fun to Children of All Races,” Chicago Defender, September 18, 1948.

13. Dunn, “Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Friendly Town Publicity Program of the Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” 37.

14. The National Institute of Health estimates that 30 to 50 million Americans are lactose intolerant, a statistic likely representing a significant portion of the children sent to country farms. See www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/upload/NICHD_MM_Lactose_FS.pdf.

15. David M. Paige, Theodore M. Bayless, and George G. Graham, “Milk Programs: Helpful or Harmful to Negro Children?” American Journal of Public Health 62, no. 11 (1972): 1486–88. Geneticists treat lactose intolerance as the norm across human populations. Lactose tolerance is a rarer trait found among select northern populations. See Valenze, Milk, 3.

16. The phrase “never seen a cow” or a close variant appears in each of the following representative sources ranging over four decades: Justine Flint, “Fresh Air Youngsters to Vacation Here Two Weeks in August,” Portsmouth (NH) Herald, July 2, 1941; “Vacations Planned by Area Families for ‘Fresh Airs,’” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), June 12, 1951; William J. Colmey, “Help Yourself to Joy,” Daily Sentinel (Rome, NY), 1960; Sheila Behrend, Tami Hall, and Margo Behrend, “‘Friendly Town,’” Muscatine, Iowa, Journal, January 9, 1976.

17. John Kord Lagemann, “Something Special in Vacations: A Reader’s Digest Reprint,” Reader’s Digest, June 1963.

18. Peter Kondrat, “An Escape from Asphalt to Fresh Country Air,” Gettysburg (PA) Times, July 1, 1978.

19. “38 Fresh Air Children Taken by Bradford, Area Residents,” Bradford (PA) Era, July 29, 1948.

20. Laurie Johnston, “Fresh Air Fund Launches Drive,” New York Times, May 14, 1972.

21. Lacey Fosburgh, “Fresh Air Fund’s Children Dazzled by Rural Marvels,” New York Times, July 4, 1971.

22. “Couple Recall Their Early Days as Fresh Air Fund Hosts,” New York Times, April 30, 1978.

23. Len Wilson, “What Color Is a Cow? 70 Fresh Air Children Arrived from New York City: Joy, Awe and Expectation Mark Train Trip from City,” Evening Banner (Bennington, VT), July 22, 1955.

24. Colmey, “Help Yourself to Joy.”

25. “Fresh Air Fund Enables 14,000 to Enjoy Fresh Air,” New York Amsterdam News, August 14, 1976.

26. John C. Devlin, “Farm Jobs to Aid City Youngsters,” New York Times, July 4, 1976.

27. Lawrence J. Friedman, “Philanthropy in America: Historicism and Its Discontents,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, ed. Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark D. McGarvie (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 1–21; Shirley Maye Tillotson, Contributing Citizens: Modern Charitable Fundraising and the Making of the Welfare State, 1920–66 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2008), 59–60.

28. Randy Wynn, “Children Find New Homes during Week in Ashland,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), July 4, 1971.

29. Helen Husen, “Fresh Air Program,” Bridgeport (CT) Post, July 23, 1970; “Model Farm Proves Popular among Children at Fishkill Camp,” Poughkeepsie (NY) Journal, July 17, 1966.

30. “Fresh Air Children to Get Farm-Life Lore First-Hand,” World Journal Tribune (New York City), November 26, 1966.

31. “Fresh Air Appeal Gives Farm Tour,” New York Times, August 12, 1970; “Fresh Air Fund Gives Children from the Slums a Taste of Life on the Farm,” New York Times, August 17, 1969.

32. Memorandum by Mary E. Smith, “Minutes 1964 Friendly Town Planning Conference, February 18, 19, 20,” 1964, 6, UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund, University of IL at Chicago Special Collection.”

33. Memorandum, “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund 80th Annual Report,” 1957, 15, NYCPL-BRARR, Whitney North Seymour Papers, 1930–1983, box 114—Subject Files—Fresh Air Fund, folder: “January 1962 through December 1964.”

34. “Fresh Air Appeal Gives Farm Tour”; Joan Brown, “Program Offers Chance to Give Child a Memorable Vacation,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), April 4, 1970; “A Fresh Air Fund Vacation Delights a Child,” New York Times, May 14, 1978.

35. Jennifer Dunning, “Last Day to Register for Fresh Air Fund Camp Is a Big Day for Little Ones,” New York Times, June 18, 1978.

36. James C. Lont, Meeting to Discuss “Friendly Town” Project in the 60’s, Graafschap, MI: 2010.

37. Jo McMeen, “Along the Juniata: Wanted: Homes for Fresh Air Kids,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), April 18, 1962.

38. Bartlett Hendricks, “Three Boys, Two Weeks and No Worries at All,” Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), August 4, 1956.

39. Edith Evans Asbury, “2 Alumni Recall Fresh Air Camp,” New York Times, May 9, 1976; Memorandum, “My Vacation in the Country,” November 28, 1947, LOC, PRF D222, HRR, file 12556: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1942–49”; “Lancaster Helps Needy Children,” New York Times, June 13, 1976.

40. Joseph Gibbons, Tallahassee, FL, telephone interview by the author, March 17, 2010; Bernie Greenfield, Newark, NJ, telephone interview by the author, April 13, 2010; Elmer Voth and Linda Voth to Orlo Kaufman, September 5, 1961, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 123: “Fresh Air, 1961.”

41. Devlin, “Farm Jobs to Aid City Youngsters”; Elliott West, Growing up in Twentieth-Century America: A History and Reference Guide (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1996), 210.

