NOTES

Introduction

1. For a useful discussion of how railroading altered social and cultural structures see Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 110.

2. Joe Welsh and Bill Howes, Travel by Pullman: A Century of Service (St. Paul, MN: MBI Publishing, 2004), 18.

3. This approach is succinctly summarized by R. Daniel Wadhwani and Christina Lubinski in “Reinventing Entrepreneurial History,” Business History Review 91, no. 4 (Winter 2017): 767–799; and Louis Galambos and Franco Amatori, “Entrepreneurial History in Motion: A Reply to R. Daniel Wadhwani's Comment,” Enterprise & Society 21, no. 2 (June 2020): 340–342. See also Naomi R. Lamoreaux, “Entrepreneurship in the United States, 1865–1920,” in The Invention of Enterprise: Entrepreneurship from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern Times, ed. David S. Landes et al. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 367–400.

4. Seth Rockman, “Review Essay: What Makes the History of Capitalism Newsworthy?,” Journal of the Early Republic 34, no. 3 (Fall 2014): 442.

5. For historical analyses of individual failure, see Scott Sandage, A History of Failure in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005); and Edward J. Balleisen, Navigating Failure: Bankruptcy and Commercial Society in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). Failure's cousin, fraud, has been well covered: Edward J. Balleisen, Fraud: An American History from Barnum to Madoff (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017); Jane Kamensky, The Exchange Artist: A Tale of High-Flying Speculation and America's First Banking Collapse (New York: Viking, 2008); Ian Klaus, Forging Capitalism: Rogues, Swindlers, Frauds, and the Rise of Modern Finance (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014); Annie Reed, Imposter Heiress: Cassie Chadwick, the Greatest Grifter of the Gilded Age (New York: Diversion, 2024); Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: Norton, 2011), 216; and Jocelyn Wills, Boosters, Hustlers, and Speculators: Entrepreneurial Culture and the Rise of Minneapolis and St. Paul, 1849–1883 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2005).

6. Robert Lewis, “Networks and the Industrial Metropolis: Chicago's Calumet District, 1870–1940,” in Industrial Cities: History and Future, ed. Clemens Zimmermann (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2013), 107.

7. When the Pullman brothers began manufacturing railroad cars they called their company “Pullman Sleeping Car Lines.” In 1867 the firm incorporated as “Pullman's Sleeping Car Company” but soon became “Pullman's Palace Car Company” (abbreviated as PPCC). In this book I use PPCC and Pullman Company interchangeably for the sake of brevity, although the firm did not adopt the latter until December 30, 1899.

8. For two excellent examinations of the environment and geography of Chicago, see William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: Norton, 1991); and Kathleen A. Brosnan, Ann Durkin Keating, and William C. Barnett, eds., City of Lake and Prairie: Chicago's Environmental History (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2020).

9. Noam Maggor, Brahmin Capitalism: Frontiers of Wealth and Populism in America's First Gilded Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), 3, 5, and 97.

10. Nancy F. Koehn, Brand New: How Entrepreneurs Earned Consumers’ Trust from Wedgwood to Dell (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2001); and Walter Friedman, Birth of a Salesman: The Transformation of Selling in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).

11. Susie Pak, Gentlemen Bankers: The World of J. P. Morgan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 15 and 48.

12. Pamela Walker Laird, Pull: Networking and Success since Benjamin Franklin (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 22.

13. For example, the Pullman name is still used by a global hotel chain, an Australian espresso accessories company, an excursion train in Great Britain, and “Pullman Dining” on services between London and Wales and between London and the southwest of England.

14. Bhu Srinivasan, Americana: A 400-Year History of American Capitalism (New York: Penguin, 2017), 148. The tendency to focus on the famous is evident in Jonathan Levy, Ages of Capitalism: A History of the United States (New York: Random House, 2021). To offer one example of the persistence of these names, in my hometown of Ames, Iowa, an eastside industrial area boasts Carnegie; Edison; Whitney; and, yes, Pullman streets. One suspects Albert is not the intended honoree.

15. Maggor, Brahmin Capitalism, 124.

16. David McCullough, The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 53.

17. Arnold Lewis, An Early Encounter with Tomorrow: Europeans, Chicago's Loop, and the World's Columbian Exposition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 9.

1. A Family in Motion

1. Milton M. Klein, ed., The Empire State: A History of New York (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001), 258.

2. Quoted in Thomas Pownell, A Topographical Description of the Dominions of the United States of America (1784; repr., Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1949), 170.

3. David M. Ellis et al., A History of New York State (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967), 150.

4. Klein, ed., The Empire State, 260–61.

5. Thomas K. McCraw, ed., Creating Modern Capitalism: How Entrepreneurs, Companies, and Countries Triumphed in Three Industrial Revolutions (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 31.

6. Ann Lee Bressler, The Universalist Movement in America to 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 21–22.

7. In order of their birth, the surviving children were: Royal Henry, Albert Benton, George Mortimer, James Minton, Charles (“Charley”) Lewis, Helen Augusta, Emily Caroline, and Frank William. Two others died in infancy. The patriarch of the clan, Lewis, was the only male member of the family not commonly known by two names. His given name was James Lewis, but unlike everyone else in his family, he went exclusively by his middle name. The matriarch, Emily Caroline Minton Pullman, became a dominant figure on the Pullman landscape after Lewis died, instilling in her children a strong sense of duty to the family and to each other.

2. Growing Up in the Great Lakes Region

1. The village of Corners would soon become Salem Cross Roads and then, after the Pullmans left, Brocton, its name today. The unlikely notion that the Pullman children attended school in either Canton or Clinton appeared in “Pullman, Builder of Sleeping Cars, Once a Resident of Grand Rapids,” Grand Rapids Sunday Herald, September 12, 1915.

2. Citing a letter written in 1895, George's biographer claims they were educated to at least the fourth grade in local schools, but like so many Pullman memories this one rested on stories told in later life: Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 16.

3. Thomas C. Hubka writes that “the frequency of moving major, existing buildings when recorded, staggers the imagination.” See Thomas C. Hubka, “The Connected Farm Buildings of Southwestern Maine,” Pioneer America 9, no. 2 (December 1, 1977): 172. See also William D. Walters Jr. and Jonathan Smith, “Woodland and Prairie Settlement in Illinois: 1830–70,” Forest & Conservation History 36, no. 1 (January 1992): 18; and Walter Hampton Adams, “Landscape Archaeology, Landscape History, and the American Farmstead,” Historical Archaeology 24, no. 4 (December 1990): 99.

4. Digest of Patents Issued by the United States, Including the Years 1839, 1840, and 1841 (Washington, DC: William Greer, 1842), 68.

5. Albert Benton Pullman (ABP) and George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) to Emily and Lewis Pullman (December 14, 1845), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), George Mortimer Pullman Papers (GMPP), Box 1, Folder 1.

6. James C. Whorton, Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 7 and 49–53.

7. John S. Haller Jr., The History of American Homeopathy: The Academic Years, 1820–1935 (New York: Pharmaceutical Products Press/Haworth Press, 2005), 39 and 45.

8. See, for example, “City Brevities,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, August 30, 1877.

9. Haller, The History of American Homeopathy, 61–65; Thomas Neville Bonner, Medicine in Chicago 1850–1950: A Chapter in the Social and Scientific Development of a City (1957; repr., Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 40.

10. For long-running efforts by allopathic practitioners to marginalize homeopathy, see Martin Kaufman, Homeopathy in America: The Rise and Fall of a Medical Heresy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971).

11. GMP to “Grandma” (December 14, 1845), CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1.

12. History of Crawford County, Pennsylvania (Chicago: Warner, Beers, 1885), 842; “Grew Up with City,” Grand Rapids Herald, December 3, 1906. Charles Bennett would become a leading Republican in the county.

13. GMP to Emily Pullman (October 9, 1860), CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1.

14. ABP to Emily and Lewis Pullman (August 27, 1852), CHM-ARC, Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) Papers, Box 2, Folder 1.

15. An example of his work, an intricate table made in 1856, can be found in the Grand Rapids Public Museum (https://grpmcollections.org/Search/Objects?search=140179; accessed July 5, 2024). See “Festive Exhibit Will Include Table Made by George Pullman,” Grand Rapids Press, June 26, 1936.

16. See Albert Baxter, History the City of Grand Rapids Michigan (New York: Munsell, 1891), 461; and Christian G. Carron, Grand Rapids Furniture: The Story of America's Furniture City (Grand Rapids, MI: Public Museum of Grand Rapids, 1998), 22.

17. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 22.

18. “Resolution of Renovation Lodge No. 7 of Albion NY on the Death of James Lewis Pullman” (November 1853), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 2, Folder 1.

19. Indenture (November 12, 1853), CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 2.

20. George N. Fuller, ed., Michigan: A Centennial History (Chicago: Lewis, 1939) 1, 547. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 24, noted that George was no craftsman because he “found it difficult to work with his hands.”

21. “Death of Mr. A. B. Pullman,” Grand Rapids Herald, December 21, 1893.

22. “Death of Mr. A. B. Pullman.”

23. “Pullman, Builder of Sleeping Cars, Once a Resident of Grand Rapids,” Grand Rapids Sunday Herald, September 12, 1915.

24. GMP to ECMP (January 30, 1859), CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1.

25. “Pullman, Builder of Sleeping Cars”; “Death of Mr. A. B. Pullman.”

26. Promissory Note (March 24, 1856); and Dwight Goss to J. W. Wixon, Chicago, Illinois (October 17, 1894), both in Bentley Historical Library, Lyon Family Papers.

27. GMP to ECMP (January 30, 1859), CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1; “Pullman, Builder of Sleeping Cars.”

28. Williams’ Grand Rapids Directory (Grand Rapids, MI: P. G. Hodenpyl, 1859).

29. GMP to Helen Pullman and ECMP (June 26, 1859), CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1; emphasis in original.

3. Early Ventures

1. Claude August Crommelin, A Young Dutchman Views Post-Civil War America: Diary of Claude August Crommelin, trans. Augustus J. Veenendaal Jr. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 37 (entry for May 29, 1866).

2. See, for example, Frederick Francis Cook, Bygone Days in Chicago (Chicago: A. A. McClurg, 1910), 369.

3. Adam Mack, Sensing Chicago: Noisemakers, Strikebreakers, and Muckrakers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015), 16–17.

4. Harold L. Platt, Shock Cities: The Environmental Transformation and Reform of Manchester and Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 122–125; Perry R. Duis, Challenging Chicago: Coping with Everyday Life, 1837–1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 5, 7–8, and 132.

5. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 26.

6. Gene V. Glendinning, The Chicago & Alton Railroad: The Only Way (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2002), 38.

7. “The Matteson House ‘Going Up,’” Chicago Daily Press and Tribune, February 28, 1859.

8. “Messrs. Pullman & Co.,” Chicago Daily Press and Tribune, May 17, 1859.

9. Cooke's Directory of Chicago (Chicago: D. B. Cooke, 1860), 429.

10. The block consisted of eight shops with offices and residences above the first floor, with the work divided among three firms coordinated by a consulting architect. “The New Building Raising Enterprise,” Chicago Press and Tribune, April 16, 1860; “The Great Building Raising,” May 12, 1860; Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 33.

11. Building movers continued to find employment in Chicago until at least 1923, enjoying a renaissance in the 1880s. See Duis, Challenging Chicago, 90–91. One building, the Clark House, was moved in 1872 to make way for St. Paul's Universalist Church, where Albert and Emily worshipped.

12. Richard Reinhardt, Workin’ on the Railroad: Reminiscences from the Age of Steam (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003), 295.

13. “Railroad Comforts,” Chicago Press and Tribune, July 11, 1859. Prefacing any type of food or drink with the adjective “railroad” was not meant as a compliment.

14. “Messrs. Pullman & Fields’ New Sleeping Car,” Chicago Press and Tribune, August 16, 1859.

15. Arthur Andrew Olson III, Forging the Bee Line Railroad, 1848–1889: The Rise and Fall of the Hoosier Partisans and Cleveland Clique (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2017), 81.

16. John H. White Jr., The American Railroad Passenger Car (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 210. Track width, called the “gauge,” usually came in a standard gauge of 4 feet 8½ inches, but some lines, including the Great Western of Canada, built to a wider (“broad”) gauge, 5 feet 6 inches in the case of the Great Western.

17. Glendinning, The Chicago & Alton Railroad, 55. Needless to say, threats of patent infringement suits followed.

18. White, The American Railroad Passenger Car, 213.

19. Appleton's Illustrated Railway and Steam Navigation Guide, July 1864 (New York: D. Appleton, 1864), 187.

20. Simon Cordery, The Iron Road in the Prairie State: The Story of Illinois Railroading (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016), 35–36.

21. Glendinning, The Chicago & Alton Railroad, 55.

22. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 39.

23. The standard work remains Wyatt Winton Belcher, The Economic Rivalry Between St. Louis and Chicago 1850–1880 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1947). For a reinterpretation of Belcher's analysis, see Wayne Duerkes, “A Valley So Sweet: Community and Market Development in the Antebellum Midwest” (PhD diss., Iowa State University, 2020).

24. See, for example, George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) to C. H. Moore (November 8, 1860), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), MSM 15,018–15,022, Small Collections, Charles H. Moore Business Papers, Box 3, Folder 4.

25. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 44–45; Robert Graham to GMP (May 15, 1860); GMP to C. H. Moore (September 9, 1863), CHM-ARC, MSM 15,018–15,022, Small Collections, Charles H. Moore Business Papers, Box 3, Folder 1 (May 15, 1860) and Folder 2 (September 9, 1863).

26. GMP to Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) (June 20, 1860), transcription, CHM-ARC, George Mortimer Pullman Papers (GMPP), Box 1, Folder 1.

27. “For Pike's Peak,” Chicago Press and Tribune, June 21, 1860.

28. GMP to ECMP (July 2, 1860), transcription, CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1. For the partnership with James Lyon, see Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 48.

29. GMP to ECMP (April 19, 1861), transcription, CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1.

30. 1860 United States Census, Inhabitants of the 2nd Ward of Grand Rapids (June 14, 1860), 97. Albert told the census taker he had personal effects worth $150 and a house valued at $1,000.

31. “The Tremont House Improvements,” Chicago Tribune, January 22, 1861.

32. William Robertson and W. F. Robertson, Our American Tour: Being a Run of Ten Thousand Miles from the Atlantic to the Golden Gate (Edinburgh: W. Burness, 1871), 55.

33. “One, Two, Three, and Up She Goes,” Chicago Tribune, February 26, 1861.

34. GMP to C. H. Moore (March 16, 1861), CHM-ARC, MSM 15,018–15,022, Small Collections, Charles H. Moore Business Papers, Box 3, Folder 4.

35. GMP to C. H. Moore (April 21, 1862) and GMP to C. H. Moore (June 13, 1862), CHM-ARC, MSM 15,018–15,022, Small Collections, Charles H. Moore Business Papers, Box 3, Folder 5.

36. GMP to ECMP (April 19, 1861), transcription, CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1.

37. C. C. Comstock, “Early Experiences and Personal Recollections” (1877), 10, Manuscript (MS), Grand Rapids Public Library; Frank Edward Ransom, The City Built on Wood: A History of the Furniture Industry in Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1850–1950 (Ann Arbor, MI: Edwards Brothers, 1955), 11.

38. M. B. Hayes to GMP (June 24, 1862), CHM-ARC, Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 4, Folder 9.

39. Albert Benton Pullman (ABP) to ECMP (November 14, 1862), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 2, Folder 2.

40. GMP to C. H. Moore (September 11, 1860), CHM-ARC, MSM 15,018–15,022, Small Collections, Charles H. Moore Business Papers, Box 3, Folder 5.

41. GMP to C. H. Moore (April 6, 1862), CHM-ARC, MSM 15,018–15,022, Small Collections, Charles H. Moore Business Papers, Box 3, Folder 6.

42. GMP to ECMP (February 11, 1862), transcription, CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1.

43. Benjamin Field to GMP (June 18, 1862), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 4.

44. ABP to GMP (January 8, 1863) and M. B. Hayes to GMP (January 22, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 4.

45. ABP to GMP (January 8, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9. In this case, it was the Peru and Indianapolis Railroad, which wanted to lease Pullman cars.

46. ABP to GMP (January 24, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9. Not to be confused with the Great Western of Canada, this Great Western was a predecessor of the Wabash Railroad.

47. M. B. Hayes to GMP (January 27, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9.

48. M. B. Hayes to GMP (February 3, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9.

49. ABP to GMP (February 10, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9.

50. See, for example, PPCC Form Letter, Annual Railroad Passes (December 12, 1872), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), President's Office Circulars, 01/01/04. Earlier passes do not exist, but this selection is indicative of the nature of Albert's work.

51. GMP to James Lyon (September 10, 1860), CHM-ARC, MSM 15,018–15,022, Small Collections, Charles H. Moore Business Papers, Box 3, Folder 2.

52. GMP to C. H. Moore (November 8, 1860), CHM-ARC, MSM 15,018–15,022, Small Collections, Charles H. Moore Business Papers, Box 3, Folder 4.

53. Real Estate Holdings (1890), NL, PCP, 01/01/01, Box 8, Folder 127, contains a map showing property “jointly owned by Mr. Pullman and Mr. Field.”

54. ABP to GMP (March 2, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 4, and GMP to ECMP (May 29, 1863), CHM-ARC, GMPP, Box 1, Folder 1. George purchased and insured one of Albert's former Randolph Street residences, as illustrated by a contract signed in 1874: NL, PCP, 01/01/01, Box 8, Folder 112.

4. Conductors and Porters

1. Albert Benton Pullman (ABP) to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (September 28, 1863), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 4, Folder 9.

2. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 84.

3. ABP to Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) (November 14, 1862), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 2, Folder 2.

4. Arnold Lewis, An Early Encounter with Tomorrow: Europeans, Chicago's Loop, and the World's Columbian Exposition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 67.

5. Royal Henry Pullman (RHP) to GMP (February 28, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 6, Folder 6.

6. Charles Lewis Pullman to ECMP (May 18, 1864), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 2, Folder 3.

7. Poster, “Eagle Gold Company, New York” (n.d.; ca. 1863), CHM-ARC, George Mortimer Pullman Papers (GMPP), Box 1, Folder 2; William Angell to GMP (April 4, 1865), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9.

8. Advertisement, Chicago Daily Tribune, January 15, 1864.

9. The law created a double-security arrangement whereby the federal government promised to redeem the notes of national banks at par and cancel the bonds while shareholders in national banks were liable to banknote holders for an amount equal to the par value of the bank's stock. Shareholders in national banks were required to pay their capital in full, and the banks were initially chartered for twenty years. See Benjamin J. Klebaner, American Commercial Banking: A History (Boston: Twayne, 1990), 64–65; and Naomi R. Lamoreaux, Insider Lending: Banks, Personal Connections, and Economic Developments in Industrial New England (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 90.

10. Sharon Murphy, Other People's Money: How Banking Worked in the Early American Republic (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), 161.

11. To take out a loan, a “principal” would take a “note” (which was simply a promise to repay a set sum in a specified time frame) on the bank. The banks would accept these notes at a discount, which meant they gave the bearer the amount requested less an interest charge but only if a third party promised to repay the note should the original borrower default. Borrowers would have to repay the full value of the note or, if they could not, accept a further “discount” to have the note renewed. The maturity date could be as little as two months from the date of the loan. See Lamoreaux, Insider Lending, 1–2.

12. M. B. Hayes to GMP (February 8, 1863) and ABP to GMP (February 10, 1863), both in CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 4.

13. “A Magnificent Sleeping Car,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 11, 1863.

14. Halpin and Bailey's City Directory (Chicago: Halpin & Bailey, 1863), 369; John C. W. Bailey's City Directory (Chicago: Bailey, 1864), 456.

15. For an example of the cards used to record passengers see CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 5, Folder 1. The card was a rectangle with numbers and lines indicating berths, which the conductor would circle when occupied.