42. Dee Wedemeyer, “Farm Plan Extends Fresh Air Program,” New York Times, July 31, 1977.

43. Mrs. Winton Stucky to Orlo Kaufman, August 12, 1961, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 123: “Fresh Air, 1961.”

44. Ibid.

45. West, Growing up in Twentieth-Century America, 217.

46. Memorandum by Mary Rohrer and Anna Rohrer, “Mennonite Mission Children’s Visitation Program, Visitation Record,” 1951, EMM Record Room, folder: “F–J.”

47. Memorandum by Paul N. Kraybill, “Mennonite Mission Children Visitation Program,” 1952, EMM Record Room, folder: “Committee Action.”

48. Walter I. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America (New York: The Free Press, 1984), 318.

49. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Report of the Executive Director on 1947 to the Board of Directors Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” 1947, LOC, PRF D222, HRR, file 12556: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1942–49”; Memorandum by Lewis, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund for the Year 1955,” 1955, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12561: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1954–55”; Memorandum by Lewis, “The Fresh Air Fund: Annual Report to the Board of Directors,” December 31, 1969, 2, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12576: “The Fresh Air Fund 1968–70.”

50. Milking Time.

51. Lont, Meeting to Discuss “Friendly Town” Project in the 60’s.

52. McMeen, “Along the Juniata.”

53. Lagemann, “Something Special in Vacations.”

54. Emily S. Rosenberg, “Missions to the World: Philanthropy Abroad,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, ed. Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark D. McGarvie (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 241–57.

55. “Tenement Youths Need Local Hosts,” Hagerstown (MD) Morning Herald, June 21, 1945.

56. George J. Gordodensky, “Fresh Air Children, Co-Hope,” Daily News Record (North Hills, PA), April 12, 1979.

57. “Fresh Air Children Here on Vacations,” Lebanon (PA) Daily News, June 25, 1959; MaryBeth Wagner, “Manheim Couple Hosts Fifty Phila. Children,” Intelligencer Journal (Lancaster, PA), August 11, 1978.

58. “Inquiring Photographer,” Evening Banner (Bennington, VT), July 18, 1959; “Danny’s Dreaming of Friendly Town,” World Journal Tribune (New York City), December 15, 1966; Lawrence Wright, City Children, Country Summer (New York: Scribner, 1979), 196.

59. DuPuis, Nature’s Perfect Food, 5.

60. Estimate of 20,600 donors in 1971 determined by extrapolating donor rates and average contributions based on the reported figure of 16,688 having contributed $574,763 to the Fund by November 28 of that year. Total received from the public by the end of the year was $711,228. See “Fresh Air Fund Given $574,763 So Far in ’71,” New York Times, November 28, 1971; Memorandum, “1971 Annual Report,” 1971, NYHS, F128HV 938.N5 F74.

61. Memorandum, “1971 Annual Report.”

62. “Good Fellows Give 2,091 Gifts, $9,700 to Needy Children,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 23, 1946; “Tribune Fund New Drive; Doris Johnson Chairman: Rep Assembly Chooses Tribune Fresh Air Fund to Help Provide Vacations for New York City’s Underprivileged Children,” Barnard (NY) Bulletin, February 20, 1947; “Plan Fresh Air Vacations for City Children,” Gettysburg (PA) Times, March 24, 1948; “43 Youngsters Open Season’s First Week at Community Camp,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, July 5, 1948; McKay, “Free Seaboard Camps Offer Summer Fun to Children of All Races”; “Business Club Hears Camp Fund Appeal,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, July 15, 1948; “Labor Club Makes $500 Contribution to Fresh Air Fund,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, May 14, 1948; “Fresh Air Fund Enriched by $200 as Gift of Union,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, May 20, 1948; “Help Still Needed for Fresh Air Fund,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, May 21, 1948; “Fresh Air Fund Gets $100 Boost,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, June 8, 1948; “Flag CIO Union Donates $250 to Fresh Air Fund,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, June 15, 1948; “Boy Going to Camp on Doe Club Help,” Pottstown (PA) Mercury, June 18, 1948; “Wellsboro Is Friendly Town: Twenty Children to Be Invited Here for Two Weeks,” Wellsboro (PA) Agitator, May 26, 1948; “Friendship Plans to Aid Fresh Airs,” Olean (NY) Times Herald, June 12, 1948; “Florence Civic Clubs Play Big Role in Creating Progressive Attitudes,” Florence (SC) Morning News, November 5, 1948; “Kingston Included as Friendly Town to Aid Children,” Kingston (NY) Daily Freeman, June 8, 1949; “Fresh Air Fund Organizes for Season,” Florence (SC) Morning News, May 31, 1950; “Fresh Air Fund Drive,” Bridgeport (CT) Telegram, June 18, 1955; “Homes Being Sought for East Harlem Tots on Vacation,” North Adams, Massachusetts, Transcript, June 22, 1951; “Kiwanis Club Sponsors Friendly Town Program,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), June 14, 1954; “35 Fresh Air Youngsters Are Invited to Area,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), July 3, 1954; “Spanish Club Donates Check to Aid Puerto Rican Child,” Post-Standard (Syracuse, NY), June 27, 1954; “Fresh Air Fund Drive”; “Quentin WCTU Has Guest Speaker,” Lebanon (PA) Daily News, July 31, 1957; “Linda Saari Elected by Monday Club,” Portsmouth (NH) Herald, May 25, 1976.

63. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Touchstone, 2001).

64. Memorandum by R. G. Rankin & Co., “Financial Reports,” December 31, 1955, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12561: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1954–55.”