16. Herbert O. Holderness, The Reminiscences of a Pullman Conductor: Or, Character Sketches of Life in a Pullman Car (Chicago: n.p., 1901), 196–97; “First Pullman Conductor Tells of Trip,” Santa Fe Magazine 16, no. 8 (July 1922): 20.

17. ABP to GMP (March 2, 1863), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 4; Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 46.

18. Stewart H. Holbrook, The Story of American Railroads (New York: Bonanza, 1947), 326.

19. Holderness, Reminiscences of a Pullman Conductor, 198.

20. George H. Douglas, All Aboard: The Railroad in American Life (New York: Paragon, 1992), 226.

21. Charles Nordhoff, “Travelling to California,” Chicago Tribune, June 5, 1871.

22. David Haward Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999), 304.

23. Stanley Buder, Pullman: An Experiment in Industrial Order and Community Planning 1880–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 17. On incorporation, see chapter 8 in this book.

24. See “Pullman's Porters,” San Francisco Morning Call, March 7, 1892.

25. Theodore Kornweibel Jr., Railroads in the African American Experience: A Photographic Journey (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 10. Kornweibel speculates that “George” was probably short for “George Pullman's boy.”

26. John R. Stilgoe, Metropolitan Corridor: Railroads and the American Scene (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983), 54.

27. A typical example, from Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 224, is “George Pullman, of course, began hiring ex-slaves as Pullman porters and conductors” (emphasis added). For the place of the Pullman car in American culture, see Julia H. Lee, The Racial Railroad (New York: New York University Press, 2022), 146–150. One exception to this general rule is found in Kornweibel, Railroads in the African American Experience, 113, who acknowledges that the question of whether George Pullman “coldly calculated” the value of ex-slaves as porters “cannot be definitively resolved.”

28. Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America 1925–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 5; William H. Harris, Keeping the Faith: A. Phillip Randolph, Milton P. Webster, and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 1925–37 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 1–2; Larry Tye, Rising from the Rails: Pullman Porters and the Making of the Black Middle Class (New York: Henry Holt, 2004), 2 and 23–25.

29. Joseph Husband, The Story of the Pullman Car (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1917), 155.

30. “Armory Court,” Chicago Tribune, September 14, 1869. That we know Carter's name is astonishing given the state of postbellum race relations. The first Pullman porter remains invisible to history, his name forgotten and the circumstances of his employment subject to speculation.

31. Holderness, Reminiscences of a Pullman Conductor, 206–8.

32. Eric Arnesen, Brotherhoods of Color: Black Railroad Workers and the Struggle for Equality (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 5 and 26. Arnesen, on page 17, acknowledges that the origin of the decision to employ Blacks as porters is unknown. For an excellent analysis of how the railroad labor unions enforced the color line, see Paul Michel Taillon, Good, Reliable, White Men: Railroad Brotherhoods, 1877–1917 (Urbana: University of Illinois, 2009).

33. This assertion is based on the lack of direct evidence of George being the individual who decided to hire Black men as porters and on Albert's working in the Pullman Company office and hiring a Black coachman early in his Chicago tenure. It was also Albert, not George, who worked with Robert Todd Lincoln to help Thomas L. Johnson gain an education in London and become a missionary in Africa in 1878. George naturally took full credit for hiring the formerly enslaved people, but that came later and as part of his campaign to shape the narrative of the Pullman story, and while Johnson in his memoir credits Albert and George, contemporary accounts only mention Albert. Later interviews with porters claim that George was the first person to hire Black porters, but these were repeating received wisdom. See Jack Santino, Miles of Smiles, Years of Struggle: Stories of Black Pullman Porters (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 6–7.

34. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 84.

35. Edwards’ Chicago City Directory for 1869 (Chicago: Richard Edwards, 1869), 697.

36. See Christopher R. Reed, “African American Life in Antebellum Chicago, 1833–1860,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 94, no. 4 (Winter 2001–2002): 372.

37. St. Louis Journal, January 31, 1867, clipping in Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 12/00/01, Pullman Scrapbooks, Vol. 2.

38. “A London Negro on the Race in America,” New Haven (CT) Morning Journal and Courier, January 31, 1887; “Thomas L. Johnson,” New-York Tribune, February 13, 1887; Thomas L. Johnson, Born Three Times: The Memoirs of an African-American Missionary Who Finds True Liberation in Europe, ed. Paul D. Sporer (1909; repr. Chester, NY: Anza, 2005), 42 and 132.

5. Pioneer and Pullman Mythmaking

1. The development of sleeping cars is well documented in John H. White Jr., The American Railroad Passenger Car (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 202–16; and Joe Welsh and Bill Howes, Travel by Pullman: A Century of Service (St. Paul, MN: MBI, 2004), 21. For the snoring, see “Fern-Leaf on Her Travels,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 1, 1877.

2. “St. Louis & Alton Railroad,” Chicago Daily Tribune, January 27, 1865.

3. Gene V. Glendinning, The Chicago & Alton Railroad: The Only Way (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2002), 72–73.

4. Transcript of an Interview with G. M. Pullman, 1897, Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 01/01/01, Box 8, Folder 113.

5. “Lincoln's Funeral Train,” NL, PCP, 09/03/00, History Files, Box 1, Folder 53.

6. Charles Long, “Pioneer and the Lincoln Funeral Train: How ‘Honest Abe’ Was Used to Create a Corporate Tall Tale,” Railroad History 186 (Spring 2002), 88–100; Glendinning, The Chicago & Alton Railroad, 72–73. Liston Leyendecker also casts doubt on the veracity of this story. See Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 77.

7. Thomas Curtis Clarke et al., The American Railway: Its Construction, Development, Management, and Appliances (New York: Charles Scribner's, 1889), 274–76.

8. Joseph Husband, The Story of the Pullman Car (Chicago: McClurg, 1917), 33–34. The staying power of this myth can be seen in its published use as late as 2001. See Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America 1925–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 20–21; and the Pullman Museum official website: https://www.pullman-museum.org/theCompany/.

9. Long, “Pioneer and the Lincoln Funeral Train,” 96–97; and Glendinning, The Chicago & Alton Railroad, 72–73, both reached the same conclusion simultaneously and independently, publishing their findings in 2002. A quarter of a century earlier, John H. White expressed doubts about the story because “it seems unlikely that so practical a man as Pullman would have intentionally built an oversized vehicle.” See White, The American Railroad Passenger Car, 248. Unlikely indeed.

10. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 76.

11. Bloomington (IL) Daily Pantograph, May 29, 1865, n.p.; clipping in NL, PCP, 12/00/01, Pullman Scrapbooks, vol. 1.

12. Reports from the Alton, St. Louis, Springfield, and Bloomington newspapers are pasted into one of the scrapbooks maintained by Pullman. The stories repeat essentially the same details, reading collectively like public relations announcements. See NL, PCP, 12/00/01, Pullman Scrapbooks, vol. 1.

13. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 76–77.

14. “Comfort for Travelers,” New York Times, April 18, 1867; Pullman's Palace Car Company (PPCC) Board Minutes (July 31, 1867), NL, PCP, 02/01/02, vol. 1, book A.

15. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 80.

16. Claude August Crommelin, A Young Dutchman Views Post–Civil War America: Diary of Claude August Crommelin, trans. Augustus J. Veenendaal Jr. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 36 (entry for May 28, 1866).

6. Drummer in a Palace Car

1. John F. Stover, The History of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1987), 37.

2. Arthur Andrew Olson III, Forging the Bee Line Railroad, 1848–1889: The Rise and Fall of the Hoosier Partisans and Cleveland Clique (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2017), 63–66; quote on 65.

3. “Messers. Pullman & Field's New Sleeping Car,” Chicago Press and Tribune, August 17, 1859.

4. One later report claims that “Pullman's brother, Albert, was aboard it as conductor and porter.” See “Magic City of the West,” Yankton, Dakota Territory, Press and Daily Dakotaian, August 16, 1886.

5. Chicago newspaper editor Edwin H. Trafton remembers Albert walking into his office to announce his imminent departure for England. See “Some Dinners I Have Eaten,” Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly 20, no. 2 (August 1885): 143. Such nonchalance suggests a familiarity with newspaper offices, which would have served Albert and the Pullman Company well.

6. Eugene H. Cropsey, Crosby's Opera House: Symbol of Chicago's Cultural Awakening (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1999), 59. A visit to Kinsley's was worth recording for posterity. See Claude August Crommelin, A Young Dutchman Views Post-Civil War America: Diary of Claude August Crommelin, trans. Augustus J. Veenendaal Jr. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 41 (entry for June 7, 1866).

7. “Sleeping Cars,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 21, 1866.

8. Cecelia Tichi, What Would Mrs. Astor Do? The Essential Guide to the Manners and Mores of the Gilded Age (New York: New York University Press, 2018), 135

9. Western railroad companies used similar tactics when they courted agents to bring large groups of settlers from Europe to populate their land grants in the 1870s and 1880. See Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: Railroads in the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 246–47.

10. Chicago Railway Review, May 21, 1869, clipping in Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 12/00/01, Pullman Scrapbooks, vol. 2.

11. “Chairmen of Sub-Committees,” The Voice of the Fair, April 27, 1865.

12. David Van Tassel, with John Vacha, “Behind Bayonets:” The Civil War in Northern Ohio (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2006), 74.

13. “Fair Gossip,” The Voice of the Fair, June 21, 1865.

14. “Soldiers’ Aid Fair,” Chicago Tribune, July 15, 1867.

15. “The Soldiers’ Fair,” Chicago Tribune, October 25, 1867. The quotation is from an editorial in Chicago Tribune, October 13, 1867.

16. “The Soldiers’ Fair,” Chicago Tribune, November 14, 1867.

17. “Estimate of Receipts,” Chicago Tribune, November 22, 1867; Frank A. Randall, History of the Development of Building Construction in Chicago, 2nd ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 55–56.

18. “The Southern Loyalists,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 2, 1866.

19. St. Louis Journal, January 31, 1867, n.p., in NL, PCP, 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 1.

20. Cropsey, Crosby's Opera House, 193.

21. Royal Henry Pullman (RHP) to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (December 12, 1893), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 5, Folder 3. For a description of the organs in Pullman cars, see “Cabinet Organs for the Pullman Palace Cars,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 1, 1870.

22. Chicago Republican, March 22, 1867, n.p., in NL, PCP, 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 1.

23. John Erastus Lester, The Atlantic to the Pacific: What to See and How to See It (London: Longmans, 1873), 33.

24. “The Railroad Excursionists,” Chicago Tribune, June 12, 1867.

25. “Return of Excursionists from Niagara Falls,” Chicago Tribune, October 7, 1867. This was the National General Ticket Agents Association. See H. Roger Grant, The Station Agent and the American Railroad Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2022), 42.

26. “From Chicago to the Rocky Mountains,” Chicago Tribune, October 17, 1867.

27. Emma Pullman to Helen Pullman (January 7, 1868), CHM-ARC, Fluhrer Family Papers (FFP), Box 1, Folder 1.

28. “The Railroad Excursion,” Chicago Tribune, January 9, 1867. Other cars built before Pioneer were renamed later, including Springfield, originally Car 40. See Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 75.

29. Keokuk (IA) Gate City, May 9, 1867, n.p., in NL, PCP, 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 1.

30. “Modern Travel,” Chicago Tribune, July 11, 1867.

31. For the barber, see “The Railroad Excursion,” Chicago Tribune, January 9, 1867.

32. “From Albany to Chicago,” Chicago Tribune, June 6, 1867.

33. Menahem Blondheim, News Over the Wires: The Telegraph and the Flow of Public Information in America, 1844–1897 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 15.

34. Sidney Kobre, The Development of American Journalism (Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown, 1969), 362–63; Frank Luther Mott, American Journalism: A History of Newspapers in the United States Through 250 Years (1941; repr. London: Routledge, 2000), 2 and 488–90.

35. Ted Curtis Smythe, The Gilded Age Press, 1865–1900 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 72.

36. See, for example, “The Pullman Sleeping Car Company” (ca. 1875), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 5, Folder 1.

37. “Luxurious Travel,” Chicago Tribune, May 21, 1876.

38. “Travelling a Luxury,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, September 22, 1876.

39. “Luxuries of Modern Travel,” American Railroad Journal 25, no. 2 (February 27, 1869): 254; Richard S. Simons and Francis Parker, Railroads of Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 242 and 244.

40. Emily Buchnea, “Networks and Clusters in Business History,” in The Routledge Companion to Business History, ed. John F. Wilson et al. (New York: Routledge, 2017), 262–63.

7. Into the Great Western Desert

1. “Group of Distinguished Guests of U.P.R.R. at 100th Meridian,” Special Collections and Archives, University of Utah, J. Willard Marriott Library, Salt Lake City, Utah, John Carbutt Photograph Collection, P0328, Box 1. Folder 2, image 221. An account of Carbutt's role in this excursion is to be found in William Brey, John Carbutt on the Frontiers of Photography (Cherry Hill, NJ: Willowdale, 1984), chap. 5. For the work of another early photographer who traveled west like Carbutt, see James Sherow and John R. Charlton, Railroad Empire across the Heartland: Rephotographing Alexander Gardner's Westward Journey (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014). The history of photography on the Transcontinental railroad is covered in Glenn Willumson, Iron Muse: Photographing the Transcontinental Railroad (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013).

2. Few railroads have been subjected to the extensive scrutiny of the first transcontinental. For a typically positive take, see John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Time Books, 1988); and Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like it in the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000). Few historians have been as caustic as Richard White, who argued that the transcontinentals were built for personal gain by greedy investors with little or no concern for the long-term interests of the republic. As he wrote, the overbuilding of railroads west of the Missouri River resulted in “an overcapitalized, speculative, corrupt, and increasingly unsteady system”: Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: Norton, 2011), 215.

3. On this topic, see Jennifer Raab, “Panoramic Vision, Telegraphic Language: Selling the American West, 1869–1884,” Journal of American Studies 47, no. 2 (September 2013): 504–11. These trains traveled to Council Bluffs on the Chicago & North Western Railroad, cementing that line's reputation as the natural road to connect with the Union Pacific, even though, by 1882, three other railroads would meet in Council Bluffs: the Rock Island (1869), the Wabash (1879), and the Chicago & St. Paul (1882).

4. David Haward Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999), 290.

5. William G. Thomas, The Iron Road: Railroads, the Civil War, and the Making of Modern America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 204.

6. “Union Pacific Railroad Excursion,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 18, 1866. The first leg of the 1866 excursion carried 105 people to the Windy City. Chicago was then, and remains to this day, a terminus for trains from east and west. Amtrak passengers seeking to cross the continent must change from one train to another in Chicago.

7. “Union Pacific Railroad Excursionists,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 20, 1866. Carbutt's photographs of the excursion provide one of the earliest records of westward railroad expansion and formed the official record of the excursion. Adrienne Evans, “Glass Plate Negatives: Part 1,” Railroad Heritage 61 (2020): 12. Carbutt himself would gain international renown photographing the August 1869 eclipse at Mount Pleasant, Iowa.

8. “Union Pacific Railroad Excursionists,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 19, 1866.

9. Silas Seymour, Incidents of a Trip through the Great Platte Valley, to the Rocky Mountains and Laramie Falls (New York: Van Nostrand, 1867), 75; “Union Pacific Railroad Excursionists,” Chicago Tribune, October 20, 1866.

10. “From Omaha,” Chicago Tribune, October 24, 1866.

11. “Great Pacific Railroad Excursion,” Chicago Tribune, October 29, 1866; Rebekah Crowe, “A Madman and a Visionary: George Francis Train, Speculation, and the Territorial Development of the Great Plains,” Great Plains Quarterly 34, no. 1 (Winter 2014): 47.

12. John R. Stevens and Alan W. Brotchie, Pioneers of the Street Railway (Catrine, Scotland: Stenlake, 2014), 66–78 and 123.

13. For Credit Mobilier, see White, Railroaded, 26–36.

14. Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862–1893 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1987), 75.

15. “From Omaha,” Chicago Tribune, October 24, 1866; Seymour, Incidents of a Trip, 28–30 and 100.

16. “Union Pacific Railroad Excursion,” Chicago Tribune, October 27, 1866; Brey, John Carbutt on the Frontiers of Photography, 47.

17. This sorry tale of deception and theft has been oft told, but rarely as well as Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: Railroads in the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977).

18. For an analysis of the role of railroads in settling the West, see Jason E. Pierce, Making the White Man's West: Whiteness and the Creation of the American West (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2016).

19. W. L. Humason, From the Atlantic Surf to the Golden Gate: First Trip on the Great Pacific Rail Road (Hartford, CT: William C. Hutchings, 1869), 11. For a history of the Pawnee and the Union Pacific, see Mark Van de Logt, War Party in Blue: Pawnee Scouts in the US Army (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010), chap. 4.

20. “The Great Pacific Excursion,” Chicago Tribune, October 29, 1866 (quotation). See Bain, Empire Express, 294; Robert A. Carter, Buffalo Bill Cody: The Man behind the Legend (New York: Wiley, 2000), 130; and Joy S. Kasson, Buffalo Bill's Wild West: Celebrity, Memory, and Popular History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000), 168.

21. “The Great Pacific Excursion,” Chicago Tribune, October 29, 1866.

22. Kasson, Buffalo Bill's Wild West, 230.

23. Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow, 154–55.

24. “From Chicago to the Rocky Mountains,” Chicago Tribune, October 18, 1867.

25. “The Editorial Excursion,” Chicago Tribune, October 19, 1867.

26. “Editorial Excursion to the Rocky Mountains,” Prairie Farmer, November 2, 1867.

27. Jeri Quinzio, Food on the Rails: The Golden Era of Railroad Dining (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014), 22–23.

28. Delmonico's opened in 1862 in a converted mansion, the type of ambiance Pullman sought to replicate. See Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 436–437 and 879; and David S. Shields, The Culinarians: Lives and Careers from the First Age of American Fine Dining (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017), 104–5.

29. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 87–88; Quinzio, Food on the Rails, 24–29.

30. “The Delmonico,” Chicago Tribune, March 30, 1868; James D. Porterfield, Dining by Rail: The History and Recipes of America's Golden Age of Railroad Cuisine (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1993), 44–48.

31. Proceedings of the Wisconsin Editors’ & Publishers’ Association (Madison: Wisconsin Editorial Association, 1869), 50; “The Editorial Excursion,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, June 29, 1868.

32. Porterfield, Dining by Rail, 44.

33. Shareholders’ Minutes (January 31, 1870), 100, Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 02/01/02, vol. 1, Box A.

8. Incorporation and Monopoly

1. Of the original one thousand Pullman's Palace Car Company (PPCC) shares, George bought half (five hundred, worth $50,000) and the other six directors purchased either fifty or one hundred each.

2. PPCC Charter and Bylaws (February 22, 1867), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 4, Folder 14, and PPCC Board Minutes (March 30, 1867), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 02/01/02, vol. 1, Book A. Benjamin and Pearce co-owned a Chicago hotel, Crerar was president of a railroad-supply company, Harris was general superintendent of the Chicago, Burlington, & Quincy (CB&Q), Sargent was an officer of the Michigan Central Railroad, and Williams was a lawyer. The first board of directors was constituted from July 15, 1867: see PPCC Lists of Directors, NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 2, Folder 99c.

3. As the scholar Miriam Thaggert documented, this would include Pullman maids after the Great War. Miriam Thaggert, Riding Jane Crow: African American Women on the American Railroad (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2022), chap. 4.

4. PPCC Board Minutes (November 1, 1867), NL, PCP, 02/01/02, vol. 1, Book A. Though not insignificant, it pales in comparison with the first dividend of 105 percent that John D. Rockefeller Sr., declared for Standard Oil. See Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (New York: Random House, 1998), 133.

5. Joseph D. Weeks, Report on the Statistics of Wages in the Manufacturing Industries (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1886), 429.

6. Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 1046

7. Share Certificate Receipt Book (1867–1868), NL, PCP, 02/01/08, vol. 44.

8. “The Council,” Chicago Tribune, August 25, 1868.

9. Horace Grant to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (February 7, 1871) and (April 14, 1871), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 5, Folder 2.

10. “The Thousand Islands,” New York Times, August 21, 1892, see figure 3 in this book.

11. Joseph Frazier Wall, Andrew Carnegie (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 204–5. The quotation, found on page 204, is taken from Carnegie's autobiography.

12. David Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie (New York: Penguin, 2006), 108–10.

13. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 101–3.

14. For an example of Andrew Carnegie's driving the merger, see Carnegie to GMP, Telegraph (January 18, 1871), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 5, Folder 1. For individual shareholdings, see NL, PCP, 02/01/08, vol. 34, File 14.

15. Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862–1893 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1987), 269–76. The Pennsylvania executives were Scott and Thomson.

16. Indenture (January 1, 1870), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9.

17. See PPCC Lists of Directors (February 1, 1870), NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 2, Folder 99c.

18. Minutes, PPCC Shareholders Meeting (January 31, 1870), NL, PCP, 02/01/02, vol. 1, Book A, 100–103.

19. “Brief Jottings,” Portland (ME) Daily Press, May 17, 1871.

20. “An Improvement in Sleeping Cars,” Railroad Gazette 2, no. 49 (December 9, 1871): 382.

21. Gerald M. Best, “Pullman's Board of Trade Special: The Train That Came Down Market Street,” Railroad History 135 (Fall 1976): 81.

22. Barbara Lekisch, Embracing Scenes about Lakes Tahoe and Donner: Painters, Illustrators and Sketch Artists, 1855–1915 (Lafayette, CA: Great West, 2003), 10.

23. “Accident on the Union Pacific Railroad,” Chicago Tribune, February 12, 1870.

24. Clippings from San Francisco Daily Morning Call, July 9, 1870; and Chicago Railway Review, July 14, 1870, NL, PCP, 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 2.

25. Lord Rosebery's North American Journal—1873, ed. A. R. C. Grant and Caroline Combe (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1967), 58.

26. See, for example, Mrs. Frank [Miriam] Leslie, California: A Pleasure Trip from Gotham to the Golden Gate (New York: Carleton, 1877), 44. At least one traveler found virtue in gentle rides at slow speeds; see Henry T. Williams, The Pacific Tourist: Williams’ Illustrated Guide (New York: Henry T. Williams, 1876), 9.

27. Lloyd Tevis to GMP (July 4, 1870), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9.

28. On Tevis, see A. L. Stimson, History of the Express Business (New York: Baker & Godwin, 1881), 263–65.

29. For example, see Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: Railroads in the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 163.

30. The Annual Review of the Trade and Commerce of the City of Chicago (Chicago: Chicago Tribune, 1870), 151.

31. W. Fraser Rae, Westward by Rail: The New Route to the East, 2nd ed. (1871; repr., New York: Arno, 1973), 190–91.

32. “A London Parson,” To San Francisco and Back (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, n.d.), 43.

33. W. L. Humason, From the Atlantic Surf to the Golden Gate: First Trip on the Great Pacific Rail Road (Hartford, CT: William C. Hutchings, 1869), 53.

34. Shortall & Hoard to GMP (December 23, 1865), NL, PCP, 02/01/06, Box 91, Folder 591.

35. Alice E. Reagan, H. I. Kimball, Entrepreneur (Atlanta, GA: Cherokee Publishing, 1983), 8–10.

36. John H. White, The American Railroad Passenger Car (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 252–53; Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 81.

37. “Pullman and the Civil Rights Bill,” Ruby City (ID) Owyhee Avalanche, May 7, 1875.

38. “The Civil Rights Act and the Pullman Sleeping Cars,” Macon (GA) Georgia Weekly Telegraph, April 6, 1875.

39. “It is now admitted … ,” Galveston (TX) Daily News, May 23, 1875; “Since Ladies and Gentleman … ,” Raymond (MS) Hinds County Gazette, April 21, 1875.

40. “Mr. Pullman,” Lansing (MI) Semi-Weekly Republican, April 23, 1875.

41. For a useful overview of this controversy, see Leslie H. Fishel Jr., “The African-American Experience,” in The Gilded Age: Perspectives on the Origins of Modern America, ed. Charles W. Calhoun (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007), 146–47.

42. H. Roger Grant, A Mighty Fine Road: A History of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad Company (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2020), 52 and 55.

43. Inventory of Pullman Cars (1872), NL, PCP, 03/04/04, vol. 1, 236. The regional breakdown by division was Chicago, 197; Central 153; Southern 23; Pacific 19; and “Wild,” or unassigned, 45.

44. Emma Pullman, Diary (April 21, 1875), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

9. From Sea to Shining Sea

1. For the building of the original Panama Railroad, see David McCullough, The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 35–36. For its reconstruction, see Julie Greene, The Canal Builders: Making America's Empire at the Panama Canal (New York: Penguin, 2009), 42 and 54.

2. Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862–1893 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1987), 268.

3. W. L. Humason, From the Atlantic Surf to the Golden Gate: First Trip on the Great Pacific Rail Road (Hartford, CT: William C. Hutchings, 1869), 22–24.

4. “The Pacific Railroad,” Harper's Weekly 648 (May 29, 1869): 341–42.

5. “Across the Continent,” New York Times, June 28, 1869.

6. “The Pullman Palace Train,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, June 12, 1869.

7. “California,” Hartford (CT) Daily Courant, June 11, 1869.

8. “Across the Continent,” Chicago Tribune, June 28, 1869; “Across the Continent,” New York Times, June 28, 1869.

9. “News of the Week,” Prairie Farmer, July 24, 1869; “A Through Car to the Pacific Ocean,” New York Times, July 28, 1869.

10. “From the Pacific,” New York Times, July 25, 1869.

11. “Our California Visitors,” Chicago Tribune, September 18, 1869.

12. W. Fraser Rae, Westward by Rail: The New Route to the East, 2nd ed. (1871; repr., New York: Arno, 1973), 45–46.

13. Stewart H. Holbrook, The Story of American Railroads (New York: Bonanza, 1947), 348; Boston Board of Trade, Seventeenth Annual Report (Boston: Barker, Cotter, 1871), 99 and 133.

14. Tickets in Massachusetts Historical Society, James Wheaton Bliss Collection, Bliss Family Papers (1864–1879), Ms. N-2460. Rhode Island lawyer John Erastus Lester estimated that his 1872 journey following much the same route west but returning east via Colorado instead of Nebraska cost a total of around $1,200, of which $286 was expended on train tickets and another $32 on the Pullman supplement. See John Erastus Lester, The Atlantic to the Pacific: What to See and How to See It (London: Longmans, 1873), 178.

15. Byron de Wolfe, “Excursion to the Pacific!” Poster [1869], Massachusetts Historical Society: https://www.masshist.org/database/viewer.php?item_id=2718&mode=large&img_step=1&.

16. Gerald M. Best, “Pullman's Board of Trade Special: The Train That Came Down Market Street,” Railroad History 135 (Fall 1976): 83 and 87.

17. “The Boston Excursion to the Pacific,” New York Times, May 22, 1870; “Across the Continent,” Chicago Tribune, May 24, 1870; “The Boston Excursion,” Vermont Watchman, May 25, 1870.

18. Board of Trade, Seventeenth Annual Report, 100 and 102–3. The board report of the excursion recorded how “in almost every instance” the Pullman express gained the right of way.

19. Board of Trade, Seventeenth Annual Report, 99–100. Overheated journal boxes were a perennial problem, as travelers often discovered. One traveler crossing the continent by train in 1869 found his service to Omaha delayed by five hours when the journal box on a new Pullman car caught fire, causing him to miss his connection west. See “A London Parson,” To San Francisco and Back (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, n.d.), 32–33 and 43. For another example, see Humason, From the Atlantic Surf to the Golden Gate, 14.

20. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 107. The misconception that George and not Albert led the excursion is a common one. See, for example, Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: Railroads in the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 164.

21. Board of Trade, Seventeenth Annual Report, 109.

22. For accounts for the journey in 1869, see Humason, From the Atlantic Surf to the Golden Gate, 25–26; William Robertson and W. F. Robertson, Being a Run of Ten Thousand Miles from the Atlantic to the Golden Gate, in the Autumn of 1869 (Edinburgh: W. Burness, 1871), 71 (quotations); and “A London Parson,” To San Francisco and Back, 112. Regular service over the Utah Central between Salt Lake City and Ogden began in 1870. See David Walker, Railroading Religion: Mormons, Tourists, and the Corporate Spirit of the West (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), 115.

23. Walker, Railroading Religion, 168.

24. Notice, Trans-Continental, May 30, 1870, Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 4.

25. “Our Candid Opinion,” Trans-Continental, May 31, 1870, CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4.

26. “The Excursionists,” Elko (NV) Independent, June 1, 1870; “Rough on Boston,” Elko (NV) Independent June 1, 1870.

27. “The Boston Excursion Party,” Sacramento Daily Union, June 1, 1870.

28. Board of Trade, Seventeenth Annual Report, 113.

29. Best, “Pullman's Board of Trade Special,” 88–90; “The Pullman Palace Train,” Daily Alta California, June 4, 1870.

30. Peter A. Hansen, Don L. Hofsommer, and Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, Crossroads of a Continent: Missouri Railroads, 1851–1921 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2021), 67.

31. “The Union of the Oceans,” Wheeling (WV) Daily Intelligencer, June 9, 1870.

32. Mrs. Frank [Miriam] Leslie, California: A Pleasure Trip from Gotham to the Golden Gate (New York: Carleton, 1877), 124.

33. “The California Failures,” New York Times, August 29, 1875; “Ralston's Suicide,” Chicago Tribune, August 29, 1875.

34. “The Pullman Palace Train,” Daily Alta California, June 4, 1870.

35. Board of Trade, Seventeenth Annual Report, 127.

36. Board of Trade, Seventeenth Annual Report, 129–31.

37. “Boston Board of Trade Excursion,” Daily Alta California, September 16, 1870.

38. Board of Trade, Seventeenth Annual Report, 81.

39. Trans-Continental, May 24, 1870, CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4.

10. Network Building

1. Emily Buchnea, “Networks and Clusters in Business History,” in The Routledge Companion to Business History, ed. John F. Wilson et al. (New York: Routledge, 2017), 259–62 and 268 (quotations on 259).

2. Pamela Walker Laird, Pull: Networking and Success since Benjamin Franklin (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 22. The economics of networking in an industrial location are examined in Robert Lewis, “Networks and the Industrial Metropolis: Chicago's Calumet District, 1870–1940,” in Industrial Cities: History and Future, ed. Clemens Zimmerman (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2013), 89–114. See also David Hancock, “The Trouble with Networks: Managing the Scots’ Early-Modern Madeira Trade,” Business History Review 79, no.3 (Autumn 2005): 467–91.

3. A canal contractor and colonel in the Michigan militia, Stewart fought in the Black Hawk War of 1836 and settled in Illinois to build sections of the Illinois & Michigan Canal, for which he went into a partnership with James Y. Sanger, George Pullman's future father-in-law. See Album of Genealogy and Biography Cook County, Illinois (Chicago: Calumet Book and Engraving, 1896), 9. Stewart was called to testify before an Illinois Board of Commissioners investigation, but no charges were laid against him. See Reports Made to the General Assembly of Illinois (Springfield: Lanphier and Walker, 1857), 24.

4. Albert helped Sanger Junior find employment as cashier at the Central National Bank, recruiting him away from George's Third National Bank. James M. Sanger died in September 1877 at the age of thirty-three. “Funeral Notice,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, September 24, 1877; “In Memoriam,” Chicago Tribune, September 26, 1877.

5. Perry R. Duis, Challenging Chicago: Coping with Everyday Life, 1837–1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 147; David S. Shields, The Culinarians: Lives and Careers from the First Age of American Fine Dining (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017), 224.

6. Lord Rosebery's North American Journal—1873, ed. A. R. C. Grant and Caroline Combe (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1967), 58.

7. Mrs. Frank [Miriam] Leslie, California: A Pleasure Trip from Gotham to the Golden Gate (New York: Carleton, 1877), 27.

8. See, for example, “A Gastronomic Triumph,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 12, 1877.

9. Elisabeth S. Clemens, Civic Gifts: Voluntarism and the Making of the American Nation-State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2020), chap. 3.

10. “The Editorial Convention,” Watertown (WI) Republican, July 15, 1868; “Royal Railroading,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, June 16, 1877.

11. 1870 United States Census, Inhabitants of the 12th Ward of Chicago (July 15, 1870), 249.

12. “Orphan Asylum,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 11, 1874; “The Orphans,” Chicago Tribune, December 26, 1876; Stranger's Guide to the City of Chicago (Chicago: Knight & Leonard, 1874), 55.

13. See, for example, “The City,” Chicago Tribune, July 18, 1875; and “The Protestant Orphan Asylum,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, July 2, 1879.

14. For an early Chicago example, see Ann Durkin Keating, The World of Juliette Kinzie: Chicago Before the Fire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019), 5.

15. “The Orphans,” Chicago Tribune, January 7, 1880; “The Protestant Orphans,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 8, 1880.

16. “The Mineola Masquerade,” Chicago Tribune, March 15, 1872; “Weddings,” Chicago Tribune, January 3, 1875.

17. Laird, Pull, 32.

18. See “The Jennings Laundry,” Chicago Tribune, August 15, 1885, where Jennings writes that he opened the laundry in 1867.

19. The Legislative Almanac for the State of New-York for 1861 (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1861), 246; Ebenezer Jennings, Patent number 89,772, “Patents and Claims for the Week Ending 27 October 1868,” Scientific American (November 11, 1868): 315.

20. The Jennings facility was located on West Randolph Street, just a few blocks from the Pullman offices. For Albert's share sale, see “Business Chances,” Chicago Tribune, August 20, 1869. Albert did not sell Pullman Company shares, if PPCC registers are any guide, and the identity of the firm remains a mystery.

21. See Edwards’ Chicago City Directory for 1867 (Chicago: Richard Edwards, 1867), 28; Edwards’ Fourteenth Annual Directory of the … City of Chicago … for 1871 (Chicago: Richard Edwards, 1871); Advertisement, “Soaps,” Chicago Tribune, November 30, 1871; James Dredge, A Record of the Transportation Exhibits at the World's Columbian Exposition (New York: Wiley, 1894), 73; Inland Architect and News Record (February 1894): 1.

22. “Local Items,” Chicago Tribune, April 11, 1874; “Fires,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 12, 1874; “Losses by Fire,” New York Times, April 12, 1874.

23. Manufacturing Department, Cash Book (July 1881–March 1882), passim, NL, PCP, 07/00/05, vol. 15.

24. John Erastus Lester, The Atlantic to the Pacific: What to See and How to See It (London: Longmans, 1873), 21.

25. “Sleeping Car Laundry Bills,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 19, 1879. This article suggested Pullman was more interested in cleanliness than Wagner, whose laundry bills did not match Pullman's on a per-car basis. By the 1890s, Pullman laundries cleaned over 33 million pieces annually. See “The Development of the Sleeping Car,” Manufacturer and Builder 26, no. 8 (August 1894): 177.

26. Laird, Pull, 28.

27. Advertisement, Chicago Tribune, March 28, 1876. For the inventory expansion, see “Real Estate,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 15, 1878.

28. Benjamin Homans, ed., The Banker's Almanac and Register for 1878 (New York: Banker's Magazine, 1878), xxii; “Matrimonial,” Chicago Tribune, May 13, 1877.

29. Advertisement, Chicago Tribune, March 28, 1884.

30. “The Jennings Laundry,” Chicago Tribune, August 15, 1885.

31. “Ebenezer Jennings,” New York Times, October 23, 1911.

32. “Pullman, Builder of Sleeping Cars, Once a Resident of Grand Rapids,” Grand Rapids, MI, Sunday Herald, September 12, 1915.

33. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1880 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1881), 45.

34. “Across the Continent,” Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper 1,134 (August 25, 1877): 421–23, with illustrations on 417, 420, and 421; “Editorial Letters,” Railroad Gazette 9, no. 44 (November 15, 1878): 554–55; “The Allen Paper Wheels,” Railway Age Monthly 1, no. 8 (August 1880): 473. For a history of the paper wheel, see Helena E. Wright, “George Pullman and the Allen Paper Car Wheel,” Technology and Culture 33, no. 4 (October 1992): 757–68.

35. See “Elections and Appointments,” Railroad Gazette 3, no. 37 (September 30, 1871): 302; and “A Very Important Invention,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, April 25, 1872.

36. “Illinois,” Chicago Tribune, September 29, 1870. The company claimed an initial capitalization of $6 million. See “Articles of Incorporation,” Rock Island (IL) Evening Argus, September 29, 1870.

37. J. W. Street received patent number 4,340 for his “Cattle Car.” See Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1871 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1872), 445.

38. Dominic A. Pacyga, Slaughterhouse: Chicago's Union Stock Yard and the World It Made (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), chap. 2; Donald L. Miller, City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), 116–17.

39. “Shipment of Cattle,” Cleveland Daily Herald, August 12, 1870.

40. “Live Stock Shipper,” Chicago Tribune, September 2, 1870; “Live Stock Shipper,” Chicago Tribune, October 15, 1870.

41. “Elections and Appointments,” Railroad Gazette 3, no. 37 (September 30, 1871): 302.

42. “Mandamus Issued,” Chicago Tribune, October 2, 1871.

43. Montgomery Palace Stock Car v. Street Stable Car Line, Illinois Supreme Court (June 20, 1892), in Northeastern Reporter 31 (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1892): 435.

44. “The Law Courts,” Chicago Tribune, January 29, 1873.

45. John H. White Jr., The American Railroad Freight Car: From the Wood-Car Era to the Coming of Steel (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 262. Clearly unaware of the earlier venture, White erroneously labels Street “a relative latecomer to the palace cattle car business” (262). Street prospered for a few years but died in 1889, and his company subsequently lost a series of patent infringement suits. See Reports of Cases at Law and in Chancery Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Illinois, 142 (Springfield, IL: Norman L. Freeman, 1893): 315–31. For Mather, see Alonzo C Mather, Practical Thoughts of a Businessman (Chicago: Alonzo C. Mather, 1893), 79–81.

46. This particular aspect of networking is highlighted in Niall Ferguson, The Square and the Tower: Networks and Power from the Freemasons to Facebook (New York: Penguin, 2018). See also Laird, Pull, 151, for a short discussion of fraternal orders and social clubs as pathways to careers for selected men.

47. “La Fayette Chapter No. 2, R.A.M.,” American Tyler, July 21, 1894. For Parmelee and Pullman, see “Announcements,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, July 12, 1875.

48. This gathering, officially called a conclave, was “held at their Asylum.” See “Resolutions by Apollo Commandery,” Chicago Tribune, September 19, 1868.

49. Seventeenth Annual Conclave of the Grand Commandery of Knights Templar of the State of Illinois. Cleveland Lodge, No. 211, City of Chicago (Chicago: Knight and Leonard, 1873), 108. For a list of the Chicago commanderies, see Stranger's Guide to the City of Chicago (Chicago: Knight & Leonard, 1874), 65.

50. Appleton's Illustrated Railway and Steam Navigation Guide, July 1864 (New York: Appleton, 1864), 187; “Railroad Excursionists,” Chicago Tribune, October 2, 1867.

51. Pratt's letter of introduction for George is in Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 4, Folder 11.

52. Additional information about Pratt can be found in “The Kansas Excursion Party,” Chicago Tribune, October 17, 1868; and “The American Homestead Company,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, June 9, 1875.

53. William G. Thomas, The Iron Road: Railroads, the Civil War, and the Making of Modern America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 202–4.

54. “The West,” Chicago Tribune, September 2, 1870; Elmer Orville Davis, The First Five Years of the Railroad Era in Colorado (Golden, CO: Sage, 1948), 115.

55. “The Kansas Excursion,” New York Times, September 18, 1870. Passengers included General Ely S. Parker, secretary to General U. S. Grant during the war and commissioner for Indian affairs, and General Anson Stager.

56. Robin W. Winks, Frederick Billings: A Life. From Gold Rush Lawyer to Railroad Builder to Conservationist (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 200. For the early history of land speculation and the Northern Pacific Railroad, see Jocelyn Wills, Boosters, Hustlers, and Speculators: Entrepreneurial Culture and the Rise of Minneapolis and St. Paul, 1849–1883 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2005), chap. 5.

57. Clive Webb, in his article “Laird on the Lam,” recounts how Lord Gordon Gordon defrauded Jay Gould and other investors before absconding to the Dakota territories and then Canada. Clive Webb, “Laird on the Lam,” Canada's History (December 2021/January 2022): 42–48.

58. The Gordon hoax was one of many problems leading to Loomis losing his post. See M. John Lubetkin, Jay Cooke's Gamble: The Northern Pacific Railroad, the Sioux, and the Panic of 1873 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006), 68–69; and Winks, Frederick Billings, 206–7.

59. For Stager, see Richard R. John, Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010), 93–94 and 114; Harold L. Platt, The Electric City: Energy and the Growth of the Chicago Area, 1880–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 20; and Joshua Wolff, Western Union and the Creation of American Corporate Order, 1845–1893 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 48–49. Details on Stager's work with Western Associated Press is found in Menahem Blondheim, News Over the Wires: The Telegraph and the Flow of Public Information in America, 1844–1897 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 157.

60. “Colorado,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, September 5, 1870; “The Kansas Pacific Excursion Party,” Daily Central City (CO) Register, September 8, 1870; “The Kansas Excursion,” New York Times, September 18, 1870; “Personal,” Railroad Gazette 1, no. 46 (November 5, 1870): 132. This was one of the rare occasions on which the military title was applied to Albert.

61. Davis, The First Five Years of the Railroad Era, 115. Charles Angell relayed Stager's praise of Albert to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) in (September 15, 1870), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9.

62. For the litany of charges against him, see Edward King, The Great South (Hartford, CT: American Publishing Company, 1875), 352–54. For a history of how the carpetbag became “a dark symbol of unscrupulousness” in American politics, see Nick Yablon, “‘Nation of Carpetbaggers’: Mobility, Materiality, and the Emergence of a Counter-Reconstruction Epithet,” Journal of American History 198, no. 3 (December 2021): 457–91 (quote on 462).

63. The International Cotton Exposition, Prospectus (Atlanta, GA: H. H. Dickson, 1881), 7. Official status came from the French Bureau International des Éxpositions.

64. Alice E. Reagan, H. I. Kimball, Entrepreneur (Atlanta, GA: Cherokee, 1983), 93–94.

65. The International Cotton Exposition, Prospectus (Atlanta, GA: Jas. P. Harrison, 1881), 9. The state-level initiatives did not appear in the Prospectus published in the same year by H. H. Dickson.

66. “The Exposition,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, October 1, 1881.

67. “The City,” Chicago Tribune, October 8, 1881.

68. The International Cotton Exposition, Prospectus, 20. Electricity, telephones, telegrams, and gas lighting were found together in Group 13 (of 13); “Railway plant, rolling stock, apparatus, implements, etc.” preceded those hints of the future in Group 12.

69. See the list of display categories in H. I. Kimball, International Cotton Exposition: Report of the Director-General (New York: Appleton, 1882), 17–20.

70. Kimball, International Cotton Exposition, end matter.

71. Benjamin C. Waterhouse, The Land of Enterprise: A Business History of the United States (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017), 89.

11. Pleasure in New York, Business in Detroit

1. “Personal Gossip,” Burlington (VT) Weekly Free Press, January 21, 1870.

2. Edwards’ Fourteenth Annual Directory of the … City of Chicago … for 1869–70 (Chicago: Richard Edwards, 1870), 722; 1870 United States Census, Inhabitants of the 12th Ward of Chicago (July 15, 1870), 249. The house was located at 382 West Monroe Street.

3. “Illinois,” Chicago Tribune, April 7, 1870; “Summer Resorts,” Rutland (VT) Weekly Herald, August 18, 1870; Minutes of the General Convention of Universalists (New York: James Sutton, 1871), 4.

4. The fourteen employees consisted of a steward, two manservants, two waiters, two cooks, a lady's maid, two nursemaids, a barber, a violinist, and two carpenters. See Glimpses at the Pullman Islanders (August 2, 1871), 24–26, and (July 28, 1871), 3–4, both in Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), George Mortimer Pullman Papers (GMPP), Box 2, Folder 1. For a description of the house, see “Pullman's Thousand Island Home,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1888.

5. H. Wayne Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1969), 57.

6. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 113. Thus, for two consecutive years, for example, Albert's family left Chicago in late August, after his mother's birthday, for two weeks on the island. See Chicago Tribune, “The Social World,” August 24, 1879; Chicago Tribune, “The Social World,” September 14, 1879; Chicago Tribune, “Our Society,” August 29, 1880; and Chicago Tribune, “Our Society,” September 12, 1880. See also “Chit-Chat,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, August 20, 1881.

7. See, for example, Emily Pullman to William Fluhrer (June 25, 1880), CHM-ARC, Fluhrer Family Papers (FFP), Box 1, Folder 2; and “Personal,” Chicago Tribune, August 1, 1880.

8. Quoted in “Isles of the Blest,” Chicago Tribune, August 6, 1893.

9. “The Social World,” Chicago Tribune, August 24, 1879.

10. Alfred Theodore Andreas, History of Chicago: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time (Chicago: A. T. Andres, 1884), 3 and 378; G. W. Hotchkiss, Industrial Chicago: The Lumber Interests (Chicago: G. W. Hotchkiss, 1898), 6, 289; “The Social World,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 24, 1880.

11. See, for example, the wedding of Marshall M. S. Marsh: “At the Alter,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 2, 1881. The son of George and Sarah, Marshall served as one of the two ushers at Emma Pullman's wedding: see “Hymen's Work,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 5, 1878. For Michigan connections, see “Weddings,” Chicago Tribune, January 3, 1875; Meanderings among a Thousand Islands (Watertown, NY: Times and Reformer, 1886), 15; and E. F. Babbage, The Phat Boy's Racy Description of the St. Lawrence River and Its Environs, 5th ed. (Rochester, NY: Post-Express, 1886), n.p. Albert was so closely associated with Ingleside that some obituaries claimed he died there, relocating it from the islands to Evanston, Illinois. See, for example, “A. B. Pullman Dead,” Chicago Tribune, December 19, 1893.

12. Men of Progress. Indiana (Indianapolis: Indianapolis Sentinel, 1899), 354. The Indianapolis, Bloomington, & Western employed Pullman cars to replace a short-lived service between Jeffersonville and New York City operated over Pennsylvania Railroad predecessor Columbus, Shelbyville & Richmond. See Richard S. Simons and Francis H. Parker, Railroads of Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 244.

13. Charles Angell to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (August 18, 1870), CHM-ARC, Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 4, Folder 9; Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 149.

14. Charlotte Whaley, Nina Otero-Warren of Santa Fe (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994), 29. My thanks to Sophie Richard Cordery for this reference.

15. Manufacturing Department Financial Ledgers and Journals (August 31, 1873), (July 31, 1874), and (July 31, 1877), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 07/00/05, vol. 2.

16. “Chicago Railroad News,” Railroad Gazette 2, no. 11 (June 10, 1871): 126.

17. Board of Directors Records (June 26, 1871), 1, 126, NL, PCP, 02/01/02.

18. “Personal,” Railroad Gazette 2, no. 22 (August 26, 1871): 246; “Presentation,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1871.

19. Caroline Alice Minton to Frank Pullman (October 1, 1871), CHM-ARC, Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) Papers, Box 2, Folder 4.

20. James Willard Hurst, The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 1780–1970 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1970), 28–30.

21. “Chicago Railroad News,” Railroad Gazette 2, no. 18 (July 29, 1871): 205; “A Very Important Invention,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, April 25, 1872; “Important Discovery,” American Railroad Journal 31, no. 12 (March 20, 1875): 379. Fargo knew Albert from the National Bank of Commerce, covered in chapter 13, and would meet him on numerous excursions: see “The National Banks,” Chicago Tribune, January 13, 1875; and “Royal Railroading,” Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1877.

12. A Fire Insurance Investment Goes Up in Flames

1. Advertisement, Insurance Reporter 9, no. 22 (June 2, 1869): 175.

2. Created to promote a pneumatic car brake he and Albert jointly patented, the Myers American Pneumatic Car Company made little headway in the competitive railroad equipment market. See R. M. Smythe, Obsolete American Securities and Corporations (New York: R. M. Smythe, 1911), 678. The debt is recorded in US Supreme Court, 96 US 328, Pullman v. Upton (October 1878), 328. For the patent (number 108,932) see Annual Report of the Commissioners for Patents for the Year 1870 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1872), 277. Myers American Pneumatic Car Company is mentioned in “Legal,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 14, 1877. Trying to convert patents into manufactured products was a standard entrepreneurial practice by this time. See Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Kenneth L. Sokoloff, “Introduction: The Organization and Finance of Innovation in American History,” in Financing Innovation in the United States, 1870 to the Present, ed. Naomi R. Lamoreaux and Kenneth L. Sokoloff (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007), 6.

3. D. B. Cooke's Directory of Chicago for 1858 (Chicago: D. B. Cooke, 1858), 599. The papers of the GWIC were destroyed by the fire, and this chapter reconstructs its history using newspaper accounts and legal proceedings.

4. “Lively Litigation,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 4, 1878; “Stockholders’ Meetings,” Chicago Tribune, April 24, 1870.

5. “Great Western Insurance Company,” State of Illinois, Third Annual Insurance Report of the Auditor of Public Accounts (Springfield, IL: H. W. Rokker, 1871), 54.

6. Mark Tebeau, Eating Smoke: Fire in Urban America, 1800–1950 (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 2012), 182–83.

7. Edward R. Hardy and P. J. McKeon, “Elements of Fire Insurance,” in Cyclopedia of Fire Prevention and Insurance (Chicago: American School of Correspondence, 1912), 3, 288–90.

8. “The Court Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 22, 1882. Insurance companies themselves provided the state with financial information, and without oversight there was no mechanism for verifying the veracity of those statements.

9. A list of Great Western Insurance Company (GWIC) branches can be found in “Fire Insurance,” Chicago Tribune, January 18, 1872.

10. “Notice,” Chicago Tribune, June 29, 1870; “The Court Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 22, 1882.

11. Elias Colbert and Everett Chamberlin, Chicago and the Great Conflagration (Cincinnati, OH: C. F. Vent, 1872), 203.

12. Colbert and Chamberlin, Chicago and the Great Conflagration, 295.

13. Eugene H. Cropsey, Crosby's Opera House: A Symbol of Chicago's Cultural Awakening (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1999), 316–18 and 329.

14. David M. Young, The Iron Horse and the Windy City: How Railroads Shaped Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2005), 101.

15. Extracts from Andreas, History of Chicago in Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Small Collections, Box 206, Joseph Russell Jones Papers, Folder 4.

16. Cropsey, Crosby's Opera House, 328.

17. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 109. The 1909 Chicago street renumbering system changed 382 West Monroe (Albert's house) into 1159 West Monroe, which was outside the scope of the fire. Thanks to Lesley Martin of the Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center, for this information.

18. George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) to Ulysses S. Grant (November 22, 1871), CHM-ARC, Manuscripts (MSS) Alpha Grant, US. Pullman was responding to an invitation from the president to spend a week at the White House. See Ulysses S. Grant to GMP (November 22, 1871), The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. John Y. Simon (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998) 22, 246–47.

19. Karen Sawislak, Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871–1874 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 2, 24–27, and 73–74. See also Russell Lewis, “From Shock City to City Beautiful,” Chicago History 37, no. 1 (Fall 2010): 11. Lewis notes that the fire drew architects from across the country and solidified the concentration of economic power in the Central Business District.

20. Janice L. Reiff, ed., Chicago Business and Industry: From Fur Trade to E-Commerce (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 126, reports that 58 of the 129 fire insurance companies went bankrupt. See also Sawislak, Smoldering City, 77–79.

21. James W. Sheahan and George P. Upton, The Great Conflagration. Chicago: Its Past, Present and Future (Chicago: Union Publishers, 1872), 145.

22. “Announcements,” Chicago Tribune, October 20, 1871; “Great Western Fire Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, November 24, 1871; “Market Reports,” Rock Island Argus, October 26, 1871. See also Colbert and Chamberlin, Chicago and the Great Conflagration, 306–7 and 314.

23. “Insurance,” Chicago Tribune, October 30, 1871.

24. “Great Western Insurance Company,” Third Annual Insurance Report, 54.

25. “Solvent Insurance Company,” Wheeling (WV) Daily Register, January 19, 1872.

26. “Anxious to Settle,” Chicago Tribune, May 25, 1873; “Great Western Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, October 10, 1874; “The Court Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, October 27, 1874.

27. Each GWIC director owned a minimum of $10,000 worth of shares, most having paid only $2,000 of that subscribed total. See US Supreme Court, 91 US 45, Upton v Tribilcock (October 1875), 49.

28. “Great Western of Chicago,” Milwaukee Sentinel, December 7, 1871.

29. John Erastus Lester, The Atlantic to the Pacific: What to See and How to See It (London: Longmans, 1873), 14, writes about getting lost traversing a city he visited frequently and knew well before the fire.

30. Margaret Garb, City of American Dreams: A History of Home Ownership and Housing Reform in Chicago, 1871–1919 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 11–15.

31. “Col. Amos Rood Survivor of Chicago Fire Dies in Grand Rapids, Michigan,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 13, no. 4 (January 1921): 581.

32. Sawislak, Smoldering City, 300n7 and 306n69.

33. See Elisabeth S. Clemens, Civic Gifts: Voluntarism and the Making of the American Nation-State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2020), 81.

34. “The Great Western Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, January 12, 1872.

35. Chicago Tribune, “Fire Insurance,” January 19, 1872.

36. “Fire Insurance,” Chicago Tribune, January 18, 1872; Chicago Tribune, “Fire Insurance,” January 19, 1872.

37. “United States District Court,” Chicago Tribune, February 7, 1872.

38. “The Great Western,” Chicago Tribune, February 20, 1872.

39. “More of the Great Western,” Chicago Tribune, February 21, 1872.

40. “The Great Western,” Chicago Tribune, July 10, 1873.

41. Advertisement, Chicago Tribune, January 31, 1872; “Wanted,” Chicago Tribune, February 8, 1872.

42. “Insurance,” Chicago Tribune, February 15, 1872; “Great Western Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, February 18, 1872.

43. “More of the Great Western,” Chicago Tribune, February 21, 1872.

44. “Circuit Court,” Chicago Tribune, April 4, 1872.

45. “The Law Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 27, 1880; “Court Notices,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 11, 1881. Insiders being appointed receivers and stealing or wasting company assets was a very real concern in the nineteenth century. See Edward J. Balleisen, Fraud: An American History from Barnum to Madoff (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 124–25.

46. “Great Western Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, October 10, 1874.

47. US Supreme Court, 96 US 328 (1878), Pullman v Upton.

48. “The Great Western,” Chicago Tribune, November 27, 1874.

49. “Statement of the Great Western Insurance Company's Assignee,” Chicago Tribune, May 24, 1873.

50. “Insolvent Companies—Suits,” Insurance Times 5, no. 9 (September 1872): 613.

51. “The Law Courts,” Chicago Tribune, November 9, 1872.

52. “Attorney's Record,” Chicago Tribune, January 4, 1873.

53. “Notes from the Courts,” Chicago Tribune, January 9, 1873. For Telford Burnham (unrelated to the more famous Daniel H. Burnham), see Dennis H. Cremin, Grant Park: The Evolution of Chicago's Front Yard (Carbondale: Southern Illinois Press, 2013), 47–48.

54. “Great Western Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, July 1, 1873; “The Law,” Chicago Tribune, July 2, 1873; “Judge Drummond,” Toledo (IA) Chronicle, July 17, 1873.

55. “Insurance Suits,” Chicago Tribune, July 17, 1873; “Legal Notices,” Toledo (IA) Chronicle, March 27, 1873.

56. Albert exchanged his certificate in February 1873, and it sold in New York a month later. See Pullman's Palace Car Company (PPCC) Share Certificates, Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers, Newberry Library (PCP), 02/01/08, vol. 46.

57. H. M. Putney, Real Estate Values and Historical Notes of Chicago (Chicago: H. M. Putney, 1900), 118.

58. Robert G. Spinney, City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000), 104.

59. Young, The Iron Horse and the Windy City, 75 and 120–21.

60. Mrs. Frank [Miriam] Leslie, California: A Pleasure Trip from Gotham to the Golden Gate (New York: Carleton, 1877), 33.

61. Donald L. Miller, City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), 177.

62. See Arnold Lewis, An Early Encounter with Tomorrow: Europeans, Chicago's Loop, and the World's Columbian Exposition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 6.

13. Short Engagements in Banking and Land Sales

1. “National Banks,” Chicago Tribune, August 11, 1869. For the excursion, see Chicago Republican, March 22, 1867, Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 12/00/01, Pullman Scrapbooks, vol. 1.

2. “The National Bank of Commerce of Chicago,” Chicago Tribune, August 12, 1869; “National Bank of Commerce,” Chicago Tribune, September 14, 1869. The original board consisted of three manufacturers (including Albert), five lawyers, four real-estate dealers, two bankers, an insurance agent, a public official, and a wholesale grocer.

3. Sharon Murphy, Other People's Money: How Banking Worked in the Early American Republic (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), 158.

4. Benjamin C. Waterhouse, Land of Enterprise: A Business History of the United States (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2018), 92.

5. Thomas A. Mackay, “‘Bank Wreckers, Defaulters, and Embezzlers’: America's Popular Fear and Fascination with the Misappropriation of Bank Deposits During the Gilded Age and Progressive Era,” Enterprise & Society 19, no. 1 (March 2018): 60.

6. Examiners Reports (February 2, 1870), National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (NARA), Record Group (RG) 101, Box 224.

7. “The National Bank of Commerce,” Chicago Tribune, February 10, 1870. Farwell cosigned the letter with another bank examiner, Alfred Spink.

8. For the excursion, see “Royal Railroading,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, June 18, 1877. For his business partnerships, see Edwards’ Chicago City Directory for 1867 (Chicago: Edwards, 1867), 28 and 55.

9. Edwards’ Chicago City Directory for 1867, 2.

10. Examiners Reports (September 12, 1870), NARA, RG 101, Box 224.

11. “Obituary,” Chicago Tribune, December 24, 1871.

12. Board of Trade, 14th Annual Report of the Trade and Commerce of Chicago (Chicago: Horton & Leonard, 1872), 46, which records Chicago's National Bank of Commerce (NBC) as having a relatively low capitalization of $250,000 and a small surplus.

13. R. G. Thomas, “Bank Failures in Chicago before 1925,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 28, no. 3 (October 1935): 191.

14. Examiners Reports (February 23, 1876), NARA, RG 101, Box 224.

15. Examiners Reports (October 30, 1876), NARA, RG 101, Box 224.

16. For Maynard's letters to the Treasury Department, see Correspondence, 1863–1901 (March 29, 1876), NARA, RG 101, Box 354; and Correspondence, 1863–1901 (June 14, 1876), NARA, RG 101, Box 354.

17. Correspondence, 1863–1901 (December 2, 1876), NARA, RG 101, Box 354.

18. “The National Banks,” Chicago Tribune, September 30, 1873; “The Bank Suspensions,” Chicago Tribune, November 24, 1877; F. Cyril James, The Growth of Chicago Banks. Volume I: The Formative Years (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938), 448–57 and 504.