65. “Gastonians to Play in ‘Messiah’ Tonight,” Gastonia (NC) Daily Gazette, December 17, 1940; “Fresh Air Fund Youngsters,” Bridgeport (CT) Telegram, August 9, 1951; Sid Feder, “Star-Less All-Squad Wins Where Collections of Famous Players Failed,” Daily Inter Lake (Kalispell, MT), September 5, 1940.

66. “PTA to Hear Talk on Harold-Trib’s Fresh Air Fund Project,” Cumberland (MD) Evening Times, November 18, 1954; “Spanish Club Donates Check to Aid Puerto Rican Child.”

67. “College Mixer,” Black Coalition Weekly (New Haven, CT), July 14, 1972.

68. Sheila Rule, “Fresh Air Fund Has a Record 100th Year,” New York Times, August 28, 1977.

69. “Lifers Aid Fresh Air Fund,” Daily News (Huntington, Saxton, and Mount Union, PA), May 4, 1979.

70. “Pupils Give Help to Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, June 16, 1974.

71. Peter D. Hall, “The Welfare State and the Careers of Public and Private Institutions since 1945,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, ed. Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark D. McGarvie (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 363–83.

72. Thomas A. Johnson, “6th Grade Raises Fresh Air Funds,” New York Times, June 20, 1976.

73. “Girls on L.I. Give to Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, June 22, 1975; “Donor, 91, Recalls Her Fresh Air Days,” New York Times, July 3, 1977.

74. “Donors Aid the Fresh Air Fund with Cash and Ballpark Tickets,” New York Times, July 22, 1979.

75. Mintz, Huck’s Raft, 342.

76. “Fund Children to Benefit from Hot Dog Roast,” Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), July 18, 1956; Henry L. DeRham to MacNeil Mitchell, May 29, 1962, NYUA, Washington Square Association Activities, MC 94, Series 6, box 20, folder 7: “Fresh Air Fund: 1962”; “Mrs. F. J. Fraser Is Chosen Regent of Winnipeg Chapter,” Winnipeg (Manitoba) Free Press, February 10, 1944; “Iran Grotto Stages Annual Field Day,” Troy (NY) Record, July 17, 1944.

77. Tillotson, Contributing Citizens, 1920–66, 3.

78. “Donor, 91, Recalls Her Fresh Air Days.”

79. “Homes Are Needed for ‘Friendly’ Kids,” Waterloo (IA) Sunday Courier, June 27, 1972.

80. “Receives Aid,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), July 13, 1974.

81. Tillotson, Contributing Citizens, 4–5, 20, 233, 237.

82. Ruth Hutchinson Crocker, “Making Charity Modern: Business and the Reform of Charities in Indianapolis, 1879–1930,” Business and Economic History 12 (1983): 158–70.

83. Memorandum, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors,” 1953, 5, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12560: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1953–54.”

84. “Chronology,” Bennington (VT) Banner, December 31, 1963.

85. Memorandum by Anthony DeLorenzo and Angela Kochera, “Public Information,” 1966, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

86. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Executive Director’s Report,” September 15, 1966, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund”; Memorandum, “President’s Report,” April 20, 1967, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund”; “Campaign Is Begun by Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 4, 1969; Frederick H. Lewis to Arthur Hays Sulzberger, June 27, 1957, NYCPL-BRARR, New York Times Company Records, Arthur Hays Sulzberger Papers, 1823–1999, MssCol 17782, box 214, folder 11: “New York Herald Tribune 1956.”

87. Arch Ward, “Football Giants Tackle Eastern Eleven Tonight,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 7, 1939; Arch Ward, “Giants to Meet Eastern Stars before 40,000,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 3, 1941.

88. Arch Ward, “In the Wake of the News,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 5, 1947; “New York Fans Await First Football Game,” Plaindealer (Kansas City, KS), June 22, 1951; “Giants, Rams Battle in Grid Tilt Tonight: Pro Rivals Set for Fresh Air Fund Game at Polo Grounds,” Bridgeport (CT) Telegram, September 20, 1951.

89. “Coaches Are Named for East-West Game,” Mansfield (OH) News-Journal, February 1, 1949; “East’s Rally Beats West in Fresh Air Fund Game in N.Y.,” Progress-Index (Petersburg, VA), March 31, 1957; “Won’t Play Game,” Racine (WI) Sunday Bulletin, February 1, 1959.

90. “Friendly Town Plans Cavalier Fundraiser,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), March 6, 1976.

91. “Lindsay Proclaims This Week to Honor the Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, June 4, 1970; “12 States Observe 100th Anniversary of Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, June 5, 1977; “It Was an Afternoon of Basehits …,” New York Amsterdam News, May 5, 1979.

92. “Fresh Air Kids on Junior Show,” Mason City (IA) Globe-Gazette, December 9, 1939.

93. “Miss Heinemann to Be Heard on WARK,” Hagerstown (MD) Morning Herald, July 12, 1949.

94. George J. Lankevich and Howard B. Furer, A Brief History of New York City (New York: Associated Faculty Press, 1984), 245.

95. “Fresh Air Tot Movie on TV Friday Six PM,” Daily News-Record (Harrisonburg, VA), June 16, 1955; Whitelaw Reid to Helen Odgen Reid, May 12, 1959, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12565: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1959”; “Founder’s Day Tonight,” Bridgeport (CT) Post, February 16, 1960; “Fresh Air Hosts Cited by Speaker at Dinner,” Lebanon (PA) Daily News, April 28, 1973; “Fresh Air Fund Seeks Hosts Here,” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, April 13, 1976; Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Executive Director’s Annual Report to the Board of Directors, for the Fiscal Year 1963–1964,” 1964, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12572: “The Fresh Air Fund 1965”; “Lancaster Holds Film Premier,” What’s in the Air, fall 1964.

96. Teresa Odendahl, Charity Begins at Home: Generosity and Self-Interest among the Philanthropic Elite (New York: Basic Books, 1990), 42.

97. “Modeled for Charity,” Afro-American (Baltimore), May 11, 1940; “Benefit for Kiddies,” New York Amsterdam Star-News, June 7, 1941; “Fresh Air Dance Date Is July 9,” New York Amsterdam News, June 26, 1943.

98. “Society Hoops It Up!” Independent (Humboldt, IA), October 2, 1958; “New York Socialites ‘Hoop It Up’ in Astor,” Brownwood (TX) Bulletin, October 2, 1958.

99. Memorandum, “Minutes of Meeting of Board of Directors,” April 20, 1967, 5, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12575: “The Fresh Air Fund 1967”; “Renoir Painting to Be Sold to Aid Three Charities,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 2, 1962; “Fresh Air Fund to Mark 100th Year with Benefit,” New York Times, May 18, 1977.

100. Daniel J. Monti Jr., The American City: A Social and Cultural History (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999), 250, 257, 262, 265.

101. “Fresh Air Fund Elects a Chairman,” New York Times, December 22, 1967.

102. Memorandum by DeLorenzo and Kochera, “Public Information.”

103. “Donors Aid the Fresh Air Fund with Cash and Ballpark Tickets.”

104. “Too Many Potential Leaders …,” New York Times, September 11, 1977.

105. Odendahl, Charity Begins at Home, 59; Tillotson, Contributing Citizens, 1920–66, 7.

106. Friedman, “Philanthropy in America: Historicism and Its Discontents,” 18; Odendahl, Charity Begins at Home, 3, 4; David C. Hammack, “Failure and Resilience: Pushing the Limits in Depression and Wartime,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, ed. Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark D. McGarvie (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 263–80.

107. Hall, “The Welfare State and the Careers of Public and Private Institutions since 1945,” 379; Hammack, “Failure and Resilience: Pushing the Limits in Depression and Wartime,” 280.

108. Lankevich and Furer, A Brief History of New York City, 264, 294, 297, 303.

109. Memorandum by Rankin & Co., “Financial Reports.”

110. Memorandum, “Statement of Operating Fund Income and Expenses for the Year Ended September 30, 1965,” November 23, 1965, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12568: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

111. Memorandum, “1971 Annual Report,” 6–9.

112. Memorandum, “Statement of Operating Fund Income and Expenses for the Year Ended September 30, 1965.”

113. “United Fund Campaign Is Explained,” Statesville (NC) Record & Landmark, September 16, 1955.

114. Tillotson, Contributing Citizens, 158–59.

115. Chuck Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund” (1981), C12–12, LVA, FAFR, 1949–1999, accession number 36407, box 22, folder 2: “Histories 1977.”

116. Mintz, Huck’s Raft, ix.

117. Ibid., 276.

118. King E. Davis, “Jobs, Income, Business and Charity in the Black Community,” Black Scholar 9 (1977): 2–11.

119. Memorandum, “Camp Registrar’s Report 1957,” 1957, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 41, folder 3: “Camp-Reports, 1948–53”; Memorandum by Frieda Schwenkmeyer, “Stories,” 1961, ELAA, UMN, HSSR (SW0058), General, box 48, folder 16: “1951–1961.”

120. Richard F. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children (New York: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund, 1962), 13.

121. Joan Cook, “Fresh Air Fund Gets Helping Hand,” New York Times, August 7, 1977.

122. Lacey Fosburgh, “Registration to Begin for Fresh Air Fund Summer,” New York Times, May 9, 1971.

123. Julia Guarneri, “Changing Strategies for Child Welfare, Enduring Beliefs about Childhood: The Fresh Air Fund, 1877–1926,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 11, no. 1 (2012): 27–70.

124. Rhonda D. Jones, “Tithe, Time and Talent: An Analysis of Fundraising Activity for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), 1957–1964” (dissertation, Howard University, 2003), 137–38.

125. “The Goal: 100 Children,” Bennington (VT) Banner, May 8, 1963; Bob Zanic, “Friendly Town Works 2 Ways,” Palatine (IL) Herald, June 10, 1969; Mathew L. Wald, “Need for Fresh Air Fund Increases with Inflation,” New York Times, August 21, 1977.

126. “Friendly Town Group Seeking Homes,” Arlington Heights (IL) Herald, August 4, 1971.

127. Florence W. Paparo, “Underprivileged Children Offered New Worlds through Fresh Air Family,” Delaware County Daily Times (Chester, PA), May 9, 1970.

128. Marilou Hedlund, “‘4 Chance to Yell and Scream and Look at Things,’” Chicago Tribune, July 26, 1964.

129. Anita Duhe, “Westminster Woman Has Hopes for Boosting Fresh Air Fund,” Sentinel-Enterprise (Fitchburg, MA), August 29, 1975; “Stratford Again to Host N.Y. Fresh Air Children,” Bridgeport (CT) Sunday Post, April 13, 1975; Asbury, “2 Alumni Recall Fresh Air Camp”; “New York Youngsters Due,” Tyrone (PA) Daily Herald, June 28, 1978.

130. “40 New York Fresh Air Kiddies: Mount Union,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), July 13, 1951.

131. “Fresh Air Tots Hosts in Appeal,” Daily News-Record (Harrisonburg, VA), June 8, 1955.

132. “Children Placed by Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 30, 1976.

133. “Fresh Air Mailbag: ‘Loved Him,’” New York Herald Tribune, December 12, 1966.