19. Thomas, “Bank Failures in Chicago before 1925,” 190.

20. Waterhouse, Land of Enterprise, 164–65.

21. Examiners Reports (September 1, 1876), NARA, RG 101, Box 261.

22. “Is He in Europe?,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, December 19, 1877; “The Champion Rascal,” Chicago Tribune, January 4, 1878.

23. “The Court Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, May 23, 1882.

24. “City Matters,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, December 15, 1870.

25. “The Alliance Party,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, June 22, 1874, offers a biography of Pratt along with early coverage of the American Homestead Company (AHC).

26. “American Homestead Company,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, June 9, 1875; “The City,” Chicago Tribune, January 2, 1877; “City News,” Chicago Tribune, June 10, 1875.

27. Advertisement, “Homes for the People,” Chicago Tribune, January 7, 1877.

28. “The State Capital,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 23, 1874.

29. Melvin Bruntzel, Quick Reference to Kansas: Lost, Found, Missing, Towns and Places with Selected Trivia and Truth, vol. 1 (Topeka, KS: n.p., 2010), n.p. A search of the land titles and plats in the Dickinson County (Kansas) Court House revealed no records linking AHC with the area. By 1910, Carlton had a population of 225 people, hardly the booming metropolis Pullman and his colleagues promised. See Frank W. Blackmar, ed., Kansas: A Cyclopedia of State History (Chicago: Standard Publishing, 1912) 1, 288.

30. The Milwaukee group paid the expenses of three members to visit Arkansas in search of land, but they spent too much money, according to other members, and the organization collapsed. See “Wrangling Colonists,” Milwaukee Sentinel, October 12, 1877. The final mention, where members were invited to a final meeting, is in “Society Meetings,” Milwaukee Sentinel, January 18, 1878.

31. “Colonization,” Chicago Tribune, February 21, 1878. The law was the Soldiers and Sailors Additional Homestead Act of 1872.

32. 42nd Congress, Second Session, chap. 85.

33. “Soldiers’ Colony,” Chicago Tribune, March 12, 1878.

34. “The Soldiers’ Colony,” Chicago Tribune, April 2, 1878, 8. Settlement began in 1879 and Collyer, Kansas, had a population of around three hundred people in 1910, with three churches and a depot on the Union Pacific Railroad between Kansas City and Denver. See Blackmar, ed., Kansas 1, 390–91.

35. “Another Pullman Benefit,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, June 10, 1875.

36. Stewart H. Holbrook, The Story of American Railroads (New York: Bonanza, 1947), 327.

37. “The Courts,” Chicago Tribune, December 29, 1873; “The Court Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 25, 1874.

38. “Sales of Great Western Ins. Co. Lands,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, May 6, 1874.

39. “The Great Western Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, July 2, 1874; “The Great Western Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, August 5, 1874. The sale occurred on June 23, 1874, at Elison, Pomeroy on Randolph Street, two blocks from the Pullman headquarters in the Tremont House on Lake Street.

40. “The Great Western Insurance Company,” Chicago Tribune, July 1, 1873; “The ‘Great Western,’” Chicago Tribune, July 4, 1873; “The Court Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, October 27, 1874.

41. “The Court Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, October 10, 1874; “The Great Western,” Chicago Tribune, September 30, 1874; and “Insurance,” Chicago Tribune, October 10, 1874.

42. “United States District Court,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, July 29, 1874.

43. George Wharton Pepper, “Recent Development of Corporation Law by the Supreme Court of the United States,” American Law Register and Review 43, no. 7 (July 1895): 448. For the elimination of trust fund doctrine, see Morton J. Horowitz, The Transformation of American Law, 1870–1960: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 93–98.

44. “Come at Last,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 24, 1874; “Legal Intelligence,” Insurance Reporter 17, no. 46 (November 18, 1875): 1.

45. “United States Supreme Court,” New York Herald, November 2, 1875.

46. George W. Wickersham, “The Capital of a Corporation,” Harvard Law Review 22, no. 5 (March 1909): 329. The football simile appears to have been a common one used to describe speculation. See, for example, its use in connection with the Erie Railroad scandal of the 1860s: H. W. Brands, Masters of Enterprise: Giants of American Business from John Jacob Astor to Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey (New York: Free Press, 1999), 40.

47. US Supreme Court, 91 US 45, Upton v Tribilcock (October 1875), 47–48. For coverage of the case, see “United States Supreme Court,” New York Herald, November 2, 1875; “Proceedings before the Supreme Court,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 2, 1875; and “Stockholder,” Insurance Times 9, no. 3 (March 1876): 200.

48. US Supreme Court, 91 US 56, Sanger v Upton (October 1875), 59.

49. US Supreme Court, 91 US 65, Webster v Upton (October 1875), 71. See “Cases before Supreme Court,” New York Herald, December 16, 1875; and “Important to Stock Corporations,” Washington (DC) National Republican, December 17, 1875.

50. The documents were the original Great Western Insurance Company (GWIC) charter, the certification of its increase in capital, the amended charter (which also included the 1870 company report, its business license, and an audit), the bankruptcy order, and the assessment letter sent to Pullman.

51. “The Courts,” Washington Post, April 11, 1878.

52. US Supreme Court, 96 US 328, Pullman v Upton (October 1878), 331.

53. The cases appear in, for example, Lewis Putzel “The Illegal Issue and Over-issue of Capital Stock,” American Law Register 27, no. 11 (November 1888): 690; Pepper, “Recent Developments of Corporation Law,” 449; and “Liabilities of Transferor and Transferee of Shares for Calls and Assessment,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 86, no. 8 (June 1938): 883.

14. International Luminary

1. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 129.

2. “The Pullman Palaces,” Chicago Tribune, April 1, 1873; Frederick Talbot, “Travel Luxury on Land and Sea: On the Midland Railway,” Windsor Magazine 7, no. 5 (April 1898): 633–35.

3. For mention of Allport's trip, see Joseph Tatlow, Fifty Years of Railway Life in England, Scotland, and Ireland (London: Railway Gazette Publishing, 1920), 38.

4. W. Fraser Rae, Westward by Rail: The New Route to the East, 2nd ed. (1871; repr., New York: Arno, 1973), 376–77.

5. Derbyshire Times, February 22, 1873, Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 3.

6. Indenture between PPCC and Midland Railway (February 18, 1873), National Archives, London (NAL), RAIL 793/285. Passes for complementary travel “on all cars operated under the Pullman System” included Pullman's Palace Car Company, Pullman Pacific Car Co., Pullman Southern, and the Pullman Company in Europe. By 1888, these coveted vouchers were “honored on all cars operated in the Pullman System in America and Europe.” See Correspondence, J. C. Peasley In-letters, NL, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (CB&Q) Papers, 3 P2.2 Box 382, Folder 5736. Much of the documentation on PPCC in the United Kingdom is one sided, derived exclusively from railway company archives because the Pullman papers in London were destroyed when a bomb hit Victoria Station during World War II. See George Behrend, Pullman in Europe (London: Ian Allen, 1962), 26.

7. The cost of patent licensing and renewals was becoming a particular concern for railroad managers in the 1870s. See Steven W. Usselman, Regulating Railroad Innovation: Business, Technology, and Politics in America, 1840–1920 (New York : Cambridge University Press, 2002), especially chap. 3; and Steven W. Usselman, “Patents, Engineering Professionals, and the Pipelines of Innovation: The Internalization of Technical Discovery by Nineteenth-Century American Railroads,” in Learning by Doing in Markets, Firms, and Countries, ed. Naomi R. Lamoreaux et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 62.

8. “Improved Railway Carriages—Trial Trip,” English Mechanic and World of Science 471 (April 3, 1874): 67; “The Pullman Sleeping Car,” London Times, April 24, 1874. See also Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 21–23.

9. Pullman Company Owned Securities, Ledger 1883–1884, folios 16 and 17, NL, PCP, 02/01/08, vol. 34.

10. The first meeting of the English Board is recorded in Pullman Company Limited, Board Minute Book (September 8, 1882), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, although only Robert Caird, the counsel, and G. M. Clements, the solicitor, were present. Precious little business was recorded, and from the middle of 1885, George chaired the meetings in Chicago.

11. See, for example, “Codewords” (October 31, 1878), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 14.

12. “Pullman's Cars for Vienna,” Baltimore Sun, December 28, 1872; “Chicago,” Memphis Public Ledger, December 21, 1872; “Railroad News,” Chicago Tribune, December 21, 1872. Albert's experience of the World's Fair in Vienna might explain why he joined the first group of Chicagoans to express an interest in what would become the 1893 Columbian Exposition. See Charles Zaremba, “Origins and Development of the World's Columbian Exposition,” Belford's Monthly 9, no. 5 (October 1892): 762. Charles Zaremba's gathering occurred in 1885.

13. “Washington and Its Railway Prospects,” Washington (DC) National Republican, August 14, 1873.

14. “Railroad News,” Chicago Tribune, December 22, 1872. The practice of shipping Pullman cars across the Atlantic in sections lasted into the 1890s. See John Pendleton, Our Railways: Their Origin, Development, Incident and Romance (London: Cassell, 1896) 2, 206.

15. W. H. Maw and James Dredge, “Locomotives,” in Reports of the Commissioners of the United States to the International Exhibition held at Vienna, 1873, ed. Robert H. Thurston (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1873) 1, 257–67.

16. M. B. Riddi, “Means of Transportation,” in Reports of the Commissioners of the United States to the International Exhibition held at Vienna, 1873, ed. Robert H. Thurston (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1873), 1, 430–31.

17. New York Daily Graphic, March 11, 1873, and Free Press, March 25, 1873, in NL, PCP, 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 3. The Scottish rumor involved the North British Railway, and indeed the Midland would eventually use North British tracks to reach Glasgow: prophecy fulfilled.

18. “Business Items: Michigan,” Iron Age 12, no. 4 (July 24, 1873): 9.

19. United States Passport Applications, no. 33656 (Chicago, IL), National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (NARA), Roll 197–01 (July 1873); “Pullman Cars for England,” Railroad Gazette 4, no. 28 (July 26, 1873): 305.

20. The Lakeside Annual Directory of the City of Chicago 1875 (Chicago: The Chicago Directory, 1875), 534; “Pullman in England,” Chicago Tribune, July 4, 1873.

21. “Pullman Cars on the Midland Railway,” London Times, January 24, 1874; “Pullman Cars for England,” Railroad Gazette 4, no. 28 (July 26, 1873): 305.

22. “Personal,” Chicago Tribune, September 23, 1873; “City and Suburban News,” New York Times, November 23, 1873; “Passengers Sailed,” New York Times, November 23, 1873.

23. See “Chicagoans Abroad,” Chicago Tribune, December 31, 1873; and “Chicagoans Abroad,” Chicago Tribune, May 6, 1874.

24. Julia Guarneri, Newsprint Metropolis: City Papers and the Making of Modern Americans (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017), 48–49.

25. Edwin H. Trafton, “Some Dinners I Have Eaten,” Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly 20, no. 2 (August 1885): 143.

26. “Improved Railway Carriages—Trial Trip,” English Mechanic and World of Science 471 (April 3, 1874): 67.

27. “Pullman Cars for England,” Railroad Gazette 4, no. 28 (July 26, 1873): 305. The first six cars were: Midland, Excelsior, Enterprise, Victoria, Britannia, and Leo. See Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 266–67 (table 12).

28. Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 21–23 and 25; “Improved Railway Carriages—Trial Trip,” English Mechanic and World of Science 471 (3 April 1874): 67; “The Pullman Sleeping Car,” London Times, April 24, 1874.

29. “Pullman's Railway Cars,” London Times, March 23, 1874.

30. Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 25; Pendleton, Our Railways 2, 196–98.

31. Though five years into his career as president of Westinghouse Air Brake, George Westinghouse was not yet a household name, and his work with Pullman came at the conclusion of a three-year stay in Europe during which he perfected the air brake. For Westinghouse's career, see William R. Huber, George Westinghouse: Powering the World (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2022).

32. “The Pullman Sleeping Car,” London Times, April 24, 1874; “Projected Car Shops Abroad,” Chicago Tribune, July 10, 1874. The Duke of Sutherland was unsurprisingly one of the guests of the French canal company on an 1885 tour of the Panama Canal construction zone. See David McCullough, The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 185.

33. Pendleton, Our Railways 1, 533–34.

34. “Pullman Cars in Europe,” National Car Builder 5, no. 8 (August 1874): 123.

35. “Pullman in France,” Little Rock (AR) Morning Republican, April 30, 1874.

36. Anatole France, Penguin Island (1908; repr., New York: Modern Library, 1933), 127.

37. “The Pullman Car Abroad,” Chicago Tribune, September 2, 1874; “Pullman in France,” Little Rock (AR) Morning Republican, April 30, 1874; “Railway and Other Companies,” London Times, June 2, 1874.

38. Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 28–30.

39. “Pullman Cars in Italy,” Wilmington (DE) Daily Commercial, November 18, 1875; Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 45.

40. The next three paragraphs draw on this interview, in “The Foreign Mission of the Pullman Cars,” Chicago Tribune, July 10, 1874.

41. “Chicago Affairs,” Toronto Globe, April 13, 1873, cutting in Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 4, Folder 19.

42. “The Foreign Mission of the Pullman Cars,” Chicago Tribune, July 10, 1874; “Improved Railway Carriages—Trial Trip,” English Mechanic and World of Science 471 (April 3, 1874): 67.

43. “Chicago Affairs,” Toronto Globe, April 13, 1873, cutting in CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 19.

44. “Another Pullman Benefit,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, June 10, 1875.

45. Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 32–33. Competition for customers was heating up in Europe. In 1875, when Pullman cars were added to trains from London to Brighton, Mann Boudoir Cars began running on the parallel London to Dover line, and from London to Manchester, Pullman supplanted Mann with its own cars in 1882.

46. Hannah Maria Da Lee to Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) (April 28, 1875), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 2, Folder 4.

47. Emma Pullman, Diary (June 19, 1875) and (June 23, 1875), CHM-ARC, Fluhrer Family Papers (FFP), Box 1, Folder 2.

48. Frederick S. Williams, The Midland Railway: Its Rise and Progress (London: Strahan, 1876), 673; Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 34.

49. Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 34–35.

50. Therese Yelverton, Viscountess Avonmore, Teresina in America (London: Richard Bentley, 1875) 2, 4–5.

51. Mary E. Blake, On the Wing: Rambling Notes of a Trip to the Pacific, 3rd ed. (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1883), 228.

52. W. Fraser Rae, Westward by Rail: The New Route to the East, 2nd ed. (1871; repr., New York: Arno, 1973), 28.

53. George Augustus Sala, America Revisited, 3rd ed. (1883; repr., New York: Arno, 1974), 114–15.

54. Quoted in Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: Railroads in the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 228–29.

55. For Albert's rhetoric, see “The Foreign Mission of the Pullman Cars,” Chicago Tribune, July 10, 1874.

56. “The Midland Railway Plebiscitum,” Spectator, November 21, 1874.

15. Domestic Joy, Corporate Despair

1. Emma Pullman, Diary (September 28, 1875), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Fluhrer Family Papers (FFP), Box 1, Folder 2.

2. “Hyman's Work,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 5, 1878; “Society and Fashion,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 6, 1878. For Rathborne's background, see Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Trade and Commerce of Chicago (Chicago: Knight & Leonard, 1880), 7 and 195.

3. Emma Pullman, Diary (November 19, 1875), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

4. “Parties and Sociables,” Chicago Tribune, December 12, 1875.

5. “Social Events,” Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1876.

6. “Fashion's Followers,” Chicago Tribune, January 23, 1876.

7. “Festive Gatherings,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 7, 1877.

8. “The Social World,” Chicago Tribune, February 24, 1878.

9. “Matrimonial,” Chicago Tribune, April 5, 1878; “Hymen's Work,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 5, 1878.

10. Caroline Alice Minton to Frank Pullman (May 28, 1871), CHM-ARC, Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) Papers, Box 2, Folder 4.

11. Illinois, Cook County Marriages, 1871–1920, Illinois Department of Public Health Records, “Marriage Records, 1871–Present,” Division of Vital Records, Springfield, Illinois.

12. Wedding Announcement (no date), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 2, Folder 5.

13. “A Question of Blood,” Helena (MT) Herald, March 20, 1879. Stewart Senior was actually Scottish. See United States Federal Census (June 8, 1880), Chicago, IL, Enumeration District 109, 641.

14. Charles N. Remington, letter to Michigan Tradesman, April 25, 1931, clipping in Pullman Family File, Grand Rapids Public Library, Local History Section. Remington's sister was friendly with the couple.

15. “Matrimonial,” Chicago Tribune, February 21, 1879.

16. “Rev. R. H. Pullman,” Baltimore Sun, February 24, 1879.

17. “Nonsense, Double Distilled,” Western Rural, March 1, 1879.

18. Frank Parsons, The Railways, the Trusts, and the People, ed. C. F. Taylor (Philadelphia: C. F. Taylor, 1906), 226–27; Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 141–42.

19. Herbert O. Holderness, The Reminiscences of a Pullman Conductor: Or, Character Sketches of Life in a Pullman Car (Chicago: n.p., 1901), 121.

20. James Bryce, The American Commonwealth (London: Macmillan, 1888) 2, 63.

21. George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) to Hattie S. Pullman (May 15, 1882), CHM-ARC, Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 5, Folder 13.

22. “Matrimonial,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, May 13, 1882.

23. For details of a fundraiser for the Hospital for Women and Children, see “The Social World,” Chicago Tribune, December 24, 1879; and “The Past Week,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 27, 1879. For a reception Albert and Emily attended at which Herbert M. Kinsley served supper “in his royal style” and Johnny Hand's “musical genius exerted itself,” see “At Home,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 7, 1880.

24. “Another Pullman Palace,” Chicago Tribune, October 3, 1880; Reports to the General Assembly of Illinois (Springfield, IL: H. W. Rokker, 1883), 1, 10.

25. 1880 United States Census, Inhabitants of the 12th Ward of Chicago (June 3, 1880), 2.

26. Joseph Zukowsky, ed., Chicago Architecture 1872–1922: Birth of a Metropolis (Munich: Prestal-Verlag, 1987), 193; Emma Pullman, Diary (September 24, 1875), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

27. “Memorandum Concerning Cash Dividends Paid” (November 15, 1884), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 5, Folder 1.

28. “Pullman and His Spies,” Daily Rocky Mountain News, March 9, 1873.

29. Edward J. Balleisen, Fraud: An American History from Barnum to Madoff (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 73.

30. Thomas A. Mackay, “‘Bank Wreckers, Defaulters, and Embezzlers’: America's Popular Fear and Fascination with the Misappropriation of Bank Deposits during the Gilded Age and Progressive Era,” Enterprise & Society 19, no. 1 (March 2018): 65.

31. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 160.

32. Copies of the poster, along with a cover letter signed by Porter and dated September 20, 1878, are found in CHM-ARC, George Mortimer Pullman Papers (GMPP), Box 1, Folder 2.

33. “Angell's Flight,” Chicago Tribune, August 18, 1878.

34. “The Angell Robbery,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1878.

35. “Personal Mention,” Railway Age 3, no. 35 (August 29, 1878): 431.

36. “The Missing Angell,” Saint Paul (MN) Daily Globe, October 14, 1878.

37. “Chicago,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1878; “The Angell Robbery,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1878.

38. Charles Angell to GMP (April 19, 1871) and (May 29, 1871), both in CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 4, Folder 9.

39. “The Angell Robbery,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1878.

40. “Common Talk,” Chicago Tribune, August 18, 1878.

41. “Not Angell,” Chicago Tribune, October 14, 1878.

42. H. S. Roberts to GMP (October 17, 1878), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 14.

43. “A Meek and Mild Angell,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, February 28, 1879.

44. “Sixty Year Statement” (1868–1927), NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 1, Folder 37.

45. Chicago Times, February 28, 1879, clipping in NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 1, Folder 5; “In Solitary,” Chicago Tribune, March 1, 1879.