134. Charles E. Strickland and Andrew M. Ambrose, “The Changing Worlds of Children, 1945–1963,” in American Childhood: A Research Guide and Historical Handbook, ed. Joseph M. Hawes and N. Ray Hiner (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985), 533–85.

135. “Fresh Air Fund Helps Give Child New Goals,” World Journal Tribune (New York City), December 24, 1966.

136. Dorothy Belle Pollack, “Pearl and Ebony,” What’s in the Air, summer vacation edition, 1963.

137. “Women’s Fellowship Aid Friendly Town Project,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), June 11, 1977; “Be a Host Family to an Inner City Child,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), March 26, 1977; “Vacation Program Dates Set,” Titusville (PA) Herald, March 21, 1973; “Women’s Fellowship Aid Friendly Town Project”; Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State, 306.

138. Memorandum by Marchand Chaney and Mimi Vernon, “Evaluation of Newberry-Dubuque Project for 1962,” 1962, [3], UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund, University of IL at Chicago Special Collection”; Brown, “Program Offers Chance to Give Child a Memorable Vacation.”

139. “Journey into Another World,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), August 2, 1969; Lena Williams, “Full of Fresh Air, They Return Home,” New York Times, August 7, 1977.

140. “Fresh Air Guests Leave for Home; Have Glum Look,” Evening Banner (Bennington, VT), August 20, 1955; Joan Cook, “Fresh Air Fund: Tale of 2 Cultures,” New York Times, May 28, 1978; Lee Edwards, “Fresh Air Fund Workers Give Free Time, Effort,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 13, 1971; “Many Offer Help to Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, July 28, 1974.

141. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003), 320; “Girl, 9, Learns New View of Life,” Chicago Tribune, August 4, 1971; “500 Inner City Youths Return from Country,” Chicago Tribune, July 30, 1967; “Many Offer Help to Fresh Air Fund”; “A Homesick Girl Yearns for 1980 Fresh Air Trip,” New York Times, August 26, 1979; “Fresh Air Children Leave Local Hosts,” Hagerstown (MD) Morning Herald, August 3, 1945.

142. Edwards, “Fresh Air Fund Workers Give Free Time, Effort.”

143. Alison J. Clark, “Coming of Age in Suburbia: Gifting the Consumer Child,” in Designing Modern Childhoods: History, Space, and the Material Culture of Children, ed. Marta Gutman and Ning De Coninck-Smith (Newark, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008), 253–68.

144. Harold Regier to Ervin P. Krehbiel, September 23, 1963, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 125: “Fresh Air, 1963.”

145. Anne-Gerard Flynn, “Breath of Fresh Air for Everyone,” New York Times, May 21, 1978.

146. Pollack, “Pearl and Ebony.”

147. Melody M. Pannell, Harrisonburg, VA, interview by the author, January 20, 2016.

148. Mrs. Howard Rutz, “Hosts for Fresh Air Child Find Experience Enriching,” Daily Sentinel (Rome, NY), 1962, UIL, MNC box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund.”

149. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children, 10.

150. Strickland and Ambrose, “The Changing Worlds of Children, 1945–1963,” 551–52.

151. Brown, “Program Offers Chance to Give Child a Memorable Vacation.”

152. Louise A. Sweeney, “Designed for Women,” Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), June 5, 1959.

153. “Inquiring Photographer.”

154. Richard F. Crandell, “Fresh Air Fund to Carry on in Pages of WJT,” World Journal Tribune (New York City), September 12, 1966.

155. Margie Middleton and Ruth Y. Wenger, “Fresh Air Reminiscences,” Missionary Messenger, July 1977, 12–13, 21.

156. “Inquiring Photographer.”

157. “7 Fresh Air Children Write of Newport Visit,” Newport (RI) News, January 19, 1950.

158. Michele H. Fleischer, “Two Former Fresh Air Kids Return the Favor,” McCall’s, March 1991, 57.

159. Anne Mancuso, “Boy from Brooklyn Is at Home in Croton,” New York Times, May 14, 1978; Jill Smolowe, “Giving the Gift of Fresh Air,” New York Times, May 7, 1978.

160. “A Fresh Air Child, Now 30, Returns to Settle in His ‘Friendly Town,’” New York Times, July 23, 1978.

161. Leonard E. Carpenter, Hinesburg, Vermont: From 1762 (Burlington, VT: Sheldon Press, 1961), 29.

162. Memorandum, “Day Camp for Children Living in ‘Welfare Hotels,’” 1971, ELAA, UMN, HSSR (SW0058), box 54, folder 4: “Proposal—Day Camp for Children Living in ‘Welfare Hotels,’ 1971.”

163. Ibid.; Jule M. Sugarman to Bertram M. Beck, July 2, 1971, ELAA, UMN, HSSR (SW0058), box 54, folder 4: “Proposal—Day Camp for Children Living in ‘Welfare Hotels,’ 1971.”

164. The first instance of semipublic criticism, other than a 1947 complaint about the quality of halftime entertainment at a Fresh Air football fund-raiser, that I have found appeared in a 1949 annual report. Staff mentioned social workers’ critique of the informal vetting system used to determine whether host families could bring Fresh Air Children into their homes. See Ward, “In the Wake of the News”; Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Annual Report to the Board of Directors by the Executive Director of the Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” January 28, 1949, LOC, PRF D222, HRR, file 12557: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1950–51.”

165. “100 Inner City Kids to Visit in Glen Ellyn,” Chicago Tribune, April 25, 1966; Darrell Michael Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880–1996 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 74, 93–94, 120–21, 138.