46. GMP to G. M. Clements (November 16, 1878), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 14.

16. Complications

1. Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: Railroads in the West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977), 218.

2. Lady Duffus Hardy, Through Cities and Prairie Lands: Sketches of an American Tour (New York: Worthington, 1881), 81; American Railroad Journal 32, no. 20 (May 13, 1876): 638; undated memo, Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 01/01/01, Box 3, Folder 49.

3. “Luxurious Travel,” Chicago Tribune, May 21, 1876; Albert J. Churella, The Pennsylvania Railroad (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013) 1, 449–50.

4. “Railway Features of the Centennial Exhibition,” American Railroad Journal 32, no. 22 (May 27, 1876): 676.

5. Frank Leslie's Historical Register of the United States Centennial Exposition, 1876 (New York: Frank Leslie's Publishing, 1877), 93 and 167.

6. George H. Burgess and Miles C. Kennedy, Centennial History of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company 1846–1946 (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Railroad Company, 1949), 329.

7. Strong to Perkins (October 9, 1875), NL, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (CB&Q) Papers, 33 1870 5, Box 22, Folder 199. William Barstow Strong worked for the Michigan Central Railroad, which controlled the CB&Q, before moving over to the Burlington. In 1881, he became president of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway; the town of Barstow and its eponymous rail yard were named in his honor.

8. Strong to Perkins (September 7, 1876), NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1870 5, Box 22, Folder 199.

9. Strong to Perkins (September 8, 1875), NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1870 5, Box 22, Folder 199.

10. Harris to Perkins (December 22, 1876), NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1870 5, Box 22, Folder 199.

11. J. M. Walker to Perkins (January 3, 1877), NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1870 5, Box 22, Folder 199. Walker was CB&Q counsel in the president's office.

12. Robert Harris to Perkins (January 2, 1877), NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1870 5, Box 22, Folder 199. The contract and rider (“supplement”), both dated August 1, 1877, are in NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1870 5, Box 22, Folder 200.

13. The correspondence and supporting evidence used in conjunction with these contract negotiations are found in NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 434.

14. George F. Brown to T. J. Potter (September 11, 1880), NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 435.

15. George F. Brown to T. J. Potter (July 9, 1886), NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 435.

16. George M. Pullman (GMP) to Harriet Sanger Pullman (July 13, 1878), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 5, Folder 11.

17. Adolph Rapp to GMP (July 29, 1881), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 6, Folder 10.

18. “Miscellaneous,” Chicago Tribune, April 30, 1870.

19. “The St. James Hotel,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, September 28, 1878; Accounts, Gen. Hart L. Stewart (August 28, 1880) NL, PCP, 01/01/01, Box 8, Folder 117.

20. “The St. James Hotel,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, September 28, 1878, 3.

21. “Lively Litigation,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 4, 1878.

22. “The Courts,” Chicago Tribune, November 19, 1878.

23. “The Court,” Chicago Tribune, October 31, 1881; “Pullman's Version,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 18, 1878; “The St. James Hotel Case,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 14, 1878.

24. “A Decree in the Patterson-Stewart Litigation,” Chicago Tribune, June 14, 1882.

25. “The Winchell Car Ventilator Company,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 24, 1879.

26. Report to Stockholders of the Union Pacific Railroad, 8 March 1871 (Boston: Rand, Avery, 1871), 21; “Chicago, Alton & St. Louis Railroad,” National Live-Stock Journal 10, no. 2 (February 1879): 83. For a discussion of car-ventilation systems at the annual convention of the Master Car Builders Association, see “Master Car Builders’ Association,” Railroad Gazette 7, no. 26 (July 14, 1876): 308.

27. “Superior Court,” Chicago Daily Law Bulletin, April 19, 1878.

28. “The Court Record,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 24, 1879.

29. “The Scrap Heap,” Railroad Gazette 11, no. 1 (January 2, 1880): 4.

30. “The Social World,” Chicago Tribune, August 24, 1879.

31. “Funeral Services of George W. Gage,” Chicago Tribune, September 27, 1875; “George W. Gage,” September 23, 1875.

32. Emma Pullman, Diary (September 26, 1875), CHM-ARC, Fluhrer Family Papers (FFP), Box 1, Folder 2.

33. “Custer County,” in William Wei, ed., https://coloradoencyclopedia.org (accessed July 9, 2021); “The Famous Silver-Cliff Mines of Colorado,” Chicago Tribune, November 4, 1878.

34. “Silver Cliff: A Mining Town in Colorado,” Chicago Tribune, April 27, 1879.

35. “Money for Silver Cliff Company,” Central City (CO) Weekly Register Call, September 26, 1879.

17. English Anxieties

1. George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) to H. S. Roberts (August 3, 1877), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 13.

2. George Behrend, Pullman in Europe (London: Ian Allen, 1962), 26–27. The North British Railway built and operated a sleeping car in 1873 while the Mann Boudoir Company ran one on the Great Northern Railway the next year.

3. Jeri Quinzio, Food on the Rails: The Golden Era of Railroad Dining (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014), 36.

4. GMP to H. S. Roberts (November 30, 1877), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 13.

5. GMP to G. M. Clements (November 30, 1877), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 13; H. S. Roberts to Henry Oakley (December 18, 1877) and Henry Oakley to Great Northern Railway Board of Directors (February 6, 1878), both National Archives, London (NAL), RAIL 236/678.

6. The correspondence is found at NAL, RAIL 236/678.

7. GMP to G. M. Clement (July 27, 1877), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 13.

8. Reported in H. S. Roberts to GMP (February 20, 1878), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 14.

9. “The Pullman Dining Car,” Illustrated London News, November 22, 1879.

10. Maury Klein, The Life and Legend of Jay Gould (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 157.

11. H. S. Roberts to Henry Oakley (February 27, 1880), NAL, RAIL 236/678.

12. G. M. Clement to Nelson and Nelson (April 19, 1880), NAL, RAIL 236/678. Roberts forwarded this letter with a note to Oakley on April 21, 1880.

13. GMP to Robert Caird (October 7, 1882), Box 2, Folder 20, NL, PCP, 10/00/04.

14. Henry Oakley to Patrick Sterling (January 10, 1884), Patrick Sterling to Henry Oakley (January 16, 1884), and Henry Nelson to Henry Oakley (January 14, 1884), all in NAL, RAIL 236/678.

15. John Miller to Henry Oakley (December 15, 1884), NAL, RAIL 236/678.

16. In June 1885, the Great Northern Railway paid £2,410 for the Prince of Wales plus £212.18.5 to settle the fire claim. See John Miller to Henry Oakley (June 1, 1885) and (June 3, 1885), both in NAL, RAIL 236/678.

17. John Miller to Henry Oakley (January 8, 1890), NAL, RAIL 236/678.

18. Patrick Sterling to Henry Oakley (February 1, 1890), NAL, RAIL 236/678; Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 252.

19. Henry Oakley to Great Northern Railway Board of Directors (November 29, 1886), NAL, RAIL 236/678; Behrend, Pullman in Europe, 41.

20. “Dining in a Pullman Car,” Bristol Mercury, July 10, 1882.

21. Adolph Rapp to GMP (October 29, 1878), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 14. For Albert's professional relations with George, see GMP to H. S. Roberts (March 8, 1879), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 15; Albert Benton Pullman (ABP) to GMP (June 29, 1880), NL, PCP, 10/00/04, Box 2, Folder 17.

18. Brand Albert

1. The engraving can be seen, for example, in “Obituary. Albert Benton Pullman,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 19, 1893.

2. Marlis Schweitzer, “‘The Mad Search for Beauty’: Actresses’ Testimonials, the Cosmetics Industry, and the ‘Democratization of Beauty,’” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 4, no. 3 (July 2005): 258–59. No cartes de visite of Albert survives, but it seems likely he would have taken advantage of this ephemeral art form. For an example of a cartes de visite album, see John H. Lawrence and Molly Reid, “George Eustis Cartes de Visite Album,” Historic New Orleans Collection Quarterly 32, no. 1 (Winter 2015): 24.

3. Ronald S. Coddington, “Cardomania! How the Carte de Visite Became the Facebook of the 1860s,” Military Images 34, no. 3 (Summer 2016): 17. See also Rachel Teukolsky, “Cartomania: Sensation, Celebrity, and the Democratized Portraiture,” Victorian Studies 57, no. 3 (Spring 2015): 464.

4. Andrea Volpe, “Cartes de Visite Portrait Photographs and the Culture of Class Formation,” in The Middling Sorts: Explorations in the History of the American Middle Class, ed. Burton J. Bledstein and Robert D. Johnston (New York: Routledge, 2001), 158–61.

5. “The Last Spike,” Chicago Tribune, December 30, 1869.

6. “Railroad Time,” Western Railroad Gazette 13, no. 6 (July 17, 1869): 2.

7. “Publisher's Column,” Art Review 1, no. 2 (September 1, 1870): i.

8. Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: Norton, 2011), 97.

9. Perry R. Duis, Challenging Chicago: Coping with Everyday Life, 1837–1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 281; “Newsboys and Bootblacks Home,” Chicago Tribune, December 11, 1867.

10. “The Briggs’ House Picnic,” Chicago Tribune, August 21, 1872.

11. “Col. Amos Rood Survivor of Chicago Fire Dies in Grand Rapids, Michigan,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 13, no. 4 (January 1921): 581.

12. “Jubilee Notes,” Chicago Tribune, May 14, 1873.

13. “End of a Useful Life,” Chicago Tribune, March 8, 1888; “The Obituary Record,” Chicago Tribune, March 11, 1888; “The Rev. Dr. Ryder's Will,” New York Times, March 20, 1888; “Dr. Ryder's Bequests,” Boston Globe, March 26, 1888; “Ryder, William Henry,” Andover-Harvard Theological Library, https://library.hds.harvard.edu/exhibits/featured-images/ryder-william-henry (accessedDecember 23, 2020).

14. “Thomas L. Johnson,” New-York Tribune, February 13, 1887. Robert Lincoln joined the Pullman's Palace Car Company (PPCC) board in 1880 at George's invitation.

15. Robert L. Johnson, Born Three Times: The Memoirs of an African-American Missionary Who Finds True Liberation in Europe, ed. Paul D. Sporer (1909; repr., Chester, NY: Anza, 2005), 38–42, quote on 42.

16. “Ladies of the Good Samaritan Society,” Chicago Tribune, February 6, 1872; Karen Sawislak, Smoldering City: Chicagoans and the Great Fire, 1871–1874 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 4–5.

17. “City Brevities,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, August 30, 1877.

18. “Among the Clubs,” Chicago Tribune, March 5, 1876; “Society's Behests,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, March 25, 1876; “Social Events,” Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1876; Duis, Challenging Chicago, 226.

19. “Church Bazar [sic],” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 15, 1880.

20. Sarah Bernhardt, My Double Life: The Memoirs of Sarah Bernhardt, trans. Victoria Tietze Larson (1907; repr., Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), 278. For the stockyards, see Robert G. Spinney, City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000), 57.

21. Dominic A. Pacyga, Slaughterhouse: Chicago's Union Stock Yard and the World It Made (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 59. The city passed its first antipollution ordinance in 1877.

22. Patricia Marks, Sarah Bernhardt's First American Theatrical Tour, 1880–1881 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2003), 100.

23. Marks, Sarah Bernhardt's First American Theatrical Tour, 72.

24. “Sarah as Sculptor,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 13, 1881.

25. Marks, Sarah Bernhardt's First American Theatrical Tour, 100–101.

26. Claude August Crommelin, A Young Dutchman Views Post–Civil War America: Diary of Claude August Crommelin, trans. Augustus J. Veenendaal Jr. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 41 (entry for June 7, 1866); “The Fine Arts,” Chicago Tribune, August 9, 1868; Advertisement, Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1869.

27. Eugene H. Cropsey, Crosby's Opera House: A Symbol of Chicago's Cultural Awakening (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1999), 211.

28. “Cabinet Organs for the Pullman Palace Cars,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 1, 1870, which described them as “combination” organs, consisting of eight stops and one-and-a-half banks of keys producing “a most plaintive, charming tone.”

29. Chicago Evening Journal, March 22, 1867, in Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 1; “The Boston Excursion,” Vermont Watchman, May 25, 1870; “The Kansas Excursion,” New York Times, September 18, 1870.

30. See George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) to Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) (January 30, 1859), transcription, Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), George Mortimer Pullman Papers (GMPP), Box 1, Folder 1; and Emma Pullman, Diary (October 3, 1875), CHM-ARC, Fluhrer Family Papers (FFP), Box 1, Folder 2.

31. “Festive Gatherings,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 7, 1877.

32. See, for example, “Matrimonial,” Chicago Tribune, April 5, 1878; “Society and Fashion,” Daily Inter Ocean, April 6, 1878; “The Unnamed Club,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 20, 1882; and “Social Minors,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 7, 1882.

33. “On the Wing to the Far West,” New York Times, July 5, 1868; “Fashion's Followers,” Chicago Tribune, January 23, 1876; “Social Minors,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 7, 1882.

34. “Hall Dedication,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, May 28, 1877. The committee members included several people in Albert's networks: John V. Farwell, Ebenezer Jennings, O. L. Mann, and A. N. Waterman. Occasionally called the West End Parlor Opera, a Baptist congregation used it as a place of worship. See “Church Services,” Chicago Tribune, February 17, 1878.

35. “Mr. Smith's Third Lincoln Park Concert,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, July 19, 1879; “The Lincoln Park Concert To-Morrow,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, August 9, 1879; “Music: Local Notes,” Chicago Tribune, August 10, 1879. This was the “Perry H. Smith” concert series.

36. George was one of the original sponsors of the Chicago Musical Festival, which debuted in May 1882 in the Exposition Building under the auspices of conductor Theodore Thomas. See Florence Ffrench, ed., Music and Musicians in Chicago: The City's Leading Artists, Organizations and Art Buildings (Chicago: Florence Ffrench, 1899), 29.

37. “Music,” Chicago Tribune, May 23, 1880.

38. “The Reception Committee,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, August 12, 1880; Frank A. Randall, History of the Development of Building Construction in Chicago, 2nd ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 84. The Exposition Building stood on Michigan Avenue near Adams Street between 1873 and 1891, when it was demolished to make way for the Art Institute. Intended as a temporary structure, it was a fire hazard at which a fire engine needed to be stationed during events.

39. “Music,” Chicago Tribune, March 13, 1881; Robert McColley, “Classical Music in Chicago and the Founding of the Symphony, 1850–1905,” Illinois Historical Journal 78, no. 4 (Winter 1985): 291.

40. McColley, “Classical Music in Chicago,” 292. On Eddy, see David Ward Wood, ed., Chicago and Its Distinguished Citizens (Chicago: Milton George, 1881), 131.

41. “Music,” Chicago Tribune, March 13, 1881.

42. See Joseph Horowitz, “Music and the Gilded Age: Social Control and Sacralization Revisited,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 3, no. 3 (July 2004): 238.

43. Programs in the H. Clarence Eddy Collection, New York Public Library.

44. Ffrench, Music and Musicians in Chicago, 29.

45. Ezra Schabas, Theodore Thomas: America's Conductor and Builder of Orchestras, 1835–1905 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 148.

46. Ffrench, Music and Musicians in Chicago, 29.

47. The historical literature on celebrity and endorsements is large and growing. See, for example, Loren Glass, Authors Inc.: Literary Celebrity in the Modern United States (New York: New York University Press, 2004); Fred Inglis, A Short History of Celebrity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), especially chap. 5; Jeffrey Shandler, “Sanctification of the Brand Name: The Marketing of Cantor Yossele Rosenblatt,” in Chosen Capital: The Jewish Encounter with American Capitalism, ed. Rebecca Kobrin (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 255–71; and Johanna Neuman, Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women's Right to Vote (New York: New York University Press, 2017), chap. 2.

48. Inglis, A Short History of Celebrity, 123.

49. Gillian Dyer, Advertising as Communication (London: Methuen, 1982), 33.

50. For a history of the genre, see Kerry Segrave, Endorsements in Advertising: A Social History (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2005).

51. Advertisement, Chicago Tribune, December 1, 1872.

52. Advertisement, Chicago Tribune, July 18, 1874.

53. Centennial Buckeye Cookbook, Compiled by the Women of the First Congregational Church, Marysville, Ohio (Marysville, OH: J. H. Shearer, 1876), 402.

54. “C. L. Woodman & Co.,” Chicago Tribune, August 29, 1874.

55. See a letter dated 1873 in The Derrick's Hand-Book of Petroleum (Oil City, PA: Derrick Publishing, 1898), 889; and “Palaces on Wheels,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, March 7, 1876.

56. “Sleeping Coaches,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, November 5, 1875. Entries in his sister Emma's diary indicate that he traveled regularly to Detroit in 1875, probably to oversee the implementation of the new lamps. See Emma Pullman, Diary (August 26, 1875), (September 30, 1875), (October 5, 1875), and (October 17, 1875), all in CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

57. “Priority of Invention in Car Lamps,” Engineering News 26, no. 44 (October 24, 1891): 389; “Safety Appliances for the Public,” Railway Review 27, no. 3 (January 15, 1887): 37.

58. “Palaces on Wheels,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, March 7, 1876.

59. “A Palace on Wheels,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, January 11, 1883. The batteries were charged by an axle-mounted generator.

60. “General News,” Elkton (MD) Cecil Whig, October 24, 1874. The patent was granted to H. B. Cobb of Z. Cobb and Sons of Wilmington, Delaware, a town in which PPCC operated a repair shop.

61. Delaware State Directory and Gazetteer (Wilmington, DE: Commercial Printing, 1874), 108; Advertisement, National Car Builder 5, no. 8 (August 1874): xii.

62. Henry V. Poor, Manual of the Railroads of the United States for 1877–1878 (New York: H. V. and H. W. Poor, 1876), 57.

19. Railroad Expert

1. Manufacturing Department Cash Books, (July 1881), 1, Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 07/00/05.

2. “Several Subjects,” American Soap Journal and Perfume Gazette 4, no. 7 (October 1, 1893): 224.

3. “The Winchell Car Ventilator,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, September 7, 1875; “Railroad Travelling,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, September 14, 1875.

4. “Suspension Car Trucks,” Daily Rock Island Argus, April 28, 1881.

5. “Pullman Car Journal-Bearing,” Railroad Gazette 8, no. 40 (October 5, 1877): 443.

6. Helena E. Wright erroneously attributes the adoption of paper wheels by Pullman's Palace Car Company (PPCC) to George Pullman. See Helena E. Wright, “George Pullman and the Allen Paper Car Wheel,” Technology and Culture 33, no. 4 (October 1992): 761.

7. Passenger Lists of Vessels Arriving at New York, New York, 1820–1897, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (NARA), Records of the US Customs Service, Record Group (RG) 36.

8. See, for example, correspondence from the New York office of the Fried, Krupp works in Essen, Germany to the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (CB&Q) (November 12, 1886): NL, CB&Q Papers, 3 P2.2 Box 674, Folder 8515.

9. “Across the Continent,” Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper 1,134 (August 25, 1877): 417. An illustration accompanying this article shows “Mr. Pullman Explaining the Paper Wheels.” That “Mr. Pullman” was almost certainly Albert.

10. “The Scrap Heap,” Railroad Gazette 9, no. 10 (March 15, 1878): 187; “Manufacturing Items,” Railway Age 23, no. 23 (June 6, 1878): 287.

11. “Steel Tires vs. Chilled Wheels,” Railroad Gazette 16, no. 44 (November 18, 1885): 721; “Editorial Letters,” Railroad Gazette 9, no. 44 (November 15, 1878): 554–55.

12. The exact figure Albert gave was 398,591.5 miles: “The Allen Paper Wheels,” Railway Age Monthly 1, no. 8 (August 1880): 473.

13. “How Paper Car Wheels Are Made,” Scientific American 46, no. 14 (April 8, 1882): 218.

14. “Paper or Iron Wheels?,” Philadelphia (PA) North American, October 16, 1879; John H. White Jr., The American Railroad Passenger Car (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 537.

15. “Steel Tires vs. Chilled Wheels,” 721.

16. Circular from Committee on the Reorganization of the Master Car-Builders’ Association (New York: Master Car-Builders’ Association, 1882), in NL, CB&Q Papers, 33 1880 2 Box 53, Folder 437.

17. Report of the Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Convention of the Master Car-Builders’ Association (New York: McIlroy, 1881), 187–94. Albert's comments were widely reported in the trade press. See, for example, “Master Car Builders Association—Fifteenth Annual Convention,” Railway Age Monthly 2, no. 7 (July 1881): 411; and “The Best Diameter for Car Wheels,” Railroad Gazette 12, no. 26 (July 8, 1881): 376.

18. “The Members of the Master Car Builders’ Association,” Railway Age 8, no. 6 (February 8, 1883): 73.

19. John H. White Jr., “Elisha Talbott and the Railway Age,” Chicago History 36, no. 3 (Winter 2010): 44–49.

20. “Safety Appliances for the Public,” Railway Review 27, no. 3 (January 15, 1887): 37; “Western Railway Club,” Railroad and Engineering Journal 61, no. 3 (March 1887): 136.

21. “Mr. A. B. Pullman States That It Is Impossible to Heat a Car by Utilizing Waste Heat and Steam from the Locomotive,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, February 10, 1887; “The Pullman Palace Car Company Is Quite Sure That Their Cars Cannot Be Heated by Steam from the Locomotive,” Detroit Free Press, February 19, 1887.

22. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 188–89.

23. “The Pullman Vestibule Train,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 16, 1887; “The Pullman Limited Train,” Railway Review 27, no. 16 (April 16, 1887): 226.

24. B. Zorina Khan, The Democratization of Invention: Patents and Copyrights in American Economic Development, 1790–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 107 and 110; Philip Scranton, Proprietary Capitalism: The Textile Manufacture at Philadelphia, 1800–1885 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 69–71.

25. Annual Report of the Commissioners for Patents for the Year 1870 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1872), 277 (which contains an illustration of the brake); “Myers Pneumatic Car,” Scientific American 25, no. 16 (October 14, 1871): 246. For Myers American Pneumatic Car Company, see R. M. Smythe, Obsolete American Securities and Corporations (New York: R. M. Smythe, 1911), 678.

26. “Patents,” The Engineer, October 22, 1875; Official Gazette of the United States Patent for the Year 1876 (Washington, DC: Department of Commerce, 1876), 265.

27. “Western Patents,” Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1881.

28. Annual Report of the Commissioner for Patents for the Year 1884 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1885), patent number 293, 275; Annual Report of the Commissioners of Patents (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 330; “Railway Industries,” Railway World 19, no. 27 (July 4, 1891): 631; Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1892 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1893), 292.

29. Marshall M. Kirkman, Cars: Their Construction, Handling and Supervision (Chicago: Cropley Phillips, 1911), 1, 72, fig. 46.

30. The railroad companies resisted adopting the Westinghouse Air Brake because of its cost until they were forced to do so by federal legislation in 1893, almost twenty-five years after Westinghouse's first patent.

31. “The Railroads,” Chicago Tribune, June 8, 1875. J. Q. A. Bean was something of an insider, having served as general freight agent for the CB&Q and for the Michigan Central.

32. Steven W. Usselman, “Patents, Engineering Professionals, and the Pipelines of Innovation: The Internalization of Technical Discovery by Nineteenth-Century American Railroads,” in Learning by Doing in Markets, Firms, and Countries, ed. Naomi R. Lamoreaux et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 65–67 and 81.

20. The End of Mutual Relations

1. “Repairs to Cars [valued at] over $1,000” (August 1887), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 09/00/03, Box 2, Folder 99d.

2. “Presentation,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1871.

3. Shelton Stromquist, A Generation of Boomers: The Pattern of Railroad Labor Conflict in Nineteenth Century America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 189. On balancing craft exclusivity with social harmony, see Paul Michel Taillon, Good, Reliable, White Men: Railroad Brotherhoods, 1877–1917 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), chap. 3.

4. The first brotherhoods organized engineers (1863), conductors (1868), firemen (1873), and trainmen (1878).

5. Albert J. Churella, The Pennsylvania Railroad (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013) 1, 489.

6. Dominic A. Pacgya, Chicago: A Biography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 88.

7. Clayton D. Laurie and Ronald H. Cole, The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1877–1945 (Washington DC: Center of Military History, 1997), 44–46.

8. “The Wrong Track,” Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1877.

9. Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) Board Minutes (August 1, 1877), 466, Hagley Archives, 1807 Series VI, vol. 94.

10. The railroad also applied to the Pennsylvania General Assembly for restitution, but that maneuver was sidetracked. See PRR Board Minutes (August 17, 1877), 452–55, Hagley Archives, 1807 series VI, vol. 94.

11. “Reign of Terror in Pittsburgh,” Rock Island Argus, July 23, 1877; “A Pittsburgh Riot Suit,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 4, 1878.

12. “Contract between PPCC and PRR” (1873), 16–17, Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP) Box 4; Thomas A. Scott to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (February 18, 1878), NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 1, Folder 28. This correspondence suggests that, for PRR, the damage presented an opportunity to test the legality of holding the county liable for the actions of the people of Pittsburgh. PRR sued both the state of Pennsylvania and Alleghany County, the first being rejected by the legislature and the second earning partial recompense. See Churella, The Pennsylvania Railroad 1, 490.

13. D. J. Watson to Horace Porter (January 26, 1879), NL, PCP, 01/01/01, Box 3, Folder 50.

14. See correspondence in NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 1, Folders 28 and 50; “Sixty Year Statement” (1868–1927), NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 1, Folder 37; and D. J. Watson to GMP (January 2, 1880), and GMP to D. J. Watson (January 5, 1880), both in NL, PCP, 01/01/01, Box 3, Folder 50. Pullman's Palace Car Company (PPCC) demanded $76,608 in damages but received three-quarters of that amount from the county.

15. Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850–1896 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 265. Growing class solidarity in the wake of the violence and uncertainty of the 1870s is well documented because, as Pamela Laird writes, “major segments of working men—of all classes and trades—responded to the social, political, and economic disruptions after 1870 by closing ranks.” See Pamela Walker Laird, Pull: Networking and Success since Benjamin Franklin (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 58.

16. The Chicago Clubs Illustrated (Chicago: Lanward, 1888), 11–12. Founded as the Dearborn Club, members changed its name to the Chicago Club in 1869 as a point of civic pride.

17. The Chicago Clubs Illustrated, 62.

18. Thomas J. Schlereth, “Big Money and High Culture: The Commercial Club of Chicago and Charles L. Hutchinson,” Great Lakes Review 3, no. 1 (Summer 1976): 16; Robert G. Spinney, City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000), 112.

19. “A New West Side Club,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 17, 1878.

20. Max Riebenack, Railway Provident Institutions in English-Speaking Countries (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Railroad, 1905), 110–11; “Railway Benevolent Institution,” London Times, April 15, 1871.

21. Spirit of the Times, or Underwriters’ Journal (May 10, 1873), in NL, PCP, 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 3.

22. For brief histories of railroad company mutual benefit societies, see Emory R. Johnson, “Railway Departments for the Relief and Insurance of Employes,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (November 1895), 64–108; Riebenack, Railway Provident Institutions, passim; and Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 207.

23. Railway workers’ insurance first appeared in Britain in 1838, but the initial American equivalent came and went in 1855, followed by nearly two decades of inaction. See Simon Cordery, “Mutualism, Friendly Societies, and the Genesis of Railway Trade Unions,” Labour History Review, 67 (December 2002): 263–79.

24. For fraternal orders and the railroads, see Simon Cordery, “Mutual Benefit Societies in the United States: A Quest for Protection and Identity,” in Social Security Mutualism: The Comparative History of Mutual Benefit Societies, ed. Marcel van der Linden (Bern: Peter Lang, 1996), 83–109.

25. Riebenack, Railway Provident Institutions, 316. Albert was president of the Pullman Mutual Benefit Association (PMBA) in 1873, but two years later, he stepped aside to be replaced by PPCC Secretary Charles Angell. Business in Europe and legal problems pushed the PMBA down Albert's list of priorities. He became president again for a year in 1878, but the organization did not flourish. See “Mutual Benefit Association,” NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 2, Folder 98; and “Chicago Railroad News,” Railroad Gazette 4, no. 8 (May 3, 1873): 181.

21. Money, Politics, and Challenging George

1. Robert G. Spinney, City of Big Shoulders: A History of Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000), 77.

2. The Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. John F. Marszalek (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2017), 721, n11; Charles W. Calhoun, The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2017), 77.

3. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 151.

4. Ulysses S. Grant to Horace Porter (December 1, 1872), The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. John Y. Simon (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998) 23, 293.

5. Horace Porter to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (December 1, 1872), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 2, Folder 5.

6. “Russia's Imperial Scion,” Chicago Tribune, December 28, 1871.

7. “Springfield—Tour of Railroad Inspection,” Chicago Tribune, May 20, 1872.

8. “Alexis,” Chicago Tribune, January 3, 1872; “Alexis,” Chicago Tribune, January 4, 1872; Lee A. Farrow, Alexis in America: A Russian Grand Duke's Tour, 1871–1872 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014), 123. The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company would later become the A&P grocery chain.

9. Report of the Secretary of State to the United States Senate (December 9, 1875), 2; “The King of Hawaii,” New York Times, December 12, 1874; Ralph S. Kuykendall, The Hawaiian Kingdom, Vol. III: The Kalakaua Dynasty (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1967), 23–24; Roger Bell, Last Among Equals: Hawaiian Statehood and American Politics (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1984), 17–18.

10. Report of the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1874), 150–52.

11. James Blaine Walker, Fifty Years of Rapid Transit, 1864 to 1917 (New York: Law Printing Company, 1918), 110–11. Quotation from “Pullman in New York,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 26, 1877.

12. “The Gilbert Elevated Railway,” American Railroad Journal 32, no. 141 (April 1, 1876): 418; Biographical Directory of the Railway Officials of America for 1887 (Chicago: Railway Age Publishing, 1887), 260.

13. “Pullman in New York,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 26, 1877.

14. “Consolidating Rapid Transit in New York,” Brooklyn Eagle, May 23, 1879; Clifton Hood, 722 Miles: The Building of the Subways and How They Transformed New York (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 50–51.

15. “The Gilbert Road Cars,” New York Herald, April 24, 1878.

16. “The Gilbert Road's First Passengers,” New York Tribune, April 30, 1878.

17. “Paper Brake Shoes,” Railroad Gazette 10, no. 16 (April 25, 1879): 223.

18. “Rapid Transit Luxuries,” New York Herald, March 7, 1879.

19. “Pullman in New York,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 26, 1877. The first idea was, of course, the sleeping car.

20. “Over the Highways,” New York Herald, May 1, 1878.

21. Amy G. Richter, Home on the Rails: Women, the Railroad, and the Rise of Public Domesticity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 73. A 1917 Pullman subway car preserved in the New York Transit Museum suggests that a turn toward utility characterized later models.

22. “Rapid Transit,” New York Herald, June 6, 1878.

23. “Railroad Equipment Notes,” Railroad Gazette 10, no. 9 (March 7, 1879): 134; “Railway Affairs,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, June 24, 1879.

24. Gene Sansone, New York Subways: An Illustrated History of New York City's Transit Cars, rev. ed. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 338–51.

25. For the quotations, see “The Gilbert Elevated Railway,” Scientific American 38, no. 5 (February 2, 1878): 1; and “Opening of a New Elevated Steam Railway in New York City,” Scientific American 38, no. 20 (May 18, 1878): 315.

26. Roger P. Roess and Gene Sansone, The Wheels That Drove New York: A History of the New York City Transit System (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2013), 109.

27. Lady Duffus Hardy, Through Cities and Prairie Lands: Sketches of an American Tour (New York: Worthington, 1881), 63.

28. Sansone, New York Subways, 338–51.

29. Car Construction Contracts, Staten Island Rapid Transit Company (January 22, 1885), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 02/01/06, Box 47. The United American Car Builders Association standard dated from 1871.

30. Car Construction Contracts, Suburban Rapid Transit (July 17, 1885), NL, PCP, 02/01/06, Box 47.

31. “The President,” New York Herald, October 20, 1874; “Palace Car Pullman,” Nashville (TN) Daily American, December 21, 1878.

32. “Royal Railroading,” Milwaukee (WI) Daily Sentinel, June 18, 1877.

33. The Grant Reception Monograph (Chicago: L. E. Adams, 1879), 83; Ron Chernow, Grant (New York: Penguin, 2017), 887–88. Much was made of Ulysses S. Grant's supposed “weakness for alcohol,” mostly by his enemies. See Calhoun, The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, 588.

34. “Bob's Gospel,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, March 3, 1877.

35. “Stalwart Satisfaction,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, March 30, 1881.

36. History of Crawford County, Pennsylvania (Chicago: Warner, Beers, 1885), 842.

37. “A New West Side Club,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 17, 1878; The Elite Directory and Club List of Chicago 1885–6 (Chicago: Elite Publishing, 1885), 112 and 119.

38. “Foreign,” Chicago Tribune, November 26, 1879.

39. See Máire O’Brien and Conor Cruise O’Brien, Ireland: A Concise History (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1972), 108–14. The Land League developed out of the failure of Fenian uprisings of 1865 and 1867 and gained immense support between 1878 and 1881.

40. “Irish Land Reform,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 1, 1879.

41. “The Irish Land Reform Movement,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, December 1, 1879. The Irish National Land League called itself the Irish Land Reform Movement in the United States.

42. Eric L. Hirsch, Urban Revolt: Ethnic Politics in the Nineteenth-Century Chicago Labor Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2021), 131–32.

43. “C. S. Parnell,” Chicago Tribune, February 22, 1880.

44. “Irish Land Reform,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 2, 1880.

45. Ely M. Janis, A Greater Ireland: The Land League and Transatlantic Nationalism in Gilded Age America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2015), 31–32.

46. Hirsch, Urban Revolt, 123–24.

47. “Erin Go Bragh,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 24, 1880.

48. Richard Schneirov, Labor and Urban Politics: Class Conflict and the Origins of Modern Liberalism in Chicago, 1864–97 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 120.

49. Janis, A Greater Ireland, 36–37.

50. The Chicago branch of the Land League moved rapidly to the left, attracting labor organizers and socialists while leaving Albert behind. See Janis, A Greater Ireland, 133.

51. “Nameless Club,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 6, 1882; “The Unnamed Club,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 20, 1882.

52. “There Is Going to Be Serious Trouble,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 9, 1882.

53. H. Wayne Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1969), 248.

54. “Game Galore,” Chicago Tribune, November 20, 1881; “Drake's a Duck,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 21, 1881.

55. Edward R. Kantowicz, “Carter H. Harrison II: The Politics of Balance,” in The Mayors: The Chicago Political Tradition, ed. Paul M. Green and Melvin G. Holli, 4th ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013), 18–19.

56. “Municipal Matters,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, March 16, 1887; Henry Binmore, ed., Laws and Ordinances Governing the City of Chicago (Chicago: E. B. Myers, 1894), 324–25.

57. “The President's Reception,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, September 22, 1887; “Political Notes,” Lancaster (PA) Daily Intelligencer, August 16, 1888.

58. “Carter H. Harrison, Candidate for World's Fair Mayor,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, March 26, 1893. The same advertisement appeared in Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1893.

22. Utopian Domesticity

1. Perceval Lowell to T. J. Potter (November 19, 1881), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (CB&Q) Papers, 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 435.

2. John Stilgoe, Metropolitan Corridor: Railroads and the American Scene (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983), 63.

3. For an excellent study of the relationship between proximity and access, see Jack Brown, No. 10: The Geography of Power at Downing Street (London: Haus, 2019).

4. In 1869, Albert worked among the “offices occupied by the gentlemen in charge of the practical operations of the company.” See Chicago Railway Review, May 21, 1869, n.p., clipping in NL, Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 12/00/01, Scrapbooks, vol. 2.

5. Board of Directors Minutes (April 3, 1873), 164, NL, PCP, 02/01/02, vol. 1. The building was owned by a Pullman company trustee, J. Young Scammon.

6. “Chicago Railroad News,” Railroad Gazette 4, no. 1 (January 4, 1873): 8.

7. John Zukowsky, ed., Chicago Architecture 1872–1922: Birth of a Metropolis (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 1987), 182–83.

8. “Railroad News,” Chicago Tribune, December 21, 1872; “Chicago Railroad News,” Railroad Gazette 4, no. 1 (January 4, 1873): 8.

9. “Railroad News,” Chicago Tribune, December 21, 1872.

10. Manuscript biography of George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (ca. 1888), 5, Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 6, Folder 13. This manuscript was prepared for a book to be published by the Hubbard Brothers and may have been intended for Living Leaders of the World (Chicago: Hubbard Brothers, 1889), but it does not have an entry on George Pullman. The truth is probably that Albert actually did the training, given his superior carpentry skills compared to George.

11. “The Pullman Building,” brochure (Chicago: Pullman's Palace Car Company, 1884), floorplan for second story.

12. For the interlocking histories of two factory owners whose visions paralleled many aspects of Pullman, see Charles Dellheim, “Utopia Ltd.: Bournville and Port Sunlight,” in Cities, Class and Communication: Essays in Honour of Asa Briggs, ed. Derek Fraser (Hemel Hempstead, UK: Harvester, 1990), 48–49.

13. Roger A. Salerno, “Imagining the Urban Poor: Poverty and the Fear of Cities,” in Fleeing the City: Studies in the Culture and Politics of Antiurbanism, ed. Michael J. Thompson (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 147–54.

14. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 165. Leyendecker claims that George interpreted this three-volume novel as a tribute to the need for cooperation between capital and labor, but it is a conventional and rather overblown romantic tale, less social reform tract and more love story.

15. “Riverside Park,” Chicago Tribune, May 9, 1869. The Riverside Improvement Company sponsored subsequent excursions using Pullman equipment over the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (CB&Q). See, for example, “Excursion,” Chicago Tribune, February 6, 1870.

16. Sarah Rutherford, Garden Cities and Suburbs (Oxford: Shire, 2016), 23.

17. The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted, ed. Charles Capen McLaughlin (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977) 1, 36–37; Elizabeth Stevenson, Park Maker: A Life of Frederick Law Olmsted (New York: Macmillan, 1977), 302–3; Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia (New York: Basic Books, 1987), 126–33.

18. Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias, 121.

19. Charles Nordhoff, California: For Health, Pleasure, and Residence (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1872), 22.

20. Riverside in 1871, with a Description of Its Improvements (1871; repr., Riverside, IL: Frederick Law Olmsted Society of Chicago, 1974), 15.

21. Paul de Rousiers, American Life, trans. A. J. Herbertson (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1892), 175.

22. Erik de Gier, Capitalist Workingman's Paradises Revisited: Corporate Welfare Work in Great Britain, the USA, Germany and France in the Golden Age of Capitalism, 1880–1930 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2016), 91; Stanley Buder, Pullman: An Experiment in Industrial Order and Community Planning 1880–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 40 (quote) and 41–43.

23. “The Pullman Experiment,” Boston Daily Advertiser, October 6, 1885.

24. Railway Age Monthly 2, no. 8 (August 1881): 457.

25. The failure of this holistic model and its impact on future generations of town planners and urban activists is brilliantly analyzed in Niall Kishtainy, The Infinite City: Utopian Dreams on the Streets of London (London: William Collins, 2023).

26. “The Pullman Palace Car Company,” Atlanta (GA) Daily Sun, April 11, 1872.

27. Ulysses S. Grant to Charles W. Ford (February 22, 1873), The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. John Y. Simon (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998) 24, 49.

28. “The Pullman Palaces,” Chicago Tribune, April 1, 1873.