166. Eleanor Charles, “Apathy Endangers Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 20, 1979.

167. Ari L. Goldman, “Fresh Air: A Together Atmosphere,” New York Times, June 27, 1976.

168. Richard Weiss, The American Myth of Success: From Horatio Alger to Norman Vincent Peale (New York: Basic Books, 1969), 231.

169. Harold A. Nelson, “Charity, Poverty and Race,” Phylon (1960–) 29 (1968): 303–16; Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State, 327–29.

170. Luis Diaz, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, May 4, 2010; Gibbons interview.

171. Cindy Vanderkodde, Grand Rapids, MI, telephone interview by the author, March 7, 2010; Middleton and Wenger, “Fresh Air Reminiscences.”

172. “Seek Two-Week Homes for ‘Fresh Air’ Children: Some 100 New York Youngsters Expected to Visit Yates Aug. 4,” Chronicle-Express (Penn Yan, NY), June 16, 1949; “30 Fresh Air Children Arrive for Vacations: Cars Meet New York Train to Bring Youngsters Here for Two Weeks,” Newport (RI) News, July 13, 1950; “Happiness Is a Beautiful Summer Day …,” Biddeford-Saco (ME) Journal, July 27, 1967.

173. “Will Hear of Air Plan,” Troy (NY) Record, June 12, 1969.

174. Mrs. Dwight Stucky to Orlo Kaufman, August 14, 1961, MLABC: MLA.VII.R GC Voluntary Service, Series 11 Gulfport VS Unit, box 4, folder 123: “Fresh Air, 1961.”

175. Wilson, “What Color Is a Cow?” 7; Wright, City Children, Country Summer.

176. Memorandum by Eve Wiejec, “Rome Fresh Air Program Report,” 1963, 3, UIL, MNC, box 99, folder 1505: “Fresh Air Fund, University of IL at Chicago Special Collection.”

177. Rosenberg, “Missions to the World: Philanthropy Abroad,” 242–43, 256–57.

178. Wilson, “What Color Is a Cow?” 7.

179. “More Hosts Are Needed for Fresh Air Children,” Portsmouth (NH), Herald, July 7, 1939.

180. “Guides to Successful Employment of Non-Farm Youth in Wartime Agriculture: For Use in Victory Farm Volunteer Program” (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor Children’s Bureau, 1943).

181. The Church’s Responsibility for Youth in Wartime Agriculture (New York: International Council of Religious Education and the Home Missions Council of North America, 1943), 13.

182. Charles Perkins, ed., Children of the Storm: Childhood Memories of World War II (Osceola, WI: MBI Publishing Company, 1998), 55.

183. Ruth Millett, “We—the Women,” Altoona (PA) Mirror, July 18, 1940.

184. “On the Home Front” (New York: New York Protestant Episcopal City Mission Society, 1941), EDNY, Episcopal Missional Society, box: “Publications et al., 1930’s–1970’s,” folder: “Miscellaneous Publications, Leaflets, etc.—Thru ’30s, ’40s, ’50s, ’60s.”

185. “Fresh Air Children Are Coming: Mrs. Comstock Heads Committee Seeking Accommodations,” Berkshire Evening Eagle (Pittsfield, MA), July 9, 1943, 8.

186. Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund.”

187. “Fresh Air Home Seeks Funds,” Troy (NY) Record, June 25, 1945.

188. “‘Fresh Air Kids’ to Visit Huntingdon, Mount Union,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), May 11, 1945.

189. Memorandum, “It Is Our Hope That the Door of Opportunity,” November 3, 1944, NYHS, F128 HV885.N5 B68 1941.

190. “Asking Homes to Entertain Fresh Air Kiddies,” Huntingdon (PA) Daily News, May 11, 1942.

191. “Will You Take a Fresh Air Kiddie This Year?” Huntingdon (PA) Daily News, June 25, 1943.

192. “Read Story of Fresh Air Fund—Then Be Host to City Youngsters,” Huntingdon (PA) Daily News, June 21, 1945.

193. “Annual Campaign to Begin Here for Aid in the Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, April 18, 1946; “Fresh Air Children to Arrive in Hagerstown July 23rd; Goal Set,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, June 3, 1946; “Mount Union—Open Your Homes to Many Fresh Air Youngsters,” Daily News (Huntingdon and Mount Union, PA), June 20, 1948.

194. “Seek Vacation Homes Here for N.Y. Youngsters,” Gettysburg (PA) Times, June 18, 1948.

195. “Friendly Town Project Set Again by Fredonians,” Dunkirk (NY) Evening Observer, April 19, 1956.

196. “28 ‘Fresh Airs’ Have Arrived,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, July 23, 1947.

197. Memorandum, “Camp Manakiki,” 1953, ELAA, UMN, United Way of Minneapolis records (SW 70), box 74, folder 1: “Camps-Study 1953, 1958”; Memorandum by Mark B. Herman, “Group Report,” August 7, 1952, CUA, USAR, 1896–1995 MS#1149, Series VII: Programs and Services, box 53, folder 2: “Camp-Activity Reports, 1952”; Abigail A. Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness: Summer Camps and the Shaping of American Youth, 1890–1960 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), xxvi.

198. “Invitations Open for Needy Children,” Hagerstown (MD) Morning Herald, July 16, 1949.

199. “Homes for Fresh Air Tots Asked,” Daily News-Record (Harrisonburg, VA), May 26, 1955; Memorandum, “A Friendly Note to the Friendliest People in the World,” n.d., CUA, LGMHR (MS#0376), box 5, folder 1: “Fresh Air Camp—Misc, 1920s–50s.”

200. “Out of Winter Snows Came Hope of Spring,” What’s in the Air, spring 1963.

201. Memorandum by Lewis, “The Fresh Air Fund: Annual Report to the Board of Directors”; “Fresh Air Sunday,” Bennington (VT) Banner, May 28, 1977.

202. “Americanism Is Told by Ex-Fresh Air Boy,” Hagerstown (MD) Morning Herald, June 23, 1949.

203. Barbara L. Little, “Helps New York City Children to a Vacation in the Country,” Lancaster (PA) Intelligencer-Journal, July 31, 1958.

204. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children, 17.

205. “The Fresh Air Fund Focuses on Culture,” New York Times, June 12, 1977.

206. “Seek Vacation Homes Here for N.Y. Youngsters.”

207. “What’s in the Air” (Washington, DC: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund, 1952), 6, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12559: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1952.”

208. Frederick H. Lewis, “Camping Confronts an American Dilemma,” Camping, December 1954.

209. Frederick H. Lewis to Brown Reid, July 5, 1955, LOC, PRF D223, HRR, file 12561: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1954–55”; Frederick H. Lewis, “Camping Confronts an American Dilemma.”

210. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children, 17.

211. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “What Am I Doing Here?: Remarks at Friendly Town Spring Planning Conference Held at Sharpe Reservation,” February 20, 1963, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12568: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

212. Hall, “The Welfare State and the Careers of Public and Private Institutions since 1945,” 362, 382.

213. “All-College Assembly Opens New Term Drive: Mr. Frederick Lewis Is Guest Speaker; Doris Johnson to Outline Drive Plans,” Barnard (NY) Bulletin, March 4, 1947.

214. “Fresh Air Fund Elects President,” New York Times, December 16, 1973.

215. “‘Fresh Air Kids’ to Visit Huntingdon, Mount Union.”

216. “Fresh Air Fund Elects President.”

217. “N.Y. Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” Flying, December 1958; Memorandum, “Annual Report—Reviewing 1958,” 1959, 10, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12567: “The Fresh Air Fund.”

218. Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “Summer Preview 1970,” 1970, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12576: “The Fresh Air Fund 1968–70.”

219. Gordodensky, “Fresh Air Children, Co-Hope”; “A Homesick Girl Yearns for 1980 Fresh Air Trip”; “‘Fresh Air Kids’ to Visit Huntingdon, Mount Union”; “Americanism Is Told by Ex-Fresh Air Boy.”

220. Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund.”

221. Crandell, ed., The Frog Log and Other Stories about Children; “Camp Unit Lives on in Aid to Children by Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 17, 1970; “Fresh Air Fund Starts Vacation Registrations,” New York Times, May 6, 1970; Edwards, “Fresh Air Fund Workers Give Free Time, Effort”; Asbury, “2 Alumni Recall Fresh Air Camp.”

222. “Fresh Air Fund’s Programs Help East Harlem’s Children,” New York Times, May 29, 1969; Lee Edwards, “All Their World Is Asphalt and Farms Are Only in Stories,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 12, 1971.

223. “Detective Helps Fresh Air Camp,” New York Times, September 10, 1972.

224. “Fresh Air Hosts Cited by Speaker at Dinner”; “Deputy Police Chief Aids Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 15, 1977; Memorandum by Paul G. Burkholder, “Glad Tidings Mennonite Church Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund Agency Report 1966,” March 17, 1967, LMHS—box: “Glad Tidings,” folder: “Glad Tidings.”

225. Chester West, “What’s Happening in Westchester,” New York Amsterdam News, September 14, 1968.

226. “Fresh Air Fund Enriches Lives,” New York Times, July 20, 1970; “Lives Brightened by Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, August 15, 1976; “Fresh Air Fund Aided in Placing Youngsters by Alumnus, Now 35,” New York Times, April 29, 1979.

227. “Kingston Included as Friendly Town to Aid Children”; “Dewey Supports Fresh Air Fund,” Daily Messenger (Canandaigua, NY), June 4, 1952; Memorandum by Frederick H. Lewis, “On to a Million … 1962 Annual Report—Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” 1962, 3, copied from the CCAH, UTA; “Lindsay Proclaims This Week to Honor the Fresh Air Fund,” 85.

228. Frederick Howell Lewis to Richard M. Nixon, July 24, 1957, folder: “Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” box 333, series 320: “Richard Nixon Pre-Presidential Materials” (Laguna Niguel), Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Yorba Linda, CA; Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund.”

229. Sargent Shriver to Frederick H. Lewis, April, 1965, LOC, PRF D225, HRR, file 12572: “The Fresh Air Fund 1965”; Memorandum, “Eighty-Ninth Annual Report: Herald Tribune Fresh Air Fund,” 1967, copied from the CCAH, UTA.

230. “Bring Negroes to Bennington,” Bennington (VT) Banner, April 30, 1968.

231. “Slum Youths Begin Visit to Vermont,” New York Times, July 10, 1969.

232. “Helping ‘Fresh Air Fund’ Drive,” New York Amsterdam News, June 3, 1944.

233. “Weight and Humor,” New York Amsterdam Star-News, May 23, 1942; “Helping ‘Fresh Air Fund’ Drive”; “Assists Urban Camp Fund,” New York Amsterdam News, June 10, 1944.

234. Norman Cousins, “Norman Cousins, Editor, Saturday Review,” What’s in the Air, spring 1955.

235. John Chapman, “Critic’s Idea: Dope Sheet on Benefit Shows,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 2, 1956; “Very Cool,” New York Herald Tribune, December 11, 1959; “Fresh Air Music in Vermont,” in Reid Family Collection (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1959); Memorandum, “Annual Report—Reviewing 1958”; Frederick H. Lewis to Mrs. Ogden Reid, April 22, 1959, LOC, PRF D224, HRR, file 12565: “The Fresh Air Fund, 1959”; Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund.”