29. Frank Parmelee to GMP (October 16, 1879), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 6, Folder 5.

30. “Houses and Lots,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 2, 1880; Buder, Pullman, 26.

31. Frederick Francis Cook, Bygone Days in Chicago (Chicago: A. A. McClurg, 1910), 260.

32. Robert Lewis, Chicago Made: Factory Networks in the Industrial Metropolis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 145.

23. Utopia in Brick and Steel

1. Stanley Buder, Pullman: An Experiment in Industrial Order and Community Planning 1880–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 49–50. The Pullman Land Association (PLA) emerged in early spring 1880.

2. Memorandum (November 26, 1897), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 02/01/03, Box 1, Folder 13a, A. S. Weinsheimer Administrative File, Pullman Land Association Notes.

3. Ulysses S. Grant paid a deposit of $3,750, or half of the total, on his holdings: Receipt for Shares (September 30, 1881), The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. John Y. Simon (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998) 30, 474.

4. Buder, Pullman, 70; Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 167.

5. Cathy Jean Maloney, Chicago Gardens: The Early History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 276.

6. Buder, Pullman, 50–51; Cody Lown, “Railroad Investment and the Development of the Chicago Region, 1850–1910” (master's thesis, Michigan State University, 2018), 80.

7. Richard T. Ely, “Pullman: A Social Study,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine, 70 (February 1885): 458.

8. “The Railroads,” Chicago Tribune, May 15, 1880.

9. Ely, “Pullman,” 458.

10. Buder, Pullman, 50–52.

11. Ely, “Pullman,” 453.

12. Buder, Pullman, 139.

13. See, for example, “Real Estate,” Chicago Tribune, April 25, 1880; and John McLean, One Hundred Years in Illinois (Chicago: Peterson, 1919), 230.

14. Travel reimbursements, PPCC Construction and Expenses Journal (1880–1883), NL, Pullman Car Works Records, 5.

15. Albert J. Churella, The Pennsylvania Railroad (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013) 1, 449.

16. “Pullman,” Chicago Tribune, April 3, 1881.

17. Pullman's Palace Car Company (PPCC) purchased the Elmira Car Manufactory in 1875. For a useful list of railroad car building plants, see John H. White Jr., “Railroad Car Builders of the United States,” Railroad History 138 (Spring 1978): 22–29.

18. Chicago City Directory (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1882), 993.

19. Dian O. Belanger, “The Corliss at Pullman,” Technology and Culture 25, no. 1 (January 1984): 83–90.

20. Robert M. Lillibridge, “Pullman: Town Development in the Era of Eclecticism,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 12, no. 3 (October 1953): 17–22.

21. Jane Eva Baxter and Andrew H. Bullen, “‘The World's Most Perfect Town,’ Reconsidered: Negotiating Class, Labour and Heritage in the Pullman Community of Chicago,” in Heritage, Labour and the Working Classes, ed. Laurajane Smith et al. (Florence, SC: Taylor & Francis, 2011): 250–51.

22. Ely, “Pullman,” 463; Richard T. Ely, Ground Under Our Feet: An Autobiography (New York: Macmillan, 1938), 168.

23. Ely, “Pullman,” 457.

24. Edward Martin to A. E. Ditch (December 8, 1881), NL, Pullman Car Works Records, Statements, 1881–1883; Ely, “Pullman,” 464.

25. Samuel Gompers, “The Lessons of the Recent Strikes,” North American Review 159, no. 453 (August 1894): 203

26. Ely, Ground Under Our Feet, 170.

27. Buder, Pullman, 44–47.

28. Douglas Pearson Hoover, “Women in Nineteenth Century Pullman” (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1986), 24.

29. Adam Mack, Sensing Chicago: Noisemakers, Strikebreakers, and Muckrakers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015), 53–54 (quotations) and 62–63.

30. Jane Eva Baxter, “The Paradox of a Capitalist Utopia: Visionary Ideals and Lived Experience in the Pullman Community 1880–1900,” International Journal of Historical Archaeology 16, no. 4 (December 2012): 658–59; Maloney, Chicago Gardens, 277.

31. Mrs. Duane Doty, The Town of Pullman (Pullman, IL: T. P. Struhsacker, 1893), appendix, 28.

32. Doty, The Town of Pullman, 33.

33. Buder, Pullman, 62–63; “An Industrial City,” Scientific American 50, no. 18 (May 3, 1884): 279–80.

34. Jay Pridmore and George A. Larson, Chicago Architecture and Design, 3rd ed. (New York: Abrams, 2018).

35. Ely, “Pullman,” 461.

36. Naomi R. Lamoreaux, “Entrepreneurship in the United States, 1865–1920,” in The Invention of Enterprise: Entrepreneurship from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern Times, ed. David S. Landes et al. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 384–85.

37. George F. Brown to T. J. Potter (November 7, 1881), NL, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (CB&Q) Papers, 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 435.

38. Ely, “Pullman,” 463.

39. Ely, “Pullman,” 466.

40. William H. Harris, Keeping the Faith: A. Phillip Randolph, Milton P. Webster, and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 1925–37 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 3.

41. David Walker, Railroading Religion: Mormons, Tourists, and the Corporate Spirit of the West (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), 120.

24. The Costs of Utopia

1. “Jay Gould at Pullman,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 12, 1882.

2. “The Duke of Sutherland,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, May 24, 1881. Albert's praise appeared on the occasion of a Midland Railway excursion. See “The Pullman Sleeping Car,” London Times, April 24, 1874.

3. George Behrend, Pullman in Europe (London: Ian Allen, 1962), 24.

4. “The Duke of Sutherland,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, May 24, 1881.

5. Car Construction Contracts, Wason Car and Foundry (November 20, 1883), NL, PCP, 02/01/06, Box 53. The Woodruff contract is missing from the undated contract envelope, but it seems likely that Woodruff also repaired cars for Pullman. See Car Construction Contracts, Woodruff Sleeping Car Co., NL, PCP, 02/01/06, Box 54.

6. Car Construction Contracts, Saginaw Union Street Railway (November 12, 1888), NL, PCP, 02/01/06, Box 42. Another contract followed, in May 1890, for a total of three cars.

7. Walter R. Borneman, Rival Rails: The Race to Build America's Greatest Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Random House, 2010), 275–76.

8. Richard T. Ely, “Pullman: A Social Study,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine, 70 (February 1885): 463.

9. P. L. Cable and Pullman's Palace Car Company (PPCC), Correspondence (July 21, 1884, to November 10, 1884), Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 02/01/06, Box 56, Private Car Contracts, P.L. Cable (1884).

10. John H. White Jr., The American Railroad Freight Car: From the Wood-Car Era to the Coming of Steel (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 152.

11. Paul de Rousiers, American Life, trans. A. J. Herbertson (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1892), 173.

12. Godfrey Rhodes to W. E. Burrows (July 26, 1884), NL, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (CB&Q) Papers 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 435.

13. J. H. Sunderland to T. J. Potter (June 5, 1879), NL, CB&Q Papers 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 435.

14. H. S. Billings to T. H. Wickes (March 25, 1887), NL, PCP, 09/00/03, Box 2, Folder 99e.

15. Quotation from W. H. Mileham to William Irving (July 26, 1886), NL, CB&Q Papers 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 435.

16. T. J. Potter to George Brown (August 28, 1886), CB&Q Papers 33 1880 2, Box 53, Folder 435.

17. Sanford M. Jacoby, Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism Since the New Deal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 14.

18. The materials, from October and November 1885, are in NL, PCP, 02/01/06, Box 82, Folder 353.

19. Dominic A. Pacyga, Chicago: A Biography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 84.

20. “The Pullman Strike,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 3, 1885; “The Labor Troubles in Pullman, Ill.,” Boston Daily Advertiser, October 6, 1885.

21. Milton George, ed., The Western Rural Year Book (Chicago: Milton George, 1886), 37.

22. “How Futile It Is,” Milwaukee Journal, October 6, 1885.

23. N. Spicer to Sir John MacDonald (March 25, 1886) and Instructions to Conductors, Train 3 (March 25, 1886), both in NL, PCP, 01/01/01, Box 8, Folder 114.

24. H. Wayne Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1969), 468.

25. Stanley Buder, Pullman: An Experiment in Industrial Order and Community Planning 1880–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 140.

26. Susan Eleanor Hirsch, After the Strike: A Century of Labor Struggle at Pullman (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 25–26.

27. “End of the Pullman Strike,” Rocky Mountain News, May 21, 1886.

28. Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 180–81.

29. “Brickmakers’ Strike,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, May 13, 1887.

30. “Suburban,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, August 22, 1887; “Discontent at Pullman,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 23, 1887.

31. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 180; Hirsch, After the Strike, 26.

32. H. Roger Grant, Railroads and the American People (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012), 84; Fred Ash, “Mann and the Maple Leaf,” Railroad History 230 (Spring–Summer 2024): 55–59.

33. Buder, Pullman, 135; Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 193.

34. De Rousiers, American Life, 181.

25. Deaths and Departure

1. Emma Pullman, Diary (October 5, 1875), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), Fluhrer Family Papers (FFP), Box 1, Folder 2.

2. Emma Pullman to William Fluhrer (November 24, 1875), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 1.

3. “Social Minors,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 7, 1882.

4. Emma Pullman, Diary (September 25, 1875) and (September 29, 1875), both in CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

5. Emma Pullman, Diary (October 5, 1875) and (October 15, 1875), both in CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

6. “Protestant Orphan Asylum,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 6, 1875. Mrs. Marsh, a member of the St. Paul's Universalist Church, summered next to the Pullmans and regularly volunteered with Emily: “St. Paul's,” Chicago Tribune, February 4, 1877; “Festive Gatherings,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, February 7, 1877.

7. “The City,” Chicago Tribune, March 23, 1879.

8. Milan (TN) Exchange, September 25, 1879. George subsidized family members, including Albert, on a regular basis. The first recorded instance of this comes from September 1871, when he listed regular gifts to his mother, his sisters, and $15,646.66 in “family expense.” See Newberry Library, Chicago (NL), Pullman Company Papers (PCP), 01/01/01, Box 8, Folder 129, Trial Balance 1871. For later examples, see correspondence between Dr. William Fluhrer and his wife Emily promising to “decline George's generosity” when Pullman dividends proved lower than anticipated. See Dr. William Fluhrer to Emily Pullman Fluhrer (September 8, 1891), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 2, Folder August–December 1891; and Emily Pullman Fluhrer to Dr. William Fluhrer (August 5, 1893), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 2, Folder 1892–1893.

9. United States Federal Census (June 8, 1880) Chicago, IL, Enumeration District 109, 641; Emma Pullman to William Fluhrer (July 25, 1881), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

10. In 1870, the infant mortality rate in the United States was 184.5 per 1,000 and in 1880, it stood at 225.1 per 1,000. Urbanization and the pressure of unemployment in a depressed economy contributed to this increase. See table Ab 912-927-Fetal death ratio, neonatal mortality rate, infant mortality rate, and maternal mortality rate, by race: 1850–1998, Historical Statistics of the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press), https://hsus-cambridge-org.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/HSUSWeb/search/searchTable.do?id=Ab912-927.

11. “Dr. Ryder,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, April 17, 1882. This break turned out to be permanent because Ryder returned to Chicago but not to the pulpit, resigning his commission and retiring.

12. “Matrimonial,” Chicago Tribune, May 18, 1882.

13. Emma Pullman to William Fluhrer (September 19, 1883), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

14. William Fluhrer to Emma Pullman (August 8, 1884), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

15. Royal Henry Pullman (RHP) to Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) (August 4, 1886), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 3, Folder 1.

16. “Matrimonial Events,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 18, 1886.

17. Helen Pullman West to ECMP (November 18, 1886), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 3, Folder 1.

18. “Albert B. Pullman Sues a Doctor,” Chicago Tribune, January 20, 1888.

19. “Stocks, Securities, and Gossip,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, January 21, 1882.

20. See “Wall Street: The Decline in Pullman,” Chicago Tribune, October 6, 1883; and “Business,” Chicago Tribune, January 19, 1884.

21. “Romantic but Real,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, December 24, 1883.

22. “The Decline in Pullman Stock,” Chicago Tribune, October 5, 1883; “Chicago ‘Change,” Cleveland Daily Herald, January 13, 1884.

23. For the unfolding crisis, see “The Same Story,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, December 24, 1883; and “Chicago ‘Change,” Cleveland Daily Herald, January 13, 1884.

24. “Our Coming Guests,” St. Paul (MN) Daily Globe, September 1, 1883; “Shake!” St. Paul (MN) Daily Globe, September 3, 1883.

25. Stanley Buder, Pullman: An Experiment in Industrial Order and Community Planning 1880–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 136–37; Liston Edgington Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince: A Biography of George Mortimer Pullman (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1992), 173–74.

26. Frederick Lewis Allen, The Great Pierpont Morgan (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949), 50–51. For concerns about George's finances, see “George M. Pullman: He Denies the Reports Affecting His Solvency,” Chicago Tribune, January 17, 1884.

27. John William Leonard, ed., Woman's Who's Who of America 1914–1915 (New York: American Commonwealth, 1914), 842. Alice Owsley was educated at Northwestern University and Cornell University, graduating from the latter in 1904.

28. RHP to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (November 12, 1877), CHM-ARC, Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 5, Folder 3.

29. “Still Down,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, May 27, 1886.

30. “The Bears Win Again,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, June 11, 1886; RHP to ECMP (July 11, 1886), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 3, Folder 1.

31. “The Wheat Crop,” New York Times, July 22, 1886.

32. “Serious Charges against a Firm of Brokers,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, September 23, 1886.

33. H. W. Brands, American Colossus: The Triumph of Capitalism, 1865–1900 (New York: Anchor, 2010), 17.

34. Leyendecker, Palace Car Prince, 214; “A. B. Pullman Dead,” Chicago Tribune, December 19, 1893.

35. Every member of the Pullman family received passes for free travel in Pullman cars. Albert remained the most peripatetic sibling, amassing $129 worth of travel between January and November 1889, the highest of any Pullman and twenty-eighth out of 313 total passes. See “Statement of President's Annual Passes” (November 30, 1888), NL, PCP, 01/01/01, Box 3, Folder 52.

36. William Fluhrer to Emma Pullman Fluhrer (June 17, 1887), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 3. For Pingree, see Illinois State Board of Health, Official Register of Physicians and Midwives (Springfield, IL: H. W. Rokker, 1886), 54; “Matriculants,” Philadelphia University Journal of Medicine and Surgery (1869): 427; “Mineral Point Is to Have,” Mineral Point (WI) Tribune, October 14, 1875; and “Commencement Exercises,” Chicago Medical Times (April 1880): 41.

37. Medical and Surgical Directory of the United States (Detroit, MI: R. L. Polk, 1886), 269.

38. Leonard Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque: A Voice in the American Wilderness (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2015), 121; Thomas Neville Bonner, Medicine in Chicago 1850–1950: A Chapter in the Social and Scientific Development of a City (1957; repr., Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 63. All medical practitioners in Illinois needed a license to work in the state, which they could procure by earning a diploma from a medical school like Bennett or proving that they had been in practice for at least ten years and maintained membership in a local medical society for that time. See Greta S. Nettleton, “Challenging the Medical Establishment,” Chicago History 39, no. 3 (Fall 2014): 37.

39. “Dr. Pingree and Mr. A. B. Pullman,” Chicago Tribune, January 21, 1888; History of Medicine and Surgery and Physicians and Surgeons of Chicago (Chicago: Biographical Publishing, 1922), 211–12.

40. Emma Pullman to William Fluhrer (September 19, 1883), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 2.

41. Helen Pullman to ECMP (November 18, 1886), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 3, Folder 1; “Matrimonial Events,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, November 18, 1886.

42. “Albert B. Pullman Sues a Doctor,” Chicago Tribune, January 20, 1888.

43. M. G. Pingree, “Shall Physicians Dispense Their Own Medicine?,” Chicago Medical Times 13, no. 2 (May 1881): 61.

44. “Criminal Malpractice,” Wichita Eagle, January 21, 1888.

45. “The Cost of a New Nose,” New York Herald (February 1, 1888), 4; “Charges against an Eclectic Physician,” Medical and Surgical Reporter, February 18, 1888.

46. Unidentified newspaper clipping, CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 1.

47. Emma Pullman Fluhrer to William Fluhrer (September 12, 1888), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 4. Emphasis in original.

48. “They Made Her a New Face,” Watertown (WI) Republican, January 16, 1889.

49. “Mrs. Pullman's Affliction,” New York Sun, December 27, 1888.

50. Emma Pullman Fluhrer to William Fluhrer (June 30, 1889), and William Fluhrer to Emma Pullman Fluhrer (July 21, 1889), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 1, Folder 4. The source of the $40,000 Albert supposedly made in 1889 is probably a land sale, and the amount almost certainly an exaggeration.

51. Illinois Secretary of State Death Index, Certificate Number 00010691.

52. Benjamin C. Waterhouse, The Land of Enterprise: A Business History of the United States (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017), 86–87.

53. “Death of Mr. A. B. Pullman,” Grand Rapids Herald, December 21, 1893; RHP to GMP (November 12, 1877), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 5, Folder 3.

26. Fractured Relationships

1. George Pullman Jr. to Emily Caroline Minton Pullman (ECMP) (August 18, 1888), Chicago History Museum, Abakanowicz Research Center (CHM-ARC), ECMP Papers, Box 3, Folder 1.

2. Emma Pullman to William Fluhrer (November 24, 1875), CHM-ARC, Fluhrer Family Papers, Chicago History Museum (FFP), Box 1, Folder 1; Royal Henry Pullman (RHP) to ECMP (October 3, 1887), CHM-ARC, Pullman-Miller Family Papers (PMFP), Box 7, Folder 11.

3. RHP to ECMP (December 31, 1889), CHM-ARC, ECMP Papers, Box 3, Folder 1.

4. RHP to George Mortimer Pullman (GMP) (June 13, 1893), CHM-ARC, PMFP, Box 5, Folder 3.

5. “The Social World,” Chicago Tribune, August 24, 1879; “Personal,” Chicago Tribune, August 1, 1880; “Society People,” Chicago Daily Inter Ocean, July 30, 1881; “Pullman's Daughter Sued,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 3, 1890. For the use of electricity by Chicago physicians, see Harold L. Platt, The Electric City: Energy and the Growth of the Chicago Area, 1880–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 31.

6. “Marital Troubles in the Courts,” Chicago Tribune, October 4, 1890.

7. “Gossips Delighted,” Rocky Mountain News, October 3, 1890.

8. “Obtained Her Divorce,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, November 27, 1890.

9. James Dredge, A Record of the Transportation Exhibits at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 (New York: Wiley, 1894), 73.

10. Helen Fluhrer to Minton Fluhrer (May 21, 1893), CHM-ARC, FFP, Box 2, Folder 1892–1893.

11. “Trade Notes,” Inland Architect and News Record 23, no. 1 (February 1894): 1; Fifth Annual Report of the Factory Inspectors of Illinois for the Year Ending December 15, 1897 (Springfield, IL: Ed. F. Hartman, 1898), 81; “The Greatest Laundry in the World,” American Kitchen Magazine 11, no. 3 (December 1898): xviii and xx. See also Douglas Pearson Hoover, “Women in Nineteenth Century Pullman” (master's thesis, University of Arizona, 1986), 29 and 30–33, for an explanation of how George Pullman recognized the need to find work for women in the town for the sake of family economies. Pullman women fomented the first strike in the laundry industry in 1903 when they protested the long working days and low pay, reprising their role in the wider Pullman strike of 1894. See Arwen P. Mohun, Steam Laundries: Gender, Technology, and Work in the United States and Great Britain, 1880–1940 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 130–31.

12. “The Fair,” Display Advertisement, Chicago Tribune, September 29, 1889.

13. “Storage,” Chicago Tribune, March 17, 1892.