236. “Steve, Eydie Aid Fresh Air,” World Journal Tribune (New York City), April 19, 1967; Memorandum by DeLorenzo and Kochera, “Public Information”; Austin, “The History of the Fresh Air Fund.”

237. Memorandum by Paddy Chayefsky, “Spot Announcement for Paddy Chayefsky,” NYCPL-PARC, Paddy Chayefsky Papers, 1907–1998, *T-Mss 2001–040, box 140, folder 10: “Text for Fresh Air Fund radio spots, undated”; “Evening of Elegance for Fresh Air Fund,” New Pittsburgh Courier, July 12, 1968; “Sanctums,” New Yorker, May 30, 1959, 20–22; “Set for Evening of Elegance,” New York Amsterdam News, July 26, 1969; James A. Michener and Alice Vielehr 1949, NYCPL-BRARR, Hudson Park Branch records, 1905–1980, Series 2, Alice Vielehr Files, 1946–1980, box 4, folder 7: “Greenwich Village Fresh Air Fund, 1948–1949.”

238. “Billy Rowe’s Note Book,” Chicago Metro News, June 30, 1973; “Exhibition by Ashe to Aid Two Funds,” New York Times, December 29, 1974.

239. “Sanctums.”

240. Michael T. Kaufman, “Traders Play Street Games—on Wall St.,” New York Times, October 2, 1972.

241. Hall, “The Welfare State and the Careers of Public and Private Institutions since 1945,” 363–64.

242. Bill Babel, “Off the Beaten Track …,” Oneonta (NY) Star, July 9, 1949.

243. George Dixon, “Most Embarrassing of All Things Happens to U.S. Senators, Also,” High Point (NC) Enterprise, June 6, 1951.

244. “Steve Roper,” San Antonio Gazette, April 23, 1956.

245. William F. Buckley Jr., “Is Personal Charity on Way Out?” Kokomo (IN) Tribune, August 8, 1978.

246. Memorandum, “Mary Martin Stars Again,” 1962, copied from the CCAH, UTA; “Carol Time …,” World Journal Tribune (New York City), December 14, 1966; “Lindsay Proclaims This Week to Honor the Fresh Air Fund”; “Fresh Air Chorus at Season End: Its 45 Members Had Busy Year,” New York Herald Tribune, June 17, 1955; “Fresh Air Chorus Sings Its Thanks for Program,” New York Herald Tribune, December 12, 1955; “Chorus of the Young to Perform on Fresh Air Fund’s 91st Year,” New York Times, June 2, 1968.

247. Hammack, “Failure and Resilience,” 280.

248. Odendahl, Charity Begins at Home, 8.

249. Steven Mintz, “The Changing Face of Children’s Culture,” in Reinventing Childhood after World War II, ed. Paula S. Fass and Michael Grossberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 38–50.

250. James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), vii.

251. Ibid., 65.

252. Memorandum by Lewis, “What Am I Doing Here?”

253. “Fresh Air Vacations Have Reached Climax Here with Marked Success,” Hagerstown (MD) Daily Mail, August 1, 1946.

254. “Friendly Town Time Once Again in the Oneonta Area,” Oneonta (NY) Star, May 25, 1955.

255. Ellen Delmonte, “An Editorial Feature,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), July 3, 1971.

256. Williams, “Full of Fresh Air, They Return Home.”

257. Annelise Orleck, Storming Caesar’s Palace: How Black Mothers Fought Their Own War on Poverty (Boston: Beacon, 2005), 96; Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State, 316.

6. GREETING, GONE, GOOD

1. Luis Diaz, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, May 4, 2010.

2. Ibid.

3. Randy Wynn, “Children Find New Homes during Week in Ashland,” News Journal (Mansfield, OH), July 4, 1971.

4. Joan Skidmore, “Fresh Air Fund: Give a Child a Chance,” Delaware County Daily Times (Chester, PA), June 7, 1974; “First Woman Executive Director Takes Helm for Fresh Air Fund Tomorrow,” New York Times, October 26, 1975; Joan Cook, “City Youths Discover Joy of Suburbs,” New York Times, May 9, 1976; Eleanor Charles, “Apathy Endangers Fresh Air Fund,” New York Times, May 20, 1979.

5. “Seattle Youngsters Visiting in Area,” Daily Inter Lake (Kalispell, MT), July 10, 1970; “Seek Families for Friendly Town Program,” Rock Valley (IA) Bee, July 9, 1975; “Host Families Sought for ‘Friendly Town’ Children,” Messenger (Athens, OH), March 27, 1975; “Community Activities,” Call and Post (Cleveland, OH), March 24, 1979.

6. Lawrence Wright, City Children, Country Summer (New York: Scribner, 1979); Peter Kondrat, “An Escape from Asphalt to Fresh Country Air,” Gettysburg (PA) Times, July 1, 1978.

7. Luis Diaz interview.

8. Ibid.

9. Nilson Diaz, New York, NY, telephone interview by the author, May 12, 2010.

10. Luis Diaz interview.

11. Ibid.

12. Nilson Diaz interview.

13. Luis Diaz interview.

14. Janice Batts, “Discovering Me,” http://themommastrikesback.blogspot.com.

15. Janice Batts, Iowa City, IA, telephone interview by the author, February 15, 2012.

16. Steve Estes, Dennis Stoesz, and Paul L. Weaver, “Mennonite Churches in the Midwest, USA Past and Present, 1807–1998, and Their Archival Records,” Mennonite Church USA Historical Committee, www.mcusa-archives.org/Congregations/illinoisindexfinal.html.

17. Batts, “Discovering Me.”